MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
Recognized under 2(f) and 12 (B) of UGC ACT 1956
(Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE - Accredited by NBA & NAAC – ‘A’
Grade - ISO 9001:2015 Certified)
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Kompally), Secunderabad – 500100, Telangana State,
India

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DIGITAL NOTES of ADVANCED THERMAL ENGINEERING

For
B.Tech – III YEAR – I

Prepared by

Mr. Damodar Reddy

 I UNIT
Rankine Cycle

The Rankine cycle is an ideal cycle for vapour power cycles.

Principle components of Rankine cycle:

The four basic components of Rankine cycle are shown in figure 1 each component in the cycle
is regarded as control volume, operating at steady state.
Pump: The liquid condensate leaving the condenser at the state 1 is pumped to the operating
pressure of the boiler. The pump operation is considered isentropic.
Boiler: The heat is supplied in the working fluid (feed water) in the boiler and thus vapor is
generated. The vapor leaving the boiler is either at saturated at the state 3 or superheated at
the state 3|, depending upon the amount of heat supplied by the boiler.
Turbine: The vapor leaving the boiler enters the turbine, where it expands isentropically to the
condenser pressure at the state 4. The work produced by the turbine is rotary (shaft) work and
is used to drive an electric generator or machine.
Condenser: The condenser is attached at the exit of the turbine. The vapor leaving the turbine
is wet vapor and it is condensed completely in the condenser to the state 1, by giving its latest
heat to some other cooling fluid like water.

The various processes in simple Rankine cycle are:

1–2: Reversible adiabatic pumping process in the pump,
2–3: Constant-pressure transfer of heat in the boiler,
3–4: Reversible adiabatic expansion in the turbine (or other prime movers such as a steam engine),
4–1: Constant-pressure transfer of heat in the condenser.

Figure 2: Temperature vs entropy diagram of Rankine cycle

The Rankine cycle also includes the possibility of superheating the vapor, as cycle 1–2–3|–4|–1.
If kinetic and potential energy changes are neglected, heat transfer and work may be represented by
various areas on the T–s diagram. The heat transferred to the working fluid is represented by area a–
2–2|–3–b–a and the heat transferred from the working fluid by area a–1–4–b–a. From the first law of
thermodynamics we can conclude that the area representing the work is the difference between these
two areas—area 1–2–2|–3–4–1. The thermal efficiency is defined by the relation
For analyzing the Rankine cycle, it is helpful to think of efficiency as depending on the
average temperature at which heat is supplied and the average temperature at which
heat is rejected. Any changes that increase the average temperature at which heat is
supplied or decrease the average temperature heat is rejected will increase the Rankine-
cycle efficiency.
 II - UNIT
Steam Boilers:

Boilers Classification:

There are large numbers of boiler designs, but boilers can be classified according to the
following criteria:

1. According to Relative Passage of water and hot gases:

Water Tube Boiler: A boiler in which the water flows through some small tubes which
are surrounded by hot combustion gases, e.g., Babcock and Wilcox, Stirling, Benson
boilers, etc.

Fire-tube Boiler: The hot combustion gases pass through the boiler tubes, which are
surrounded by water, e.g., Lancashire, Cochran, locomotive boilers, etc.

2. According to Water Circulation Arrangement:

Natural Circulation: Water circulates in the boiler due to density difference of hot and
water, e.g., Babcock and Wilcox boilers, Lancashire boilers, Cochran, locomotive
boilers, etc.

Forced Circulation: A water pump forces the water along its path, therefore, the steam
generation rate increases, Eg: Benson, La Mont, Velox boilers, etc.
3. According to the Use:

Stationary Boiler: These boilers are used for power plants or processes steam in plants.

Portable Boiler: These are small units of mobile and are used for temporary uses at the
sites.

Locomotive: These are specially designed boilers. They produce steam to drive railway
engines.

Marine Boiler: These are used on ships.

4. According to Position of the Boilers:

Horizontal, inclined or vertical boilers

5. According to the Position of Furnace

Internally fired: The furnace is located inside the shell, e.g., Cochran, Lancashire
boilers, etc.

