SECTION 7 – RELATIONS, FUNCTIONS

AND GRAPHS

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RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

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 RELATIONS

• In mathematics, we study relations between two sets of numbers,

where members of one set are related to the other set by a rule.
Relations are also described as mappings. When we map a set of
numbers onto another set of numbers, we often express the rule for
the mapping using mathematical relationships instead of words.

Representing relations – Arrow Diagrams and Ordered Pairs

• An Arrow Diagram is often used to represent a relation. The members
of each set are listed inside an enclosed shape and arrows are drawn to
connect related members. For a relation to exist between the sets,
there must be a rule connecting pairs of elements and this rule must
hold for all mappings from set X to set Y.
 RELATIONS

Representing relations – Arrow Diagrams and

Ordered Pairs
In the example, shown across, we define a relation between
the set {4, 5, 6, 7} and the set {9, 10, 11, 12} as ‘add 5’.
• Notice that 4 is mapped onto 9,
• 5 onto 10,
• 6 onto 11 and
• 7 onto 12.
• This is shown by drawing arrows to connect members of
the set X to the members Y.
 RELATIONS

Representing relations – Arrow Diagrams and

Ordered Pairs
• We refer to the members of the set X as the input and
members of the set Y as the output. The direction of the
arrows is always from the input to the output. The
mapping can also be represented as the set of ordered
pairs:
(4, 9) (5, 10) (6, 11) (7, 12).
• The ordered pair preserves the directional property of the
relation. It is consistent with the order of points plotted on
a Cartesian Plane represented by (𝑥, 𝑦).
 RELATIONS

• In the Arrow Diagram across, we define a relation

between the set {1, 2, 3, 4} and the set {3, 6, 9, 12}
as ‘multiply by 3’.
• Notice that 1 is mapped onto 3, 2 onto 6, 3 onto 9
and 4 onto 12. The arrows are drawn from the
set X to the set Y.
• The mapping can also be represented as the set of
ordered pairs:
(1, 3) (2, 6) (3, 9) (4, 12).
 RELATIONS

• In the mapping below, the members are related to

the rule. ‘ multiply by 2 and then +1’. We may say
that x is mapped onto 2x + 1. This can be
represented as the set of ordered pairs.
(7, 15) (8, 17) (9, 19) (10, 21)
 RELATIONS

• A relation exists between two sets of

numbers if we can find a rule that maps
members of the first set (domain) onto
members of the second set (codomain).
• The rule must hold for all possible pairs
that are connected. So that when we select
a value of x, also called an input, and apply
the rule of the relation, we obtain the y
value, also called the output. We can also
refer to the y value as the image of the x
value.
 RELATIONS

Defining a relation
Based on our discussion so far, there are three conditions that must
be present when a relation exist, these are:
1. Two sets are involved.
2. There must be a clear rule describing the relationship.
3. There is a directional property, that is, the relation is defined
from one set called the domain on to another set called the
codomain.
 CO-DOMAIN AND RANGE

• Now assume we define a relation from the set, X= {1, 2,

3, 4} to the set, Y = {2,3,4,5,6,7,8}.
• We will define the relation as x ➝2x . The arrow
diagram is shown below. Notice that some members of
the set Y are not outputs. These are the odd numbers 3,
5 and 7.
• The subset of Y consisting of the even numbers {2, 4, 6,
8} is called the range.
• The entire set, Y, is called the codomain.
 CO-DOMAIN AND RANGE

• The range is defined as those members of the

codomain that are ‘used’, that is they are
connected to some member of the domain by
the rule that defines the relation. They are also
the output values or the images of the input
values.
 CO-DOMAIN AND RANGE

• If all the members of the codomain are

connected to members of the domain, then the
range is equal to the codomain. If this is not so,
then the range is a subset of the codomain.
• By defining Y as a set of even numbers {2, 4, 6,
8}, we can have the situation where the range is
equal to the codomain.
 QUESTION

