ENERGY-EFFICIENT

BUILDING DESIGN
Recommended citation
BUILDING Energy Efficiency in Nepal (BEEN) Project. (2024). MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN.
BUILDING Energy Efficiency in Nepal (BEEN) project funded by the European Union under the SWITCH-Asia
Grants Programme. https://been.minergynepal.com/resources/#

© 2024 BUILDING Energy Efficiency in Nepal (BEEN)

MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

Published by

Edition
First

Disclaimer
This publication is funded by the European Union under the SWITCH-Asia Grants Programme. Its contents are
the sole responsibility of the BEEN Project and do not necessarily reflect the views of the European Union.

This Manual is intended as a guide for designers to design energy efficient building in Nepal. The methods described
in the manual are based on good practices, research findings, and consultations with professional expertise in
energy efficiency and sustainable design. While every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy and reliability
of the information presented, it is important to acknowledge that building design and construction practices
may vary significantly based on local climate conditions, regulations and project-specific requirements. Thus,
the authors, publishers, funders or any legal entity or person associated with this design manual disclaim any
responsibility (legal, social or financial) for any adverse conditions/ consequences resulting from the suggested
procedures, from any undetected errors, or from the readers misunderstanding of the text. Moreover, this Manual
is not intended to replace or override any legal or regulatory requirements that may be applicable to the design
and construction of buildings in Nepal.

Edited by
Prof. Dr. Jagat Shrestha

Designed by
Nepal in Data, initiative of Bikas Udhyami

Photographs by
BUILDING Energy Efficiency in Nepal (BEEN), Urban Park

Available from
26th February, 2024

Email
[email protected]

Address
Dakshinkali Chowk, Manbhawan, Lalitpur 44700

Phone
+ (977) 1-5421760
+ (977) 1-5421317
Preface
Buildings, built inappropriately, can lock in inefficiencies for decades throughout
their operational lifespan of 50 years or more. Improved thermal comfort and energy-
efficient buildings, along with increased use of renewable energy, are integral to
sustainable development and an improved quality of life.
Nepal is one of the least urbanized, yet it ranks among the top ten fastest urbanizing
developing nations. However, over the past few decades, market demands for space have
led to buildings being designed without consideration of the local climate, resulting in
uncomfortable indoor environments or high energy consumption to compensate for
this discomfort. Climate-responsive design and energy efficiency are often overlooked
in the planning of new buildings. Consequently, energy consumption in buildings is
on the rise. Many of these challenges could be mitigated through improvements in
building envelope design, including enhanced insulation of walls and roofs, thoughtful
window design and shading to optimize daylight and ventilation, and implementation
of double-glazed windows.
One of the main constraints is the limited awareness and application of building
physics in designing and constructing energy-efficient buildings. This manual is
intended for designers, including building consulting firms, individual architects and
engineers who wield significant influence over a building or house owner’s decision
regarding design and construction materials. The aim of this manual is to introduce
and explain how a building influences the thermal and visual comfort of its occupants.
Additionally, it explains passive design principles tailored to the climate zones in
Nepal, which consequently help reduce energy requirements in building.
This manual was developed as part of the “BUILDING Energy Efficiency in Nepal”
(BEEN) project, supported by the SWITCH-Asia Grants Programme from the
European Union.
The authors welcome ideas and case studies from Nepal to enhance this manual for
future versions.
 EUROPEAN UNION
DELEGATION TO NEPAL
EUROPEAN UNION
DELEGATION TO NEPAL

Head of Cooperation

Message from the Delegation of the European Union to Nepal

For the Design Manual

Energy efficiency helps reduce overall Messageenergy

from Dr. Marco GEMMER
consumption and is therefore central to achieving the
Head of Cooperation, European Union in Nepal
European Union’s climate ambition,
in Europe. To ensure that the European Union’s
Message
while enhancing
For the Design
present and
Manual
2030 target
future energy security and affordability
of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by at
least 55% (compared to 1990) can be met, the European Commission has revised the Energy Efficiency
Energy efficiency
Directive, which camehelpsinto
reduce
placeoverall
first in energy consumption
2012, together and isenergy
with other therefore
and central
climate to achieving
rules in 2023.theIt
European Union’s climate ambition, while enhancing present and future energy security and affordability
establishes ‘energy efficiency first’ as a fundamental principle of EU energy policy, giving it legal-standing
in Europe.
for the first To ensure
time. that theterms,
In practical European Union’s
this means 2030
that target
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efficiency mustgreenhouse gas by
be considered emissions by at
EU countries
least
in all 55% (compared
relevant policy toand1990)
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in the energy the Energysectors.
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The
Directive,
revised whichalso
directive came into
puts place first
a stronger in 2012,
focus together energy
on alleviating with other energy and climate rules in 2023. It
poverty.
establishes ‘energy efficiency first’ as a fundamental principle of EU energy policy, giving it legal-standing
for theisfirst
Nepal onetime. In fastest
of the practical terms, thisdeveloping
urbanising means thateconomies
energy efficiency
and a lotmust be considered
of energy is usedbyforEU countries
heating and
cooling, leaving a large carbon footprint in the building sector in Nepal and increasing energy costsThe
in all relevant policy and major investment decisions taken in the energy and non-energy sectors. for
revised directive
consumers. also puts Energy
The Building a stronger focus oninalleviating
Efficiency energyProject
Nepal (BEEN) poverty.is funded by the European Union
under the SWITCH-Asia Programme and developed this “Manual for Energy-Efficient Building Design for
Nepal is one
Architects andofDesigners”.
the fastest urbanising
It combinesdeveloping economies
local, national and a lot of energy
and international is used
expertise and for heating and
practitioners to
cooling, leaving a large carbon footprint in the building sector in Nepal and increasing energy costs for
response to the needs of varied local bio-climatic conditions of Nepal by drawing and improving the
consumers. The Building Energy Efficiency in Nepal (BEEN) Project is funded by the European Union
baseline practices. This manual will be a crucial tool for architects and designers to incorporate strategies
under the SWITCH-Asia Programme and developed this “Manual for Energy-Efficient Building Design for
for climate-responsive building design, for reducing demand for space conditioning, and upholding the
Architects and Designers”. It combines local, national and international expertise and practitioners to
thermal comfort for users. It should support policy measures for incentivising and regulating the building
response to the needs of varied local bio-climatic conditions of Nepal by drawing and improving the
design trends suitable to Nepal’s bio-climatic variations.
baseline practices. This manual will be a crucial tool for architects and designers to incorporate strategies
for climate-responsive building design, for reducing demand for space conditioning, and upholding the
I would like to thank all the partners of the three tiers of Government, the private sector and home owners
thermal comfort for users. It should support policy measures for incentivising and regulating the building
and of course the entire team of the BEEN project to support this valuable resource. It can be a key milestone
design trends suitable to Nepal’s bio-climatic variations.
to support Nepal’s transition to a circular economy and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals as
well as the Nationally Determined Contributions by decoupling economic growth and environmental
I would like to thank all the partners of the three tiers of Government, the private sector and home owners
degradation, the main essence behind the philosophy of the EU’s SWITCH-Asia programme.
and of course the entire team of the BEEN project to support this valuable resource. It can be a key milestone
to support Nepal’s transition to a circular economy and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals as
well as the Nationally Determined Contributions by decoupling economic growth and environmental
degradation, the main essence behind the philosophy of the EU’s SWITCH-Asia programme.
Delegation of the European Union to Nepal
February, 2024

Dr. Marco GEMMER

Head of Cooperation
European Union in Nepal
Dr. Marco 2024
21 February, GEMMER
Head of Cooperation
Delegation of the European Union to Nepal
Kathmandu, 21 February 2024

P.B. No. 6754, 761 Neel Saraswati Marg, Lazimpat, Kathmandu, Nepal. Telephone: (977-1) 4429445/6, Fax: (977-1) 4423541
P.O. Box: 6754, 761
E-mail: Saraswati Marg, Lazimpat, Kathmandu,
[email protected], Nepal. Tel: (977 1) 4 429445/6 Fax: (977 1) 4 423541
Website: http://www.eeas.europa.eu/delegations/nepal
E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/nepal
:njĐ͖ǀũ


Review From SONA

For Manual
Message
The Society of Nepalese Architects (SONA) extends its heartfelt commendations and
support to BEEN Project researchers and contributors involved in the comprehensive
study outlined in the provided document “MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT
BUILDING DESIGN FOR ARCHITECTS & DESIGNERS”.

The exploration of topics ranging from energy use in buildings to various strategies
for thermal comfort, climate analysis, heat transfer, passive design, natural
ventilation, and visual comfort highlights a significant commitment to advancing
sustainable architectural practices.

SONA applauds the thorough effort invested in understanding and disseminating

critical insights summarized in the manual. The exploration of diverse climate zones
in Nepal, coupled with an in-depth analysis of building envelope strategies tailored to
specific zones, reflects a dedication to promoting energy efficiency in architectural
design.

While the manual covers essential theoretical aspects, SONA encourages the
inclusion of real-life architectural practices and examples to enhance its practical
utility. Integrating case studies or showcasing successful projects that have effectively
implemented the strategies discussed in the manual would provide valuable insights
and inspiration for emerging architects.

Considering the country’s diverse climates, which include extreme conditions, there
is a request to contemplate whether the mentioned topics adequately address all these
climatic variations in Nepal. Ensuring the manual’s applicability across a wide range
of scenarios will enhance its overall effectiveness.

In closing, the Society of Nepalese Architects expresses its sincere appreciation for
the achievements documented in this study. The dedication to unravelling
complexities related to energy consumption and comfort in buildings is a testament to
the commitment of the architectural community to positively impact our built
environment. SONA looks forward to continued collaboration and endeavors that
propel the field towards a more sustainable and innovative future, with a keen eye on
practical relevance and inclusivity for all climatic challenges in Nepal.


Message

I am thrilled to introduce you to this comprehensive design manual, a vital component of the
BUILDING Energy Efficiency in Nepal (BEEN) Project. This manual has been meticulously crafted
to serve as a valuable resource for building designers, architects, and engineers, aligning with
the objectives of our project to promote energy efficiency and sustainability within Nepal’s built
environment.
At the core of the BEEN Project lie several key objectives, including enhancing capacity, creating
markets for energy-efficient products and services, facilitating access to financial resources, and
collaborating with government entities to develop and implement supportive policies and initiatives.
The development of this design manual aligns perfectly with these objectives by providing practical
guidance and resources to support capacity-building efforts among building professionals. Through
extensive research and analysis, our team has meticulously crafted this manual to address the
pressing need for energy-efficient building practices in Nepal. We have conducted rigorous market
research and building simulations across diverse bioclimatic zones and building typologies to
ensure that the contents of this manual are well-informed and relevant to practitioners in the field.
The outcome of this manual is multifaceted. Firstly, it serves as a comprehensive reference guide,
offering insights into passive design strategies, building envelope optimization techniques,
renewable energy integration solutions, and more. Secondly, it is a tool for empowerment,
empowering building professionals to create healthier, more comfortable, and more energy-
efficient built environments. Finally, it is a catalyst for positive change, inspiring innovation and
driving progress towards a brighter, more sustainable future for Nepal. As you navigate through the
pages of this manual, I encourage you to approach it not merely as a reference guide, but as a tool
for inspiration and innovation. Let the principles outlined herein serve as a springboard for your
creativity, enabling you to push the boundaries of what is possible in sustainable building design.
In closing, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all those who have contributed to the
development of this manual, as well as to you, the reader, for your commitment to advancing energy
efficiency in Nepal’s built environment. Together, we can build a brighter, more sustainable future
for all.

Warm regards,

DI Dr. techn. Daniel Neyer

Project Leader (BEEN)
Acknowledgement
Development of this manual has been possible with contributions of wider networks of people,
institutions and stakeholders. Every effort was made to include the knowledge and perspectives of
practitioners, national and international experts as well as stakeholders associated with the designing
of buildings. We would like to acknowledge the support of various individuals and institutions who
have contributed in various ways during the process of developing this manual.
Publication of this manual, led by the BUILDING Energy Efficiency in Nepal (BEEN) Project, has
been possible because of the financial support by the European Union under the SWITCH-Asia
Grants Programme. We would like to express our gratitude to Dr Ranjan Prakash Shrestha, Senior
Programme Manager, Delegation of the European Union to Nepal , for his continuous guidance and
support. His strategic support has been valuable to align the manual to needs and commitments of
Government of Nepal.
We extend our heartfelt gratitude to the Department of Urban Development and Building
Construction (DUDBC). Special thanks are to Ar. Sudha Ghimire, Architect, DUDBC, Er. Ukesh
Dawadi, Engineer, DUDBC, Ar. Diksha Panta, DUDBC and Ar. Kabita Pandey, Nepal Academy
of Science and Technology-NAST for their strategic inputs to make the manual valuable for the
practitioners and to make it responsive to needs of different levels of Governments of Nepal as well
as enriching the content.
The contributions of Society of Nepalese Architects (SONA) have been invaluable to develop
this manual. Special recognition is to the experts Ar. Bibhuti Man Singh, Ar. Ujjwal Man Shakya,
Ar. Prabal Thapa, Ar. Anju Malla Pradhan, Ar. Gyanendra Shakya and Ar. Arjun Basnet and Ar.
Sameer Ratna Bajracharya for their invaluable suggestion and feedback to enrich the content and
contextualize the manual.
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN
Contents

Contents
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Energy use in Buildings� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1
1.2 Objective of the Manual � ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 2
1.3 Outline of the Manual������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 4
2 THERMAL COMFORT
2.1 What is thermal comfort?���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 5
2.2 Factors affecting thermal comfort � �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 5
2.3 Thermal comfort models and indices� �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 8
2.4 Roles of the Designers�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 12
3 CLIMATE
3.1 Climate zones in Nepal� ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 15
3.2 Climate analysis��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 17
3.3 Sun path analysis � ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 23
4 HEAT TRANSFER IN BUILDINGS
4.1 Heat sources for Buildings: Internal & External����������������������������������������������������������� 27
4.2 Modes of heat transfer through the building envelope� ������������������������������������������� 29
4.3 Heat transfer through the building envelope �������������������������������������������������������������� 31
5 PASSIVE STRATEGIES FOR COMFORT AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY
5.1 Building orientation, massing, and spatial configuration����������������������������������������� 43
5.2 Building envelope����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 47
5.3 Building envelope for warm temperate zone in Nepal � ��������������������������������������������� 48
5.4 Building envelope for temperate zone in Nepal � ���������������������������������������������������������� 52
5.5 Building envelope for cool temperate zone in Nepal������������������������������������������������ 56
5.6 Building envelope for cold zone in Nepal � ����������������������������������������������������������������������� 59
6 NATURAL VENTILATION
6.1 Ventilation and natural ventilation�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 63
6.2 Guidelines to utilise maximum natural ventilation potential through win-
dows���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 64
6.3 Fan-assisted ventilation���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 68
7 VISUAL COMFORT & DAYLIGHTING
7.1 Lighting terminology������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 71
7.2 Daylighting strategies � �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 73
7.3 Daylight performance metrics���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 76
7.4 Evaluating daylight design: Simplified manual method������������������������������������������� 77
ANNEX 1

ANNEX 2

REFERENCES
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN
List of Tables

List of Tables
Table 1: Design criteria for the operative temperature in office building� �������������������������� 11
Table 2: Climate zones of Nepal with its characteristics, maximum and minimum
DBT&RH� ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 16
Table 3: Types of weather datasets available�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 18
Table 4: Places of Nepal with .epw files� ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 19
Table 5: Categorization of months based on DBT and RH � ������������������������������������������������������� 20
Table 6: Important dates for sun-path analysis � ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 25
Table 7: Values of interior and exterior surface film thermal resistance as per cli-
mate zone (for wall and roof)� ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 37
Table 8: Ug (U value of glass) for different glass types������������������������������������������������������������� 40
Table 9: Favourable orientation for energy efficiency for the different climate zones
������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 44

Table 10: Baseline construction (warm temperate zone)���������������������������������������������������������� 48

Table 11: Baseline construction and passive building envelope strategies for
warm-temperate climate � ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 51
Table 12: Baseline construction (temperate zone)����������������������������������������������������������������������� 53
Table 13: Baseline construction and passive building envelope strategies for tem-
perate climate � ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 55
Table 14: Baseline construction (cool temperate zone)������������������������������������������������������������� 56
Table 15: Baseline construction and passive building envelope strategies for
cool-temperate climate � ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 58
Table 16: Baseline construction (cold zone)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 59
Table 17: Baseline construction and passive building envelope strategies for cold
climate � �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 61
Table 18: Light fixtures and their luminous efficacy�������������������������������������������������������������������� 71
Table 19: Value of daylight extension factor (def) for different directions� ���������������������� 78
Table 20: Thermal properties of building and insulating materials (Bureau of Energy
Efficiency, Eco-Niwas Samhita 2018, (Energy Conservation Building Code for Resi-
dential Buildings), PART I: BUILDING ENVELOPE, 2018 )� �������������������������������������������������������� 81
Table 21: External Shading Factor for Overhang (ESFoverhang) for LAT ≥ 23.5˚N. (Bu-
reau of Energy Efficiency, Eco-Niwas Samhita 2018, (Energy Conservation Building
Code for Residential Buildings), PART I: BUILDING ENVELOPE, 2018 )���������������������������� 84
Table 22: External Shading Factor for Side Fin-Right (ESFright) for LAT ≥ 23.5˚N. (Bu-
reau of Energy Efficiency, Eco-Niwas Samhita 2018, (Energy Conservation Building
Code for Residential Buildings), PART I: BUILDING ENVELOPE, 2018 )���������������������������� 84
Table 23: External Shading Factor for Side Fin-Left (ESFleft) for LAT ≥ 23.5˚N. (Bu-
reau of Energy Efficiency, Eco-Niwas Samhita 2018, (Energy Conservation Building
Code for Residential Buildings), PART I: BUILDING ENVELOPE, 2018 )���������������������������� 85
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN
List of Figures

List of Figures
Figure 1: Energy consumption by end use for residential building in Nepal, 2014
Source: (WECS, 2014)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 2
Figure 2: Principles of energy efficient building design������������������������������������������������������������� 3
Figure 3: Comfort band of the human body�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 5
Figure 4: The Change in Clo Value Based on the Clothing Type Providing Thermal
Resistance��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 7
Figure 5: Metabolic rates (met rate) for different activities. Source: (ASHRAE, 2010)8
Figure 6: Heat balance model � ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 9
Figure 7: PMV and PPD scale and the comfort criteria������������������������������������������������������������� 10
Figure 8: Acceptable operative temper ature to ranges for naturally conditioned
spaces (ASHRAE 55)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 12
Figure 9: Climate zones of Nepal (Bodach, 2016) � ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 16
Figure 10: Direct normal irradiance (on left), diffused horizontal irradiation (middle),
and global horizontal radiation (on right)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 18
Figure 11: Wind profile over height (IS:875(Part3), 2015)��������������������������������������������������������� 18
Figure 12: Heat map chart showing dry-bulb temperature (top) and relative humidity
(bottom) of Kathmandu (Tool used: CBE Clima)���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 20
Figure 13: Annual Graph showing global, direct, and diffuse solar radiation for Kath-
mandu, Nepal (Tool used: Climate consultant)������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 21
Figure 14: Wind rise diagram of months for which dbt and rh categorization was
done (Tool used: CBE Clima tool)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 22
Figure 15: Graph showing period when DBT is between 16 and 26°C in Kathmandu� 23
Figure 16: Solar position angles � ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 23
Figure 17: Sun path diagram of Kathmandu, Nepal (Tool Used: AndrewMarsh.com)� 24
Figure 18: Internal heat gains through occupants, equipment and artificial lighting� 28
Figure 19: Transfer of heat by conduction through roof, wall and fenestration������������ 29
Figure 20: Exchange of heat by convection (left: natural convection and right: air
exchange)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 30
Figure 21: Heat transfer through radiation�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 31
Figure 22: Solar reflectance and emissivity����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32
Figure 23: Thermal conductivity of a material � ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 33
Figure 24: Wall section of conventional brick wall���������������������������������������������������������������������� 34
Figure 25: Temperature course in a 0.33 m concrete wall with 24 h temperature
variation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 36
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

