UNIT I

chapter.3
BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Different types of fluids are present different cavities in human body. There are two
types of fluids present in human body:
1. Intracellular fluid
2. Extracellular fluid
1. Intracellular fluid: The fluid which is present inside cells is called as intracellular fluid
(CF).
2. Extracellular fluid: The fluid which is present outside cells is called as extracellular
fluid (ECF). The ECF fluid which is present in small spaces between cells of tissues is
known as interstitial fluid.
ECF differs depending on its location in the body:
(a) Blood plasma: It is the ECF within blood vessels.
(b) Lymph: It is the ECF present in within lymphatic vessels.
(0) Cerebrospinal fluid: It is the ECF present in and around the brain and spinal cord.
(d) Synovial fluid: It is the ECF in joints.
(e) Aqueous humor and vitreous body: It is the ECF present in the eyes.
3.2 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
All cells of our body require continuous supply of nutrients and oxygen for cellular
activities. They also require system to remove waste products formed during various
activities., Most of the body cells are located at some distance from the nutrient sources such
as the digestive tract and sites of waste disposal such as kidneys. Cardiovascular system
plays an important role in these activities. It connects different systems in body through
network of blood vessels and blod.
The cardiovascular system which consists of:
1. Blood
2. The heart
3. Blood vessels
(3.1)
Remedial Biology 3.2 Body Fluids and
Circulation
3.2.1 Blood
Blood is a connective tissue composed of a blood plasma and different types of cells an.
cell fragments.
Composition of Blood:
Blood is composed of two components:
1. Blood plasma
2. Formed elements

1. Blood plasma:
Blood plasma is a liquid extracellular matrix mainly consisting of water and dissolved
substances.
Blood consists of 55% blood plasma.
Blood plasma is composed of about 91.5% water and 8.5% solutes.
The solutes are mainly proteins (7%) and others like gases, nutrients, waste products,
electrolytes (1.5%).
2. Formed elements:
Formed elements are various types of cells and cell fragments.
Blood contains about 45% formed elements.
Normally, more than 99% of the formed elements are cells named for their red
colour, red blood cells (RBCS) and
Pale, colourless white blood cells (WBCS) and platelets which are cell fragments and
occupy less than 1% of the formed elements.
Blood

Plasma Formed
elements
(55%) (45%)

Red blood cells

Water
(RBCs) or
Erythrocytes

Proteins like White blood cells

Albumin, (WBCs) or
globulin etc. Leukocytes

Other solutes like

gases, waste Platelets
material etc.

Fig. 3.1: Composition of blood

Remedial Biology Body Flulds and Clrculatlon
3.3
The straw-coloured liquid, called serum. which is part of plasma.
Serum + Clotting Plasna
proteins

Serum Clotting
Plasma proteins

Functions of Blood:
1. Blood transports carbon dioxide from the body cells to the lungs and oxygen from
the lungs to the cells of the body.
2. Blood transfers nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract to cells.
3. It transports hormones from endocrine glands to cells.
4. Blood also carries heat and waste products to various organs for elimination trom
the body.
5. Blood helps to regulate pH through the use of buffers.
Blood also helps to adjust body temperature.
7. Blood clotting protects against its excessive loss from body after an injury.
8. White blood cells protect against disease by carrying on phagocytosis.
Blood Groups:
Karl Land Steiner discovered fundamental principles of blood grouping in 1900. Blood
grouping is important to avoid mismatching of blood groups as mismatching would cause
hazards to recipient. Death also may occur in mismatched blood transfusions.
The surfaces of RBCs contain a genetically determined assortment of antigens composed
of glycoproteins and glycolipids. These antigens, called agglutinogens, occur in
blood is
characteristic combinations. Based on the presence or absence of various antigens,
categorized into different blood groups. Within a given blood group, there may be two or
more different blood types. There are at least 24 blood groups and more than 100 antigens
that can be detected on the surface of red blood cells.
Major systems are:
(4) ABO system of blood grouping
(2) Rh system of blood grouping
(4) ABO system of blood grouping:
Blood plasma usually contains antibodies called agglutinins that react with the A or B
tigens if the two are mixed. These are the anti-B antibody, which reacts with antigen A,
nd the anti-B antibody, which reacts with antigen B.
Remedial Biology 3.4 Body Flulds and Circulation
ACcording to this system, there are four blood groups.
Agroup -containing agglutinogen 'A' on cell surfaces of erythrocytes and the anti-&
antibody in plasma.
I. B group- agglutinogen B. the anti-A antibody.
. AB group -agglutinogens 'A' and 'B, no antibodies.
iv. Ogroup- No agglutinogens anti-A antibody and the anti-8 antibody.
(2) Rh blood group:
The Rh blood group is so named because the antigen was discovered in the blood of the
Rhesus monkey. People whose RBCs have Rh antigens are designated Rh + (Rh positive);
those who lack Rh antigens are designated Rh- (Rh negative).
Blood Coagulation:
" In normal condition, blood is always in liquid form when it is within blood vessels.
When it comes out from blood vessel, it thickens and forms a gel. In due course, the
gel splits from the liquid. The gel is called a clot.
Cot is composed of network of insoluble protein fibres called fibrin. The process of
gel formation, is called clotting or coagulation.
Blood clotting or coaqulation is a series of chemical reactions that ends in
development of fibrin threads.
The process of clotting involves several elements known as clotting (coagulation)
factors.
Process of Blood (Clotting) Coagulation:
Blood clotting is a complex cascade of enzymatic reactions in which each clotting factor
activates many molecules of the next one in a fixed sequence. Finally, a large quantity of
product (the insoluble protein fibrin) is formed.
Cotting can be divided into three stages:
1 Two pathways, called the extrinsic pathway and the intrinsic pathway, lead to the
formation of prothrombinase.
2. Once prothrombinase is formed, the steps involved in the next two stages of clotting
are the same for both the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways, and together these two
stages are referred to as the common pathway.
Prothronmbinase converts prothrombin (a plasma protein formed by the liver) into
the enzyme thrombin.
3. Thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen (another plasma protein formed by the liver)
into insoluble fibrin. Fibrin forms the threads of the clot.
Remedial Biology Body Flulds and Circulatlon
3.5