• A relation is represented by the ordered pairs shown

below:
(1, 5) (2, 7) (3, 9) (4, ?) ( ?, 23)
i. State the rule for the relation.
ii. What is the image of 4?
iii. What is the input for an output of 23?
 TYPES OF RELATIONS

Let the set 𝐴 = {2, 4, 5} and the set 𝐵 = {6, 8,

10}. We define a relation from the set A to
the set B as “is a factor of”. This relation is
illustrated below.
In this relation,
• an element of A (2) is associated with more
than one element of B (6, 8, 10).
• more than one element of A (2 and 5) is
associated with one element of B (10)
TYPES OF RELATIONS
 TYPES OF RELATIONS

• The relation “is a factor of” has both of the

above types of relationships. This is an
example of a many to many relation.
 TYPES OF RELATIONS

• We now define a relation from a set A= {1, 2,

3} to a set B = {5, 6, 7} such that “B is four
more than A”. The arrow diagram for this
relation is shown below.
• Note that it is not possible to have one
member of A associated with more than one
member of B. Also, two members of A cannot
be associated with one member of B. Such a
relation is said to be one to one.
 QUESTION

The options are:

1) One-to-One
2) Many-to-One
3) One-to-Many
4) Many-to-Many
 QUESTION

A relation, R is defined by the set of ordered pairs; (−3, 2),

(−2, 4), (0, 5), (−2, 6)
(i) List the members of the domain.
(ii) List the members of the codomain.
(iii) What type of relation is R?
 DOMAIN, CO-DOMAIN, RANGE

Range and Co-domain

• Let us define a relation from a set of integers,
X = {1,2,3,4} to the set of integers,
Y = {2,3,4,5,6,7,8} as x ➝ 2x.

The arrow diagram is shown for this relation below. Notice that the members 3,
5 and 7 of the set Y are not outputs. The entire set, Y, is called the co- domain.
The subset Y consisting of {2, 4, 6, 8} is called the range.
 DOMAIN, CO-DOMAIN, RANGE

Range and Co-domain

• Let us define a relation from a set of integers,
X = {1,2,3,4} to the set of integers,
Y = {2,3,4,5,6,7,8} as x ➝ 2x.

The arrow diagram is shown for this relation below. Notice that the members 3, 5 and
7 of the set Y are not outputs. The entire set, Y, is called the co- domain. The subset Y
consisting of {2, 4, 6, 8} is called the range.
• The range is defined as those members of the co- domain that are ‘used’, that is,
they are connected to some member of the domain. They are also the output values
or the images of the input values. The entire set Y is the co-domain.
 QUESTION

A relation is represented by the ordered pairs: (1, 5), (2, 7), (3,
9), (4, ?).

a. State the rule for the relation.

b. What is the image of 4?
c. What is the input for an output of 23?
d. Draw an Arrow Diagram to represent the relation.
(Mod8P1Ex1)
 FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONS

• A function is a relation that has exactly one output for each input in the
domain.
The following are characteristic features of a function defined from a set X to a
set Y:
• Every member of X is mapped onto one and only one member of Y.
• An input cannot have more than one output.
• Two or more members of the set X can be mapped onto the same member
of the set Y.
 FUNCTIONS AND
RELATIONS

• In the real world, we may think of a function as

a mapping onto the set of sons (X) to a
corresponding set of biological mothers (Y).
• Each son will be associated with one and only
one mother, and two or more sons can be
associated with the same mother but one son
cannot be associated with two or more
mothers. This is shown in the arrow diagram
below. Functions form a subset of relations that
are one-to-one or many-to-one.
 EXAMPLES AND
NON-EXAMPLES OF A
FUNCTION
 NOTATION

• We can describe a function using mathematical notation,

written as 𝑓(𝑥), read ‘f of x’. The letter f stands for the
function itself and x for the input number. Three notations
are illustrated below:
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥+1 or
𝑓: 𝑥 → 2𝑥 + 1 or
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1
 NOTATION