Externally fired: The furnace is located outside the boiler shell, e.g., Babcock and
Wilcox, Stirling boilers, etc.

6. According to Pressure of steam generated

Low-pressure boiler: a boiler which produces steam at a pressure of 15-20 bar is called
a low-pressure boiler. This steam is used for process heating.

Medium-pressure boiler: It has a working pressure of steam from 20 bars to 80 bars and
is used for power generation or combined use of power generation and process heating.

High-pressure boiler: It produces steam at a pressure of more than 80 bars.

Sub-critical boiler: If a boiler produces steam at a pressure which is less than the critical
pressure, it is called as a subcritical boiler.

Supercritical boiler: These boilers provide steam at a pressure greater than the critical
pressure. These boilers do not have an evaporator and the water directly flashes into
steam, and thus they are called once through boilers.

7. According to charge in the furnace.

Pulverized fuel,

Supercharged fuel and

Fluidized bed combustion boilers.

Simple vertical boiler:

The image shows the simplest form of an internally fired vertical fire-tube boiler. It does not
require heavy foundation and requires very small floor area.
 Simple Vertical Boiler

Cylindrical shell:
The shell is vertical and it attached to the bottom of the furnace. Greater portion of the shell is
full of water which surrounds the furnace also. Remaining portion is steam space. The shell may
be of about 1.25 metres diameter and 2.0 meters height.

Cross-tubes:
One or more cross tubes are either riveted or flanged to the furnace to increase the heating
surface and to improve the water circulation.

Furnace (or fire box):

Combustion of coal takes place in the furnace (fire box).

Grate:
It is placed at the bottom of fire box and coal is fed on it for burning.

Fire door:
Coal is fed to the grate through the fire door.

Chimney (or stack):

The chimney (stack) passes from the top of the firebox through the top of the shell.

Manhole:
 It is provided on the top of the shell to enable a man to enter into it and inspect and repair the
boiler from inside it. It is also, meant for cleaning the interior of the boiler shell and exterior of
the compbustion chamber and stack (chimney).

Hand holes:
These are provided in the shell opposite to the ends of each cross tube for cleaning the cross
tube.

Ashipt:
It is provide for collecting the ash deposit, which can be removed away at intervals.

Working:
The fuel (coal) is fed into the grate through the fire hole and is burnt. The ashpit placed below
the grate collect the ashes of the burning fuel.

The combustion gas flows from the furnace, passes around the cross tubes and escapes to the
atmosphere through the chimney.

Water goes by natural circulation due to convection currents, from the lower end of the cross
tube and comes out from the higher end.

The working pressure of the simple vertical boiler does not exceed 70 N/cm^2.

Cochran boiler
It is a multi-tubular vertical fire tube boiler having a number of horizontal fire tubes. T is the
modification of a simple vertical boiler where the heating surface has been increased by
means of a number of fire tubes.

It consists of

1. Shell
2. Crate
3. Fire box
4. Flue pipe
5. Fire tubes
6. Combustion chamber
7. Chimney
8. Man-hole
 Cochran boiler

Shell
It is hemispherical on the top, where space is provided for steam.

Grate
It is placed at the bottom of the furnace where coal is burnt.

Fire box (furnace )

It is also dome-shaped like the shell so that the gases can be deflected back till they are
passed out through the flue pipe to the combustion chamber.
Flue pipe:
It is a short passage connecting the fire box with the combustion chamber.

Fire tubes:
A number of horizontal fire tubes are provided, thereby the heating surface is increased.

Combustion chamber:
It is lined with fire bricks on the side of the shell to prevent overheating of the boiler. Hot
gases enter the fire tubes from the flue pipe through the combustion chamber.

Chimney:
It is provided for the exit of the flue gases to the atmosphere from the smoke box.

Manhole:
It is provided for inspection and repair of the interior of the boiler shell.

Normal size of a Cochran boiler:

Shell diameter – 2.75 meters:
Height of the shell – 6 meters.

Working of the Cochran boiler:

Coal is fed into the grate through the fire hole and burnt. Ash formed during burning is
collected in the ashpit provided just below the grate and then it is removed manually.