Figure 26: Example of thermal bridging������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 38

Figure 27: Modes of heat transfer through the fenestration � ������������������������������������������������� 38
Figure 28: Solar heat gain����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 39
Figure 29: Image explaining Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC), Visual Light Trans-
mission (VLT), Thermal Transmittance (U-Value), and light to solar gain Ratio for a
Window (LSG)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 41
Figure 30: Incident solar radiation on roof and walls (June)� ��������������������������������������������������� 45
Figure 31: Incident solar radiation on roof and walls (January) � ��������������������������������������������� 45
Figure 32: Different building spatial configurations� ������������������������������������������������������������������ 46
Figure 33: Heat gains & losses through baseline building envelope in warm temper-
ate climate (intermediate floor)� ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 49
Figure 34: Heat gains & losses through baseline building envelope in warm temper-
ate climate (top floor) � �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 49
Figure 35: Examples of External Movable Shading (EMSyS)� ������������������������������������������������ 50
Figure 36: Traditional examples of good solar shading in Nepal����������������������������������������� 51
Figure 37: Annual heating and cooling loads for an intermediate floor and top floor,
with baseline construction and passive strategies (warm temperate climate)������������� 52
Figure 38: Heat gains & losses through baseline building envelope in temperate
climate (intermediate floor)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 53
Figure 39: Heat gains & losses through baseline building envelope in temperate
climate (top floor)� ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 54
Figure 40: annual heating and cooling loads for an intermediate floor and top floor,
with baseline construction and passive strategies (temperate climate)�������������������������� 55
Figure 41: Heat gains & losses through baseline building envelope in cool temperate
climate (intermediate floor)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57
Figure 42: heat gains & losses through baseline building envelope in cool temperate
climate (top floor)� ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57
Figure 43: Annual heating and cooling loads for an intermediate floor and top floor,
with baseline construction and passive strategies (cool temperate climate)���������������� 58
Figure 44: Baseline roof assembly in cold climate���������������������������������������������������������������������� 59
Figure 45: Heat gains & losses through baseline building envelope in cold climate � � 60
Figure 46: Annual heating and cooling loads with baseline construction and passive
strategies (cold climate)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 61
Figure 47: Wind-driven (left) and buoyancy-driven (right) natural ventilation� �������������� 64
Figure 48: Sliding window (left) and casement window (right)��������������������������������������������� 65
Figure 49: Use of louvers, overhangs etc. to direct air inside � ������������������������������������������������ 65
Figure 50: Arrangements for cross-ventilation (plan)��������������������������������������������������������������� 66
Figure 51: Arrangements for cross-ventilation (section)���������������������������������������������������������� 66
 List of Figures
Figure 52: Single-sided ventilation (plan, section and elevation) - 1 � ����������������������������������� 67
Figure 53: Single-sided ventilation (plan, section and elevation) - 2 � ���������������������������������� 67
Figure 54: Depth of floor plan for good cross ventilation�������������������������������������������������������� 68
Figure 55: Fan-assisted ventilation� ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 68
Figure 56: Daylight availability in relation to distance from envelope or fenestration
(plan and section)� ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 74
Figure 57: Daylight availability in a square vs. a rectangle����������������������������������������������������� 74
Figure 58: 2H Rule – The Higher the Head Height, the Deeper the Light Penetrates
Into Space � ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 75
Figure 59: Working principle of light shelves� �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 76
Figure 60: Head height (section)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 79
Figure 61: Daylit area for windows � ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 79
Figure 62: Illustration of daylit area for skylight�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 79
 Abbreviations
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

AAC Autoclaved Aerated Cement Blocks

ACH Air Changes Per Hour
ASE Annual Solar Exposure
ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
BEE Bureau of Energy Efficiency
CAD Computer-Aided Design and drafting
CBE Centre for the Built Environment
CFL Compact Fluorescent Lamp

CIBSE Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

CSEB Compressed Stabilized Earth Block

DA Daylight Autonomy
DBT Dry Bulb Temperature
DDH Discomfort Degree Hours
DEF Daylight Extension Factor
DF Daylight Factor
DGU Double-Glazed Units
DHI Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance
DNI Direct Normal Irradiance
ECBC Energy Conservation Building Code
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EMSyS External Moveable Shading Systems
EPI Energy Performance Index
ESF External Shading Factor
GHI Global Horizontal Radiation
HVAC Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
IEA International Energy Agency
IES Illuminating Engineering Society
IESNA Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
IGBC Indian Green Building Council
LED Light Emitting Diode.
LPD Lighting Power Density
MET Metabolic Equivalent
MRT Mean Radiant Temperature
PF Projection Factor
 Abbreviations
PMV Predicted Mean Vote
PPD Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied occupants
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
RCC Reinforced Cement Concrete
RH Relative Humidity
SC Shading Coefficient
SHGC Solar Reflective Index
SRI Solar Reflective Index
SRR Skylight-to-Roof Ratio
UDI Useful Daylight Illuminance
VLT Visible Light Transmission
WBT Wet-Bulb Temperature
WECS Water and Energy Commission Secretariat
WWR Window-to-Wall Ratio
XPS Extruded Polystyrene
1
INTRODUCTION

What’s in this section?

1.1 Energy use in Buildings

1.2 Objective of the Manual
1.3 Outline of the Manual
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN
 1

Introduction
Introduction
Buildings account for 30% of global final energy consumption and 26% of global energy-related
CO2 emissions (IEA, 2023). It is estimated that by 2030, the global building stock will increase by
15% (IEA, 2023). The rise in construction, along with increased urbanization and living standards,
especially in developing countries, will continue to drive energy consumption in buildings. The
primary sources of energy consumption in buildings encompass the energy used for construction,
space heating/cooling, lighting, and the appliances and equipment installed in them.

Nepal is one of the top ten fastest-urbanizing countries (Bakrania, 2015). In 2022, the urban
percentage of the country was 22%, and an annual urban population growth of 3.8% (World
Bank). Many policies on access to clean, reliable, and appropriate energy in rural areas and
the development of the renewable energy sector have been implemented in the country. It has
resulted in 94 % of the total population having access to electricity today, whereas only 19% in
the year 2000 (IEA, 2023). In Nepal, 70% of the total energy consumption is in the residential and
commercial building sectors (WECS, Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS), Energy
Sector Synopsis Report 2021/2022., 2022).

Most buildings in Nepal are designed without consideration for local and changing climatic
conditions, leading to low thermal comfort and an increased demand for energy to achieve it.
The rising heating and cooling needs, driven by an improved living standard and the growing
affordability of space conditioning, result in increased energy use when building designs are not
appropriate. Passive design strategies during the early phases of the design can enhance thermal
comfort and significantly reduce energy consumption.

1.1 Energy use in Buildings

Globally, around 40% of the energy consumed in buildings is attributed to Heating, Cooling, and
Ventilation (HVAC) systems. In developed regions such as the United States and the European
Union, the share of HVAC in building energy usage is notably higher, accounting for around 53%
(U.S.(EIA), 2019) and approximately 58% (Odyssee, 2021). In India, HVAC systems contribute to
40% - 60%1 of the electricity consumption in commercial buildings, while in urban residential
buildings, cooling consumes 30% - 40% of the electricity used.

Nepal generates electricity mostly from hydropower, with surpluses exported to India in wet
seasons and minor deficits imported from India during the dry seasons. Most of the energy supply
is from bio-fuels and waste as 21 million people still rely on traditional biomass for cooking (IEA,
2023).

1 Building Innovation: A Guide for High-Performance Energy Efficient Buildings in India Reshma Singh, Baptiste Ravache, Dale Sartor Law-
rence Berkeley National Laboratory May, 2018
 2

The residential energy consumption in Nepal has been increasing at the rate of 2.23% per annum
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

in the last two years, which is higher than the population growth rate of Nepal (WECS, 2022).
Around 14% of the building energy is used for space cooling and space heating in residential
sectors (WECS, 2014), and the same amount of energy is consumed for water heating and lighting
purposes (WECS, 2014). The energy consumption by end-use for residential buildings in Nepal
is shown in Figure 1.

FIGURE 1: ENERGY CONSUMPTION FOR END USE IN RESIDENTIAL BUILDING IN NEPAL, 2014

10.5%
0.4%
0.1%

12.9% Cooking
Heating
Cooling
0.8%
Lighting
Water Heating
0.2%
Water pumping
Electric Appliances

14.2% Other

61.0%

(Source: WECS, 2014)

However, the share of space heating and cooling energy is high in new and urban buildings in
Nepal. Contemporary buildings in Kathmandu use 60% of their total energy for heating and cooling
(Bajracharya, 2014). If buildings are not designed with energy-efficient strategies, this demand
will keep increasing at the same pace. In this regard, designers, architects, and civil engineers
can play a critical role in designing such buildings in the early phase of the design. This manual is
for Nepal’s architects and civil engineering community to design energy-efficient and thermally
comfortable buildings through passive measures.

1.2 Objective of the Manual

An energy-efficient building is designed based on three guiding principles. An overview of the
principles is shown in Figure 2.
■ First, minimize energy demand through climate-responsive and passive strategies to
reduce the cooling and heating demand and lighting loads.

■ Second, efficiently meet the reduced energy demand, which relies on the efficiency of
the cooling, heating, and lighting systems.

■ Third, utilize renewable energy sources to meet the final required energy.
 3

This manual is intended for designers (architects and civil engineers) engaged in building design,

Introduction
specifically considering the first principle of energy-efficient building design. It emphasizes aspects
such as building orientation, building envelope, and other design features aimed at minimizing
the building’s cooling, heating, and lighting loads.

Notably, this manual does not delve into the second and third principles of energy-efficient building
design, namely the HVAC systems, artificial lighting systems, and renewable energy systems.

FIGURE 2: PRINCIPLES OF ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

100%

Minimize energy Efficient systems and

Use renewable energy
requirements operations
Energy Consumption

Business As Usual
Passive Measures
(Orientation, WWR, glazing, Active
Active Measures (Proper
Measures (Proper On-site Renewable
Shading, Insulation, natural design
design and
and sizing of
sizing of Energy Generation
ventilation, daylight…) lighting
lighting and heating //
and heating
cooling
cooling system,
system, high
high star
star rated
rated equipment
equipment /
/ appliance,
appliance,assisted
assisted
ventilation,…)
ventilation,…) Net Energy

Minimize heat gain/loss,

Efficient heating / cooling &
Improve Daylight & Natural
lighting system
Ventilation Potential

(Source: Reproduced image from Indo-Swiss BEEP)

 4

1.3 Outline of the Manual

MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

The manual has seven chapters as follows:

● Chapter 1 introduces the manual with objectives and the outline of the manual.

● Chapter 2 covers the understanding of thermal comfort, the factors influencing it, and the
thermal comfort standards as an energy-efficient building is primarily focused on thermal
comfort and visual comfort with minimal energy.

● Chapter 3 explains how climate influences thermal comfort, covering climate variables, sun-
path diagrams, and the climate zones in Nepal.

● Chapter 4 explains the heat sources in a building and how heat transfer happens through the
building envelope and its components.

● Chapter 5 describes the passive strategies that would be most applicable and impactful in
the climate zones in Nepal.

● Chapter 6 describes principles of improving natural ventilation.

● Chapter 7 describes passive strategies for improving visual comfort, i.e., strategies for
daylighting.
2
THERMAL
COMFORT

What’s in this section?

2.1 What is thermal comfort?

2.2 Factors affecting thermal comfort
2.3 Thermal comfort models and indices
2.4 Roles of the Designers
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN
 5

Thermal Comfort
Thermal Comfort
2.1 What is thermal comfort?
ASHRAE defines thermal comfort as “that condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the
thermal environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation.”

Thermal comfort is a subjective feeling of satisfaction with the thermal environment and is
experienced through bodily sensation. It varies from person to person, as what one person finds
comfortable might be too warm or cold for another. Therefore, when designing indoor spaces,
architects and designers often aim to create an environment that are acceptable to at least 80%
of occupants.

FIGURE 3: COMFORT BAND OF THE

2.2 Factors affecting HUMAN BODY

thermal comfort
Death( >4 0 )
41
Irreversible cell
Thermal comfort is a subjective feeling of damage and death

satisfaction with the thermal environment and 40 Hyperpyrexia (40 )

is experienced through body sensation. Our 39

Uncomfortable
body temperature needs to be controlled within
a narrow range of 1°C from 36.7°C to 37.7°C for 38
Heat stress (37.7 )

proper functioning. Figure 3 shows the comfort Narrowr ange

1 Difference
37 Heat balance (37 )

band of the human body and how the change in Cold stress (36.7 )

temperature of the human body affects health

36
Uncomfortable

conditions. 35 Hypothermia (35.2 )

Our body always tries to achieve thermal 34 Death( < 35.2 )

Cessationo fc ardiac and
equilibrium with the surroundings by losing excess respiratoryf unctions;c ell
stillv iable; Deathp ossible
heat to the surroundings or generating heat by
increasing activity. The prominent modes of heat
exchange from the human body are radiation,
convection, and evaporation. However, very little quantity is lost by conduction and is dominant in
heat exchange with clothing. Thus, the overall heat exchange and thermal comfort are influenced
by the following:
■ Environmental factors, and

■ Personal factors.
 6

2.2.1 Environmental Factors

MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

The environmental factors affecting the thermal comfort of occupants are as follows:

2.2.1.1 Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT) or Air Temperature

The Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT) is the temperature of air measured by a thermometer which is
freely exposed to the air but shielded from radiation. DBT is usually thought of as air temperature
and does not indicate the amount of moisture in the air. It is usually expressed in °C or °F. It
determines whether heat loss can occur through evaporation and convection.

2.2.1.2 Relative Humidity (RH)

Relative Humidity (RH) is the ratio of the amount of water present in the air to the maximum
amount that the same volume of air can hold at the same temperature. It signifies the moisture
content of the air. The values of both RH and DBT of the surrounding air collectively influence
the potential for heat loss through evaporation. In conditions of high RH (indicating high moisture
in the air), the likelihood of evaporation to the surrounding air decreases, resulting in less heat
released through sweating. Conversely, in low RH conditions (indicating low moisture in the air), the
potential for evaporation increases, allowing water vapour to more readily evaporate into the air.

2.2.1.3 Mean Radiant Temperature (MRT)

The Mean Radiant Temperature (MRT) is a measure of the average temperature of all surfaces
surrounding us, with which the human body exchanges thermal radiation. It represents the radiant
heat emitted by all the surfaces within the vicinity of a point or a person in space, including walls,
floors, and ceilings. Radiation heat loss or gain is driven by the temperature difference (T14 – T24, T in
Kelvin: °C + 273) of the outer surface of a body (such as exposed skin or the exterior of clothing) and
inner surface temperatures of the surrounding surfaces. Since radiation is the dominant form of
heat transfer from the human body, MRT becomes a crucial factor in determining thermal comfort.

When MRT is too low, individuals may feel cold even in warm temperatures, and conversely, when
MRT is too high, they may experience discomfort due to excessive warmth.

2.2.1.4 Air speed/air movement

Air speed is the average speed of air, indicating its movement within a space. It is usually expressed
in terms of m/s. It is averaged over time intervals between one to three minutes due to the
continuous variation in air speed.

Elevated air speed influences thermal comfort in several ways. When air moves faster across the
skin, it enhances heat transfer from the body to the environment through convection. Additionally,
air that has absorbed sweat from the skin in the form of water vapour is carried away, and drier
air takes its place, capable of absorbing water vapour through evaporation. This increased heat
loss creates a cooling effect, making individuals feel cooler than in still air. However, if the air
speed is too high, it can cause discomfort and make individuals feel cold, especially if the air
temperature is already low.
 7

Air Movement and Comfort

Thermal Comfort
■ Air speed doesn’t cool the air itself.
■ It creates a “cooling” effect by moving air around the body, increasing heat loss through
convection and evaporation.
■ Higher air speed increases the rate of heat loss from the skin, making individuals feel
cooler.
■ In warm temperatures, air movement is comfortable, while low airspeed can lead to a
stagnant, stuffy feeling.
■ In cold temperatures, airspeed can reduce skin temperature further, potentially causing
discomfort by making the body feel colder.

2.2.2 Personal factors

The personal factors affecting the thermal comfort of occupants are the following:

2.2.2.1 Clothing (Clo) value

Clothing value, or Clo, is a measure of the thermal resistance of clothing and is another crucial
factor in determining thermal comfort. Clothing interferes with our ability to lose heat. A resistance
of 0.155 m2K/W is considered a 1 Clo.

The Clo value of clothing is important in determining how much heat is lost from the body to the
environment, and it can be used to help determine the appropriate temperature and humidity
levels in a space to achieve optimal thermal comfort. In a cold environment, higher Clo values
may help retain body heat and increase comfort. However, in a hot environment, a high Clo value
can hinder heat dissipation from the body and lead to discomfort. Figure 4 illustrates the change
in Clo value based on the clothing type providing thermal resistance.

FIGURE 4: THE CHANGE IN CLO VALUE BASED ON THE CLOTHING TYPE PROVIDING
THERMAL RESISTANCE

0.57 clo 0.54 clo 1.01 clo 1.06 clo

(Source: ASHRAE, 2010)
 8

2.2.2.2 Metabolic rate

MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

The metabolic rate is the amount of heat released by the human body, depending on the activities
individuals are engaged in. An average person seated at rest typically produces 60 W/m2 of
surface heat and about 100 W/person, which is termed as 1 met. The more strenuous the activity,
the more heat is generated.

Higher metabolic rates, such as those experienced during physical activities, can increase
heat production, causing individuals to feel warmer and less comfortable. Conversely, lower
metabolic rates, such as those during sedentary activities, may require less heat dissipation,
allowing individuals to feel cooler and more comfortable. Metabolic rates (met Rate) for different
activities are shown in Figure 5.

FIGURE 5: METABOLIC RATES (MET RATE) FOR DIFFERENT ACTIVITIES

Seating Sleeping Walking Running

58.2W/m2 40 W/m2 115W /m2 220W /m2
1.0 MET 0.7 MET 2.0 MET 3.8 MET
(Source: ASHRAE, 2010)

2.2.3 Operative temperature

As mentioned earlier, thermal comfort depends on various personal and environmental factors.
Due to the complexity of empirically fitting all these variables, a simple measure can be more
practical. Operative temperature, derived from air temperature, mean radiant temperature, and air
speed, is the simplified measure of human thermal comfort. When designing a building, achieving
a comfortable operative temperature is a key focus.

Operative temperature can be defined as the average of the mean radiant and ambient air
temperatures, weighted by their respective heat transfer coefficients. In simpler terms, it is the
mean value of the radiant and the air temperature. (ASHRAE, Handbook on Fundamentals, 2009 )

2.3 Thermal comfort models and indices

The desired range of thermal comfort can be defined for a building based on the comfort
expectation of the users of the building and the degree of personal control offered within the
indoor environment. The range of desired comfort is based on either of the following two thermal
comfort models: the heat balance model and the adaptive comfort model.
 9

2.3.1 The heat balance model

Thermal Comfort
The heat balance method presents a physics based mathematical model. It establishes thermal
comfort when heat loss from the body is exactly equal to the heat produced within the body. The
heat balance model is illustrated in Figure 6.