• Using any of the above examples, we can calculate the output for a
given input. When x = 1,
𝑓(1) = 2(1) + 1 = 3 or
𝑓: 1 → 2(1) + 1 = 3 or
𝑦 = 2(1) + 1 = 3
• If we have more than one function, we can use another letter, say g or
h so that we can write, for example:
𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1
 REPRESENTING RELATIONS AND
FUNCTIONS GRAPHICALLY

• Functions of any type as well as relations can be represented

graphically. We merely plot the ordered pairs using the Cartesian
plane.
Question:
Draw the graph of the relation represented by the set of ordered
pairs:
(−2, 1), (−2, 3), (0, −3), (1, 4), (3, 1)
Comment on this relation. Is it a function? If not, why?
 QUESTION

A function is defined as y = 2x2 +3, where x = {–1, 0, 1, 2,

3}.

(i) Calculate the output values for this function.

(ii) Draw an arrow diagram for the function.
(iii) Sketch the graph of y = 2x2 + 3. Comment on the
relation/function.
 VERTICAL LINE TEST

• In a function, an input cannot have

more than one output. A member of
the domain must be assigned to a
unique member of the range. A vertical
line drawn through any input must be
associated with only one output,
intersecting the graph only once. If a
vertical line cuts the graph more than
once then the graph does not
represent a function.
 VERTICAL LINE
TEST

• Think about the vertical

lines as values of x. You are
checking to see whether
there exists two or more
values of y that correspond
to an x-value. If this is the
case, the graph is a relation
and NOT a function.
 HORIZONTAL LINE TEST FOR A ONE
TO ONE FUNCTION

• In a similar fashion, we can develop a test for a one- one

function. Since each member of the domain is associated
with one and only one member of the codomain,
horizontal lines drawn through image points should cut the
graph only once.
• If a horizontal line intersects a graph at most once, then
the graph represents a one-to-one function.
 HORIZONTAL LINE
TEST
• Think about the horizontal
lines as values of y. If the lines
cut the graph in more than
one place, then more than
one x-value corresponds to
that y-value, and so the graph
cannot be one-to-one.
 THE INVERSE OF A FUNCTION

• A function maps a set of points from a set X onto a set Y

using a given rule. For example, if the rule is “multiply x by
2”, a function, 𝑓: 𝑥 ⟶ 2𝑥 can be represented by the set of
ordered pairs:
(1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 6), (4, 8), (5, 10)
The domain for 𝑓(𝑥) is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
The range for 𝑓(𝑥) is {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
 THE INVERSE OF A FUNCTION

• If we were to interchange the domain and the range, we

will have the following set of ordered pairs:
(2, 1), (4, 2), (6, 3), (8, 4), (10, 5)
The domain for the new function is {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
The range for the new function is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
 THE INVERSE OF A FUNCTION

• The new function which maps members of the

range onto members of the domain is called the
inverse of 𝑓(𝑥), written as 𝑓-1(𝑥).
• The rule for this function is “divide by 2”,
expressed as 𝑓-1(𝑥) = ½ 𝑥.
 THE INVERSE
OF A
FUNCTION

• The inverse of f,
denoted 𝑓-1(𝑥) is the
rule that maps
members of the range
back onto members of
the domain.
 CONDITIONS FOR AN INVERSE TO
EXIST

• For a function to have an inverse, there must be a one to

one correspondence between the members of X and Y.
We already know that all functions are one-to-one but
the function must also be onto, that is - all the y values
must be associated with an X value, in other words, there
must be no unused output values.
• Remember all values from the domain MUST be used in a
function.
 TO DETERMINE THE INVERSE OF A
FUNCTION

•
 TO DETERMINE THE INVERSE OF A
FUNCTION

•
 QUESTION

•
 COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS

• Sometimes it is necessary to obtain a single function that is

equivalent to two functions. We refer to the single
function as the composite of the two separate functions.
• A composite function is a combination of two functions,
where we apply the first function and the output is used as
the input into the second function.
 COMPOSITE
FUNCTIONS

