Environmental Management

UNIT IV ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION

Syllabus: Definition – atmosphere – structure and composition of atmosphere – natural greenhouse effect – atmospheric
pollution and its causes like smog, acid rain – ozone layer depletion – enhanced greenhouse effect – urban heat islands –
impact of atmospheric pollution on humans, plants – managing of atmospheric pollution.

The Atmosphere
The Earth is enveloped by a deep blanket of gases extending several thousands of kilometers (about
9600kms) above its surface. This gaseous cover of the Earth is known as the atmosphere. It is an
integral part of the Earth. It is only a very thin layer of gases. Because of force of Gravity it is
inseparable from the Earth.
Significance of the Atmosphere:
• All life forms owe their existence to the atmosphere
• Animals need oxygen and plants need carbon dioxide.
• It is the atmosphere that provides oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• The atmosphere maintains the level of water and radiation in the earth system. In the absence of
atmosphere there would have been extremes of temperature at about 260⁰C between day and night.
• The atmosphere maintains the temperature that suits us.
• It shields us from the sun’s ultra violet radiation which is injurious to both plants and animals.
• It acts as a protective wall against the bombardment of meteors.
• The currents, motions, and various other activities on the atmosphere combine together to
produce weather.

Salient Facts about Earth’s Atmosphere

The atmosphere is described as the air that surrounds the earth.

1. The thickness of the earth’s atmosphere is about 480 km. 99 percent of the thickness lies up to
the height of 32 km from the earth.
2. With increasing altitude, the air pressure decreases.
3. The atmosphere has a mixture of gases that sustains life on earth.
4. The earth’s gravity helps hold the atmosphere in place.
5. The major role of the atmosphere is to contain the entry of ultraviolet rays.

Composition of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is a layer of gas or layers of gases that envelope a planet and is held in place by the
gravity of the planetary body. A planet retains an atmosphere when the gravity is great and the
temperature of the atmosphere is low.

 The atmosphere of earth is composed of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon (0.9%), carbon
dioxide (0.04%) and trace gases. A variable amount of water vapour is also present in the
atmosphere (approx.1% at sea level) and it decreases with altitude.
 Carbon dioxide gas is largely responsible for the greenhouse effect. It is transparent to the
incoming solar radiation but is opaque to the outgoing terrestrial radiation. It absorbs a part
of terrestrial radiation and reflects back some of it towards the earth’s surface.

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 Dust particles are also present in the atmosphere. They originate from different sources like
fine soil, smoke-soot, pollen, dust and disintegrated particles of meteors. Dust and salt
particles act as hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapour condenses to produce clouds.
 As per NASA, the composition of the earth’s atmosphere is as mentioned below:

Table 4.1: Principal gases comprising dry air in the lower atmosphere
Constituent Percent by volume Constituent Percent by volume
Nitrogen (N2 ) 78.008 Ozone (O) 0.00006
Oxygen (O2 ) 20.94 Hydrogen (H2 ) 0.00005
Argon (Ar) 0.93 Krypton (Kr) Trace
Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) 0.03 Xenon (X2 ) Trace
Neon (Ne) 0.0018 Methane (Me) Trace
Helium (He) 0.00015

Composition of the Atmosphere – Ozone Gas

 Nitrogen cannot be used directly from the
air.
 Present around 10-50 km above the earth’s
 Biotic things need nitrogen to make
surface and acts as a sieve, absorbing UV
proteins.
(ultraviolet rays) from the sun.
 The Nitrogen Cycle is the way of supplying
 Ozone averts harmful rays from reaching
the required nitrogen for living things.
the surface of the earth.

Composition of the atmosphere – Oxygen

Composition of the Atmosphere – Water
Vapour  The atmosphere is composed of 21%
oxygen.
 Water vapour is a variable gas, declines  It is used by all living things and is
with altitude. essential for respiration.
 It also drops towards the poles from the  It is obligatory for burning.
equator.
 It acts like a blanket letting the earth from
Composition of the Atmosphere – Argon
becoming neither too hot nor too cold.
 It also contributes to the stability and
 The atmosphere is composed of 0.9%
instability in the air.
argon.
 They are mainly used in light bulbs.
Composition of the Atmosphere – Dust
Particles Composition of the Atmosphere – Carbon
Dioxide
 Dust particles are in higher concentrations
in temperate and subtropical regions due
 The atmosphere is composed of 0.03%
to dry winds in contrast to the polar and
carbon dioxide.
equatorial regions.
 Plants use it to make oxygen.
 They act as hygroscopic nuclei over which
 It is significant as it is opaque to outgoing
water vapour of the atmosphere condenses
terrestrial radiation and transparent to
to create clouds.
incoming solar radiation.
 It is also one of the gases responsible for
Composition of the Atmosphere – the greenhouse effect.
Nitrogen

 The atmosphere is composed of 78%

nitrogen.