The host gases from the grate pass through the flue pipe to the combustion chamber. The
hot gases from the combustion chamber flow through the horizontal fire tubes and transfer
the heat to the water by convection.

The flue gases coming out of fire tubes pass through the smoke box and are exhausted to
the atmosphere through the chimney.
Smoke box is provided with a door for cleaning the fire tubes and smoke box.

The following mountings are fitted to the boiler:

Pressure gauge: this indicates the pressure of the steam inside the boiler.

Water gauge: this indicates the water level in the boiler. The water level in the boiler should
not fall below a particular level, otherwise the boiler will be over heated and the tubes may
 burn out.

Safety valve: the function of the safety valve is to prevent an increase of steam pressure in
the boiler above its normal working pressure.

Steam stop valve: it regulates the flow of steam supply to requirements.

Blow-off cock: it is located at the bottom of the boiler. When the blow-off cock is opened
during the running of the boiler, the high pressure steam pushes (drains) out the impurities
like mud, sand, etc., in the water collected at the bottom.

Fusible plug: it protects the fire tubes from burning when the water level in the boiler falls
abnormally low.

Salient features of Cochran boiler:

1. The dome shape of the furnace causes the hot gases to deflect back and pass through the flue. The
un-burnt fuel if any will also be deflected back.
2. Spherical shape of the top of the shell and the fire box gives higher area by volume ratio.
3. It occupies comparatively less floor area and is very compact.
4. It is well suited for small capacity requirements.
III - UNIT
IV - UNIT
A brief note on Gas Turbine Combustors
Over a period of five decades, the basic factors influencing the design of combustion systems for gas
turbines have not changed, although recently some new requirements have evolved. The key issues may
be summarized as follows.

• The temperature of the gases after combustion must be comparatively controlled to suit the highly
stressed turbine materials. Development of improved materials and methods of blade cooling, however,
has enabled permissible combustor outlet temperatures to rise from about 1100K to as much as 1850 K
for aircraft applications.

• At the end of the combustion space the temperature distribution must be of known form if the turbine
blades are not to suffer from local overheating. In practice, the temperature can increase with radius
over the turbine annulus, because of the strong influence of temperature on allowable stress and the
decrease of blade centrifugal stress from root to tip.

• Combustion must be maintained in a stream of air moving with a high velocity in the region of 30-60
m/s, and stable operation is required over a wide range of air/fuel ratio from full load to idling
conditions. The air/fuel ratio might vary from about 60:1 to 120:1 for simple cycle gas turbines and from
100:1 to 200:1 if a heat-exchanger is used. Considering that the stoichiometric ratio is approximately
15:1, it is clear that a high dilution is required to maintain the temperature level dictated by turbine
stresses

• The formation of carbon deposits ('coking') must be avoided, particularly the hard brittle variety. Small
particles carried into the turbine in the high-velocity gas stream can erode the blades and block cooling
air passages; furthermore, aerodynamically excited vibration in the combustion chamber might cause
sizeable pieces of carbon to break free resulting in even worse damage to the turbine.

• In aircraft gas turbines, combustion must be stable over a wide range of chamber pressure because of
the substantial change in this parameter with a altitude and forward speed. Another important
requirement is the capability of relighting at high altitude in the event of an engine flame-out.

• Avoidance of smoke in the exhaust is of major importance for all types of gas turbine; early jet engines
had very smoky exhausts, and this became a serious problem around airports when jet transport aircraft
started to operate in large numbers. Smoke trails in flight were a problem for military aircraft,
permitting them to be seen from a great distance. Stationary gas turbines are now found in urban
locations, sometimes close to residential areas.

• Although gas turbine combustion systems operate at extremely high efficiencies, they produce
pollutants such as oxides of nitrogen , carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) and
these must be controlled to very low levels. Over the years, the performance of the gas turbine has been
improved mainly by increasing the compressor pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature (TIT).
Unfortunately this results in increased production of . Ever more stringent emissions legislation has led
to significant changes in combustor design to cope with the problem.
Probably the only feature of the gas turbine that eases the combustion designer's problem is the
peculiar interdependence of compressor delivery air density and mass flow which leads to the velocity
of the air at entry to the combustion system being reasonably constant over the operating range.