• In combining two functions, we

must note that the order
(commutative property) is
important. We must first
understand order as it applies to
composite functions before
making observations about the
commutative property.
 NOTATION FOR COMPOSITE
FUNCTIONS

•
 NOTATION FOR COMPOSITE
FUNCTIONS

• This means that 𝑓(𝑥) is the first function and 𝑔(𝑥) is the
second function. In writing this, we place the first function,
𝑓, to the left of 𝑥 and the second function g, to the left of 𝑓
(𝑥). Hence, in summary,
• f followed by g written as 𝒈[𝒇(𝒙)] read as “g of f(x)”.
• A more shortened form is 𝒈𝒇(𝒙), read as “g of f(x)”.
 •

COMMUTATIVE
PROPERTY
 COMMUTATIVE PROPERTY

•
COMMUTATIVE PROPERTY
 DERIVING THE COMPOSITE FUNCTION

• Sometimes we are required to derive an algebraic

expression for a composite function. That is, we require
one expression that will generate any output for a given
input. In such a case, we will be given both functions and
the order in which the functions are to be carried out. For
example, consider the functions:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥
 DERIVING THE COMPOSITE FUNCTION

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥

• To determine the composite function 𝑔𝑓(𝑥), we can carry
out the following procedure:
Step 1: The order is f then g, so we write 𝑔𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔[𝑓(𝑥)]
Step 2: We replace 𝑓(𝑥) by its rule, that is (𝑥 + 2)
𝑔[𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑔[𝑥 + 2]
 DERIVING THE COMPOSITE FUNCTION

•
 QUESTIONS

•
 THE COMPOSITION OF INVERSE
FUNCTIONS

• We saw in the previous section that the commutative

property is not obeyed in functions. For example, if f and g
are two functions, then fg ≠ gf. However, there is an
exception to this rule when evaluating the composition of
a function and its inverse. In this case,
𝑓𝑓-1(𝑥) = 𝑓 -1 𝑓(𝑥)
• We will use an example to illustrate the above rule.
 THE COMPOSITION OF INVERSE
FUNCTIONS

•
 THE COMPOSITION OF INVERSE
FUNCTIONS

•
 • We can also illustrate why this is so by considering
the images of three points as shown below.

THE
COMPOSITION
OF INVERSE
FUNCTIONS
 • Now we examine the arrow diagrams for the function and its inverse.
• The above illustration shows that 𝑓-1𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
• In a similar fashion, we could illustrate that 𝑓𝑓-1(𝑥) = 𝑥
• Hence 𝑓-1𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓-1(𝑥)

THE
COMPOSITION
OF INVERSE
FUNCTIONS
 SELF-INVERSE

•
 THE GRAPH OF A FUNCTION AND ITS INVERSE

• If a function, f(x) maps the element ‘a’ onto ‘b’, then

its inverse f −1 (x) will map ‘b’ onto ‘a’. This means that
any point (a, b) on the graph of f will be mapped onto
(b,a) on the graph of f -1
• Geometrically speaking, the inverse function is seen as
a reflection of f(x) in the line y =x.
• This is because a reflection in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 maps a
point (𝑎, 𝑏) onto the image (𝑏, 𝑎). Hence, if f (x) is
known, then we may easily sketch the graph of f −1 (x).
 UNDEFINED VALUES
•
CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY

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 CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
THE CARTESIAN PLANE

• The Cartesian plane consists of a horizontal number-line called the x-axis, and a vertical
number-line called the y- axis. The point of intersection of these two axes is the origin, the
reference point from which all positions are measured. We can describe any point in the plane
using an ordered pair of numbers with reference to these axes.
• The Cartesian plane is really infinite and so we use arrows at the ends of the axes when we
represent it.
• A point in the plane is located by stating its coordinates, a pair of numbers enclosed in
parentheses: (x, y). The first number, x, gives its horizontal distance of the point from the origin
and the second number, y, gives its vertical distance of the point from the origin. All
displacements are measured relative to the origin, O, whose coordinates are (0, 0).
 CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
THE CARTESIAN PLANE

