GENERAL PHYSICS 2

THIRD QUARTER

1. COULOMB’S LAW

Electric Charges
- The main building block of matter is composed of atoms and molecules. Its properties are primarily influenced
by the electrically charged particles – proton, electron, and neutron.

In understanding electrostatic interactions, we have to keep in mind the following conventions:

1. Any charged object can attract a neutral object.

2. Unlike charges attract

3. Like charges repel

As a derived SI (or international System of Units) quantity, an electric charge is represented by the symbol “q” and
measured using the unit coulomb (C).

In an atom, the subatomic particles provide the net charge. An electrically neutral atom contains equal number of
protons and electrons. An atom that has an imbalance in the number of protons and electrons is called an ion. Cations
are positive and Anions are negative.

Charging objects
Materials that allow the movement of electrons from one region to another are called conductors of electricity, while
materials that do not allow the flow of electrons are called insulators.

Charging objects could happen through friction, induction and conduction.

1. Charging by Friction
An object that holds its electrons weakly will eventually lose them when rubbed with another object that has a stronger
hold in its electrons. The charge acquired by rubbed materials can be determined using the triboelectric series.

Triboelectric series is a list of common materials that were experimented on and found to behave in a predictable way.

2. Charging by Induction
No contact
Opposite charge (positive induces negative, negative induces positive)
Temporary (no electron transfer)
This study source was downloaded by 100000825581827 from CourseHero.com on 11-19-2024 04:15:36 GMT -06:00

https://www.coursehero.com/file/214620158/General-Physics-2-Third-Quarter-Reviewerpdf/
 3. Charging by Conduction
Contact
Same charge (negative creates negative, positive creates positive)
Permanent (with electron transfer)

ELECTRIC DIPOLES
- When you bring a neutrally charged body A near a strongly negative body B, its positive charges will be drawn
near B and the negative charges will be pushed to the other side. This resulting condition polarizes the body and
forms a dipole.

Electrostatic force
- A force that comes from the attraction and repulsion between electric charges.
- Unit: Newton (N)

Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806)

- He studied the attractive and repulsive forces between charges. He found out that the magnitude of force
decreases when the distance of separation between the charges increases. This is shown by Coulomb’s law as
expressed in the equation below:

𝑵𝒎𝟐
𝒌 = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟗 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟗
𝑪𝟐

ELECTRIC FIELDS
- An area or field around a charge where the electrostatic force can be experienced.
- Unit: Newton per Coulomb (N/C)

ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

- An electric field can be graphically represented using electric field lines. Electric filed lines are drawn based on
the charge being considered. Positive charges have field lines drawn from them. Negative charges have field
lines drawn to them.

Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law

- The relationship between electric charge and electric field was also formulated alternatively in Gauss’s law (Karl
Friedrich Gauss 1777-1855). This is logically equivalent to Coulomb’s law, but this was easier to use in finding
electric field for symmetrical charge distribution. Gauss’s Law general statement is expressed in:

Electric flux
- refers to the amount of electric field lines penetrating a given surface.
- Unit: Volt-meter (V-m)

• The electric flux is maximum if the electric field lines are perpendicular to the surface or parallel to the normal
line of the surface.
• The electric flux is zero when the electric field line is parallel to the surface or perpendicular to the normal line of
the surface.
• At a given angle, the electric flux is directly proportional to the component of the electric field lines.

For a closed surface, electric flux is calculated using a technique or law called Gauss’s Law.
Gauss’s Law states that the electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the net charge inside the surface divided
by the permittivity of free space.
This study source was downloaded by 100000825581827 from CourseHero.com on 11-19-2024 04:15:36 GMT -06:00

https://www.coursehero.com/file/214620158/General-Physics-2-Third-Quarter-Reviewerpdf/
 2. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Energy
- is defined as the capacity to do work. A body with energy can do work, whereas a body without it cannot do
work.
Potential Energy
- It is the energy of a body due to its position and normally converted into useful work. This is why it is known as
the energy at rest.

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY (gpe)

- One type of potential energy comes from the Earth's gravity. A body placed higher above the ground can do
greater work as it moves downward from its initial position.

Work
- is the energy transferred to or from an object via the application of force along a displacement.
Electric Potential
- It is the amount of electric potential energy per unit charge. This is equivalent to the amount of work needed to
move a charge from one reference point to another.

3. CAPACITANCE

Materials store charges by virtue of their capacitance.