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Structure of the Atmosphere

Layers of the Atmosphere the structure of the
atmosphere consists of different layers with
varying temperatures and densities. The density
of air is highest near the surface of the earth and
decreases with increasing altitude. The Layers of
the Atmosphere include:

• Troposphere • Stratosphere • Mesosphere •

Ionosphere • Exosphere

Figure 4.1 Structure of the Atmosphere

 The ozone layer is found in this layer.

Troposphere
 The ozone layer absorbs UV rays and
 It is considered as the lowest layer of safeguards earth from harmful
Earth’s atmosphere. radiation.
 The troposphere starts at the surface of  Stratopause separates Stratosphere and
the earth and goes up to a height of 8 Mesosphere.
kms (poles) to 18 kms (equator). The
main reason of higher height at the Mesosphere
equator is due to presence of hot
convection currents that push the gases  The Mesosphere is found above the
upward. stratosphere.
 All kinds of weather changes occurs  It is the coldest of the atmospheric
within this layer. layers.
 This layer has water vapor and mature  The mesosphere starts at 50 km above
particles. the surface of Earth and goes up to 80
 Temperature decreases with increasing km.
height of atmosphere at the rate of 1  The temperature drops with altitude in
degree Celsius for every 165 m of this layer.
height. This is called Normal lapse rate.  By 80 km it reaches -100 degrees
 Tropopause, the transitional zone, Celsius.
separates Troposphere and  Meteors burn up in this layer.
Stratosphere.
 The upper limit is called Mesopause
which separates Mesosphere and
Stratosphere Thermosphere.

 It is the second layer of the atmosphere Thermosphere

found above the troposphere.
 It extends up to a height of 50 km from  This layer is found above Mesopause
the earth’s surface. from 80 to 400 km.
 This layer is very dry as it contains little  Radio waves that are transmitted from
water vapour. the earth are reflected by this layer.
 This layer provides some advantages for  The temperature starts increasing again
flight because it is above stormy with increasing height in this layer.
weather and has steady, strong,
 Aurora and satellites occur in this layer.
horizontal winds.

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Ionosphere Exosphere

 The lower Thermosphere is called the  It is the outermost layer of the

Ionosphere. atmosphere.
 The ionosphere consists of electrically  The zone where molecules and atoms
charged particles known as ions. escape into space is mentioned as the
 This layer is defined as the layer of the exosphere.
atmosphere of Earth that is ioni
ionized by  It extends from the top of the
cosmic and solar radiation. thermosphere up to 10,000 km.
 It is positioned between 80 and 400 km
above the Mesopause.
The natural greenhouse effect

 During its passage through the atmosphere, 23% of solar radiation is returned to space (by
reflection from clouds and scattering by dust and smoke particles) and 23% is absorbed by
stratospheric ozone and carbon dioxide and water vapour in the troposphere.
 The Earth's surface reflects 6% of the rays, with greater reflection from the lighter surfaces,
such as ice, snow and sand.
 The remaining 48% is shortwave radiation that can pass tthrough
hrough atmospheric greenhouse
gases to be absorbed by the Earth's surface. This heat energy is converted by the Earth into
long wave radiation, which can be more easily absorbed by greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere.
 Clouds absorb it very efficiently and re re-radiate
radiate it back to Earth, keeping heat in the
troposphere through the greenhouse effect. (The percentages are 2013 estimates by NASA.)

Figure 4.3 ProcessNatural greenhouse effect

 These greenhouses gases make up a small proportion of the atmosphere but they act like a
blanket trapping the radiation. The greater the concentration of greenhouse gases, the more
effectively they return radiation back to the Earth's surface.
 This process maintains the Earth's temperature at around 33 °C warmer than it would
otherwise be, allowing life to exist. Aside fro
from
m water vapour, the main greenhouse gases are
carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxides.
 The CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons; gases containing fluorine, chlorine and carbon) are also
greenhouse gases but are artificial. Ozone is a greenhouse gas. These gases sstay in the
atmosphere for differing amounts of time, as shown in Table 4.2.

Name of greenhouse % contribution to the Number of years gas stays

Gas greenhouse effect in the atmosphere
Carbon dioxide 65 200
Methane 17 12
CFCs 12 1000
Nitrous oxides 6 114
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Atmospheric pollution and its causes

 Atmospheric or air pollution occurs when the atmosphere contains gases and substances in
harmful amounts. The substances that cause atmospheric pollution are called pollutants.
 Pollutants that directly pollute the atmosphere are called primary pollutants.
 If the primary pollutants in the atmosphere undergo chemical reactions the resulting
compounds are called secondary pollutants.