• In the figure across, the point

shown has coordinates (5, 4).
• The Cartesian Plane is divided
into four quadrants. The point
(5, 4) lies in the first quadrant
and both coordinates are
positive. This is because both
the horizontal and vertical
displacements are positive.
 CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
THE CARTESIAN PLANE

• The point B (-5, 3) lies in the second quadrant. The

displacement parallel to the x-axis is -5 units and
the displacement parallel to the y-axis is 3 units.
• The point, C (-4, -6) lies in the third quadrant. The
displacement parallel to the x-axis is -4 units and
the displacement parallel to the y-axis is -6 units.
• The point A (2, -2) in the diagram below lies in the
fourth quadrant. The displacement parallel to the
x- axis is positive, but the displacement parallel to
the y- axis is negative.
 CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
LENGTH OF A STRAIGHT LINE

• In our study of geometry, we noted

that in right- angled triangles, there is a
relationship between the lengths of the
three sides. If we know the length of
any two sides, the third side may be
calculated by the use of Pythagoras’
Theorem. The diagram below
illustrates the relationship between all
the sides of a right-angle triangle as
stated in the theorem.
 CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
LENGTH OF A STRAIGHT LINE

•
 CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
LENGTH OF A STRAIGHT LINE
 QUESTIONS

1. Given A = (2,3) and B = (5,7) calculate the length of AB.

2. Calculate the length of PQ, where P = (1, -1) and Q =
(3,5).
 MIDPOINT OF A STRAIGHT LINE

•
MIDPOINT OF A
STRAIGHT LINE
MIDPOINT OF A STRAIGHT LINE
 QUESTIONS

1. If A = (3, 4) and B = (7, 6), calculate the coordinates of

the mid-point of AB.
2. If P = (1, -3) and Q = (0.5, 4) calculate the coordinates of
the mid-point of PQ.
 GRADIENT OF A
STRAIGHT LINE

• When we speak of the gradient or the slope of a

straight line, we refer to the measure of the steepness
of the line. Lines can have varying degrees of steepness
depending on their orientation.
• Consider the five lines, shown below, L1, L2 , L3 , L4
and L5. We may observe that all five lines have
different degrees of steepness.
• Examine the lines L2, L3 and L4. If we were to order
these three lines in ascending order of steepness, then
we can deduce, from observation, that L2 is the least
steep of all three, then L3, and after that, L4 is the
steepest of all three.
 GRADIENT OF A STRAIGHT LINE

• L1 and L5 are special lines. L1 is a horizontal line and is regarded as having no

steepness. L5 is a vertical line and has the maximum possible steepness.
• In mathematics, we need to be very precise when comparing the steepness of
lines. We can only do so if we measure the steepness and assign numbers to
this measure. We refer to this measure of steepness, as the slope or the
gradient of the straight line.
• We can think of gradient as a rate of change of the vertical displacement (or
rise) with respect to its horizontal displacement (or run, sometimes referred to
as step). When both the horizontal and vertical distances are expressed in the
same units, we can express the gradient as a ratio of the rise to the run.
 GRADIENT OF A STRAIGHT LINE

• We can think of gradient, which is often denoted by the letter m, in

mathematics, as any one of the following ratios:
 GRADIENT OF A STRAIGHT LINE – FROM
COORDINATES

•
GRADIENT OF A STRAIGHT LINE – FROM
COORDINATES
 QUESTION

1. Calculate the gradient of a line joining the two points (1,

4) and (6, 8).
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE GRADIENTS
 GRADIENT OF
HORIZONTAL AND
VERTICAL LINES

• The following should be noted:

• A horizontal line has no steepness
and its gradient is defined as zero.
This is because it has no ‘rise’
regardless of the ‘run’ and (0 ÷ any
number) = 0
• A vertical line has maximum
steepness and its gradient is infinite.
This is because it has ‘rise’ but no
‘run’ and (any number) ÷ 0 ⟶ ∞
 GRADIENT OF PARALLEL LINES