Extrinsic pathway Intrinsic pathway

Prothrombinase

ProthrombinaseProthrombin
Thrombin

Thrombin
Fibrinogen ’Fibrin

Blood clot

Fig. 3.2: Process of blood coagulation

Composition and functions of Lymph:
Lymphatic system is made up of the following components :
1. Afluid called lymph
2. Lymphatic capillaries, Lymphatic vessels, Lymph trunk and Lymph duct
3. Lymphatic organs are:
a. Tonsils
b. Lymph nodes
C. Spleen
d. Thymus
4. Lymphatic tissue
(follicles)
a. Lymphatic nodules
5. Red bone marrow.
Functions of the Lymphatic System:
1. It drains excess interstitial fluid from tissue spaces and return it to the blood.
2. It transports lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) absorbed by the
gastrointestinal tract.
3. It initiates highly specific immune responses directed against particular microbes or
abnormal cells.
Remedial Biology 3.6 Body Fluids and Circulation
Composition of Lymph:
Most constituents of blood plasma filter through blood capillary walls to form interstitial
fluid. After interstitial fluid passes into lymphatic vessels, it is called lymph.
The major difference between interstitial fluid and lymph is location: Interstitial fuid ie
found between cells, and lymph is located within lymphatic vessels and lymphatic tissue

Blood Interstitial fluid

Entry of Interstitial
Cell L
fluid in lymphatic
Filtration Cell vessel
m

Cell Cell

Lymphatic
vessel
Fig. 3.3: Formation of Lymph
Constituents of blood plasma like gases, nutrients and hormones, etc. filter freely
through the capillary walls to form interstitial fluid.
A considerable amount of fluid is filtered out of blood capillaries. The extra filtered fluid
drains into lymphatic vessels and becomes lymph. AS plasmaproteins are too big to
leave blood vessels, interstitial fluid contains lesser amount of proteins.

The proteins can, however, move readily through the more permeable lymphatic
capillaries into lymph.
Lymph consists of lymphocytes.
Lymph also consists of proteins called as Globulin. These are actually antibodies.
Other components of the lymph plasma are very much like that of blood plasma, i.e.,
ofganic, inorganiic substances, water, etc.
An important function of lymph is to return the lost plasma proteins and plasma to the
bloodstream
3.22 Structure of Human Heart
Heart is an important organ of cardiovascular system. It acts like a pump, which is
responsible for circulating blood to all body parts. The shape of heart is just like our closed
fist. Dimensions of heart are as follows:

Length: 12 cm
Remedlal Blology
3.7 Body Fluids and Crcslatn
Width: 9 cm at its broadest point, and
Thickness: 6 cm
Weight: 250 g in adult females and 300 a in adult rmales.
Location: The heart is located in a space betwypen two lungs of thoracic caity ale
mediastinum. The heart is surrounded by its own cavity called as pericardial tavity
The pointed apex of heart is directed inferiorly, and to the left and it rests on the
diaphragm. The base of the heart is its posterior surface.
The sheath that surrounds and protects the heart is clled as the pericardiurn. The
pericardium consists of two fused layers: an outer fibrous pericardiurn and an inner parieta
pericardium (epicardium).
Between the pericardial sac and the heart is the pericardial cavity, which is filled with
lubricating serous fluid.
The wall of the heart consists of three layers:
The outer layer called as the epicardium.
The middle layer called as the myocardium.