For aircraft applications there are the additional limitations of small space and low weight, which are,
however, slightly offset by somewhat shorter endurance requirements. Aircraft engine combustion
chambers are normally constructed of light-gauge, heat-resisting alloy sheet (approx. 0.8 mm thick), but
are only expected to have a life of some 10000 hours. Combustion chambers for industrial gas turbine
plant may be constructed on much sturdier lines but, on the other hand, a life of about 100000 hours is
required. Refractory linings are sometimes used in heavy chambers, although the remarks made above
regarding the effects of hard carbon deposits breaking free apply with even greater force to refractory
material.

Figure 16.1 Combustion chamber with swirl vanes

Figure 16.1 indicates the schematic of a combustion chamber. The primary air is introduced through
twisted radial vanes known as 'swirl vanes', that results in a vortex motion with a low-pressure region
along the axis of the chamber. The fuel is injected in the same direction of air. The vortex motion is some
time enhanced by injecting the secondary air through short tangential chutes in the flame tube. The
burning gases tends to flow towards the region of low pressure and some portion of them swept round
towards the jet of fuel as indicated by the arrow. The objective is to obtain a stable flame.
 V -UNIT
Jet Propulsion

A jet engine is a reaction engine that discharges a fast moving jet which generates thrust by jet
propulsion in accordance with Newton's laws of motion. This broad definition of jet engines
includes turbojets, turbofans, rockets, ramjets, and pulse jets. jet engine is nothing but a Gas
Turbine.

HOW DOES AN AEROPLANE FLY

PRINCIPLE OF JET ENGINE :

• Principle of jet engine is based on Newton’s second and third law of motion.

• Second law states that the rate of change of momentum in any direction is proportional to
the force acting in that direction.

• Third law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
WORKING OF JET ENGINE

Sucks in air from front with fan

• A compressor raises the pressure of the air

• Then the compressed air is ignited

• Gas expends and comes out nozzle

• Engine/Aircraft thrusts forward

PARTS OF JET ENGINE

• Air intake (Fan)

• Compressor

• Combustion chamber

• Turbine

• Nozzle

Aircraft Engines and Propulsion System

The modern aircraft engine have the ability to actuate massive airstream and thus to produce
high thrust. The engine airflow rate is perhaps 50 times the fuel flow rate, and the term air
breathing engine is quite appropriate. Thus, a continuous stream of air flows through the air-
breathing engine. The air is compressed, mixed with fuel, ignited, expanded through a turbine
and then expelled as the exhaust gas.

The following four types of aircraft engines are generally used

• Turbojet Engine

• Turboprop Engine

• Turbofan Engine

• Ramjet Engine

At low speeds, propeller propulsion is more efficient than jet propulsion. Conventional
propellers, however, become inefficient and noisy at flight speeds higher than 0.5 or 0.6 times
the speed of sound. In contrast, turbojet and turbofan engines can function efficiently and
quietly at flight speeds as high as 0.85 times the speed of sound. Turbojets can also operate at
supersonic flight speeds. Ramjet, which is the simplest of all air-breathing engines can operate
at a higher speed than turbojet engines and is mostly suitable for supersonic flight.

1. Turbojet Engine

Figure 16.2 Turbojet

The turbojet engine consists of a gas turbine, the output of which is used solely to provide
power to the compressor. The compressor and the turbine are normally mounted on common
shaft. Air is taken into the engine through an approximate diffuser duct, passes through the
compressor and enters the combustions chamber, where it is mixed and burned with fuel.