• Parallel lines have the same steepness and therefore have

the same or equal gradients. This is easy to see since they
slant in the same direction and the ratio of vertical rise to
the horizontal run is the same.
• Conversely, lines that have the same gradient are parallel to
each other.
 GRADIENT OF
PERPENDICULAR LINES

• To demonstrate the relationship between

the gradients of perpendicular lines, we
need some knowledge of rotation. If we
rotate a line through 90° about a fixed
point, we observe that the gradient will
change from positive to negative. Also, the
ratio of rise to run is inverted as the line
turns through 90°. The diagram across
illustrates this principle.
 GRADIENT OF
PERPENDICULAR LINES

• Conversely, lines whose product of their

gradients is negative one are perpendicular
to each other.
QUESTION

Q P
 EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE

• The equation of a straight line is an expression of the relationship between the x and y
values in a linear equation.

• Note: Equations of the form y = mx pass through the origin (0, 0), and have a gradient, m.
• Equations of the form y = mx + c pass through the point (0, c), where c is the intercept
on the y-axis and m is the gradient.
 QUESTIONS

1. State the gradient and y-intercept for the line y = 3x + 2 .

2. State the gradient and y-intercept for the line 2y + 8x - 1 = 0.
 HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL LINES

• Horizontal lines have a gradient of 0. A horizontal line that cuts the y-axis at a, has
equation y = a.
• (where a is a constant). This is because all points on the line will have a y coordinate of a.
• Vertical lines have a gradient that approaches infinity ( ∞ ). A vertical line has equation, x =
b (where b is a constant) and cuts the x-axis at b. This because all points on the line will
have an x coordinate of b.
• The diagram below summarises the properties of horizontal and vertical lines.
HORIZONTAL
AND VERTICAL
LINES
 LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR EQUATIONS

• Equations of the form, y = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, where x and y are

variables are called linear equations. They can be
recognised by examining the highest power of the variable.
The power of the variables x and y in a linear expression
or equation is one. The equation 𝑦 = 𝑥2+3 is an example of
a non-linear equation because the power of x is 2. Such an
equation is said to be of degree 2.
 GRAPHING LINEAR
EQUATIONS

• To draw the graph of a

linear equation we need to
obtain the coordinates of at
least two points on the line.
• We need only two points to
draw a straight line. After
joining the two points, the
line may be extended to any
desired length.
 TO DETERMINE THE EQUATION OF A
STRAIGHT LINE

• To determine the equation of a straight line we must have

specific information about the line. The general equation
for a straight line is y = mx+c, and so if we need to find
the equation of a special line some information must be
given about the line. Our general equation gives us the
relationship between x and y, so x and y are variables. To
find a specific equation, we need to know the values of the
unknowns, m and c.
 TO DETERMINE THE EQUATION OF A
STRAIGHT LINE

• Method 1: Given the Values of ‘m’ and ‘c’

Example: State the equation of a line whose gradient is 3 and whose
y-intercept is 2.
So m = 3 and c = 2
Substituting these values in y = mx + c , we have
y = 3x + 2 .
 TO DETERMINE THE EQUATION OF A
STRAIGHT LINE

Method 2: Given the gradient and a point on the line

• If we are given the gradient and one point, we can use the following method to obtain the
equation.
Example: Determine the equation of a line passing through the point (3, 5) with a gradient of 2.
• We calculate the value of c by substituting the value of m and the coordinates in the
equation y = mx + c
• Substituting 𝑚 = 2, 𝑥 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 5:
5 = 2(3) + 𝑐
𝑐 = −1
The equation of the line is 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1
 TO DETERMINE THE EQUATION OF
A STRAIGHT LINE

Method 3: Given two points on the line

• If we are given two points, then we can use
the coordinates of the points to calculate
the gradient of the line and proceed as we
did above. To calculate the gradient we can
use the following derived below.
Example: Determine the equation of the line
that passes through the points (2, 1) and (4,
7).
 QUESTIONS