The heat balance method approaches thermal comfort from a biological perspective:
■ If heat generation rate > heat loss rate, the individual will feel warm/hot

■ If heat generation rate < heat loss rate, the individual will feel cool/cold

■ If heat generation rate = heat loss rate, the individual will experience thermal comfort

FIGURE 6: HEAT BALANCE MODEL

37ºC
Core body temperature

Shivering
Conduction Evaporation
Convection Radiation
Radiation 31ºC –3 4º C Convection
Condensation Normal Skin Conduction
Temperature

Heat produced in Heat released

body from body

The acceptable thermal comfort range in the heat balance method is defined by Predicted Mean
Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD).
 10

PMV & PPD

MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

The Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) is an index that predicts the mean value of the votes of a large
group of persons on the 7-point thermal sensation scale based on the heat balance of the human
body. The sensation scale is expressed from –3 to +3 corresponding to the categories “cold,” “cool,”
“slightly cool,” “neutral,” “slightly warm,” “warm,” and “hot.” Thermal balance is obtained when
the internal heat production in the body is equal to the loss of heat to the environment. PMV can
be calculated for different combinations of metabolic rate, clothing insulation, air temperature,
mean radiant temperature, air velocity, and air humidity (ISO:7730, 2005).

Once the PMV is calculated, the PPD or Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) can be
determined. PPD is an index that establishes a quantitative prediction of the percentage of
thermally dissatisfied people who feel too cool or too warm. Thermally dissatisfied people are
those who will vote hot, warm, cool, or cold on the 7-point thermal sensation scale. Figure 7 shows
the PMV and PPD scale and the comfort criteria.

FIGURE 7: PMV AND PPD SCALE AND THE COMFORT CRITERIA

(Source: Modified image from https://www.simulationhub.com/blog/role-of-cfd-in-evaluating-occupant-thermal-comfort)

For example, the desired operative temperature in offices, as per PMV/PPD, is shown in Table 1.
The considered metabolic rate is 1.2 MET, and clothing value is considered 0.5 Clo during summer
(‘cooling season’) and 1.0 Clo during winter (‘heating season’).

The heat balance method quantifies the heat exchange between the human body and the
immediate surrounding environment. It signifies that occupants’ perception of thermal comfort
relies solely on human psychology and heat transfer mechanisms between the environment and
the body. However, research has indicated that thermal comfort perception is also influenced by
social factors and the occupants’ psychological responses to the environment.
 11

Thermal Comfort
TABLE 1: DESIGN CRITERIA FOR THE OPERATIVE TEMPERATURE IN OFFICE BUILDING

Operative temperature (°C)

Activity Category
Summer (Cooling Season) Winter (Heating Season)

A
PMV − 0.2 < PMV < + 0.2 24.5 ± 1.0 22.0 ± 1.0
PPD <6%
B
70 W/m2 PMV − 0.5< PMV < + 0.5 24.5 ± 1.5 22.0 ± 2.0
PPD <10%
C
PMV − 0.7< PMV < + 0.7 24.5 ± 2.5 22.0 ± 3.0
PPD <15%

2.3.2 Adaptive thermal comfort model

Human beings naturally adjust and adapt to outside weather conditions, minimizing discomfort
through changes in activity, posture, clothing, and the manipulation of windows (opening or closing).
Furthermore, individuals tend to find comfort in a broader range of temperatures within a space,
influenced by the prevailing outside weather conditions.

The adaptive thermal comfort model was developed to acknowledge the influence of behavioural
and psychological adaptations on the human body. The adaptive thermal comfort model takes
the physiological, psychological, and behavioural aspects of the occupants and their influence
on perception on thermal comfort.

Acceptable thermal conditions in occupant-controlled naturally

conditioned spaces: ASHRAE 55
ASHRAE 55 uses an adaptive comfort model to recommend acceptable thermal conditions
for naturally ventilated spaces. This method defines acceptable thermal environments only for
occupant-controlled naturally conditioned spaces that meet all the following criteria:
■ No mechanical cooling system (e.g., refrigerated air conditioning, radiant cooling, or
desiccant cooling) was installed. No heating system is in operation.

■ Representative occupants have metabolic rates ranging from 1.0 to 1.3 met. They are free
to adapt their clothing to the indoor and/or outdoor thermal conditions within a range at
least as wide as 0.5 to 1.0 Clo.

■ The prevailing mean outdoor temperature is greater than 10°C and less than 33.5°C.
 12

The allowable indoor operative temperatures, tº, shall be determined from the graph in Figure 8
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

using the 80% acceptability limits. Alternatively, the following Equation 1 and Equation 2 may
be used:

Upper 80% acceptability limit (°C) = 0.31 tpma(out) + 21.3 (1)

Lower 80% acceptability limit (°C) = 0.31 tpma(out) + 14.3 (2)

Where, tpma(out) is the arithmetic average of the mean daily outdoor temperatures over no fewer
than seven and no more than thirty sequential days before the day in question.

FIGURE 8: ACCEPTABLE OPERATIVE TEMPER ATURE TO RANGES FOR NATURALLY CONDITIONED

SPACES

(Source: ASHRAE 55)

2.4 Roles of the Designers

Two decisions need to be taken at the beginning for determination of thermal comfort, which will
also impact energy efficiency strategies:
■ The comfort expectation of the users of a building depends on the user preference as
well as the mode of operation of the building.

■ The degree of personal control offered over the indoor environment.

Suppose users expect a narrow range of comfort with a high degree of control. In that case,
the expectation is that of an air-conditioned building where the indoor temperature is always
controlled within the comfort range. In this case, the comfort range, as per the PMV/PPD model,
must be considered. This is usually the case with hospitals, several types of office/commercial
buildings, high-end hotels, and even certain high-end residences.
 13

For most residential buildings, schools, institutional buildings, etc., the expectation of comfort and

Thermal Comfort
the degree of control is less strict compared to buildings like hotels or office buildings. In these
buildings, the adaptive comfort range can be determined. It must be reiterated here that thermal
comfort is very subjective, and the comfort ranges given by the models are only guidelines to
enable design, where 80% of the users may be thermally comfortable.

The more stringent the user’s expectations, the longer the time required for heating or cooling,
resulting in increased investment for air conditioning and operational expenses.

Once the desired thermal comfort range is determined, thermal comfort at different design
iterations can be predicted through simulations. Simulations can show how many hours in a year
the indoor operative temperature of the building will be within the determined thermal comfort
range. Alternatively, it can show the difference between the achieved operative temperature and
the desired operative temperature, and the duration (measured in hours) for which the difference
persists. This is denoted by a term called Discomfort Degree Hours (DDH). It has a unit of °C.h.

It is calculated using Equation 3.

DDH (annual) = (T operative – Tacceptable ) × Time

(3)

Where,
Toperative: indicates the measured or achieved operative temperature,
Tacceptable: indicates the targeted operative temperature based on comfort models,
Time: refers to the duration in hours, for which the difference persists.

The duration usually considered for DDH calculation is one year. DDH may be used to interpret
the following:
■ Thermal comfort is achieved within a building. Lower DDH indicates a higher amount of
thermal comfort provision within the building throughout the year.

■ An indicator of the degree of heating or cooling needed. If less DDH is achieved without
any mechanical heating or cooling, less energy will be required.
 14

Summary
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

■ ASHRAE defines thermal comfort as “that condition of mind that expresses satisfaction
with the thermal environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation.”
■ Thermal comfort is influenced by environmental factors (DBT, RH, MRT and airspeed) and
personal factors (Clo value and MET).
■ Operative temperature is a simplified measure of human thermal comfort derived from
air temperature, mean radiant temperature and air speed.
■ Based on the comfort expectation of the users of a building and the degree of personal
control offered over the indoor environment, the desired range of thermal comfort may be
defined for the building based on the heat balance model or the adaptive comfort model.
■ The purpose of these models and indices is to try to provide an acceptable indoor thermal
environment for 80% of occupants in each space while mitigating factors that cause
overwhelming discomfort.
■ Once the desired thermal comfort range is determined, thermal comfort for different design
iterations can be predicted through simulations. Simulations can show the Discomfort
Degree Hours (DDH) of a design, which shows the difference between the achieved
operative temperature and the desired operative temperature, and the duration (measured
in hours) for which the difference persists.
■ The more stringent the expectation of the user, the longer the time is required for heating
or cooling, resulting in increased investment and operational expenses.
3
CLIMATE

What’s in this section?

3.1 Climate zones in Nepal

3.2 Climate analysis
3.3 Sun path analysis
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN
 15

Climate
Climate
Climate is the long-term pattern of weather in a particular area. Weather can change from hour-
to-hour, day-to-day, month-to-month, or even year-to-year. A region’s weather pattern, usually
tracked for at least 30 years, is considered its climate.

The climate is influenced by various factors some of which are:

■ Location of the place on the Earth, i.e., latitude and longitude

■ Height of the location from the sea level, i.e., altitude

■ Physical features (land mass and water mass) of the area.

■ Atmospheric condition.

3.1 Climate zones in Nepal

Climate zones are regions that share similar climatic conditions. They are typically divided based
on several variables that affect the region’s climate, including temperature, precipitation, humidity,
and other climate variables.

Susanne Bodach (Bodach, 2016) has proposed climate zone classification based on elevation,
as shown in Figure 9. This classification is followed in this manual because it was carried out
according to the bio-climatic zoning focusing on the building construction sector. This is relevant
to our context and necessary to introduce it in building energy conservation guidelines and
standards, as well as in building energy codes. Table 2 shows the climate characteristics of four
climate zones with the maximum and minimum DBT & RH for each climatic zone.

This classification of climate zone will be helpful for the designer/architect to broadly understand
the outdoor condition of their project location. The climate analysis can indicate:

■ The comfort and discomfort months of the years.

■ At which time of the year, can indoor comfort be achieved for the building occupants with
very little or no effort.
■ What passive strategies are required, and will they be effective or not?
 16
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

FIGURE 9: CLIMATE ZONES OF NEPAL

(Source: Bodach, 2016)

TABLE 2: CLIMATE ZONES OF NEPAL WITH ITS CHARACTERISTICS, MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM
DBT&RH

Temperature Avg. Relative

S.
Climate Zone Climate Characteristics Avg. Avg. Min. Humidity
N
Max. (°C) (°C) range (%)

• Dec-Feb: Cold & dry season with

clear skies
• Mar: Moderately cold & dry season
Warm Temperate • Apr-Jun: Hot & dry season with clear
1 33 - 36 8 - 10 45 – 85
(Elevation < 500m) skies
• Jul-Sep: Warm & humid season
• Oct-Nov: Moderately warm &
moderately humid season
• Dec-Feb: Cold & dry season with
clear skies
Temperate • Mar: Moderately cold & dry season
2 (Elevation 501m – • Apr-May: Warm & dry season 27 - 30 5 -7 60 - 85
1500m) • Jun-Oct: Moderately warm & humid
season
• Nov: Cool & moderately humid season
• Nov-Mar: Cold & dry season with
clear skies
Cool Temperate • Apr: Cool & dry season
3 (Elevation 1501m – 22 - 24 2 -4 60 - 85
2500m) • May-Sep: Moderately warm & dry
season
• Oct: Cool & dry season
• Cold & dry season for most of the
Cold Climate year
4 (Elevation > 16 - 18 -11 --7 40 - 75
2500m) • Jun-Aug: Moderately warm day-time
temperature
 17

3.2 Climate analysis

Climate
3.2.1 Climate variables
Climate data is critical for building design and consists of the following climate variables:
1. Dry bulb temperature (°C): Refer to Section 2.2.1.1.

2. Relative humidity (%): Refer to Section 2.2.1.2.

3. Wet bulb temperature (°C): The Wet-bulb Temperature (WBT) is defined as the temperature of
a parcel of air cooled to saturation (100% relative humidity, resulting in the occurrence of water
droplets). At 100% relative humidity, the WBT is equal to the DBT at lower humidity levels. The WBT
is always lower than the DBT.

4. Solar radiation (W/m2): This is the energy that comes from the sun and is transmitted in the form of
electromagnetic waves. The amount and intensity of solar radiation that reaches the Earth’s surface
can vary depending on factors such as time of day, season, latitude, altitude, and atmospheric
conditions. The maximum solar radiation with no dust in the air (e.g., after rain) and no clouds is
around 1000 W/m². This radiation value is taken to define the power of PV modules (including 25°C
ambient temperature). Solar radiation has three components as illustrated in Figure 10:

a. Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI): the amount of solar radiation received directly from the sun on
a surface perpendicular to the sun’s rays.

b. Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DHI): the amount of solar radiation that is scattered by the
atmosphere and reaches the Earth’s surface from all directions, not just from the sun.

c. Global Horizontal Radiation (GHI): the total amount of solar radiation received on a horizontal
surface, including both direct and diffuse radiation.

FIGURE 10: DIRECT NORMAL IRRADIANCE (ON LEFT), DIFFUSED HORIZONTAL IRRADIATION (MIDDLE),
AND GLOBAL HORIZONTAL RADIATION (ON RIGHT)

Global Horizontal (GHI)=

Direct Normal (DNI)X cos( )+
Di useH orizontal( DHI)

5. Wind speed and wind direction: Wind speed is how fast the air is moving. It is usually measured in
meters per second (m/s) or kilometers per hour (km/h). Wind direction is the direction from which
the wind is coming from. It is usually expressed in terms of the eight points of the compass (north,
northeast, east, southeast, south, southwest, west, and northwest).
 18

Wind speed varies with the height and this

MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

FIGURE 11: WIND PROFILE OVER HEIGHT

variation depends on the ground roughness
(obstructions), differing for each terrain
category as illustrated in Figure 11. The
wind blows at a given height, with lower
speeds in rougher terrains and higher
speeds in smoother terrains. Furthermore,
in any terrain, wind speed increases along
the height up to the gradient height, and the
values of the gradient heights are higher
for rougher terrains. Wind speeds beyond
gradient heights in all terrains are equal a. Exposed open terrain with a few or no obstructions (structure is less than1.5 m)

(IS:875(Part3), 2015). b. Open terrain with well scattered obstructions (surrounding structure 1.5 and 10 m)
c. Terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions (structures up to 10 m with or
without other isolated structure)
d. Terrain with numerous large high closely spaced obstructions.

(Source: IS:875(Part3), 2015)

3.2.2 Weather Files

To conduct a climate analysis, representative climate data of the location for the last 10-15 years
is needed. Today, several tools can assist in climate analysis. These tools use hourly weather
data files2 as input. These data files give the values for different climate variables (discussed in
Section 3.2.1) for each of the 8760 hours of representative year resulting from the previous 10-
15 years of climate data. The latest available weather files should be used for climate analysis.
These weather files can be freely downloaded from the following website:

■ Energy Plus Weather Data: https://energyplus.net/weather/simulation

■ Climate One building: https://climate.onebuilding.org/default.html

■ CBE Clima tool: https://clima.cbe.berkeley.edu/

■ Ladybug: https://www.ladybug.tools/epwmap/

The downloaded weather file folder will contain all or some of the following file formats shown
in Table 3.

TABLE 3: TYPES OF WEATHER DATASETS AVAILABLE

File Type
1 STAT Expanded Energy Plus weather statistics
2 EPW Energy Plus Weather Format
3 DDY ASHRAE Design Conditions or "file" design conditions in Energy Plus format

2 Hourly weather data files are also used as input for building energy simulation software.
 19

The .epw file is commonly used to perform climate analysis on freely available climate analysis

Climate
tools. These same files are also used for carrying out the building energy simulation. The list of
locations for which .epw files are available as per the climate zone of Nepal is given in Table 4.

TABLE 4: PLACES OF NEPAL WITH .EPW FILES

Warm Temperate Temperate Cool Temperate Cold

Nepalgunj Pokhara Taplejung Jumla
Siddharthanagar Kathmandu Amargadhi
Dhangadhi Dipayal Okhaldhunga
Biratnagar Dhankuta
Simara Dang
Birendranagar

If weather data or .epw files are not available for certain locations, the nearest .epw file meeting
both requirements should be considered (EnergyPlus, 2023).
■ The geographical distance between the two locations should be ≤ 50km.

■ The difference in altitude between the two locations should be ≤ 100m.

If both requirements are not met, one may explore the possibility of obtaining data files from
various available web sources. These sources often use statistical methods to generate the .epw
file for the location. Some of the widely used web sources include:
■ Climate.OneBuilding (free access)

■ Power Access Data Viewer (https://power.larc.nasa.gov/data-access-viewer/)

3.2.3 Climate analysis tools

Various climate analysis tools help to visualize the climate data (stored in a .epw file) in a way so
that the interpretation can easily be done. Some of the widely used tools are:

■ Climate Consultant: A simple-to-use, graphic-based computer program that helps

designers understand their local climate.

■ CBE Clima: A web-based application built to support climate analysis specifically designed
to support the needs of architects and engineers.

■ Rhino + Ladybug: Ladybug Tools comprises free computer applications that facilitate
environmental design analysis and are freely available. However, Rhino is not open-source.
20
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

Climate Analysis Example: Kathmandu

Dry bulb temperature and relative humidity
Typically, most people find a comfortable Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT) range to be between
20-26°C, and a comfortable Relative Humidity (RH) range between 30-70%. However, if either
or both of these factors are too high or too low, it can lead to thermal discomfort. Hence, it is
crucial to consider both factors together. Figure 12 shows the Heat Map Chart showing DBT and
RH of Kathmandu.
FIGURE 12: HEAT MAP CHART SHOWING DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE (TOP) AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY
(BOTTOM) OF KATHMANDU

High Temp

Mod. Temp
Mod. Temp

Low Temp
Low Temp

High. RH

Mod. RH

Mod. RH
Low. RH
Mod. RH

(Source: CBE Clima)

By analyzing the values of DBT and RH of Kathmandu (Figure 12), we can categorize each month to
determine whether it is cold, comfortable, humid, or hot, etc. These categorizations are presented
in Table 5

TABLE 5: CATEGORIZATION OF MONTHS BASED ON DBT AND RH

DBT RH Remark
Low DBT, Mod. RH
Nov- Feb 3°C to 20°C. 30%-70% (100% at night)
Cold
Mod. DBT, Low. RH
March-April 15°C to 25°C. 20%-60%
Comfortable (Mostly)
High DBT, High RH
May-Sep 20°C to 33°C. 40%-90% (100% at night)
Hot and Humid
Mod. DBT, Mod. RH
October 15°C to 26°C. 30%-70% (100% at night)
Comfortable
 21

Solar radiation

Climate
FIGURE 13: ANNUAL GRAPH SHOWING GLOBAL, DIRECT, AND DIFFUSE SOLAR RADIATION FOR
KATHMANDU, NEPAL

(Tool used: Climate consultant)

Figure 13 illustrates the global, direct and diffuse solar radiation annually for Kathmandu. It shows
that the winter months (Nov. to Feb.) in Kathmandu have clear skies with high solar radiation.
This can be used to reduce heating load in the winter. At the same time, solar radiation must be
avoided in the hot and humid months.

The solar radiation graph also indicates that there is good potential for solar-based renewable
energy throughout the year, except for June to September when the direct normal radiation is
quite low due to clouds and precipitation
Wind

FIGURE 14: WIND RISE DIAGRAM OF MONTHS FOR WHICH DBT AND RH CATEGORIZATION WAS DONE

Nov. to Feb. Nov. to Feb. Mar. to Apr. Mar. to Apr.

May to Sept. May to Sept. Oct. Oct.

(Tool used: CBE Clima tool)

 22

In Figure 14, the prevailing wind direction is mainly from the North and West, consistently exceeding
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

1.5 m/s for a significant duration. Consequently, during the comfortable months (April, March,
and October) and the hot-humid months (May to September), there exists substantial potential
for natural ventilation. Thus, strategic decisions regarding building orientation, placement of
external and internal windows, and spatial configuration become crucial to harness the maximum
benefit from the prevailing wind.

Natural ventilation potential

Addressing the following questions during climate analysis can reveal the potential for natural
ventilation to contribute to cooling in a given climate:

■ Which months will require cooling, and what is the relative humidity during those
periods? (Air movement becomes crucial, especially if humidity exceeds 60% alongside
high temperatures.)