Most common fuels are hydrocarbons (Aviation kerosene). The ratio of fuel to air is determined
by the maximum allowable gas temperature permitted by the turbine. Normally, a considerable
excess air is used. The hot high pressure gases are then expanded through the turbine to a
pressure which is higher than the ambient atmosphere, and yet sufficiently lower than the
combustion chamber pressure, to produce just enough power in the turbine to run the
compressor. After leaving the turbine, the gas is expanded to the ambient pressure through an
appropriate nozzle. As this occurs, the gas is accelerated to a velocity, which is greater than the
incoming velocity of the ingested air, and therefore produces a propulsive thrust.
3. Turbofan Engine

Figure 17.2 Turbofan

This is another variety of gas-turbine aircraft engine. This is very similar to the turboprop in
principle, except that a fan is used instead of a propeller, and this fan is contained within a duct
as shown in the above figure. Most airliners use modern turbofan engines because of their high
thrust and good fuel efficiency. Figure below shows the picture of Boeing 747 aircraft that uses
a turbofan engine. In a turbofan engine , the air is sucked by the engine inlet. Some of the
incoming air passes through the fan and continues on into the core compressor and then the
burner, where it is mixed with fuel and combustion occurs. The hot exhaust passes through the
core and fan turbines and then out the nozzle, as in a basic turbojet. The rest of the incoming
air passes through the fan and bypasses, or goes around the engine, just like the air through a
propeller. The air that goes through the fan has a velocity that is slightly increased from free
stream. So a turbofan gets some of its thrust from the core and some of its thrust from the fan.
The ratio of the air that goes around the engine to the air that goes through the core is called
the bypass ratio. Because the fuel flow rate for the core is changed only a small amount by the
addition of the fan, a turbofan generates more thrust for nearly the same amount of fuel used
by the core. This means that a turbofan is very fuel efficient. In fact, high bypass ratio turbofans
are nearly as fuel efficient as turboprops.
 Boeing 747:Typical example of a Turbofan Engine

4. Ramjet Engine
 Figure 17.3 Ramjet

At higher forward speeds, the ram pressure of the air is already very large, and the necessity for
a compressor tends to disappear. A turbojet engine minus the compressor and turbine, but
with a combustion chamber, is known as a ramjet engine. Such engines simply consists of

1. A duct designed to diffuse the incoming air, slowing its velocity and raising its pressure
2. A combustor, designed to heat the air, normally by combustion with a liquid fuel
3. A nozzle, designed to expand and accelerate the heated gases rearwards

The ramjet engine does not accelerate itself from a standing start but requires some other form
of propulsion, usually a rocket, to accelerate it to near its operating speed.
 Rocket engine
A rocket engine is a type of jet engine that uses only stored rocket propellant mass for forming
its high-speed propulsive jet. Rocket engines are reaction engines, obtaining thrust in
accordance with Newton's third law. Most rocket engines are internal combustion engines,
although non-combusting forms (such as cold gas thrusters) also exist. Vehicles propelled by
rocket engines are commonly called rockets. Since they need no external material to form their
jet, rocket engines can perform in a vacuum and thus can be used to propel spacecraft and
ballistic missiles.

Compared to other types of jet engines, rocket engines are by far the lightest, and have the
highest thrust, but are the least propellant-efficient (they have the lowest specific impulse). The
ideal exhaust is hydrogen, the lightest of all gases, but chemical rockets produce a mix of
heavier species, reducing the exhaust velocity. Rocket engines become more efficient at high
velocities, due to greater propulsive efficiency and the Oberth effect. Since they do not require
an atmosphere, they are well suited for uses at very high altitudes and in space.

Principle of operation

Rocket engines produce thrust by the expulsion of an exhaust fluid which has been accelerated
to a high speed through a propelling nozzle. The fluid is usually a gas created by high pressure
(10 to 200 bar)) combustion of solid or liquid propellants, consisting of fuel and oxidiser
components, within a combustion chamber. The nozzle uses the heat energy released by
expansion of the gas to accelerate the exhaust to very high (supersonic) speed, and the reaction
to this pushes the engine in the opposite direction. Combustion is most frequently used for
practical rockets, as high temperatures and pressures are desirable for the best performance,
permitting a longer nozzle, giving higher exhaust speeds and better thermodynamic efficiency.

An alternative to combustion is the water rocket, which uses water pressurised by compressed
air, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, or manual pumping, for model rocketry.