The enhanced greenhouse effect

The enhanced greenhouse effect is created by the addition of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere
through human activities. It results in more heat being retained in the atmosphere and an increase in
the Earth's temperature . This is leading to global warming and global climate change. The increase
in these gases is because of human activities, as illustrated in Table 4.3.

Greenhouse gas Human activities that increase their abundance

Carbon dioxide Burning of fossil fuels, deforestation
Methane Cattle and rice production, coal mine ventilation,
deforestation and decomposition of waste (landfill
sites)
CFCs Aerosol sprays, fire extinguishers, refrigeration, air
conditioning
Nitrous oxides Vehicle exhausts, chemical fertilisers
Tropospheric ozone Chemical reactions involving nitrogen dioxides and
unburnt fuel vapours

Acid rain
Acid rain is precipitation with a pH value of less than 6 . The acidity results from burning fossil
fuels in factories and power stations, which release sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the
atmosphere. Vehicle emissions add further nitrogen oxides.
This is dry deposition. If these gases mix with water vapour and oxygen in the atmosphere, weak
solutions of nitric and sulphuric acids are created, which can then be moved by winds. These
solutions will eventually fall to Earth as acid rain and can occur at some distance from the source.
This is wet deposition.

SMOG
Burning of fossil fuels in industry, homes and vehicles provides particles like smoke and dust for
fog to form around.
Photochemical smog:
Involves chemical reactions induced by sunlight on certain pollutants.
These reactions convert them into harmful substances, like ground-level or tropospheric ozone
(‘bad’ ozone).
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs):
Chemicals that easily enter the atmosphere as gases, mainly from evaporation.
Examples: hydrocarbons (like methane), ammonium nitrate, carbon monoxide (incomplete
combustion),etc.
Temperature inversion: a weather condition when the air temperature increases with altitude,
rather than decreasing.
During the day, the surfaces is heated due to longwave radiation.
On calm and clear nights, the Earth surface cools very quickly, emitting radiation, cooling the air
above it.
At higher altitude, the air doesn’t cool as quickly, so this air becomes warmer than the air below
it.This layer of warm air is the inversion layer, that disrupts the regular convection currents.
The concentration of smog (pollutants) increases, often in valleys surrounded by steep-sided hills.

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Figure 4.4 Formation of smog under a temperature inversion.

Ozone layer depletion:
 Ozone layer protects the Earth from the Sun’s harmful radiation.
 It is formed when oxygen (O2) filters from the top of the troposphere and reacts under the
influence of ultraviolet radiation to form ozone (O3).
 It is continually formed, destroyed and replaced naturally, creating a dynamic balance, that
is disturbed by human activities.
 When CFCs reach the stratosphere, the ultraviolet radiation breaks them down, releasing
chlorine.
 Chlorine reacts with oxygen in a destructive process, breaking down the ozone molecules to
chlorine monoxide and oxygen, depleting the layer and forming a hole.
 This hole allows harmful radiation to enter the Earth’s atmosphere.

THE IMPACT OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION

Pollutant Potential impact on people Potential impact on the environment

Smog  Irritation of eyes and throat,  The ability of plants to make and
Pollutant increasing respiratory diseases such as store food through photosynthesis is
molecules: asthma. reduced
VOCs and  Fine particles carried into the lungs  Growth, reproduction and general
NO2 leading to lung cancer. Strokes and health of plants decline, making
heart attacks them more prone to disease and
 Breathing difficulties pests
Acid rain  Acidification of groundwater makes  Trees affected as foliage dies
Pollutant water undrinkable and can cause  Acidification of groundwater
molecules: diarrhoea and stomach upsets damages tree roots
SO2  Aluminium leached from the soil into  Nutrients such as calcium are
and NO2 the groundwater has been linked with leached out of the soil
preseniledementia.  Aquatic and animal life in lakes is
 Limestone buildings are chemically poisoned and decreases as acidity
weathered  levels increase
 Crop yields decline
Ozone  Higher levels of ultraviolet radiation  Extra ultraviolet radiation inhibits
depletion causes sun burn, skin cancers, retina the reproductive cycle of
Pollutant damage and cataracts (a disease of the phytoplankton, which make up the
molecules: eye that clouds the eye's lens) lowest layer of some food webs. This
CFCs  Immune system can be suppressed could affect the populations of other
animals
 Changes in biochemical composition
makes some plant leaves less
attractive as food

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 Melting ice sheets, glaciers and

permafrost can lead to a rise in
sealevels
Climate  Damage to low-lying countries such  Sea-level rise will lead to the loss of
change as Bangladesh from flooding would coastal land and increased erosion
Pollutant be disruptive with high financial  Animal and plant species would not
molecules: costs. Forced migration as people lose be able to adapt fast enough to the
various their homes and farmland from rising changes, leading to a loss of
greenhouse sealevels biodiversity, habitat or extinction
gases  Warmer weather may mean farmers  More severe storms and droughts
grow different crops and have longer  Changes to fishing industries if fish
growing seasons. Increased droughts species move to different waters
could lead to desertification and  Ecosystem change could mean plant
famine and animal species move into new
 Negative impact on certain economic areas and new (invasive) species
activities, e.g. the skiing industry emerge
 Warmer temperatures could allow
diseases such as malaria to spread

