Grammar I Graciela Palacio

LV/UB 2012

LESSON 37
DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES:

Defining relative clauses are subordinate clauses. They have adjectival function. They are
adjectival clauses. They are always found within noun phrases. They function as
postmodifiers to the head noun of the phrase.

According to Radford (2004), they are called relative clauses because they contain a relative
or word that ‘relates’ (i.e. refers back) to an antecedent (i.e. a noun that precedes the clause).
So one way of checking that you are before a relative clause is to look for the antecedent.

Consider the following examples:

S (DP) P (T’)

The key <that you lost yesterday> Ø is under the cupboard.

S (DP) P (T’)

Ø Tom Ø has found the key <that you lost yesterday>.

C/DO (DP)

In the first example, the subject is a determiner phrase, which contains a noun phrase, which
in turn, contains the relative clause that you lost yesterday. In the second example, there is a
determiner phrase that functions as complement/direct object, and that determiner phrase
contains a noun phrase which also contains a relative clause. The analysis of the determiner
phrases would be as follows:

the key <that you lost yesterday>

H (D) C (NP)

H (N) Post Modifier (Sub C/ Finite/ AC/ Defining Relative

Clause)(CP/ wh clause)

AC stands for adjectival clause. All defining relative clauses are adjectival, the opposite is not
true, since there are some relative clauses in which the antecedent merges with the relative
and as a result of this the clause acquires a nominal function. These clauses are called
Nominal Relative Clauses or Free Relative Clauses. We will discuss them in detail later on.

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All relative clauses are CPs, introduced by an overt or silent wh-element (who, which, where,
when, why) which is a relative and in every relative clause there is movement of the wh-
element to Specifier of complementiser.
In speech, relative clauses form part of the same intonation pattern as the noun they modify.
In spelling, they are not separated by commas.
From another perspective, they restrict (delimit or narrow down) the scope of reference of
the antecedent of the relative. They are said to be essential to the meaning of the sentence,
not because the sentence would be ungrammatical without the clause, but because without the
clause, the hearer would not be able to identify the referent of the antecedent (i.e. the person
or thing that the antecedent refers to)
Consider the following sentences:
The man whom you should consult is Wilson. (formal)
The man who you should consult is Wilson.
The man that you should consult is Wilson.
The man you should consult is Wilson.
The man to consult is Wilson. (Non-finite Relative Clause)

The relative clauses listed above all have the same structure, namely:

Precomp Comp S Aux / Tense LV C/DO

slot slot

whom that you should consult whom

The who that you should consult who is

man Wilson.

who that you should consult who

who that you should consult who

who that PRO to consult who

Wh- movement
They are all CPs. The complementiser that or its null counterpart (Ø or that) is the head of the
complementiser phrase. The rest of the clause is a TP (tense phrase) complement. There is
wh-movement of the relative operator. To analyse the clause, we will write it again without
the movement operation:

Representation of the relative clause as a CP

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 That You should consult who

H(C) C (TP)

Then we will do the syntactic analysis of the TP, as if it were a simple sentence. In the TP
given above the relative who (or its formal version whom) functions as the complement/DO of
the verb consult.
Relative clauses are introduced by relatives. Traditional Grammar makes a distinction
between relative pronouns, relative adjectives and relative adverbs, according to the function
that the relative has within the clause:
1) Relative pronouns have nominal functions, e.g.:
The man who came yesterday is my cousin. (who is the subject of the clause)
The windows which were broken by those naughty boys have now been repaired.
(again which is the subject of the passive clause)
2) Relative adjectives have adjectival or determiner function (i.e. they appear before
nouns), e.g.:
The boy whose father was arrested yesterday did not come to school today.
This is the girl whose father is a doctor.
3) Relative adverbs have adverbial functions.
He remembers the days when he was in the army.
This is the restaurant where I always have lunch.
The reason why he comes is obvious.

In Generative Grammar some of these distinctions are lost since pronouns are a subtype of
determiner. Relative pronouns are often called relative determiners (determiners which occur
without a complement) and relative adjectives are also called determiners (determiners
followed by a noun complement).
DEFINING RELATIVE DETERMINERS/PRONOUNS:
The defining relative determiners/pronouns are: who, whom, which. They have nominal
function within the relative clauses which they introduce. For example, in the following
sentence the relative who functions as the subject of the clause:
The boy who broke the window is not here today.
When the relative determiner/pronoun functions as subject it cannot be omitted. We cannot
have a clause without a subject. The subject is a requirement of the tense element.
When the relative determiner/pronoun functions as complement it can be overt or it can be
silent:
It’s hard to find people <who Ø you can trust who>
It’s hard to find people <who Ø you can trust who>

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According to Radford (2004) one reason why the relative can be silent may be that its person,
number and gender features can be identified by its antecedent. Since who refers back to
people, we can identify it as a third-person, plural, animate pronoun, even if it is silent.
The following are examples of relative clauses introduced by the complementizer that:
The man (that) you want has just left.
The flowers (that) I cut this morning are still fresh.
The man (that) I gave the book to has died.
The man (that) you lent your dictionary to seldom returns the books (that) he borrows.
If the complementiser that is silent we speak of a contact relative clause.

FINITE VS. NON FINITE RELATIVE CLAUSES

There are finite relative clauses and there are non-finite relative clauses, e.g.:
Everyone needs someone [ to love]. (Non finite clause)
Everyone needs someone [whom he can love]. (Finite clause)
In non-finite (infinitival) relative clauses, the relative pronoun is always silent.
Everyone needs someone [CP to love]
Everyone needs someone [CP who Ø PRO to love who]
The relative pronoun who will move from complement position to Specifier of C position (pre
comp position) and obligatorily be given a null spellout.

There are non-finite/infinitival relative clauses introduced by the transitive complementiser

for, e.g.:
Find someone [for them to play with].
There must be a complement to the preposition with. That complement is the relative pronoun
who.

Find someone who for them to play with who.

whom Ø they can play with who.

Wh-movement
The relative pronoun moves to pre-complementiser position, i.e. to become the specifier of
the complementiser for, but there, it must be given a null spellout.
Find a pen [for me to write with]

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 I’ve got a place [for him to stay]
This is the time [for you to leave]
There is no reason [for her to cry]

If the relative is moved together with a preposition then it must be overtly spelled out, e.g.:

I need something [with which I can write]

*I need something [with I can write]
He is someone [on whom you can rely]
*He is someone [on you can rely]

But notice that the relative clauses given above are finite.

The following sentences are the different options:

I need something [which I can write with]
I need something [that I can write with]
I need something [I can write with]
I need something [with which I can write]

I need something [which that I can write with which]

I need something [which that I can write with which]
I need something [which that I can write with which]
I need something[ with which that I can write with which]

Other examples of non-finite relative clauses are:

The man driving the lorry was angry. (The man who was driving the lorry was angry)
Anyone wishing to leave early may do so. (Anyone who wishes to leave early may do so)
The goods ordered last month have not arrived. (The goods that were ordered last month
have not arrived)

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Lesson 37 Activity 1: (to be discussed in class)
Analyse the following sentence fully:
1. The office in which he works is very big.
2. The man driving the lorry was angry. (Be careful: the subject of driving is not PRO)

Lesson 37 Activity 2: (to be handed in as Assignment 37)

1. The man you want has just left.
2. That's the man whose daughter John loves.

REFERENCES:
Radford, A. (2004) Minimalist Syntax: Exploring the structure of English. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

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