■ Does the outside temperature in those months drop below 24-26°C, and if so, when
does this occur? This is the optimal time for leveraging natural ventilation for effective
cooling. (If outside temperatures remain above this range, outside air may not offer sufficient
thermal comfort.)

■ What is the prevalent wind direction and average wind speed during this time? (For
effective wind-driven ventilation, a wind speed of at least 0.5 m/s is typically necessary.)

FIGURE 15: GRAPH SHOWING PERIOD WHEN DBT IS BETWEEN 16°C AND 26°C IN KATHMANDU

In Kathmandu, the potential cooling months are from March to October. Figure 15 illustrates periods
when temperatures in Kathmandu fall between 16°C and 26°C. Notably, these temperatures
provide favourable conditions for cooling through natural ventilation in March (daytime), June-July
(evenings), and August-October (all day). In April-May, natural ventilation remains viable during
late evenings and early mornings. During this period, wind speeds consistently exceed 0.5 m/s
for most of the time (though this may vary based on the density and features surrounding the
building site).
 23

3.3 Sun path analysis

Climate
The sun’s movement is dynamic and influenced by variations in altitudes, angles, and solar radiation.
This movement becomes both critical and complex as it interacts with buildings. To simplify the
understanding of the sun’s trajectory, a 2D graphical representation known as ‘Horizontal Sun
Path Diagrams’ or ‘Sun Path Diagrams’ is generated.

3.3.1 Sun path diagrams

Two essential terms for interpreting sun path diagrams are the altitude angle and the azimuth
angle of the sun as shown in Figure 16.

■ Altitude angle: This angle is the measurement between the horizon and the sun’s position
in the sky, ranging from 0° (when the sun is on the horizon) to 90° (when the sun is directly
overhead). It is measured in degrees.

■ Azimuth angle: This angle is the measurement between the direction of true north and
the direction of the sun. It is measured in degrees clockwise from a reference direction,
typically the true north, and spans from 0° to 360°. Some simulation tools may use south
as the reference direction (0°), which should be double-checked when utilizing these tools.

FIGURE 16: SOLAR POSITION ANGLES

Altitude angle
θ

θ
Azimuth angle

NORTH
24

3.3.2 Sun-path diagram tools

MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

Several online tools offer sun-path diagrams for specific locations based on their latitude and
longitude. For example, the Sun Path Diagram of Kathmandu is shown in Figure 17. Two notable
free tools include:
■ Andrewmarsh.com: This online tool provides both 2D and 3D sun path diagrams.

■ CBE Clima: (https://clima.cbe.berkeley.edu/)

FIGURE 17: SUN PATH DIAGRAM OF KATHMANDU, NEPAL

(Tool Used: AndrewMarsh.com)

 25

Climate
By understanding the altitude angle and the azimuth angle of the sun at different times of the
day and year, architects and building designers can optimize:

■ The placement (direction) of windows and skylights.

■ Shading devices to control the amount of solar heat gain.
■ Designers can take advantage of the sun’s angle in the winter to maximize passive solar
heating in buildings, while also minimizing heat gain in the summer by incorporating
shading devices (southern walls).

3.3.3 Important dates for sun-path analysis

The sun’s position, indicated by altitude and azimuth angles, can be extracted from the sun path
diagram for any specific date and hour of the year. For designers, understanding the sun’s position
on the dates in Table 6 is crucial.

TABLE 6: IMPORTANT DATES FOR SUN-PATH ANALYSIS

Date
Description
(Northern Hemisphere)

Summer The Extreme of the sun’s position i.e., at the highest

20 or 21 June
Solstice altitude. Sunrise and sunset slightly north. Longest day.

Autumn Average of the sun position i.e., sun rises due east and sets
21 September
Equinox due west. Equal day length day/night.

Winter The extreme of the sun’s position i.e., at the lowest

21 or 22 December
Solstice altitude. Shortest day. Sunrise and sunset slightly south.
Spring Average of the sun position i.e., sun rises due east and sets
21 March
Equinox due west. Equal day length day/night.
26

Summary
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

■ This manual adopts the following climate zone classification for Nepal:
1. Warm temperate climate (below 500m)
2. Temperate climate (501-1500m)
3. Cool temperate (1501-2500m)
4. Cold climate (above 2500m)
■ Conducting climate analysis, involving the examination of various climate variables like DBT,
RH, solar radiation, wind speed, and direction for a specific location, helps in identifying:
1. The comfortable and uncomfortable months of the year.
2. The periods when achieving indoor comfort for building occupants requires minimal
or no effort.
3. The necessary passive strategies and their anticipated effectiveness.
■ Weather files encapsulate climate variable data for a representative year (8760 hrs.),
derived from the recorded climate data of the location over the past 10-15 years. The .epw
(Energy Plus Weather) format is widely employed for climate analysis, as well as building
energy and comfort simulation.
■ Analyzing a location’s sun path, which depicts the sun’s position at various times throughout
the day and year, empowers architects and building designers to make informed decisions
regarding:
1. Building orientation
2. Window and skylight placement
3. Implementation of shading devices to regulate solar heat gain in summer
4. Maximizing passive solar heating in winter
4
HEAT TRANSFER IN
BUILDINGS

What’s in this section?

4.1 Heat sources for Buildings: Internal & External

4.2 Modes of heat transfer through the building
envelope
4.3 Heat transfer through the building envelope
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN
 27

Heat Transfer in Buildings

Heat Transfer in Buildings
Thermal comfort inside a building depends on the heat transfer that happens through the building
envelope. It is important to understand the principles of these heat exchanges to implement
appropriate passive strategies.

Forms of heat: Sensible & Latent

■ Sensible heat: Sensible heat refers to the heat transfer that causes a change in the
temperature of a substance without changing its state (phase). For e.g., when you warm up
a cup of tea, the heat you’re adding is sensible heat. It’s the heat that makes the tea hotter.
■ Latent heat: Latent heat is involved when a substance changes its form, like from ice to
water or water to steam, without changing its temperature. It’s the heat that’s hidden or
“latent” during these phase changes.

4.1 Heat sources for Buildings: Internal &

External
4.1.1 Internal heat gains
Building occupants generate heat based on their metabolic rate. In addition to this, heat is produced
within the space by electrical lighting and equipment. This heat generation within the building,
collectively referred to as internal heat gains (refer to Figure 18), is closely associated with the
building type (e.g., office, education, or residential) and its occupancy.

FIGURE 18: INTERNAL HEAT GAINS THROUGH OCCUPANTS, EQUIPMENT AND ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING
28

Occupancy heat gains

MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

To determine the occupancy heat gains in a space, one must know the activity-related heat gain
from a person and the number of occupants in the space. Occupancy also varies throughout the
day. Thus, occupancy schedules should be ascertained. These schedules are important especially
when using energy simulation software to predict energy use in buildings.

The activity related to heat gain/person or rates of heat (sensible and latent) given off by humans
at different states of activity are given in ASHRAE 55: Thermal Environmental Conditions for
Human Occupancy.

Lighting heat gains

The heat gained from artificial lighting in a building is found by multiplying the number of lights
of each type and its respective wattage. Multiplying this with the number of hours of use of the
lights gives the total heat gains from artificial lighting.

Alternatively, recommended Lighting Power Density (LPDs) may be used to ascertain the lighting
heat gains. LPD represents the power consumed by lighting per unit of floor area and is typically
measured in watts per square meter (W/m²). Recommended LPD for different types of spaces
are given in various standards, including ASHRAE 90.1.

Equipment heat gains

The heat gained during the use of equipment (such as micro oven, toasters, ovens, computers,
etc.) in a building can be determined by multiplying the rated input of the equipment (in watts)
by the usage factor of the equipment and the fraction of heat radiated to the space.

ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017 provides heat gain values for appliances. Equipment Power Density
(EPD) is another term used, representing the power consumed by equipment per unit of floor
area and is typically measured in watts per square meter (W/m²).

4.1.2 External heat gains

The heat from the sun, earth, and the external environment, which is transferred through the
building envelope, constitutes external heat gains. Further examination of heat transfer through
the building envelope is provided in Section 4.3.

4.1.3 Internal vs. External heat gains

Densely populated buildings with high activity and/or energy-intensive equipment, such as office
buildings, malls, and cinema halls, are typically characterized by dominant internal loads. On the
other hand, less populated buildings with minimal activity or equipment, such as residences and
warehouses, are generally dominated by external loads. The significance of internal heat loads
in comparison to external loads from the sun, wind, and ambient temperatures is determined by
the building design, envelope and usage.
 29

4.2 Modes of heat transfer through the

Heat Transfer in Buildings

building envelope
Heat is a form of energy, and it always flows from warm to cold. This can be explained at the
molecular level. Temperature at the molecular level signifies the movement of molecules, which
is a form of kinetic energy. The higher the temperature, the faster the molecules move. If one
side of a solid is hotter than the other side, the fast-moving molecules will likely collide with the
slower ones, transferring energy and accelerating them. Eventually, all molecules reach a uniform
speed due to the uniform temperature, and the overall movement slows down. There is a less
possibility for slower molecules to collide with faster ones and become even slower, while the
faster molecules become even faster. This phenomenon is similar to pouring hot tea into lukewarm
water, which does not make the water colder and the tea hotter. This is explained by the second
law of thermodynamics, which states that heat flows from hotter regions to colder regions. The
first law of thermodynamics asserts that heat cannot be lost but only transferred to another form.

4.2.1 Conduction
Conduction is the process of heat transfer that occurs through heat flux in non-moving material.
In buildings, conduction occurs when heat moves through walls, floors, roofs, and other solid
components. The amount of heat exchange through these envelope components depends on
the properties of these envelopes and the temperature difference between the two sides. In a
building, conduction happens through the roof, walls, and fenestration (refer to Figure 19). The
conduction of the different wall layers is part of the U-value of a wall.

FIGURE 19: TRANSFER OF HEAT BY CONDUCTION THROUGH ROOF, WALL AND FENESTRATION

1 ROOF 2 WALL 3 FENESTRATION

(Source: Reproduced image from Indo-Swiss BEEP)

30

4.2.2 Convection
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

Convection is the transfer of heat through the movement of fluids (liquids or gases). In the building,
the spaces and the outside consist of air. There are two different ways in which convection heat
transfer occurs in buildings:

■ Heat is transferred from the surface of a wall to the surrounding air. If the wall surface
temperature is higher than the air, the air molecules near the wall surface are heated up
by the wall. Their speed increases, and they need more space. This results in the decrease
of the density of air (number of molecules in a volume). This air layer near the wall now has
less weight than the air away from the wall and starts moving upwards. Colder air from
the bottom comes to the wall surface, and as the temperature difference between the
wall surface and surrounding air molecules remains high, heat is transferred continuously.
This process is natural convection, and it is a part of the whole U-value of a wall.

■ Air exchange happens through openings in the building (e.g. fenestration, cracks, and
crevices). This happens in both directions (infiltration and exfiltration). E.g. in cold climates,
the air coming in from outside will mix with the inside air and must be heated to the needed
room temperature. On the other hand, the heat of the warm air leaving the room is lost
to the cold outside air. The amount of heat exchange happening through air exchange
depends on the size of the openings, outside wind speed, the orientation of the openings
with wind direction, and the temperature difference between the outside and inside air.
Figure 20 demonstrates the exchange of heat by Convection.

FIGURE 20: EXCHANGE OF HEAT BY CONVECTION (LEFT: NATURAL CONVECTION AND RIGHT: AIR
EXCHANGE)

Air circulation through

fenestration

(Source: Reproduced image from Indo-Swiss BEEP)

4.2.3 Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of heat in the form of electromagnetic waves without the need for a
medium. Every body (especially, solids and liquids, but also some gases) with a temperature
above 0 K (-273°C) emits radiation. The higher the temperature, the higher will be the radiation
power and the shorter the wavelength of the emitted radiation. There are many wavelengths of
radiation emitted by a body distributed around a maximum like a normal distribution. Wavelengths
between 380 and 780 nm (Nanometer) are visible from blue to red. UV - radiation has a shorter
 31

wavelength. Thermal radiation of materials of buildings has wavelengths higher than 3000 nm.

Heat Transfer in Buildings

Two types of radiative heat transfer happen in buildings.

■ Short-wave radiation, released by the sun between 250 and 2500 nm with a peak at 500 nm,
passes through transparent building elements, such as the glass in windows and doors. Due
to its transparency, glass allows short-wave solar radiation to enter the building directly.
Additionally, some of the short-wave radiation is absorbed (partly) by the roof and walls,
leading to an increase in the outside surface temperatures. This, in turn, induces additional
conductive heat flux into the interior and convection heat flux to the surrounding environment.

■ Long-wave radiation is emitted by all elements of the building and the surface of the human
body based on their respective temperatures. Whether there is a net heat flux from one
surface to another depends on the emissivity of the surfaces, how the radiation from one
surface interacts with the other (view factor), and the temperature difference between both
surfaces (expressed not linearly, but as T14 – T24, T in Kelvin).

Figure 21 demonstrates the heat transfer through radiation.

FIGURE 21: HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH RADIATION

Short wave radiation transmitted

directly through glass
LONG WAVE RADIATION

(Source: Reproduced image from Indo-Swiss BEEP)

4.3 Heat transfer through the building

envelope
Heat exchange through the building envelope primarily occurs through its three main components:
the roof, walls, and windows.

4.3.1 Through walls and roof (opaque components)

The transfer of heat through walls and roofs is primarily determined by their materials. Different
materials possess varying properties that impact their ability to conduct, absorb, and reflect heat.
The key metrics for assessing these wall and roof assemblies are as follows:

■ Reflectance of shortwave & Emissivity of long wave radiation, collectively referred to as

the Solar Reflective Index (SRI)
32

■ Thermal conductivity & transmittance (ability to conduct heat)

MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

■ Thermal mass (ability to absorb and store heat)

The roof and external wall surfaces are predominantly exposed to outside/ambient conditions
and possess a substantial surface area. During the daytime, when solar radiation falls on these
surfaces, a portion of the radiation is reflected, while some is absorbed and subsequently re-
emitted. The extent to which heat is reflected and emitted is influenced by the SRI of the surface.

Throughout the day, solar radiation falling on the outer surface leads to an increase in the outside
surface temperature through the absorption of the radiation. Moreover, the ambient air contributes
to heating or cooling the surface through convection. Depending on both the outside and inside
surface temperatures, heat will either flow from the outside to the inside or vice versa through
conduction. The extent of heat flow depends on thermal transmittance and mass of the wall and
roof assembly.

4.3.1.1 Solar Reflective Index (SRI)

The SRI is a calculated value that combines solar reflectance and thermal emittance into a single
number. Both solar reflectance and thermal emittance are expressed on a scale of 0.0 to 1.0,
where 1.0 represents 100% reflectance.

SRI serves as an indicator of heat a surface is likely to absorb when exposed to solar radiation.
SRI values typically range from 0 to 100, although values outside this range are possible. High
SRI roof and wall finishes are particularly beneficial in warm and hot climates. Figure 22 shows
the Solar Reflectance and Emissivity.

FIGURE 22: SOLAR REFLECTANCE AND EMISSIVITY

Solar Reflectance:
The fraction of solar
energy is reflected by
the roof. Thermal Emittance:
The ability of the roof
surface to radiate
absorbed heat.

The sun’s radiation

hits the roof surface

Some of the heat is

absorbed by the roof
and transferred to
the building.
 33

4.3.1.2 Thermal conductivity

Heat Transfer in Buildings

Thermal conductivity is a property that defines a material’s ability to conduct heat. It serves as a
measure of how easily heat can traverse through a substance. Specifically, it quantifies the rate
at which heat is transferred through a unit area (1 m²) and unit thickness (1 m) of material when
there is a temperature difference of one degree (1 K or 1° C) across it. Figure 23 shows the thermal
conductivity of a material. Thermal conductivity is typically represented by the symbol “k” and is
measured in units of watts per meter-Kelvin (W/(m.K)). This property is denoted by the equation 4:

= (4)

Where,
k = thermal conductivity (W/(m.K))
Q = amount of heat transferred (W)
d = distance between the two isothermal planes (m)
A = area of the surface (m²)
∆T = difference in temperature (K)

FIGURE 23: THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A MATERIAL

Temperature1 (K) Temperature2 (K)

Thermal Energy Area Thermal Conductivity

(W) (m²) Thickness (W/m.k)
(m)

Temperature difference
∆T = T₁ - T₂ (K)

Materials with high thermal conductivity effectively conduct more heat, while those with low
thermal conductivity serve as better insulators by impeding the transfer of heat.

The majority of common walling masonry and roofing materials used today, including RCC roofs
and solid burnt clay brick walls, typically exhibit thermal conductivities between 0.6 and 1.0
W/m·K. However, AAC blocks stand out as an exception with lower thermal conductivity. Thermal
insulation products, on the other hand, boast thermal conductivities of less than 0.1 W/m·K. For
a detailed list of thermal conductivities for common building materials and insulating materials,
please refer to Annex 1.

Typically, materials with high thermal conductivities also possess high densities and high specific
heat capacities. In the case of high-insulating materials, where thermal conductivity (k) is low,
34

the volume of the material is often air, and in some instances, other gases or even a vacuum.
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

Compared to solids and liquids, gases exhibit much lower molecular density for heat transfer
and considerably lower k values. Consequently, all materials employed for thermal insulation
are lightweight.

4.3.1.3 Thermal transmittance

Thermal conductivity is an intrinsic property that solely depends on the material. However,
conductive heat transfer is influenced by both the material and the thickness used. Moreover,
roof and wall assemblies are typically constructed with layers of different materials, each having
varying thickness. For example, consider the conventional brick wall shown in Figure 24. The
overall heat transfer through these wall assemblies is described by thermal transmittance, often
represented as the U-value.

FIGURE 24: WALL SECTION OF CONVENTIONAL BRICK WALL

D

Inside
Outside

Inside

Outside

Layer 01 : Cement
D1 D2 D3
Plaster
Layer 02 : Brick

Layer 03 : Cement Plaster

Thermal transmittance, or U-value (also known as Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient), is defined
as the heat transmission per unit time through the unit area of a material or construction induced
by a unit temperature difference between the environments on either side. This encompasses
convection and radiation heat transfer at the surfaces, as well as conduction within the solid
layers. The unit of the U-value is W/m²·K, as denoted by Equation 5.

= (5)

Where,
U = thermal transmittance (W/m². K)
Q = amount of heat transferred (W)
A = area of the surface (m²)
∆T = difference in temperature (K)
 35

4.3.1.4 Thermal mass

Heat Transfer in Buildings

Thermal mass is a property of a building’s mass that allows it to store heat, offering “inertia”
against temperature fluctuations. Scientifically, thermal mass is synonymous with heat capacity,
representing the amount of heat required to produce a unit change in temperature for a given
mass of material. This property is measured in Joules per Kelvin per kilogram. Heat stored in the
building’s mass is given by Equation 6.

Q = m x c x ΔT (6)

Where,
Q = Heat Stored (J)
m = Mass (kg)
c = specific heat of capacity (J.kg/K)
ΔT = temperature difference (K)

Thermal mass depends on both the mass and specific heat capacity of a material. Furthermore,
for effective heat transfer, the material’s conductivity is crucial, allowing heat to move from the
surface into the material and back out. This is particularly important for heating or cooling places
deeper within the material. The thermal variations in buildings follow a day-night rhythm. During
the day, heat is transported into the wall, and during the night, it moves out.

The advantage of high thermal mass within a building’s interior envelope is that the heat absorbed
by the wall throughout the day doesn’t directly impact the air within the space. This reduces the
load on cooling and heating systems. To absorb heat effectively the next day, the room temperature
must be lower than the wall temperature throughout the night. If the wall remains warm, the
room must be even warmer the following day for the wall to retain its heat.

In Figure 25, the temperature profile of a 0.33 m thick concrete wall is illustrated, featuring a
24-hour temperature fluctuation between 18°C – 24°C on one side and a constant temperature
of 21°C on the other side. Despite the concrete wall’s excellent conductivity, it is notable that the
temperature variation and, consequently, the stored heat become significantly smaller with a
wall thickness exceeding 0.10 m.