This storage of charges has made a lot of technologies possible, especially those that require a temporary storage of
charges to function.
Unit: Farad (F)

Capacitors
- is an electric component that temporarily stores charges within a circuit. Inside it are two conducting plates
facing each other and separated by an insulator referred to as dielectric.
- This material impedes the continuous passage of electric current through the capacitor and stores it until it is
discharged at a latter time.

When a capacitor is fully charged there is a potential difference between its plates, and the larger the area of the plates
and/or the smaller the distance between them the greater will be the charge that the capacitor can hold and the greater
will be its Capacitance.

The capacitors ability to store this electrical charge ( Q ) between its plates is proportional to the applied voltage, V for a
capacitor of known capacitance in Farads. Note that capacitance C is ALWAYS positive and never negative.

Capacitors can be classified in terms of their construction

1. Parallel-Plate Capacitors - are the simplest to understand in terms of construction because they conform directly
to the definition of capacitor.
2. Cylindrical Capacitors - the capacitance varies directly with its length. A longer capacitor provides higher
capacitance, whereas a shorter one provides a lower value. Increasing the amount of dielectric in this type of
capacitor also increases the capacitance that it offers.
This study source was downloaded by 100000825581827 from CourseHero.com on 11-19-2024 04:15:36 GMT -06:00

https://www.coursehero.com/file/214620158/General-Physics-2-Third-Quarter-Reviewerpdf/
 3. Spherical Capacitors - The capacitance of a spherical capacitor varies directly with its overall radius. Increasing
the radius will enlarge the spherical surfaces, consequently widening the distance between the two charged
spheres.

Capacitors in a Circuit

- The current flows along a conductor, where it is brought from its source to where electrical energy is needed.
- The pathway for the current to move to and from the source and the appliance is called an electric circuit.
- A functional circuit has to be “closed” or must form a closed loop. Closed circuits allow the current to flow
from the source of the current to the load where the current is needed.
- An open circuit does not form a closed loop; the resulting circuit would then be non-functional.
- Open circuits have gap(s) where current cannot flow. Thus, electric current cannot be delivered to the load
where it is needed.

4. CURRENT, VOLTAGE and RESISTANCE

Current: flow of electrical charge

Due to electric potential energy, electrons move from one point to another. This movement is possible because of
the electric field around the negative charges. The velocity of this motion is known as drift velocity.

Resistance and resistivity

An electric conductor is any material that allows the free flow of electric current. A conductor possesses
characteristics that either enhance or limit the flow of current passing through it. The limitation to current flow is
referred to as resistance.

The following are the factors that affect the resistance of a conductor:
• The resistivity of the material from which the conductor is made
• The conductivity of the material
• The total length of the conductor
• The cross-sectional area of the conductor
• The temperature of the conductor

Electrical resistivity
- is an intrinsic property of the material that describes how it resists the electric current flowing through it
- Unit: Ohm-meter (Ω-m)
Electrical Conductivity
- The counterpart of electrical resistivity is electrical conductivity
- Unit: Siemens per meter (S/m)

5. DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUIT

Electromotive Force (EMF)

- A potential energy given to a unit charge to make it flow through a conductor or around a complete circuit.
EMF is measured using the unit volt (V)
- Electromotive force is what the voltage source provides to a circuit. It is the “push” given to the electric
charges for them to flow from the source to the components of the circuit.

OHM’S LAW
In 1827, Georg Simon Ohm discovered the relationship among voltage, current and resistance. He found out that
electricity acts similarly to water in a pipe.

Series Circuit
- In a series circuit, all components are connected using a single pathway.

This study source was downloaded by 100000825581827 from CourseHero.com on 11-19-2024 04:15:36 GMT -06:00

https://www.coursehero.com/file/214620158/General-Physics-2-Third-Quarter-Reviewerpdf/
 Parallel Circuit
- Parallel circuits use branches to allow current to pass through more than one path, unlike in the series
circuit.

Ohmic Materials
- Ohmic Components show the relationship between voltage and current as in Ohm’s Law. This means that
the way these components behave in a circuit can be predicted using the said law. The important factors to
consider for ohmic components as these are placed in a circuit are voltage, current and resistance.

Non-Ohmic Materials
- Do not behave as ohmic components. Ohm’s law does not apply in the way these components operate; thus,
other factors are considered when these components are placed in a circuit.