MANAGING ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION

• Reduction of carbon footprint:
Carbon footprint: a measure of the impact of our activities on the environment.
• Reduced use of fossil fuels:
Low sulfur coal can be used;
Increased use of renewable energy.
• Energy efficiency:
Using energy efficient appliances.
• Carbon capture and storage:
Waste carbon dioxide from power stations can be transported via pipelines to storage sites.
• Transport policies:
Creation of cycle lanes, bus lanes, metro systems and trams;
Electric or hybrid cars can be encouraged;
Biofuels can be used;
Vehicles can be banned from certain parts of city by pedestrianisation;
Public transport and residential parking can be made free.
• International agreement and policies:
Policies such as Montreal Protocol, Kyoto Protocol and Paris Climate Conference can be passed on
worldwide;
An international cooperation is required.
• CFC replacement:
Reduction in the use of CFCs;
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) can be used as an alternative;
Safe disposal of items containing CFCs.
• Taxation:
Higher road tax to decrease car ownership.
• Catalytic converters:
Catalytic converters in vehicles reduce sulfur dioxide emissions;
They also convert nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide and nitrogen;
Low-sulfur vehicle fuels can also be used.
• Flue-gas desulfurisation:
Scrubbers can be used to remove 95% of sulfur dioxide emissions;
Lining chimneys with lime also reduce the emissions.

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URBAN HEAT ISLANDS

Introduction:
Heat islands refer to urban areas that experience significantly higher temperatures compared to
their surrounding rural areas. This phenomenon is primarily caused by human activities and the
built environment. Heat islands have numerous negative impacts on human health, energy
consumption, and the environment. In this comprehensive set of notes, we will explore the causes,
effects, mitigation strategies, and potential solutions to combat the heat island effect
effect.

Figure:4.5
Causes of Heat Islands

 Urbanization: The transformation of natural landscapes into cities and towns results in the
replacement of vegetation with buildings, roads, and concrete, which absorb and re re-emit
heat.
 Modification of land surfaces: Paving,ving, asphalt, and concrete surfaces, which have low
albedo (reflectivity), absorb and retain solar radiation, leading to increased temperatures.
 Lack of vegetation: Reduced green spaces, trees, and vegetation in urban areas limit shade
and the cooling effect
ect of evapotranspiration.
 Human activities: Heat-generating
generating activities such as industrial processes, vehicle emissions,
air conditioning systems, and waste heat from buildings contribute to the overall heat load.

Effects of Heat Islands:

 Human health impacts: Heat islands contribute to heat-related

heat related illnesses and mortality,
particularly among vulnerable populations such as the elderly, children, and those with pre pre-
existing health conditions.
 Increased energy demand: Higher temperatures in urban rban areas lead to increased demand
for cooling, resulting in higher energy consumption and associated costs.
 Environmental consequences: Heat islands exacerbate air pollution, water pollution, and
the formation of smog. They disrupt local ecosystems, alte alterr rainfall patterns, and affect
wildlife habitats.
 Reduced urban comfort: Heat islands diminish outdoor comfort, making it challenging to
engage in physical activities and reducing quality of life.

Mitigation Strategies for Heat Islands:

 Incorporate more green

reen spaces in urban design to reduce surface temperatures.
 Use cool materials and green roofs in urban structures to reflect sunlight.
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 Enhance building insulation and employ energy-efficient technologies.

 Educate communities about the heat island effect and mitigation actions.
 Regularly monitor temperature variations and conduct research for mitigation strategies.
 Foster collaborations among policymakers, researchers, and communities for effective heat
island reduction strategies.

Conclusion:
The heat island effect poses significant challenges to urban areas, impacting human health, energy
consumption, and the environment. However, with a comprehensive approach involving urban
planning, vegetation, resilient infrastructure, and community engagement, it is possible to mitigate
the heat island effect and create sustainable, livable cities for the future.

Textbook/References
 Muriel Fretwell & Dr Liz Whiteley "Environmental management for Cambridge IGCSE& 0 Level " revision
Guide, Oxford Publications,2017- Join now:https://t.me/igcse_files
 Gary Skinner, Ken Crafer, Melissa Turner, Ann Skinner and John Stacey Cambridge IGCSE® and O Level
Environmental Management Coursebook
 CIE IGCSE ENV. MGMT. 0680 - (ZNOTES // IGCSE SERIES) (visit www.znotes.org)
 https://theiashub.com/free-resources/free-pdfs/heat-islands

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