The utilization of materials with high thermal mass proves most advantageous when there is a
substantial daily temperature difference, characterized by significant variations between day
and night temperatures. In summer, where outdoor temperatures vary greatly from day to night,
thermal mass can absorb the sun’s heat during the day. The room can then be cooled at night, for
example, through night ventilation by keeping windows open. Conversely, in winter, the room can
harness more solar heat through the windows during the day without overheating. The retained
heat in the thermal mass then warms the room at night.
36

FIGURE 25: TEMPERATURE COURSE IN A 0.33 M CONCRETE WALL WITH 24 H TEMPERATURE

MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

VARIATION

How to Calculate the U-Value of a Wall/Roof Assembly

Step 1: Calculate the thermal resistance of each uniform material layer that constitutes the
building component using Equation 7:

=
(7)

Where,
Ri is the thermal resistance of the material, m2.K/W
ti is the thickness of material, m
ki is the thermal conductivity of the material, W/m.K

Step 2: Find the total thermal resistance, RT, using Equation 8:

RT=Rsi+Rse+R1+R2+R3+ …….Rn (8)

Where,
RT is the total thermal resistance, m2.K/W
Rsi is the interior surface film (convection and radiation) thermal resistance, m2.K/W
Rse is the exterior surface film (convection and radiation) thermal resistance, m2.K/W
R1 is the thermal resistance of material 1, m2.K/W
R2 is the thermal resistance of material 2, m2.K/W
R3 is the thermal resistance of material 3, m2.K/W
 37

Heat Transfer in Buildings

Values of Interior and Exterior Surface Film Thermal Resistance as per Climate Zone are given
in Table 7.

TABLE 7: VALUES OF INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR SURFACE FILM THERMAL RESISTANCE AS PER
CLIMATE ZONE (FOR WALL AND ROOF)

Wall Roof
Warm-Temperate and
All Climatic Zones Cool Temperate and Cold Climate
Temperate Climate

0.13 0.17 0.10

0.04 0.04 0.04

The thermal conductivity of commonly used building materials is provided in Annex 1, which can
be utilized to calculate the thermal resistance (R-value).

Step 3: Calculate the thermal transmittance (or overall heat transfer coefficient, U-value) of a
wall or roof assembly as given by Equation 9:
1
= (9)

Where,
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.K
RT is the total thermal resistance, m2.K/W

Thermal bridging
A thermal bridge refers to an area in a building construction with significantly higher heat transfer
compared to the surrounding materials. When thermal bridging occurs in an insulated or low
U-value building envelope, it results in undesirable heat gains or losses.

Thermal bridges can manifest at various locations within a building envelope, frequently occurring
at junctions between two or more building elements, including:
■ Floor-to-wall or balcony-to-wall junctions

■ Roof/ceiling-to-wall junctions

■ Window-to-wall junctions

■ Wall-to-wall junctions

■ Concrete or steel members, such as columns and beams in an external masonry wall

■ Windows and doors, particularly frame components

External insulation offers more advantages than internal insulation in reducing thermal bridges.
Additionally, strategic placement of insulation in and around junction details proves effective in
minimizing thermal bridging. Example of thermal bridging is shown in Figure 26.
38

Outdoor

Indoor

Indoor
Outdoor
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

FIGURE 26: EXAMPLE OF THERMAL BRIDGING

Outdoor

Indoor

Indoor
Outdoor
Thermal bridging Without thermal bridging

Thermal bridging Without thermal bridging

4.3.2 Through fenestration (Non-opaque

components)
In a building, fenestration comprises both opaque and solid elements (such as wood, aluminium,
etc.) and non-opaque or transparent elements (i.e., glass). Between the two, a significant amount
of heat transfer occurs through the glass. The crucial thermal properties of fenestration include:
■ Solar Heat Gain Coefficient or SHGC (fraction of solar radiation radiated inside through
the glass).

■ Thermal conductivity and transmittance of frames and glass (ability to conduct heat).

In addition to conduction, heat transfer also occurs through infiltration, i.e., unintentional air
entering a space through the cracks and gaps in the fenestration elements. This is part of the
air exchange process. Figure 27 shows the modes of heat transfer through the Fenestration.

FIGURE 27: MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH THE FENESTRATION

Infiltration

Conduction

Infiltration

Convection

Conduction

(Source: Reproduced image from Indo-Swiss BEEP)

 39

4.3.2.1 Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC)

Heat Transfer in Buildings

When solar radiation strikes the glass component of fenestration, some of the radiation is directly
transmitted inside, while another portion is absorbed and re-emitted as long-wave radiation and
convection. Additionally, some of the radiation is reflected (refer to Figure 28). The re-emitted
radiation into the indoor space is referred to as secondary heat gain. The SHGC represents the
fraction of solar radiation admitted through a glass—either transmitted directly and/or absorbed—
and subsequently released as heat inside a home. It is calculated using the following Equation 10:

(10)

The SHGC is measured on a scale from 0 to 1, with a lower value indicating less solar heat gain.
Conversely, a higher SHGC implies that a window or glazing system allows more solar radiation
to pass through, resulting in increased heat gain inside the building.

Typically, 5mm – 6mm clear glass has an SHGC of 0.8 – 0.85. Glass with even lower SHGC values
is also available. Another effective method to reduce SHGC is by implementing external shading
for windows.

FIGURE 28: SOLAR HEAT GAIN

Incident solar
radiation

Transmitted

Re-emitted
Long wave
Radiation and
convection

(Source: Reproduced image from Indo-Swiss BEEP)

External shading devices influence the SHGC of fenestration by affecting the incident solar
radiation. The impact of the shading device on the un-shaded SHGC leads to the concept of SHGC
equivalent. The calculation of the SHGC equivalent is detailed in Annex 2.
40

Shading Coefficient (SC)

MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

The Shading Coefficient is a measure of how much heat is transferred through a glazing system.
It typically falls within the range of 0 to 1 and has no units. As the shading coefficient decreases,
less heat is transferred through the system.
SC is the ratio of solar radiation at a given wavelength and angle of incidence passing through
a glass unit to the radiation that would pass through a reference window of frameless 3 mm
Clear Float Glass.
The following Equation 11 is used to convert between SC and SHGC:

= (11)
0.86
SC = Shading Coefficient
SHGC = Solar heat gain coefficient
For example, if SHGC of a glass is given as 0.5, then SC is 0.5/0.86 = 0.58
SHGC is more commonly used as the standard property for assessing window solar gains in
the US and Asia.

4.3.2.2 U-Value
In addition to heat transfer through direct solar radiation, fenestration elements also contribute
to heat transfer through radiation, conduction, and convection.

Heat is also transferred through conduction in both the glass and the frame. The U-value of the
glass and frame represents this conductivity, with lower U-values indicating lower heat transfer.
Table 8 illustrates the U-values of various glass types. Among common frame materials, timber
and UPVC generally have lower U-values compared to aluminium frames.

TABLE 8: Ug (U VALUE OF GLASS) FOR DIFFERENT GLASS TYPES

Glass type Thickness of glass (mm) Ug (W/m2. K)

Single clear 6 5.8

Single Clear (with coating)
6 3.6 – 5.6
Saint Gobain India

DGU (air gap)

6 (Glass)-12 (Air gap)- 6 (Glass) 1.5 – 2.8
Saint Gobain India

DGU (air gap)

6 (Glass)-12 (Air gap)- 6 (Glass) 2.4 – 2.8
(assembled in Nepal)

DGU (Argon gap, low e coating)

4 Glass – 14 (Argon gap) – 4 Glass 1.3
(assembled in Europe)
 41

Visible Light Transmittance (VLT) of glass

Heat Transfer in Buildings

One of the primary functions of a window is to facilitate daylight inside a space. The property
of glass that indicates the amount of visible light entering through the glass into the space is
known as Visible Light Transmission (VLT). VLT is expressed as a number ranging from 0 to 1.
The higher the VLT, the greater is the amount of light passing through the glass, and vice versa.
Figure 29 shows Image Explaining Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC), Visual Light Transmission
(VLT), Thermal Transmittance (U-Value), and Light to Solar Gain Ratio for a Window (LSG).

FIGURE 29: IMAGE EXPLAINING SOLAR HEAT GAIN COEFFICIENT (SHGC), VISUAL LIGHT
TRANSMISSION (VLT), THERMAL TRANSMITTANCE (U-VALUE), AND LIGHT TO SOLAR GAIN RATIO
FOR A WINDOW (LSG)

1 Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC)

Measure of solar heat transmitted through the window.
Lower value – lesser is the solar heat gain.
Incident solar radiation SHGC should be lower for warm climates & higher for cold climate.

2 Visual Light Transmission (VLT)

Visible light that passes through the glazing .The higher VLT, the
Visible Light higher is daylight penetration.

3 U - value
Denotes conduction heat gain through the glazing unit
(frame + glazing). Lower U value, less heat is conducted.

4 Light to Solar Gain Ratio (LSG)

Ratio of VLT to SHGC.
Higher value is better for daylight harvesting.

OUTSIDE INSIDE

(Source: Reproduced image from www.nzeb.in)

42

SUMMARY
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

■ Heat gains or “heat sources” for a building

● External heat: Outdoor heat that is transferred through the building envelope.
● Internal heat: Generated by occupants' activity as metabolic heat, electrical devices,
or thermal emission from artificial lighting.
■ Heat transfer in a building occurs through conduction, convection, and radiation.
■ The following properties impact heat transfer for opaque building envelope components,
i.e., walls and roof:
● Solar Reflective Index (SRI)
● Thermal conductivity and thermal transmittance (U-value)
● Thermal mass
■ The following properties impact heat transfer for non-opaque building envelope
components, i.e., glazed windows, doors etc.
● Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC)
● Thermal transmittance (U-value)
5
PASSIVE
STRATEGIES FOR
COMFORT AND
ENERGY EFFICIENCY

What’s in this section?

5.1 Building orientation, massing, and spatial configuration

5.2 Building envelope
5.3 Building envelope for warm temperate zone in Nepal
5.4 Building envelope for temperate zone in Nepal
5.5 Building envelope for cool temperate zone in Nepal
5.6 Building envelope for cold zone in Nepal
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN
 43

Passive Strategies for Comfort and Energy Efficiency

Passive Strategies for
Comfort and Energy
Efficiency
Passive design strategies refer to design approaches that focus on utilizing the natural environment
to provide comfort­both thermal and visual in a building, unlike active design strategies that
rely on mechanical systems and processes. They take advantage of the climate, site conditions,
materials, and design elements to provide comfort.

One way of describing passive strategies is that they help in “load avoidance”. Passive strategies
in warm and hot climates help in cooling load avoidance. In cold places, they help in heating load
avoidance. Generally, in climates that are “cooling dominated”, passive strategies should:
■ Reduce solar radiation falling on the building envelope.

■ Reduce external heat gains through the building envelope.

■ Remove excess heat that has built-up inside through ventilation.

In “heating dominated” climates, passive strategies should:

■ Optimize solar access inside the building during the day.

■ Reduce heat loss from inside to outside through the building envelope.

■ Prevent cold draughts in the building.

In moderate climates, cooling strategies should be used in summer and heating strategies in
winter. Thermal mass is always reducing the indoor air variation between day and night.

5.1 Building orientation, massing, and spatial

configuration
In the context of this manual,
■ Orientation refers to the direction that the larger walls and glazed windows face

■ Building massing refers to the compactness of a building,

■ Spatial configuration is how buildings are arranged about each other defining built and
open spaces.
44

Building orientation determines the amount of solar radiation that the exposed surfaces receive.
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

In all four climatic zones in Nepal:

■ The roof receives the greatest intensity.

■ Any exposed wall or window facing south receives the highest intensity in winter (when
the sun is low and is positioned largely in the south) but it receives very little in summer
(as the sun is high when shining from the south).

■ East and west facing walls receive large intensities in summer and less intensities in
winter compared to south facing walls.

■ North facing walls receive the least intensity in both summer and winter.

Table 9 shows the favourable orientation for energy efficiency for the different climate zones.

TABLE 9: FAVOURABLE ORIENTATION FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY FOR THE DIFFERENT CLIMATE
ZONES

Climate zone Favourable Orientation

Warm-temperate Longer exposed walls and major windows face north and south
Temperate
Longer exposed walls face north and south. Habitable spaces and large
Cool-temperate
windows facing south
Cold
 45

Solar Radiation and Orientation

Passive Strategies for Comfort and Energy Efficiency

Figure 30 shows the incident solar radiation on the roof and walls of a cuboidal building in the
temperate climate in June.

FIGURE 30: INCIDENT SOLAR RADIATION ON ROOF AND WALLS (JUNE)

Solar Radiation Analysis

(June Month)

N
Loca tion: Ka thma ndu, Nepa l

The roof receives the maximum amount of radiation. The west and east façades receive high
amounts of solar radiation due to the low-altitude afternoon and morning sun, respectively. In
contrast, the north façade receives the least amount of radiation. Similarly, the south façade
also receives a lower amount of solar radiation due to the higher altitude of the sun in the south
during summer.

Figure 31 illustrates the incident solar radiation on the roof and walls of a cuboidal building in a
temperate climate during January.

FIGURE 31: INCIDENT SOLAR RADIATION ON ROOF AND WALLS (JANUARY)

Solar Radiation Analysis

(December Month)

N
Loca tion: Ka thma ndu, Nepa l

The highest radiation is received by the south façade and the roof, followed by the west and east
façades. The south façade receives high solar radiation, particularly due to the low altitude of the
sun in winter. In contrast, the north façade receives the least amount of radiation.
46

Building massing is a crucial factor influencing heat loss and gain, often measured by the surface
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

area to volume (S/V) ratio. A greater surface area results in more heat gain or loss. Therefore,
smaller S/V ratios imply minimal heat gain and loss. However, this may not always ensure comfort
in all climates or for all types of buildings. For instance, in warm climates where natural ventilation
is essential and heating demand is low, a small S/V may not be the optimal choice. Similarly, a
building prioritizing daylight may not be designed with a small S/V.

In the cold climate zone of Nepal, a small S/V or a compact building design proves beneficial.
However, in the remaining climate zones, where natural ventilation is essential to prevent
overheating and remove heat during the summer, a compact building may not effectively utilize
natural ventilation as a strategy.

The spatial configuration of a building plays a crucial role in determining the amount of solar
radiation it receives and its potential for utilizing natural ventilation. Broadly, building configurations
may fall into one of the following categories (refer to Figure 32):
■ Detached buildings: These are exposed on all sides.

■ Three-side exposed buildings (e.g., buildings at the end of a row).

■ Two-side exposed buildings, usually the front and back (e.g., buildings in the middle of
a row).

■ Buildings with only one side exposed.

The greater the number of exposed walls, the higher will be the potential for heat gains or losses.
Simultaneously, the ventilation potential will also be greater.

FIGURE 32: DIFFERENT BUILDING SPATIAL CONFIGURATIONS

(ii) (iii)
(i)

Detached Building (All side exposed) Three side exposed Two side exposed One Side exposed

Orientation, massing, and spatial configuration are not the only passive design aspects that
determine the heating and cooling loads of a building. These factors, along with the properties
of the building envelope, collectively influence the amount of energy the building will consume
for heating and cooling.
 47

5.2 Building envelope

Passive Strategies for Comfort and Energy Efficiency

The building envelope serves as the interface between the indoor spaces of the building and
the outdoor environment. It essentially comprises two components: the opaque component (roof,
external walls, and slab-on-grade) and the non-opaque or fenestration component (external glazed
windows, doors, ventilators, etc.).

Regardless of the spatial configuration or exposure of the building (i.e., whether it's a detached
building, two-side exposed building, etc.), the properties of the building envelope components
play a crucial role in regulating interior temperatures and influencing the energy consumption
required to maintain thermal comfort.

Sections 5.3 to 5.6 describe the impact of different building envelope properties on the heating
and cooling loads of a simple "detached" building in the four climate zones of Nepal. This building
model was simulated to assess the impact of applicable passive strategies compared to the
baseline construction3 of each respective climate zone. The simulation of the building model
included the following inputs:
■ Detached building, rectangular with longer facades facing north and south.

■ 3-4 storey building (all except cold climate). Single-storey building (cold climate).

■ Cooling set point temperature (°C): 24°C (for all climates).

■ Heating set point temperature (°C): 22°C (for all climates).

■ No internal heat gains were considered in the model. It's important to note that in real-life
scenarios, varying amounts of internal heat gains will be generated based on the use
and occupancy of the building.

The simulations were conducted with a strict expectation of comfort (cooling set point 24°C,
heating set point 22°C) based on the assumed user preferences, and consequently, the Predicted
Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) comfort model were considered.
This decision was made to optimize simulation time to present in this manual. It's important to
note that using the adaptive comfort model would yield similar recommendations for passive
strategies and a comparable trend in annual and heating load reduction. The main difference
would be in the absolute values of the loads, with the adaptive comfort model resulting in lower
absolute heat load values.

3 The baseline construction in each zone has been created by using the inputs from a baseline study done in 2023 by the BEEN project in the
respective climate zone. The construction used is for residential buildings.
48

5.3 Building envelope for warm temperate

MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

zone in Nepal
5.3.1 Climate characteristics
The warm temperate climate zone in Nepal is characterized by a monsoon-influenced humid
subtropical climate with a dry winter (Dec – Feb). There is a short dry summer period in April – May,
with the remaining year being warm and humid. This climate is considered "cooling-dominated,"
emphasizing the importance of reducing external heat gains and removing built-up heat inside
the space.

For this example, the climate file of Siddharth Nagar was used to represent this climate zone.

5.3.2 Baseline construction

The typical construction in the warm temperate climate zone consists of the constructions as
shown in Table 10:

TABLE 10: BASELINE CONSTRUCTION (WARM TEMPERATE ZONE)

10mm internal plaster + Solid fired brick wall (230mm thk) + 10

Exterior Wall Assembly mm external plaster
(U-value: 2.07 W/m2.K)
10mm internal plaster + RCC Slab (125mmthk) + 50mm Screed
Roof Assembly +Tile,
(U-value: 3.564 W/m2.K)
6mm clear glazing (SHGC: 0.82, U-value: 5.8 W/m2.K, VLT: 88%)
Window Assembly
with wooden frame
Window-to-Wall Area Ratio (WWR) 25%
Window Openability Casement windows
Shading Continuous overhang of depth 600 mm

In the warm temperate climate zone, multi-storey buildings are common. Therefore, the building
model was simulated for both an intermediate floor and a top floor to capture the varying conditions
experienced at different levels.

5.3.2.1 Heat Balance of the baseline construction

Figure 33 illustrates the heat gains and losses from the envelope for an intermediate floor during
a typical summer month (June) and winter month (January) in the warm temperate climate zone.
In this climate, the summer cooling load is more critical. Heat gains on an intermediate floor
primarily occur through solar gains from glazed windows, conduction through the walls, and
conduction through the glass.
 49

In January, there is a minimal heating requirement, which can be adequately compensated by

Passive Strategies for Comfort and Energy Efficiency

the internal gains from occupants and appliances. Additionally, a small cooling requirement is
observed, which can be effectively addressed through natural ventilation by opening the windows.

FIGURE 33: HEAT GAINS & LOSSES THROUGH BASELINE BUILDING ENVELOPE IN WARM TEMPERATE
CLIMATE (INTERMEDIATE FLOOR)

Baseline_warm temperate (Jan) Baseline_warm temperate (Jun)

Window Window
solar gains
3969 solar gains
2396

Walls -1665 Walls 1668

Glazing -1971 Glazing 685

Heating 206 Heating

Cooling -360 Cooling -4966

-6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000 -9000 -4000 1000 6000

Loads (in kWh) Loads (in kWh)

Figure 34 demonstrates that on the top floor, the roof significantly influences heat gains during
the summer and heat losses during the winter.