Propellant

Rocket propellant is mass that is stored, usually in some form of propellant tank, or within the
combustion chamber itself, prior to being ejected from a rocket engine in the form of a fluid jet
to produce thrust.

Chemical rocket propellants are most commonly used, which undergo exothermic chemical
reactions which produce hot gas which is used by a rocket for propulsive purposes.
Alternatively, a chemically inert reaction mass can be heated using a high-energy power source
via a heat exchanger, and then no combustion chamber is used.
A solid rocket motor.

Solid rocket propellants are prepared as a mixture of fuel and oxidising components called
'grain' and the propellant storage casing effectively becomes the combustion chamber.

Propellant efficiency

For a rocket engine to be propellant efficient, it is important that the maximum pressures
possible be created on the walls of the chamber and nozzle by a specific amount of propellant;
as this is the source of the thrust. This can be achieved by all of: heating the propellant to as
high a temperature as possible (using a high energy fuel, containing hydrogen and carbon and
sometimes metals such as aluminium, or even using nuclear energy) using a low specific density
gas (as hydrogen rich as possible) using propellants which are, or decompose to, simple
molecules with few degrees of freedom to maximise translational velocity

Since all of these things minimise the mass of the propellant used, and since pressure is
proportional to the mass of propellant present to be accelerated as it pushes on the engine,
and since from Newton's third law the pressure that acts on the engine also reciprocally acts on
the propellant, it turns out that for any given engine, the speed that the propellant leaves the
chamber is unaffected by the chamber pressure (although the thrust is proportional). However,
speed is significantly affected by all three of the above factors and the exhaust speed is an
excellent measure of the engine propellant efficiency. This is termed exhaust velocity, and after
allowance is made for factors that can reduce it, the effective exhaust velocity is one of the
most important parameters of a rocket engine (although weight, cost, ease of manufacture etc.
are usually also very important.

For aerodynamic reasons the flow goes sonic ("chokes") at the narrowest part of the nozzle, the
'throat'. Since the speed of sound in gases increases with the square root of temperature, the
use of hot exhaust gas greatly improves performance. By comparison, at room temperature the
speed of sound in air is about 340 m/s while the speed of sound in the hot gas of a rocket
engine can be over 1700 m/s; much of this performance is due to the higher temperature, but
additionally rocket propellants are chosen to be of low molecular mass, and this also gives a
higher velocity compared to air.

Expansion in the rocket nozzle then further multiplies the speed, typically between 1.5 and 2
times, giving a highly collimated hypersonic exhaust jet. The speed increase of a rocket nozzle is
mostly determined by its area expansion ratio—the ratio of the area of the throat to the area at
the exit, but detailed properties of the gas are also important. Larger ratio nozzles are more
massive but are able to extract more heat from the combustion gases, increasing the exhaust
velocity.
Net thrust

Below is an approximate equation for calculating the net thrust of a rocket engine:

Since, unlike a jet engine, a conventional rocket motor lacks an air intake, there is no 'ram drag'
to deduct from the gross thrust. Consequently, the net thrust of a rocket motor is equal to the
gross thrust (apart from static back pressure).

At full throttle, the net thrust of a rocket motor improves slightly with increasing altitude,
because as atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude, the pressure thrust term increases.
At the surface of the Earth the pressure thrust may be reduced by up to 30%,depending on the
engine design. This reduction drops roughly exponentially to zero with increasing altitude.

Rocket Propulsion:

Bernouilli's theorem can be applied to find out the velocity of exhaust gas emerging
from a rocket and thrust exerted by the exhaust gas on the rocket. At the bottom of the fuel
chamber of a rocket, there is an orifice (small opening) through which the exhaust gas leaves
due to burning of fuel in the chamber.

Let P1, A1 and v1 be the pressure, area of cross section and velocity of burnt fuel gas inside the
chamber and the corresponding values at the orifice is P2, A2 and v2.

According to Bernoullis theorem:

.......................... ( i )

In gas, the density is low and the pressure due to elevation, would be negligible
compared to other terms.
where P1 = P, the pressure inside the chamber, and P2 = Pa atmospheric pressure.