Kirchhoff’s Rule
Electric circuits that contains number of resistors can be often analyzed by combining individual groups of resistors in a
series and parallel. However, there are many circuits in which no two resistors are in series or parallel. To deal with such
circuits, it is necessary to employ methods other than series-parallel method. One alternative is to take advantage of
Kirchhoff’s rules which is names after their developer Gustav Kirchhoff (1824-1887)

In solving complicated networks, we will be using Kirchhoff’s rules. However, be familiar with the following terms:
junction and loop.
A junction is a point where three or more conductors meet. A loop is the closed conducting path.

There are two (2) statements (points) under Kirchhoff’s rules.

(1) Point Rule: The sum of the currents in the branch is always equal to zero. This is based on the conservation of
charges. Junctions should not accumulate charges. Hence, the total current entering the junction must be equal to the
total current leaving the junction.

(2) Loop Rule: The sum of the potential differences in any loop must equal to zero. This is an expression of the energy
relationship. As a charge goes around the loop and returns to its starting point, the sum of the changes of its potential
energy is equal to zero.

-V +V

+V -V
6. DEVICES FOR MEASURING CURRENT AND VOLTAGES

Multimeter
- A multimeter is a tool that is capable of measuring two or more electrical values. Most all will be capable of
measuring voltage, amperage, and ohms. Earlier meters were only capable of measuring one type of
electrical value, so a person would have to carry a meter for each unit they needed to measure. Later
meters were designed with a rotary switch so they could measure multiple units of value, hence the term
multimeter.
This study source was downloaded by 100000825581827 from CourseHero.com on 11-19-2024 04:15:36 GMT -06:00

https://www.coursehero.com/file/214620158/General-Physics-2-Third-Quarter-Reviewerpdf/
 Ohmmeter
- An ohmmeter measures electrical resistance.
- The meter can be connected either in parallel or in series. If in parallel, it draws higher amounts of current
while resistance increases. If in series, current decreases while resistance rises.

Voltmeter
- A voltmeter is used to measure the difference between two points of an electrical circuit. The meter is
connected in parallel with the circuit, so the same decrease in voltage occurs across it. It also has a high
internal resistance that takes small current from the circuit, allowing it measure potential difference as
accurately as possible. With low resistance, current would pass completely through, and the meter would
provide an incorrect reading.
Ammeter
- An ammeter measures the current in an electrical circuit. Amps are the official unit of measurement for
current, which is the stream of electric charge or charged particles that flow through an electrical space or
conductor. The meter has a low internal resistance and must be connected in series, so it doesn't affect the
circuit and provides an accurate reading.

7. MAGNETIC POLES, MAGNETIC FORCE AND MAGNETIC FIELD

A magnet can provide the most effective visualization on how electric charges behave in the presence of other
charges through magnetic poles.

The term ”magnetism” originated from Magnesia in Greece. It was the ancient Greeks who found lodestones that
can attract pieces of iron. Magnetism occurs because of the alignment of atoms. These aligned atoms are called
magnetic domains.

Interaction of magnetic poles and magnetic force

Just like electric charges, a magnetic pole exists as either a north-seeking pole or a south-seeking pole. These poles
are commonly known as the north pole and the south pole of a magnet. How they interact with one another is also
similar to how electric charges interact. Like poles repel, and unlike ones attract each other. The repulsion and
attraction are caused by the magnetic force that exists between magnetic poles.

However, magnetic poles cannot exist in isolation like electric charges. A negative charge can exist by itself as well as
a positive charge. On the other hand, a north pole will always have a corresponding south pole in the same magnet.
Breaking a magnet in half will only produce a smaller magnet with both a north pole and a south pole.

MAGNETIZATION AND DEMAGNETIZATION

The magnetic properties of a magnet usually wear out with the passage of time or through various demagnetizing
techniques. Magnets can be demagnetized by hammering, heating, and being exposed to an alternating current.
These techniques involve mixing up the arrangement of molecules to cancel the polarity of the entire material.

However, molecules can be rearranged again through magnetization, thus bringing back the material’s overall
polarity. A demagnetized magnet can be magnetized again by exposing it to another magnet with a strong magnetic
field.

The magnetic field and magnetic field patterns

Magnetic filed lines are drawn based on the pole being considered. A north pole will have field line drawn from it,
and a south pole will have field lines drawn toward it. And because these poles are both present in a single magnet,
lines would always be drawn from the north pole to the south pole.

This study source was downloaded by 100000825581827 from CourseHero.com on 11-19-2024 04:15:36 GMT -06:00

https://www.coursehero.com/file/214620158/General-Physics-2-Third-Quarter-Reviewerpdf/

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)