FIGURE 34: HEAT GAINS & LOSSES THROUGH BASELINE BUILDING ENVELOPE IN WARM TEMPERATE
CLIMATE (TOP FLOOR)

Baseline(top)_warm temperate (Jan) Baseline (top)_warm temperate (Jun)

Roof -3615 Roof 6244

Window Window
solar gains
3971 solar gains
2436

Walls -1028 Walls 1083

Glazing -1603 Glazing 259

Heating 2512 Heating 0

Cooling -76 Cooling -10340

-6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000 -15000 -10000 -5000 0 5000 10000

Loads (in kWh) Loads (in kWh)

5.3.3 Impact of passive strategies

To mitigate heat gains through the windows and walls, the following strategies were analyzed:
■ Implementing better shading for glazed windows on the south, west, and east sides to
reduce solar gains in the summer. This could involve deeper fixed shading or external
50

movable shading (EMSyS). The latter provides superior shading in the summer compared
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

to fixed shading but can be moved to allow solar gains in the winter when needed.

■ Utilizing a roof assembly with a lower U-value to decrease conduction heat gains and
losses through the roof.

■ Leveraging the full potential of natural ventilation during the cooling period by opening
windows whenever the outside temperature is cool.

■ Employing a wall assembly with a lower U-value to minimize heat gains and losses through
the walls.

■ Using glass with a lower U-value to reduce conduction heat gains and losses through
the glass.

An example of external movable shading from India is shown in Figure 35 and traditional examples
of good solar shading in Nepal is shown in Figure 36.

FIGURE 35: EXAMPLES OF EXTERNAL MOVABLE SHADING (EMSYS)

 51

Passive Strategies for Comfort and Energy Efficiency

FIGURE 36: TRADITIONAL EXAMPLES OF GOOD SOLAR SHADING IN NEPAL

The above passive building envelope strategies can be applied in different ways in the building.
Table 11 shows the passive building envelope options taken as an example for analysis in this
manual.

TABLE 11: BASELINE CONSTRUCTION AND PASSIVE BUILDING ENVELOPE STRATEGIES FOR WARM-
TEMPERATE CLIMATE

Baseline Passive Building Envelope

10mm internal plaster + Solid fired

10mm internal plaster + Hollow brick wall
Exterior Wall brick wall (230mm thk) + 10 mm
(240mm thk) + 10 mm external plaster
Assembly external plaster
(U-value: 1.6 W/m2.K)
(U-value: 2.07 W/m2.K)

10mm internal plaster + RCC Slab (125 mm

10mm internal plaster + RCC Slab
Roof thk) + 25mm XPS insulation + 50mm Screed
(125 mm thk) + 50mm Screed +Tile,
Assembly +Tile,
(U-value: 3.564 W/m2.K)
(U-value: 0.8 W/m2.K)

6mm clear glazing (SHGC: 0.82,

Window Double glazed Unit (SHGC: 0.54, U-value: 2.8
U-value: 5.8 W/m2.K, VLT: 88%) with
Assembly W/m2.K, VLT: 58%) with wooden frame
wooden frame

Window-to- 25% Overall.

25%, uniformly distributed on all
Wall Area Higher distribution on north façade, followed
directions
Ratio (WWR) by south façade.

Window Casement windows, but windows kept

Same as baseline
Openability closed

Continuous overhang of depth 600 Continuous overhang of 600mm + EMSyS on

Shading
mm south, west and east facing windows
52

Figure 37 shows a comparison of the annual cooling and heating loads of the baseline construction
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

and the passive building envelope strategies used.

FIGURE 37: ANNUAL HEATING AND COOLING LOADS FOR AN INTERMEDIATE FLOOR AND TOP
FLOOR, WITH BASELINE CONSTRUCTION AND PASSIVE STRATEGIES (WARM TEMPERATE CLIMATE)

Intermediate floor (warm-temperate) Top floor (warm-temperate)

40000 80000

35000 70000

30000 60000
Annual Load (kWh)

Annual Load (kWh)

25000 50000

20000 40000

15000 30000

10000 20000

5000 10000

0 0
Baseline Passive Building Envelope Baseline Passive Building Envelope

Heating load Cooling load Heating load Cooling load

In this cooling-dominated climate, the implementation of passive building envelope strategies has
resulted in a notable reduction of more than 50% in the cooling load for both the intermediate
and top floors. Additionally, the small annual heating load of the top floor has been reduced by
almost 60%.

5.4 Building envelope for temperate zone in

Nepal
5.4.1 Climate characteristics
The temperate climate zone in Nepal, similar to the warm temperate climate, is characterized as a
monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate. However, both summer and winter temperatures
are lower than those of the warm temperate climate zone. This climate experiences a slightly
longer winter period (mid-Nov to mid-Mar) with January and December being the more intense
cold months. There is a short dry summer period in April – May, with the remaining year being
warm and humid. The climatic conditions could be termed comfortable for most of the year, with
some cold stress in winter and heat stress in summer. Buildings in this climate will require both
cooling and heating to varying extents depending on the building design. There is also good
potential for thermal comfort with natural ventilation in this climate.

The climate file of Kathmandu was used as an example of this climate.

 53

5.4.2 Baseline construction

Passive Strategies for Comfort and Energy Efficiency

The typical construction in the temperate climate zone consists of the constructions as shown
in Table 12:

TABLE 12: BASELINE CONSTRUCTION (TEMPERATE ZONE)

10mm internal plaster + Solid fired brick wall (230mm thk) + 10

Exterior Wall Assembly mm external plaster
(U-value: 2.07 W/m2.K)
10mm internal plaster + RCC Slab (125mmthk) + 50mm Screed
Roof Assembly +Tile,
(U-value: 3.564 W/m2.K)
6mm clear glazing (SHGC: 0.82, U-value: 5.8 W/m2.K, VLT: 88%)
Window Assembly
with wooden frame
Window-to-Wall Area Ratio (WWR) 30%
Window Openability Casement windows
Shading Continuous overhang of depth 600 mm

Multi-storey buildings are also common in this climate; therefore, the building model was simulated
for both an intermediate floor and a top floor.

5.4.2.1 Heat balance of the baseline construction

Figure 38 illustrates the heat gains and losses from the envelope for an intermediate floor
in a typical summer month (June) and winter month (Jan). Meanwhile, Figure 39 presents the
same information for the top floor. Notably, heat loss in winter primarily occurs through the roof
(specifically for the top floor), conduction through the walls, and conduction through the glass.

In summer, heat gain predominantly occurs through transmission from glazed windows and
conduction through the roof (specifically for the top floor).

FIGURE 38: HEAT GAINS & LOSSES THROUGH BASELINE BUILDING ENVELOPE IN TEMPERATE
CLIMATE (INTERMEDIATE FLOOR)

Baseline_ temperate (Jan) Baseline_ temperate (Jun)

Window Window
solar gains
4626 solar gains
2535

Walls -2336 Walls -544

Glazing -3039 Glazing -774

Heating 977 Heating

Cooling -79 Cooling -1239

-6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000

Loads (in kWh) Loads (in kWh)

54

FIGURE 39: HEAT GAINS & LOSSES THROUGH BASELINE BUILDING ENVELOPE IN TEMPERATE
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

CLIMATE (TOP FLOOR)

Baseline(top)_temperate (Jan) Baseline (top)_temperate (Jun)

Roof -5711 Roof 755

Window Window
solar gains
4629 solar gains
2580

Walls -1630 Walls -517

Glazing -2501 Glazing -780

Heating 5400 Heating 17

Cooling 0 Cooling -2130

-6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000 -3000 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000 3000

Loads (in kWh) Loads (in kWh)

5.4.3 Impact of passive building envelope strategies

Taking the above considerations into account, the following strategies were analyzed:
■ Using a roof assembly with a lower U-value to reduce conduction heat gains and losses
through the roof.

■ Implementing better shading for glazed windows on the south, west, and east sides to
minimize solar gains through the windows in summer.

■ Maximizing the potential of natural ventilation during the cooling period by opening
windows when the outside temperature is cool.

■ Utilizing a wall assembly with a lower U-value to reduce heat gains and losses through
the walls.

■ Choosing glass with a lower U-value to minimize conduction heat gains and losses through
the glass.

Table 13 shows the passive building envelope options taken as an example for analysis in this
manual.
 55

TABLE 13: BASELINE CONSTRUCTION AND PASSIVE BUILDING ENVELOPE STRATEGIES FOR

Passive Strategies for Comfort and Energy Efficiency

TEMPERATE CLIMATE

Baseline Passive building envelope

10mm internal plaster + Solid fired brick 10mm internal plaster + Hollow brick wall
Exterior Wall
wall (230mm thk) + 10 mm external plaster (240mm thk) + 10 mm external plaster
Assembly
(U-value: 2.07 W/m2.K) (U-value: 1.6 W/m2.K)
10mm internal plaster + RCC Slab
10mm internal plaster + RCC Slab
Roof (125mmthk) + 25mm XPS insulation +
(125 mmthk) + 50mm Screed +Tile,
Assembly 50mm Screed +Tile,
(U-value: 3.564 W/m2.K)
(U-value: 0.8 W/m2.K)
Window 6mm clear glazing (SHGC: 0.82, U-value: Double glazed Unit (SHGC: 0.54, U-value:
Assembly 5.8 W/m2.K, VLT: 88%) with wooden frame 2.8 W/m2.K, VLT: 58%) with wooden frame
Window-to-
30%, uniformly distributed on all 30% Overall.
Wall Area
directions. Higher distribution on south façade.
Ratio (WWR)
Casement windows, and windows
Window Casement windows, but windows kept
are kept open when there is natural
Openability closed
ventilation potential
Continuous overhang of 600mm + EMSyS
Shading Continuous overhang of depth 600 mm
on south, west and east facing windows

Figure 40 provides a comparison of the annual cooling and heating loads between the baseline
construction and the passive building envelope strategy options employed.

FIGURE 40: ANNUAL HEATING AND COOLING LOADS FOR AN INTERMEDIATE FLOOR AND TOP
FLOOR, WITH BASELINE CONSTRUCTION AND PASSIVE STRATEGIES (TEMPERATE CLIMATE)

Intermediate floor (temperate) Top floor (temperate)

10000 20000
9000 18000
8000 16000
Annual Load (kWh)

Annual Load (kWh)

7000 14000
6000 12000
5000 10000
4000 8000
3000 6000
2000 4000
1000 2000
0 0
Baseline Passive Building Baseline Passive Building
Envelope Envelope
Heating load Cooling load Heating load Cooling load

The cooling load can dominate in this climate if natural ventilation is not utilized during the
summer months. However, with the passive envelope features outlined in Table 14, there is an 80%
decrease in the cooling load for both the intermediate and top floors. This significant reduction can
be attributed to the effective implementation of shading, natural ventilation, and roof insulation.
56

The annual heating load reduction is almost 15% on the intermediate floor and 60% on the top
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

floor. The impact of roof insulation in decreasing winter heat losses from the top floor is particularly
noteworthy. To further minimize the heating load on the intermediate floor, one or more of the
following strategies can be considered:
■ Using a double-glazed unit (DGU) with a low U-value but a high Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
(SHGC). The DGU mentioned in this manual has a U-value of 2.8 W/m²·K and SHGC of
0.54. While this glass is effective in reducing conductive heat transfer, it also diminishes
desirable solar radiation gains in winter. Hence, a glass with a low U-value and high SHGC
may offer better performance. However, it's essential to ensure adequate shading for all
windows during the summer months.

■ Reducing the wall U-value while doing this, it is crucial to providing good natural
ventilation; otherwise, it might be counterproductive in the summer.

5.5 Building envelope for cool temperate zone

in Nepal
5.5.1 Climate characteristics
The cool temperate climate zone in Nepal experiences a longer winter period, extending from
November to March. However, the climatic conditions during the remaining months are generally
comfortable. Buildings in this climate may require cooling in these months if heat gains during
the summer are unchecked and natural ventilation is not utilized.

For this climate, the climate file of Gosaikunda rural municipality headquarters was created and
used as an example.

5.5.2 Baseline construction

The typical construction in the cool temperate climate zone consists of the constructions as
shown in Table 14:

TABLE 14: BASELINE CONSTRUCTION (COOL TEMPERATE ZONE)

10mm internal plaster + Solid fired brick wall (230mm thk) + 10
Exterior wall Assembly mm external plaster
(U-value: 2.07 W/m2.K)
10mm internal plaster + RCC Slab (125mm thk) + 50mm Screed
Roof Assembly +Tile,
(U-value: 3.564 W/m2.K)
6mm clear glazing (SHGC: 0.82, U-value: 5.8 W/m2.K, VLT: 88%)
Window Assembly
with wooden frame
Window-to-Wall Area Ratio (WWR) 25%
Window Openability Casement windows.
Shading Continuous overhang of depth 600 mm
 57

Multi-storey buildings are common in this climate; therefore, the building model was simulated

Passive Strategies for Comfort and Energy Efficiency

for both an intermediate floor and a top floor.

5.5.2.1 Heat balance of the baseline construction

Figure 41 illustrates the heat gains and losses from the envelope for an intermediate floor in a
typical summer month (June) and winter month (Jan). Meanwhile, Figure 42 presents the same
information for the top floor. Notably, heat loss in winter primarily occurs through the roof
(specifically for the top floor), conduction through the walls, and conduction through the glass.

In summer, heat gain predominantly occurs through transmission from glazed windows and
conduction through the roof (specifically for the top floor).

FIGURE 41: HEAT GAINS & LOSSES THROUGH BASELINE BUILDING ENVELOPE IN COOL TEMPERATE
CLIMATE (INTERMEDIATE FLOOR)

Baseline_cool temperate (Jan) Baseline_cool temperate (Jun)

Window Window
solar gains
3882 solar gains
3057

Walls -3439 Walls -738

Glazing -3135 Glazing -1120

Heating 2876 Heating

Cooling 0 Cooling -1177

-6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000 -6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000

Loads (in kWh) Loads (in kWh)

FIGURE 42: HEAT GAINS & LOSSES THROUGH BASELINE BUILDING ENVELOPE IN COOL TEMPERATE
CLIMATE (TOP FLOOR)

Baseline(top)_cool temperate (Jan) Baseline (top)_cool temperate (Jun)

Roof -7427 Roof 2310

Window Window
solar gains
3882 solar gains
3057

Walls -2739 Walls -945

Glazing -2692 Glazing -1247

Heating 9199 Heating 141

Cooling 0 Cooling -3338

-10000 -5000 0 5000 10000 -10000 -5000 0 5000 10000

Loads (in kWh)
Loads (in kWh)
58

5.5.3 Impact of passive strategies

MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

The strategies mentioned in Section 5.4.3 can be applied here as well.

Table 15 presents the passive building envelope options used as examples for analysis in this
manual. Two sets of building envelope strategies were analyzed.

TABLE 15: BASELINE CONSTRUCTION AND PASSIVE BUILDING ENVELOPE STRATEGIES FOR
COOL-TEMPERATE CLIMATE

Passive building envelope: Passive building envelope:

Baseline
Option 1 Option 2
10mm internal plaster 10mm internal plaster + Solid
10mm internal plaster +
+ Solid fired brick wall fired brick wall (230 mm
Exterior Wall Hollow brick wall (240mm
(230 mm thk) + 10 mm thk) + 25 mm XPS + 10 mm
Assembly thk) + 10 mm external plaster
external plaster external plaster
(U-value: 1.6 W/m2.K)
(U-value: 2.07 W/m2.K) (U-value: 0.8 W/m2.K)
10mm internal plaster + RCC
10mm internal plaster +
Slab (125mmthk) + 25mm
Roof RCC Slab (125mmthk) +
XPS insulation + 50 mm Same as option 1
Assembly 50mm Screed +Tile,
Screed +Tile,
(U-value: 3.564 W/m2.K)
(U-value: 0.8 W/m2.K)
6mm clear glazing
Double glazed Unit (SHGC:
Window (SHGC: 0.82, U-value:
0.54, U-value: 2.8 W/m2.K, Same as option 1
Assembly 5.8 W/m2.K, VLT: 88%)
VLT: 58%) with wooden frame
with wooden frame
Window-to- 25%, uniformly 25% overall.
Wall Area distributed on all Higher distribution on south Same as option 1
Ratio (WWR) directions. façade
Casement windows, and
Window Casement windows, but windows are kept open when
Same as option 1
Openability windows kept closed there is natural ventilation
potential
Continuous overhang of
Continuous overhang of
Shading 600mm + EMSyS on south, Same as option 1
depth 600 mm
west and east facing windows

Figure 43 shows a comparison of the annual cooling and heating loads between the baseline
construction and the passive building envelope strategy options employed.

FIGURE 43: ANNUAL HEATING AND COOLING LOADS FOR AN INTERMEDIATE FLOOR AND TOP
FLOOR, WITH BASELINE CONSTRUCTION AND PASSIVE STRATEGIES (COOL TEMPERATE CLIMATE)

Intermediate floor (cool temperate) Top floor (cool temperate)

10000

8000 40000
Annual Load (kWh)
Annual Load (kWh)

6000 30000

4000 20000

2000 10000

0 0
Baseline Passive Building Envelope: Passive Building Envelope:
Baseline Passive Building Passive Building
Option 1 Option 2
Envelope: Option 1 Envelope: Option 2
Heating load Cooling load Heating load Cooling load
 59

Cooling loads can be nearly negated for both the intermediate and top floors, primarily attributed

Passive Strategies for Comfort and Energy Efficiency

to the effectiveness of natural ventilation, shading, and roof insulation.

Regarding the heating load, Passive Building Envelope Option 1 results in a nearly 20% reduction
on the intermediate floor and a 50% reduction on the top floor. With Option 2, the heating load
can be reduced by more than 70%. It's crucial to ensure the full potential of natural ventilation
is utilized in the summer months to prevent the building from overheating.

5.6 Building envelope for cold zone in Nepal

5.6.1 Climate characteristics
The cold climate zone in Nepal is characterized as a "heating-dominated" climate, experiencing
winter from October to April. The remaining months are generally cool and comfortable, with
slightly warm daytime temperatures from June to August due to intense solar radiation. The primary
focus in this climate should be on reducing heat losses and optimizing solar gains during winter.

For this climate, the climate file of Jomsom was created and used as an example.

5.6.2 Baseline construction

The typical construction in the cold climate zone consists of the constructions as given in Table 16:

TABLE 16: BASELINE CONSTRUCTION (COLD ZONE)

10mm internal plaster + Stone masonry(400mm thk)

Exterior wall assembly
(U-value: 3.3 W/m2.K)
Mud over wooden planks (Figure 44)
Roof assembly
(U-value: 1.6 W/m2.K)
6mm clear glazing (SHGC: 0.82, U-value: 5.8 W/m2.K, VLT: 88%)
Window assembly
with wooden frame
Window-to-wall area ratio (WWR) 15%
Window openability Casement windows.
Shading Continuous overhang of depth 300mm

The baseline roof assembly in cold climates is shown in Figure 44.

FIGURE 44: BASELINE ROOF ASSEMBLY IN COLD CLIMATE

Single-storey buildings are common in this climate; therefore, the building model was simulated
as a single floor.
60

5.6.2.1 Heat balance of the baseline construction

MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

Figure 45 illustrates the heat gains and losses from the envelope in a typical winter month (Jan)
and summer month (Jun). The cooling load in June is negligible and can be effectively managed
with natural ventilation by opening the windows.

In this climate, the heating load is critical. Heat losses primarily occur through the roof and
conduction through the walls. Conduction heat loss through the glass is less significant as the
Window-to-Wall Ratio (WWR) in this climate is low (around 15%).