As per the continuity equation

Since the area of cross section of orifice is very small compared to that of fuel chamber, A2<< A1, the
velocity v1would be negligible.

So, equation (ii) can be written as,

Equation (iv) gives the speed of the efflux.

The thrust experienced by the rocket due to exhaust

M = the mass of exhaust gas over the time interval dt seconds.

So, the thrust,

Thus the thrust experienced by the rocket can be calculated based on Bernoulli's theorem.
ROCKET PROPELLANTS

Introduction

Liquids

Solids

Hybrids

Propellant is the chemical mixture burned to produce thrust in rockets and consists of a fuel and an
oxidizer. A fuel is a substance which burns when combined with oxygen producing gas for
propulsion. An oxidizer is an agent that releases oxygen for combination with a fuel. Propellants are
classified according to their state - liquid, solid, or hybrid.

The gauge for rating the efficiency of rocket propellants is specific impulse, stated in seconds.
Specific impulse indicates how many pounds (or kilograms) of thrust are obtained by the
consumption of one pound (or kilogram) of propellant in one second. Specific impulse is
characteristic of the type of propellant, however, its exact value will vary to some extent with the
operating conditions and design of the rocket engine.

Liquid Propellants

In a liquid propellant rocket, the fuel and oxidizer are stored in separate tanks, and are fed through a
system of pipes, valves, and turbopumps to a combustion chamber where they are combined and
burned to produce thrust. Liquid propellant engines are more complex then their solid propellant
counterparts, however, they offer several advantages. By controlling the flow of propellant to the
combustion chamber, the engine can be throttled, stopped, or restarted.

A good liquid propellant is one with a high specific impulse or, stated another way, one with a high
speed of exhaust gas ejection. This implies a high combustion temperature and exhaust gases with
small molecular weights. However, there is another important factor which must be taken into
consideration: the density of the propellant. Using low density propellants means that larger storage
tanks will be required, thus increasing the mass of the launch vehicle. Storage temperature is also
important. A propellant with a low storage temperature, i.e. a cryogenic, will require thermal
insulation, thus further increasing the mass of the launcher. The toxicity of the propellant is likewise
important. Safety hazards exist when handling, transporting, and storing highly toxic compounds.
Also, some propellants are very corrosive, however, materials that are resistant to certain
propellants have been identified for use in rocket construction.

Liquid propellants used by NASA and in commercial launch vehicles can be classified into three
types: petroleum, cryogenics, and hypergolics.

Petroleum fuels are those refined from crude oil and are a mixture of complex hydrocarbons, i.e.
organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen. The petroleum used as rocket fuel is
kerosene, or a type of highly refined kerosene called RP-1 (refined petroleum). It is used in
combination with liquid oxygen as the oxidizer.
RP-1 and liquid oxygen are used as the propellant in the first-stage boosters of the Atlas/Centaur
and Delta launch vehicles. It also powered the first-stages of the Saturn 1B and Saturn V rockets.
RP-1 delivers a specific impulse considerably less than cryogenic fuels.

Cryogenic propellants are liquefied gases stored at very low temperatures, namely liquid hydrogen
(LH2) as the fuel and liquid oxygen (LO2) as the oxidizer. LH2 remains liquid at temperatures of -423
degrees F (-253 degrees C) and LO2 remains in a liquid state at temperatures of -298 degrees F (-
183 degrees C).

Because of the low temperatures of cryogenic propellants, they are difficult to store over long
periods of time. For this reason, they are less desirable for use in military rockets which must be kept
launch ready for months at a time. Also, liquid hydrogen has a very low density (0.59 pounds per
gallon) and, therefore, requires a storage volume many times greater than other fuels. Despite these
drawbacks, the high efficiency of liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen makes these problems worth coping
with when reaction time and storability are not too critical. Liquid hydrogen delivers a specific
impulse about 40% higher than other rocket fuels.

Liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen are used as the propellant in the high efficiency main engines of
the space shuttle. LH2/LO2 also powered the upper stages of the Saturn V and Saturn lB rockets as
well as the second stage of the Atlas/Centaur launch vehicle, the United States' first LH2/LO2 rocket

Hypergolic propellants are fuels and oxidizers which ignite spontaneously on contact with each other
and require no ignition source. The easy start and restart capability of hypergolics make them ideal
for spacecraft maneuvering systems. Also, since hypergolics remain liquid at normal temperatures,
they do not pose the storage problems of cryogenic propellants. Hypergolics are highly toxic and
must be handled with extreme care.

Hypergolic fuels commonly include hydrazine, monomethyl hydrazine (MMH) and unsymmetrical
dimethyl hydrazine (UDMH). The oxidizer is typically nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) or nitric acid (HNO3).
UDMH is used in many Russian, European, and Chinese rockets while MMH is used in the orbital
maneuvering system (OMS) and reaction control system (RCS) of the Space Shuttle orbiter. The
Titan family of launch vehicles and the second stage of the Delta use a fuel called Aerozine 50, a
mixture of 50% UDMH and 50% hydrazine.

Hydrazine is also frequently used as a mono-propellant in catalytic decomposition engines . In these

engines, a liquid fuel decomposes into hot gas in the presence of a catalyst. The decomposition of
hydrazine produces temperatures of about 1700 degrees F and a specific impulse of about 230 or
240 seconds.

Solid Propellants

Solid propellant motors are the simplest of all rocket designs. They consist of a casing, usually steel,
filled with a mixture of solid compounds (fuel and oxidizer) which burn at a rapid rate, expelling hot
gases from a nozzle to produce thrust. When ignited, a solid propellant burns from the center out
towards the sides of the casing. The shape of the center channel determines the rate and pattern of
the burn, thus providing a means to control thrust. Unlike liquid propellant engines, solid propellant
motors can not be shut down. Once ignited, they will burn until all the propellant is exhausted.
There are two families of solids propellants: homogeneous and composite. Both types are dense,
stable at ordinary temperatures, and easily storable.

Homogeneous propellants are either simple base or double base. A simple base propellant consists
of a single compound, usually nitrocellulose, which has both an oxidation capacity and a reduction
capacity. Double base propellants usually consist of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine, to which a
plasticiser is added. Homogeneous propellants do not usually have specific impulses greater than
about 210 seconds under normal conditions. Their main asset is that they do not produce traceable
fumes and are, therefore, commonly used in tactical weapons. They are also often used to perform
subsidiary functions such as jettisoning spent parts or separating one stage from another.

Modern composite propellants are heterogeneous powders (mixtures) which use a crystallized or
finely ground mineral salt as an oxidizer, often ammonium perchlorate, which constitutes between
60% and 90% of the mass of the propellant. The fuel itself is aluminum. The propellant is held
together by a polymeric binder, usually polyurethane or polybutadienes. Additional compounds are
sometimes included, such as a catalyst to help increase the burning rate, or other agents to make
the powder easier to manufacture. The final product is rubberlike substance with the consistency of
a hard rubber eraser.

Solid propellant motors have a variety of uses. Small solids often power the final stage of a launch
vehicle, or attach to payloads to boost them to higher orbits. Medium solids such as the Payload
Assist Module (PAM) and the Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) provide the added boost to place satellites
into geosynchronous orbit or on planetary trajectories.

The Titan, Delta, and Space Shuttle launch vehicles use strap-on solid propellant rockets to provide
added thrust at liftoff. The Space Shuttle uses the largest solid rocket motors ever built and flown.
Each booster contains 1,100,000 pounds (499,000 kg) of propellant and can produce up to
3,300,000 pounds (14,680,000 Newtons) of thrust.

Hybrid Propellants

Hybrid propellant engines represent an intermediate group between solid and liquid propellant
engines. One of the substances is solid, usually the fuel, while the other, usually the oxidizer, is
liquid. The liquid is injected into the solid, whose fuel reservoir also serves as the combustion
chamber. The main advantage of such engines is that they have high performance, similar to that of
solid propellants, but the combustion can be moderated, stopped, or even restarted. It is difficult to
make use of this concept for vary large thrusts, and thus, hybrid propellant engines are rarely built.