Løft pulmonary artery

Aorta
Pulmonary trunik
Superior vena cava

Right pulmonary ,Left pulmonary veins

artery
Left atrium
Pulmonary valve
Aoric vahve
Pulmonary veins <K Bicuspid vatve
Right atrium Left ventrico

Tricuspid valve Inter ventricular

soptum
Right ventricle
Inferior vena cava
Papillary muscdes
Descending aorta
Flg. 3.4: Anterlor view of Human heart
The inner layer called as the endocardium.
Heart is composed of four chambers: 2 atria (right atrium and left atrium) and 2
ventricles (right ventricle and left ventricle).
 Remedial Biology 3.8 Body Fluids and
Circulation
Atria are receiving chambers and ventricles are pumping chambers of heart
called as
The atria receive blood from blood vessels veins. Ventricles pump blood
into blood vessels called as arteries.
The septa are the partitions that separate the chambers of the heart.
They include the interatrial septum which separates right and left atria.
The interventricular septum separates right and left ventricles.
Right atrium connected to right ventricle through an opening. This opening is
quarded by the atrioventricular valve called the right tricuspid valve.
Left atrium is connected to left ventricle through an opening. The
opening is
guarded by a valve called left mitral valve.
These valves prevent the backflow of blood. Each is attached to chordae tendineae
that extend to the papillary muscles, which are extensions of the myocardium, to
prevent the valves from being blown back into the atria.
The pulmonary valve is located at the base of the pulmonary trunk, and the left
semilunar valve is located at the base of the aorta.
The right and left coronary arteries are the first to branch off the aorta and arise
from two of the three sinuses located near the base of the aorta and are
generally
located in the sulci.

Human Circulatory System:

Heart circulates blood in two circuits called pulmonary and systemic
circulations.
The left side of heart is for systemic circulation and right side for
pulmonary
circulation.
The right atrium receives systemic blood relatively low in
oxygen (deoxygenated)
from various body parts.
This deoxygenated in right atrium is transferred to the right ventricle, which pumps
it
into the lungs for addition of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide.
Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs in the lungs, and blood high in
Oxygen (oxygenated) returns to the left atrium.
This oxygenated blood is transferred to left ventricle, which in turn pumps it
into the
aorta and to all body parts.
3.2.3 Blood Vessels
Blood vessels have impertent function of distributing blood from heart to
different
tissues and also returns it to heart.
Remedial Biology
3.9 Body Fluids and Circulation
There are five main types of blood vessels:
1. Arteries

2. Arterioles
3. Capillaries

4. Venules
5. Veins
The blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart to other
organs are calied
as areries. They leave the heart and divide into medium sized,
muscular arteries tnat
branch out into the various reqions of the
body.
" Medium sized arteries then split into smali arteries, which in turn split into still
smaller arteries called arterioles.
" As the arterioles enter a tissue. they branch into numerous minute vessels Called
capillaries.
Groups of capillaries within a tissue reunite to form small veins called venules.
These in turn merge to form progressively larger blood vessels called veins.
" Veins are the blood vessels that convey blood from the tissues back to the heart.
Structure:

The wall of a blood vessel consists of three layers, also called as tunicas.
The three structural layers are:
1. The innermost layer is called as tunica interna. It is made up of epithelial tissue.
2. The middle layer is called as tunica media. It is made up of smooth muscles.
3. The outmost layer is called as tunica exteraa. It is made up of elastic and collagen
fibres.

Tunica externa

Tunica media

Tunica interna

Fia. 3.5: Transverse section of blood vessel

 Remedial Blology 3,10 Body Flulds and Clrculatlon
CARDIAC CYCLE
The period of time that begins with contraction of the atria and ends with ventricu.
relaxation is known as the cardiac cycle.
The phase of contraction that the heart undergoes while it pumps blood into
circulation
is called systole.
The phase of relaxation that occurs as the chambers fill with blood is called diastole

Atrlal systole
(0.1 soc.)

Relaxation
period Ventricular
ventricular and systole and
atrial diastole atrial diastole
(0.4 sec.) (0.3 sec.)

Fig. 3.6: Cardiac cycle

Both the atria and ventricles undergo systole and diastole, and it is essential that these
components be carefuly regulated and co-ordinated to ensure blood is pumped
efficiently to the body.
In each cardiac cycle, the atria and ventricles alternately contract and relax, forcing blood
from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure.
When heart rate is 75 beats/min, a cardiac cycle lasts 0.8 sec.

3.3 CARDIAC OUTPUT (Co)

Cardiac output is the volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle (or the right
ventricle) into the aorta (or pulmonary trunk) each minute. Cardiac output equals the stroke
volume (SV), the volume of blood ejected by the ventricle during each contraction,
multiplied by the heart rate (HR), the number of heartbeats per minute:
Cardiac output = SV (ml/beat) x HR (beat/min.)
Electrocardiogram (ECG):
By careful placement of surface electrodes on the body, it is possible to record the
complex, compound electrical signal of the heart. This tracing of the electrical signal is the
electrocardiogram (ECG).
Remedial Biology
3.11 Body Fluids and Circulation

Milivolts
S

intera
Q-T interval

Fig. 3.7
There are five prominent points on the ECG:
1. The P wave,
2. The QRS complex, and
3. The T wave.
" The small P wave represents the depolarization of the atria.
The atria begin contracting approximately 25 ms after the start of the Pwave.
The larqe QRS complex represents the depolarization of the ventricles, which
requires a much stronger electrical signal because of the larger size of the ventricular
cardiac muscle. The ventricles begin to contract as the QRS reaches the peak of the R
wave.

Lastly, the T wave represents the repolarization of the ventricles.

The repolarization of the atria occurs during the QRS complex, which masks it on an
ECG.