FIGURE 45: HEAT GAINS & LOSSES THROUGH BASELINE BUILDING ENVELOPE IN COLD CLIMATE

Baseline_cold (Jan) Baseline_cold (Jun)

Roof -8222 Roof 617

Window Window
solar gains
2437 solar gains
1903

Walls -8678 Walls -2619

Glazing -2444 Glazing -911

Heating 16721 Heating 1805

Cooling 0 Cooling -41

-20000 -10000 0 10000 20000 -20000 -10000 0 10000 20000

Loads (in kWh) Loads (in kWh)

5.6.3 Impact of passive strategies

To mitigate heat losses, the following strategies were analyzed:
■ Implementing a roof assembly with a lower U-value to reduce conduction heat loss through
the roof.

■ Choosing glass with a lower U-value to minimize conduction heat loss through the glass.

■ Employing a wall assembly with a lower U-value to reduce heat loss in winter.
 61

Table 17 shows the passive building envelope options taken as an example for analysis in this

Passive Strategies for Comfort and Energy Efficiency

manual. Two sets of building envelope strategies were analysed.

TABLE 17: BASELINE CONSTRUCTION AND PASSIVE BUILDING ENVELOPE STRATEGIES FOR COLD
CLIMATE

Passive building envelope: Passive building envelope:

Baseline
Option 1 Option 2
10mm internal plaster + 10mm internal plaster +
10mm internal plaster +
Hollow brick wall (240 mm Stone masonry(400mm thk) +
Exterior Wall Stone masonry(400 mm
thk) + 10 mm external 40mm XPS + 10mm external
Assembly thk)
plaster plaster
(U-value: 3.3 W/m2.K)
(U-value: 1.6 W/m2.K) (U-value: 0.6 W/m2.K)
10mm internal plaster + RCC
Mud over wooden planks Slab (125mmthk) + 25mm
Roof
(Figure 44) XPS insulation + 50 mm Same as option 1
Assembly
(U-value: 1.6 W/m2.K) Screed +Tile,
(U-value: 0.8 W/m2.K)
6mm clear glazing Double glazed Unit (SHGC:
Triple glazed unit (SHGC:
Window (SHGC: 0.82, U-value: 5.8 0.54, U-value: 2.8 W/m2.K,
0.6, U-value: 0.6 W/m2.K, VLT:
Assembly W/m2.K, VLT: 88%) with VLT: 58%) with wooden
69%)
wooden frame frame
Window-to- 15%, uniformly 15% Overall.
Wall Area distributed on all Higher distribution on south Same as option 1
Ratio (WWR) directions façade.
Window Casement windows.
Same as baseline Same as baseline
Openability Windows are kept closed
Continuous overhang of
Shading Same as baseline Same as baseline
depth 300mm

Unlike in the other climate zones, the roof taken in the baseline construction here is not a simple
125 mm RCC slab (U-value 3.5 W/m2.K), but a more traditional roof made of mud and wood (U-value
1.6 W/m2.K). To reduce heat losses further, the roof value must be lower than this. An RCC slab with
25mm XPS insulation has a U-value of 0.8 W/m2.K. In no circumstance should an un-insulated RCC
roof be used in the cold climate.

Figure 46 shows a comparison of the annual cooling and heating loads of the baseline construction
in the two options of passive building envelope strategies.

FIGURE 46: ANNUAL HEATING AND COOLING LOADS WITH BASELINE CONSTRUCTION AND PASSIVE
STRATEGIES (COLD CLIMATE)
Being a heating-dominated climate
Cold
120000 with negligible cooling load, Option
100000 1 results in a 40% decrease in the
Annual Load (kWh)

80000
annual heating load. Option 2, with
60000
a more insulated wall and a more
40000
stringent glass specification, can
20000
achieve a reduction of nearly 70%
0
Baseline Passive Building Envelope: Passive Building Envelope: in the annual heating load.
Option 1 Option 2
62

SUMMARY
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

■ Passive design strategies involve design approaches that leverage the natural environment
to achieve comfort.
■ Depending on the climate and desired thermal comfort, passive strategies aim to:
● Reduce or optimize solar radiation falling on the building envelope.
● Minimize heat gains or losses through the building envelope.
● Enable cooling through natural ventilation and reduce infiltration losses through
the building envelope.
■ The orientation, massing, spatial configuration of a building, along with the properties of
the building envelope, are the key passive design aspects that influence the building's
energy consumption for heating and cooling.
6
NATURAL
VENTILATION

What’s in this section?

6.1 Ventilation and natural ventilation

6.2 Guidelines to utilise maximum natural ventilation potential
through windows
6.3 Fan-assisted ventilation
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN
 63

Natural Ventilation
Natural Ventilation
Natural ventilation holds significant potential in reducing cooling loads in the warm temperate,
temperate, and cool temperate climates in Nepal. This chapter covers the principles of improving
ventilation. It's crucial to note that minimizing heat gains through other passive strategies. Natural
ventilation can be used to have the most significant impact.

6.1 Ventilation and natural ventilation

Ventilation is the intentional introduction of outdoor air into a space, primarily employed in buildings
to maintain indoor air quality. In hot climates, it can additionally enhance thermal comfort by
extracting heat from the interior. Typically, around 10 ACH (Air Changes per Hour) is required
for this purpose.
Ventilation contributes to improved thermal comfort through:

■ Cooling indoor air by either replacing it with outdoor air or diluting it if outdoor
temperatures are lower than indoor temperatures.

■ Cooling the building structure or the thermal mass of the building.

■ Providing a direct cooling effect on the human body through convection and evaporation.

Air Changes per Hour (ACH)

Air Changes per Hour (ACH) is a metric representing the number of times that the total air volume
in a room or space is completely replaced within an hour. The higher the ACH, the greater is the
ventilation as given by the Equation 12.

3.6

= (12)

Where,
Q = Volumetric flow rate of air in litres per second (L/s)
Vol = Space volume = L × W × H, in cubic metre
64

Natural ventilation, devoid of mechanical systems, can be categorized into wind-driven or buoyancy-
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

driven modes.

■ Wind-driven ventilation relies on wind pressure to propel air movement. Wind striking
the windward facade generates positive pressure, creating a pressure difference that
induces air movement. Similarly, as wind flows away from the leeward facade, a region
of lower pressure is formed, further driving air movement.

■ Stack or buoyancy-driven ventilation involves the natural movement of air through a

building due to differences in vertical pressure caused by temperature variations in the
air. Warm air escapes from openings at a considerable height on the building envelope,
drawing in colder, denser outside air through lower openings in the building.

Figure 47 shows the Wind-Driven and Buoyancy-Driven Natural Ventilation.

FIGURE 47: WIND-DRIVEN (LEFT) AND BUOYANCY-DRIVEN (RIGHT) NATURAL VENTILATION

(Source: Reproduced image from Indo-Swiss BEEP)

For most buildings, enhancing wind-driven natural ventilation or employing a fan to accelerate
air movement is often more feasible. The stack effect becomes significant only when there is a
considerable vertical distance between higher outlet openings and lower inlet openings, coupled
with a substantial temperature difference.

6.2 Guidelines to utilise maximum natural

ventilation potential through windows
6.2.1 Orientation
Orienting a building for a favourable wind direction is not as straightforward as aligning it according
to the constant sun path of the location. Wind direction is unpredictable, and even for a given
site, it keeps changing in terms of both direction and speed.

The requirements to manage solar gains and utilize wind flows may sometimes lead to conflicting
results. Analyzing such conflicts is crucial for each case to find the optimum solution. Regardless
of the orientation of the building and windows, it's essential to ensure that critical facades and
windows are well-shaded to prevent solar radiation from directly impacting them.
 65

6.2.2 Design for openability and better air

Natural Ventilation
distribution inside
■ Casement windows provide more openable area than a sliding window of the same size
as shown in Figure 48.

FIGURE 48: SLIDING WINDOW (LEFT) AND CASEMENT WINDOW (RIGHT)

■ The position of overhangs, louvers, etc. can be used to direct the air inside at the required
level and area as shown in Figure 49.

FIGURE 49: USE OF LOUVERS, OVERHANGS ETC. TO DIRECT AIR INSIDE

Sashes Louvres Canopies

(Source: Reproduced image from www.nzeb.in)
66

6.2.3 Improving cross ventilation

MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

The following is the preferred method for ensuring effective natural ventilation:
■ Windows should be positioned on two walls in a manner that allows incoming air to travel
through a larger area of the room and at the level of the occupants (refer to Figure 50
and Figure 51).

■ The inlet and outlet openings should be either of the same size, or the outlet opening
should be larger than the inlet opening.

FIGURE 50: ARRANGEMENTS FOR CROSS-VENTILATION (PLAN)

Don’t

Do

(Source: Reproduced image from www.nzeb.in)

FIGURE 51: ARRANGEMENTS FOR CROSS-VENTILATION (SECTION)

(Source: Reproduced image from www.nzeb.in)

 67

6.2.4 Improving single-sided ventilation

Natural Ventilation
Single-sided ventilation occurs when only a single façade of the building is exposed to wind, and
openable windows are located solely on that particular wall. In such cases, it is recommended
to provide at least two windows on the façade. Two examples of how this can be achieved are
illustrated in Figure 52 and Figure 53.

FIGURE 52: SINGLE-SIDED VENTILATION (PLAN, SECTION AND ELEVATION) - 1

INSIDE OUTSIDE
INSIDE

OUTSIDE

SECTION THROUGH OPENINGS OUTSIDE ELEVATION

ROOM PLAN ON EXTERNAL WALL

(Source: Reproduced image from Eco-Niwas Samhita Part 1, Bureau of Energy Efficiency, Government of India)

FIGURE 53: SINGLE-SIDED VENTILATION (PLAN, SECTION AND ELEVATION) - 2

INSIDE OUTSIDE

INSIDE

OUTSIDE

SECTION THROUGH OPENINGS

TYPICAL ROOM PLAN ON EXTERNAL WALL OUTSIDE ELEVATION OUTSIDE ELEVATION

(Source: Reproduced image from Eco-Niwas Samhita Part 1, Bureau of Energy Efficiency, Government of India)
68

6.2.5 Shallow depth of floor plan

MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

A shallow floor plan facilitates better cooling through natural ventilation. In a cross-ventilated
space with appropriately sized and located windows (openable windows on opposite walls or
adjacent walls), a depth of up to 5 times the room height can be effectively considered for cooling.
For a single-side ventilated space, a depth of up to 2.5 times the room height can be considered.
Figure 54 shows the depth of the floor plan for good cross ventilation.

FIGURE 54: DEPTH OF FLOOR PLAN FOR GOOD CROSS VENTILATION

(Source: Reproduced image from Indo-Swiss BEEP)

6.3 Fan-assisted ventilation

In situations where ambient wind velocity or wind FIGURE 55: FAN-ASSISTED
VENTILATION
direction is insufficient for cooling, fan-assisted
ventilation becomes a viable option. Fans can be
employed to generate a pressure difference, enabling
controlled air movement. This ensures the desired air
circulation, as fan requirements can be calculated and
controlled.

In Figure 55, an example in the context of an apartment

building is illustrated. The system operates as follows:

■ A roof-top fan, situated above the common

utility shaft between flats, creates a negative
pressure.

■ Flats open into the shaft through openings

in the bathrooms. All other openings into the
shaft are closed to establish a closed system,
allowing air flow only as required.

■ The negative pressure generated by the fan

draws ambient air through the flats. (Source: Reproduced image from Indo-Swiss BEEP)
 69

This strategy involves exchanging all the air in the building many times every hour, particularly

Natural Ventilation
when sufficiently cool outside air is available for cooling. It becomes particularly useful when
external temperatures are lower than internal temperatures and the ambient wind speed is not
sufficient for natural ventilation.

It is important to note that, as fans use electricity, they come with operational expenses. To
achieve an effective ventilation cooling effect, the Air Changes per Hour (ACH) should be 10 or
higher, indicating a high level of ventilation. Whenever possible, pure natural ventilation should
be prioritized.

Opening windows at night for natural ventilation when the building is unoccupied may not always
be possible due to security concerns. In such cases, louvred shutters, security grills, fly-mesh
screens, and blinds inclined towards the outside and overlapped to prevent water infiltration,
even during heavy rains, can be valuable. When manufactured with sufficient strength, these
elements also provide adequate security.

Use of Personal Fans (Ceiling Fans, Table Fans, etc.)

The use of personal fans does not contribute to increased ventilation rates through a space.
Nevertheless, they prove to be an effective means of enhancing convective heat transfer around
the human body, creating a sensation of cooler temperatures. Fans can provide a perceived
temperature that is 2°C–4°C lower, offering a low-energy cooling option before resorting to
air-conditioning.
 70

SUMMARY
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

■ Natural ventilation holds significant potential in reducing cooling loads, particularly in

warm temperate, temperate, and cool temperate climates in Nepal.
■ Ventilation involves intentionally introducing outdoor air into a space. Natural ventilation,
which doesn't rely on mechanical systems, can be wind-driven or buoyancy-driven.
■ To improve natural ventilation through windows, consider the following guidelines:
● Orient windows for favourable wind direction, and ensure shading for all windows.
● Casement windows generally allow better ventilation compared to sliding windows.
● Strategically locate windows to enhance cross-ventilation and single-sided
ventilation.
● Consider a shallow depth for the building floor plate.
■ In cases where ambient wind velocity or direction is insufficient for cooling, fan-assisted
ventilation can be employed.
■ Louvered shutters, security grills, and fly-mesh screens are options that enable night
ventilation while ensuring security.
7
VISUAL COMFORT &
DAYLIGHTING

What’s in this section?

7.1 Lighting terminology

7.2 Daylighting strategies
7.3 Daylight performance metrics
7.4 Evaluating daylight design: Simplified manual method
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN
 71

Visual Comfort & Daylighting

Visual Comfort &
Daylighting
Lighting stands as the next largest consumer of energy in buildings. Passive design for lighting
revolves around maximizing the use of daylight when available. Beyond contributing to energy
efficiency, daylight plays a crucial role in human health and performance. This chapter explores
both the qualitative and quantitative assessment of daylighting, presenting various strategies
and rules that can be implemented to enhance daylight in a building.

7.1 Lighting terminology

7.1.1 Quantitative terminology
7.1.1.1 Luminous flux
Luminous flux is defined as the amount of light flowing through space, measured in lumens (lm).
The quantity of lumens is contingent on the specifics of the lighting fixture, where a higher lumen
value corresponds to more light. However, lumens are also associated with energy consumption,
indicated by a term known as efficacy as given by Equation 13.

light output (lumens)

(13)
=
energy input (watt)

Table 18 displays the luminous efficacy of typical lighting fixtures, presenting the lumen output
considering typical efficiency. Notably, daylight exhibits the highest luminous efficacy.

TABLE 18: LIGHT FIXTURES AND THEIR LUMINOUS EFFICACY

Light Fixture/Light Source Luminous Efficacy with Typical Efficiency

Incandescent Bulb 10 - 15 lm / W
Halogen Light 15 - 20 lm / W
CFL 50 - 70 lm / W
LED 80 - 150 lm / W
Daylight through Window Glass 75 - 130 lm / W
Source 1: https://lamphq.com/led-energy-efficiency/
Source 2: https://spectrum.ieee.org/our-best-lamps-still-cant-equal-the-luminosity-of-the-sun
 72

7.1.1.2 Irradiance or Illuminance

MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

Light falling on a surface is termed illuminance, measured in lumens per square meter (lux) in
the SI system, and lumens per square foot (foot-candles) in IP units. Illuminance is not solely a
property of the light source; it depends on factors such as lumens emitted, distance from the
surface, and often the lightness or darkness of surrounding surfaces. A lux meter is commonly
used to measure illuminance.

Recommended illuminance levels for various spaces are specified by different standards. Some
of these standards include:
■ Illuminating Engineering Society (IES Standard)

■ European standards - EN 17037, EN 12464-1, and EN 15193

■ Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE)

7.1.1.3 Luminance/Radiance
Light reflected from a surface is termed luminance, with its SI unit expressed as candela per square
meter and in IP units as foot-lambert per square foot. It's important to note that luminance and
brightness, while closely related, are distinct concepts. Luminance is a quantitative measurement
of light reflected from a surface, whereas brightness is a qualitative aspect representing human
perception.

7.1.1.4 Reflectance
This metric, known as reflectance and measured in percentage (%), expresses a surface's ability
to reflect light. The higher the reflectance value, the more light the surface will reflect, and vice
versa. Lighter surfaces generally have higher reflectance than darker ones.

In interior spaces, using materials with high reflectance values on the interior surfaces is advisable.
This practice enhances daylight within the space through internal reflection.

7.1.2 Qualitative terminology

7.1.2.1 Brightness
Brightness is the subjective visual sensation linked to the intensity of light produced or reflected
from a surface or a point source. Humans perceive the brightness of a subject relative to its
surroundings. For instance, a car with its headlamp on during the day doesn't significantly affect
driving. However, during the night when the surroundings are dark, the car's headlamp becomes
a source of brightness, making it challenging to drive.

7.1.2.2 Contrast
Contrast is the distinction between the brightness of an object and its immediate background.
Objects with higher contrast are easier to see than those with lower contrast.
 73

7.1.2.3 Glare

Visual Comfort & Daylighting

Glare is commonly defined as discomfort to the eye caused by bright light or extreme contrasts.
Glare may be direct, i.e., caused by the light source, or indirect, i.e. caused by light reflected off
of surfaces.

7.2 Daylighting strategies

When designing for daylight, achieving the right balance between heat ingress and daylight is
crucial, particularly in climates requiring cooling during the summer. Designers can make critical
decisions in the early stages of building design to strike a balance between effective daylighting
and controlling heat ingress. Further sections will discuss important aspects and thumb rules
for early-stage design.

7.2.1 Orientation and planning the spaces for

optimum daylight and heat Ingress
In the warm temperate, temperate, and cool-temperate climates of Nepal, the optimal placement
for glazed openings for daylight is on the north and south facades. The north facade, receiving the
least direct radiation, requires minimal shading and glazed openings provide glare-free daylight
without excessive heat. On the other hand, the south facade, while receiving significant solar
radiation, can be shaded in the summer easily.

In the cold climate of Nepal, placing glazed windows on the south facade is ideal for maximizing
daylight and allowing in the sun's heat for thermal comfort. Some shading should be implemented
to prevent overheating in the summer months. Conversely, the north facade, although providing
daylight, is less suitable for large glass areas due to minimal heat ingress and heat loss on this side.

7.2.2 Planform depth: The 15/30 rule

Typically, in buildings, a 15 ft (4.5 m) perimeter zone can be fully daylit, with an additional 15 ft
(4.5 m) beyond that partially daylit by windows. Beyond 30 ft (9 m), insufficient or no daylight is
expected, necessitating the use of electric lighting. This rule serves as a practical guideline for
determining the form and zoning of internal spaces in cases where window height is unknown.
 74

Figure 56 shows the daylight availability about the distance from the envelope or fenestration.
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

FIGURE 56: DAYLIGHT AVAILABILITY IN RELATION TO DISTANCE FROM ENVELOPE OR

FENESTRATION (PLAN AND SECTION)

0 – 4.5m
Daylight
zone

4.5m – 9.0m
Partial
Daylight zone

Insufficient
Daylight zone
0 – 4.5m 4.5m – 9.0m > 9.0m

DAYLIGHT ZONE PARTIALLY NEGLIGIBLE

Sufficient daylight for DAYLIGHT ZONE DAYLIGHT ZONE
FLOOR PLAN office tasks. Supplemented with Electric lighting only.
electric lighting.

Note: Use this rule to determine the form/zoning of the

internal spaces (if the window height is not known)
(Source: Reproduced image from Environmental Design Solution, India)

The square plan in Figure 57 illustrates that 16 percent of the area receives no daylight, and an
additional 33 percent can only be partially daylit. If this square plan is replaced with a rectangular
plan of the same area, it can eliminate the core area without daylight entirely. However, there will
still be a substantial area that receives only partial daylight.

FIGURE 57: DAYLIGHT AVAILABILITY IN A SQUARE VS. A RECTANGLE

15’

51% Daylight 75% Daylight zone

33% Partial Daylight zone 25% Partial Daylight zone
16% No Daylight zone 0% No Daylight zone

FLOOR PLAN FLOOR PLAN

(Source: Reproduced image from Environmental Design Solutions, India)

A narrow building design enables daylight to reach the maximum depth of the structure. If windows
are placed on only one side, the optimal building width falls within the range of 7.5m to 10.5m.
Alternatively, when windows are provided on both sides, the recommended building width extends
to the range of 15m to 21m.
 75

7.2.3 Vertical position of glazed openings on the

Visual Comfort & Daylighting

wall: The 2H rule
The 2H rule estimates the depth of daylight penetration when the window head height or lintel
height is known. According to this rule, the daylight penetration is approximately 2 to 2.5 times
the height of the head (H). Refer to Figure 58 for a visual representation. Therefore, the higher the
head height, the greater will be the amount of light that can reach deeper areas within the spaces.

FIGURE 58: 2H RULE – THE HIGHER THE HEAD HEIGHT, THE DEEPER THE LIGHT PENETRATES INTO
SPACE

2h

(Source: Reproduced image from Environmental Design Solutions, India)

7.2.4 Area of glazed openings on walls: The 20%

area rule
In designing for daylight, a general guideline is to allocate window area equivalent to about 20%
of the total floor area of the space. However, it's crucial to consider this rule in conjunction with
the specific daylight requirements of the space, balancing it against potential solar heat gains
through the windows. Additionally, this rule should be complemented by appropriate orientation
and space configuration for optimal daylight, along with adherence to the 15/30 rule.

7.2.5 Area of Skylights: Skylight-to-Roof Ratio

(SRR)
The recommended ratio of the total skylight area to the roof area falls within the range of 3% to
5%. As an example, if the roof area is 100 m2, the maximum skylight area should be 5 m2.

7.2.6 Reflecting light further inside: Light coloured

interiors and light shelves
The use of light-coloured interior surfaces, especially on the ceiling, enhances daylight coverage
in space and reduces luminance contrast.

The term "light shelves" typically refers to horizontal surfaces installed partway up a glazed
opening. These shelves can be mounted inside a building, outside, or both. Light shelves serve to
divide windows, separating the viewable portion from the section that allows additional natural
 76

light. They bounce this light upward, reflecting it off the ceiling to enable deeper penetration of
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

daylight into the floor plate. The working principle of light shelves Figure 59.

FIGURE 59: WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LIGHT SHELVES

(Source: Reproduced image from www.nzeb.in)

7.3 Daylight performance metrics

These metrics are employed to assess the daylight potential within a designed space, necessitating
the utilization of daylight simulation tools.

7.3.1 Daylight Factor (DF)

The Daylight Factor (DF) is defined as the ratio of interior illuminance to outdoor illuminance, at
the same time, under overcast skies. This metric is calculated and expressed as a percentage
as given by Equation 14.
Interior Illuminance

× 100% (14)
Outer Illuminance

Various standards, including those set by the Illuminating Engineering Society (IES), EN 17037, EN
12464-1, EN 15193, and the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE), provide
daylight factor values for different types of buildings and spaces. However, it is important to note
that the daylight factor doesn't account for the impact of factors such as orientation, building
location, time of day, and local sky conditions. It is calculated under overcast sky conditions,
which represent the worst-case scenario and may lead to oversized window designs. Due to these
limitations, other daylight performance metrics have been developed.

7.3.2 Daylight Autonomy (DA) and Continuous

Daylight Autonomy (CDA)
Daylight Autonomy is expressed as a percentage of annual daytime hours during which a specific
point in space is illuminated above a designated illumination level as given by Equation 15.
Daytime hours above the illumination level

CDA = × 100 (15)
Total Annual Da time Hours
y
 77

Specified illumination levels, or lux levels, for different spaces, are defined by various standards

Visual Comfort & Daylighting

such as IESNA and CIBSE.

The daylight autonomy metric, however, doesn't account for lux values just below the specified lux
level. To address this limitation, "continuous daylight autonomy (CDA)" was introduced. Continuous
daylight autonomy is a modification of daylight autonomy that linearly assigns partial credits to
values below the user-defined threshold as given by Equation 16.

CDA =
Total Annual Daytime Hours
× 100 (16)

However, continuous daylight autonomy doesn't account for the upper threshold of lux levels,
which is crucial as higher lux levels can lead to discomfort due to glare. To address this, "Useful
Daylight Illuminance" was introduced. This metric considers both the lower and upper thresholds
of the useful lux levels.

7.3.3 Useful Daylight Illuminance (UDI)

Useful Daylight Illuminance (UDI) represents the percentage of annual daytime hours during
which a specific point on a work plane receives daylight between the lower threshold of lux level
(usually 100 lux) and the upper threshold of lux level (usually 2000 lux). Currently, UDI is the most
widely accepted daylight performance metric.

In various standards, the minimum percentage of annual daylit hours for a point with UDI is
specified. For instance, if UDI should account for 90% of annual daylight hours, then Useful
Daylight Illuminance (i.e., ≥ 100 lux and ≤ 2000 lux) for a point receiving daylight for ≥90% of the
annual daylight hours will be considered and represented as UDI(100-2000,90%).

7.3.4 Useful daylight spatial daylight autonomy and

annual sun exposure
Spatial Daylight Autonomy is defined as the percentage of floor area that receives at least 300
lux for at least 50% of the annual occupied hours. Achieving Spatial Daylight Autonomy with
at least 50% of the floor area is considered acceptable, and if ≥ 75% of the floor area achieves
this, it is preferred.

Annual Solar Exposure (ASE) measures the percentage of floor area that receives at least 1000
lux for at least 250 occupied hours per year. A minimum of 10% of the floor area should meet
the requisite ASE.

7.4 Evaluating daylight design: Simplified

manual method
The simplified method provides a straightforward approach to assessing the floor area likely to
be daylit, as outlined in the Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) 2017, India. Compliance
 78

with this code requires a minimum daylit area of 40%. This method utilizes the Daylight Extension
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

Factor (DEF), which is provided in Table 19, and is most effectively applied using an AutoCAD plan.

TABLE 19: VALUE OF DAYLIGHT EXTENSION FACTOR (DEF) FOR DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS

VLT of glass<0.3 VLT of glass ≥ 0.3

Shading Latitude Window Type
North South East West North South East West
No
shading All window
≥15°N 2.5 2.0 0.7 0.5 2.8 2.2 1.1 0.7
or types
PF < 0.4

Shading All window

All
with types (Without 2.8 2.3 1.5 1.1 3.0 2.5 1.8 1.5
Latitudes
PF≥0.4 light shelf)

The Daylit Area is calculated as follows:

■ In a direction perpendicular to the fenestration (refer to Figure 60):

• Multiply the Daylight Extension Factor (DEF) by the head height of the fenestration
or until the opaque partition surpasses the head height of the fenestration. Choose
the lesser of the two.

■ In the direction parallel to the fenestration (refer to Figure 61), the daylit area extends to:

• A horizontal dimension equal to the width of the fenestration plus either 1 meter on
each side of the aperture,

OR
• The distance to an opaque partition of 2 m high,

OR
• One-half the distance to an adjacent fenestration.

Choose the least of the above three.

■ For skylights, the daylit area is determined as shown in Figure 62.

■ For overlapping daylit areas, such as windows on different orientations or in the case of
skylights, subtract the overlapping daylit area from the sum of daylit areas.
 79

Visual Comfort & Daylighting

FIGURE 60: HEAD HEIGHT (SECTION) FIGURE 61: DAYLIT AREA FOR WINDOWS

Head height of the vertical fenestration

x DEF

1m
Head Height

1m, or to nearest
opaque partition

FIGURE 62: ILLUSTRATION OF DAYLIT AREA FOR SKYLIGHT

Sawtooth

H Daylit Area

H 2H

Skylight

Plan
H
Daylit Area
H H H

H
Skylight

Monitor
Daylight Area

H Daylit Area
Ceiling height
opaque partition 1.5H 1.5H

(Source: Figures 60, 61, 62 reproduced image from Energy Conservation Building Code 2017, Bureau of Energy Efficiency, Government of India)
80

SUMMARY
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

■ The quantity of light is defined by terms such as luminous flux, illuminance, luminance,
and reflectance. The quality of light is characterized by brightness, contrast, and glare.
■ Daylighting strategies encompass various considerations:
● Window orientation for optimal daylight.
● Shallow planform depth to enhance light penetration.
● High placement of windows on walls.
● Optimization of window area for daylight while balancing solar heat gains.
● Utilization of reflective finishes inside and incorporation of light shelves.
ANNEX
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN
 81

Annex 1

Annex 1
TABLE 20: THERMAL PROPERTIES OF BUILDING AND INSULATING MATERIALS (BUREAU OF ENERGY
EFFICIENCY, ECO-NIWAS SAMHITA 2018, (ENERGY CONSERVATION BUILDING CODE FOR
RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS), PART I: BUILDING ENVELOPE, 2018 )

Thermal Specific Heat

Density
S.N. Type of Material Conductivity Capacity
(kg/m3)
(W/m.K) (kJ/kg.K)
1 Solid burnt clay brick 1920 0.81–0.98 0.80
2 Solid burnt clay brick 1760 0.71–0.85 NA
3 Solid burnt clay brick 1600 0.61–0.74 NA
4 Solid burnt clay brick 1440 0.52–0.62 NA
5 Resource efficient hollow brick 1520 0.631 0.99
6 Fly ash brick 1650 0.856 0.93
7 Solid concrete block 25/50 2427 1.396 NA
8 Solid concrete block 30/60 2349 1.411 NA
9 Aerated autoclaved concrete (AAC) block 642 0.184 0.79
10 Cement stabilized soil block (CSEB) 1700–1900 1.026 1.03
11 Cement stabilized soil block (CSEB) 1800 1.201 1.07
12 Cement stabilized soil block (CSEB) 1900 1.303 1.07
13 Dense concrete 2410 1.740 0.88
14 Reinforced concrete cement (RCC) 2288 1.580 0.88
15 Brick tile 1892 0.798 0.88
16 Lime concrete 1646 0.730 0.88
17 Mud Phuska 1622 0.519 0.88
18 Cement mortar 1648 0.719 0.92
19 Cement plaster 1762 0.721 0.84
20 Gypsum plaster 1120 0.512 0.96
21 Cellular concrete 704 0.188 1.05
22 AC sheet 1520 0.245 0.84
23 Gl sheet 7520 61.060 0.50
24 Timber 480 0.072 1.68
25 Timber 720 0.144 1.68
26 Plywood 640 0.174 1.76
27 Glass 2350 0.814 0.88
28 Tar felt (2.3 kg/m )
2
0.479 0.88
82

Thermal Specific Heat

MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

Density
S.N. Type of Material Conductivity Capacity
(kg/m3)
(W/m.K) (kJ/kg.K)
II. Insulating materials

1 Expanded polystyrene 16.0 0.038 1.34

2 Expanded polystyrene 24.0 0.035 1.34

3 Expanded polystyrene 34.0 0.035 1.34
4 Foam glass 127.0 0.056 0.75
5 Foam glass 160.0 0.055 0.75
6 Foam concrete 320.0 0.070 0.92
7 Foam concrete 400.0 0.084 0.92
8 Foam concrete 704.0 0.149 0.92
9 Cork slab 164.0 0.043 0.96
10 Cork slab 192.0 0.044 0.96
11 Cork slab 304.0 0.055 0.96
12 Rock wool (unbonded) 92.0 0.047 0.84
13 Rock wool (unbonded) 150.0 0.043 0.84
14 Mineral wool (unbonded) 73.5 0.030 0.92
15 Glass wool (unbonded) 69.0 0.043 0.92
16 Glass wool (unbonded) 189.0 0.040 0.92
17 Resin bonded mineral wool 48.0 0.042 1.00
18 Resin bonded mineral wool 64.0 0.038 1.00
19 Resin bonded mineral wool 99.0 0.036 1.00
20 Resin bonded mineral wool 16.0 0.040 1.00
21 Resin bonded mineral wool 24.0 0.036 1.00
22 Exfoliated vermiculite (loose) 264.0 0.069 0.88
23 Asbestos mill board 1397.0 0.249 0.84
24 Hard board 979.0 0.279 1.42
25 Straw board 310.0 0.057 1.30
26 Soft board 320.0 0.066 1.30
27 Soft board 249.0 0.047 1.30
28 Wall board 262.0 0.047 1.26
29 Chip board 432.0 0.067 1.26
30 Chip board (perforated) 352.0 0.066 1.26
31 Particle board 750.0 0.098 1.30
32 Coconut pith insulation board 520.0 0.060 1.09
33 Jute fibre 329.0 0.067 1.09
 83

Thermal Specific Heat

Annex 2
Density
S.N. Type of Material Conductivity Capacity
(kg/m3)
(W/m.K) (kJ/kg.K)
34 Wood wool board (bonded with cement) 398.0 0.081 1.13
35 Wood wool board (bonded with cement) 674.0 0.108 1.13
36 Coir board 97.0 0.038 1.00
37 Saw dust 188.0 0.051 1.00
38 Rice husk 120.0 0.051 1.00
39 Jute felt 291.0 0.042 0.88
Closed cell flexible elastomeric foam -
40 40–55 0.043 1.20
NBR

Annex 2
Calculation of Equivalent SHGC
Equivalent Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC) is the SHGC of an opening that incorporates a
permanent external shading projection, such as an overhang and side fins.

Step 1: Calculate projection factor (PF)

Overhang

Vright
OUTSIDE
PFright = Hright /Vright
Transparent/ Hright
Transparent/
Translucent panel
translucent panel
Hoverhang
Voverhang

INSIDE
Transparent/ PLAN SECTION
Translucent panel

Vleft
OUTSIDE
OUTSIDE PFleft = Hleft /V left
PFoverhang = Hoverhang /Voverhang
Hleft
Transparent/
Transparent/
Translucent
translucent panelpanel

SECTION INSIDE
PLAN

Step 2: Select the External Shading Factor (ESF) value for each shading element from the Table
22, Table 23, and Table 24, corresponding to the PF and the orientation.

Step 3: Calculate the total external shading factor (ESFtotal)

ESFtotal = ESFoverhang × ESFsidefin (A2-1)

where,
ESFsidefin = 1- [(1- ESFright) + (1- ESFleft)] (A2-2)

Step 4: Calculate the equivalent SHGC of the fenestration (SHGCeq)

SHGCeq = SHGCunshaded × ESFtotal (A2-3)
84

TABLE 21: EXTERNAL SHADING FACTOR FOR OVERHANG (ESFoverhang) FOR LAT ≥ 23.5˚N. (BUREAU OF
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

ENERGY EFFICIENCY, ECO-NIWAS SAMHITA 2018, (ENERGY CONSERVATION BUILDING CODE FOR
RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS), PART I: BUILDING ENVELOPE, 2018 )
External Shading Factor for Overhang (ESFoverhang) for LAT ≥ 23.5˚N

Orientation North North-east East South-east South South-west West North-west

PFoverhang (337.6˚-22.5˚) (22.6˚-67.5˚) (67.6˚-112.5˚) (112.6˚-157.5˚) (157.6˚-202.5˚) (202.6˚-247.5˚) (247.6˚-292.5˚) (292.6˚-337.5˚)

<0.10 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

0.10-0.19 0.955 0.930 0.922 0.906 0.881 0.905 0.922 0.930

0.20-0.29 0.922 0.876 0.855 0.824 0.789 0.823 0.853 0.875

0.30-0.39 0.897 0.834 0.796 0.755 0.719 0.753 0.794 0.834

0.40-0.49 0.877 0.803 0.745 0.697 0.665 0.695 0.743 0.802

0.50-0.59 0.860 0.779 0.702 0.652 0.626 0.650 0.700 0.778

0.60-0.69 0.846 0.761 0.666 0.617 0.598 0.614 0.663 0.760

0.70-0.79 0.834 0.747 0.635 0.590 0.580 0.587 0.632 0.746

0.80-0.89 0.825 0.737 0.609 0.569 0.569 0.566 0.606 0.736

0.90-0.99 0.817 0.729 0.587 0.554 0.563 0.551 0.585 0.728

≥1 0.810 0.722 0.569 0.542 0.559 0.539 0.566 0.721

TABLE 22: EXTERNAL SHADING FACTOR FOR SIDE FIN-RIGHT (ESFright) FOR LAT ≥ 23.5˚N. (BUREAU
OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY, ECO-NIWAS SAMHITA 2018, (ENERGY CONSERVATION BUILDING CODE FOR
RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS), PART I: BUILDING ENVELOPE, 2018 )

External Shading Factor for Side Fin-Right (ESFright) for LAT ≥ 23.5˚N

Orientation North North-east East South-east South South-west West North-west

PFright (337.6˚-22.5˚) (22.6˚-67.5˚) (67.6˚-112.5˚) (112.6˚-157.5˚) (157.6˚-202.5˚) (202.6˚-247.5˚) (247.6˚-292.5˚) (292.6˚-337.5˚)

<0.10 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

0.10-0.19 0.968 0.942 0.972 0.982 0.961 0.965 0.988 0.985
0.20-0.29 0.943 0.894 0.949 0.968 0.933 0.934 0.977 0.972
0.30-0.39 0.924 0.855 0.931 0.957 0.912 0.907 0.968 0.961
0.40-0.49 0.911 0.824 0.917 0.950 0.898 0.884 0.960 0.953
0.50-0.59 0.899 0.798 0.905 0.944 0.887 0.865 0.954 0.945
0.60-0.69 0.890 0.777 0.895 0.939 0.880 0.849 0.948 0.939
0.70-0.79 0.883 0.762 0.887 0.936 0.875 0.837 0.943 0.934
0.80-0.89 0.877 0.750 0.881 0.933 0.872 0.827 0.939 0.930
0.90-0.99 0.871 0.739 0.875 0.930 0.868 0.819 0.935 0.926
≥1 0.865 0.731 0.870 0.927 0.865 0.812 0.932 0.922
 85

TABLE 23: EXTERNAL SHADING FACTOR FOR SIDE FIN-LEFT (ESFleft) FOR LAT ≥ 23.5˚N. (BUREAU OF

Annex 2
ENERGY EFFICIENCY, ECO-NIWAS SAMHITA 2018, (ENERGY CONSERVATION BUILDING CODE FOR
RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS), PART I: BUILDING ENVELOPE, 2018 )

External Shading Factor for Side Fin-Left (ESFleft) for LAT ≥ 23.5˚N

Orientation North North-east East South-east South South-west West North-west

PFleft (337.6˚-22.5˚) (22.6˚-67.5˚) (67.6˚-112.5˚) (112.6˚-157.5˚) (157.6˚-202.5˚) (202.6˚-247.5˚) (247.6˚-292.5˚) (292.6˚-337.5˚)

<0.10 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

0.10-0.19 0.968 0.985 0.988 0.965 0.961 0.982 0.972 0.942
0.20-0.29 0.943 0.972 0.977 0.933 0.932 0.967 0.949 0.895
0.30-0.39 0.925 0.961 0.968 0.906 0.911 0.957 0.931 0.857
0.40-0.49 0.912 0.953 0.961 0.883 0.897 0.949 0.916 0.826
0.50-0.59 0.900 0.946 0.954 0.863 0.886 0.943 0.904 0.801
0.60-0.69 0.890 0.939 0.948 0.846 0.879 0.938 0.895 0.781
0.70-0.79 0.884 0.935 0.944 0.834 0.874 0.935 0.887 0.766
0.80-0.89 0.877 0.931 0.940 0.824 0.871 0.932 0.881 0.754
0.90-0.99 0.871 0.927 0.936 0.815 0.867 0.929 0.875 0.744
≥1 0.866 0.923 0.932 0.808 0.864 0.927 0.870 0.736
86

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88
MANUAL FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING DESIGN

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