1. A line cuts the y-axis at (0, 5) and has a gradient of 4. State its
equation.
2. Determine the equation of the line passing through the point (2, 4)
and whose gradient is 3.
3. Determine the equation of the straight line that passes through O
and which is perpendicular to the line with the equation, y = 2x .
4. Find the equation of the line passing through the point (2, −1) and
which is parallel to the line with the equation, 2y+x-1=0.
 INTERCEPTS ON THE X AND Y AXES

• To determine the y coordinate on a line which cuts the x – axis, we let

y = 0. This is because, at any point where a line cuts the x-axis, the y
coordinate is zero.
• Similarly, to determine the x-coordinate on a line which cuts the y –
axis, we let x = 0 . This is because, at any point where a line cuts the
y-axis, the x coordinate is zero.
• The point where a line cuts the y-axis is called the y- intercept. The
point where a line cuts the x-axis is called the x-intercept.
 QUESTION

Determine the coordinates of the points at which

the line y = 4x-8 cuts each axis.
 GRAPHS

Zoom with Zaeed

 TYPES OF TRAVEL GRAPHS

• Travel graphs display relationships between distance and time or

between speed and time. Such relationships enable one to
determine unknown quantities using graphical methods. We
shall begin our study of this topic by reviewing the concept of
the gradient.
 THE GRADIENT OF A STRAIGHT LINE

• In our study of coordinate geometry, we have used many different methods to

find the gradient of a straight line. Depending on the information given, we
usually determine what method is best to use to find the gradient. In this
chapter, we will be reading off the gradient of a straight line using mainly two
methods.
THE GRADIENT OF A STRAIGHT LINE
THE GRADIENT OF A STRAIGHT LINE
 GRADIENT OF A CURVE

• As the above examples illustrate, the

gradient of a line is constant. It has only one
value, and it does not matter where on the
line it is measured. However, a curve
changes its direction throughout its path, as
the value of x changes.
• And so, the gradient of a curve is different
at every point. The term ‘gradient of a
curve’ really means the gradient of the
curve at a particular point.
• This gradient of a curve at a point is
defined as the gradient of the tangent
to the curve at that point.
GRADIENT OF A CURVE
 CALCULATING THE GRADIENT OF A CURVE
AT A POINT

x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 0 1 4 9 16 25
 CALCULATING THE GRADIENT OF
A CURVE AT A POINT

•
 TRAVEL GRAPHS

•
 TRAVEL GRAPHS

•
 UNITS FOR SPEED, DISTANCE AND TIME

• In calculations involving speed, distance and time, we sometimes need to

change from one unit to another. If distance and time are measured in metres
and seconds respectively then the unit for speed (or velocity), is metres per
second abbreviated as m/s or preferably ms-1 (S.I units of measurement).
Another common unit for speed is km/h or kmh-1.
 QUESTIONS

1) Change 180 kmh-1 into ms-1.

2) If a car travels at a speed of 10 ms-1 for 3 minutes, calculate the distance it
travels.
 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

•
 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

•
 CONSTANT ACCELERATION AND
DECELERATION

• The data shown below represents the velocity of an object starting from rest, travelling in
a straight line. The object’s velocity is changing by 10ms-1 in each second.

Constant acceleration

Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Velocity (ms-1) 0 10 20 30 40 50

• The change in velocity is the same each second and the object is said to have a constant
acceleration. In the table below, the object’s velocity is changing by 10ms -1 but it is
decreasing. In this case, the object is slowing down and it has a constant deceleration.
 CONSTANT ACCELERATION AND
DECELERATION

Constant deceleration

Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Velocity (ms-1) 50 40 30 20 10 0

• A change in velocity does not have to be constant, for example, if the velocity of the object
is changing as shown in the table below, then it is said to have a non-constant acceleration.
In this case, the object is increasing its speed at a variable rate.
 CONSTANT ACCELERATION AND
DECELERATION

Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Velocity (ms-1) 0 10 25 45 70 100
 TRAVEL GRAPHS

• Travel graphs are representations of journeys of objects over a duration of

time. Two types of graphs will be discussed in this section, these are distance
(or displacement) versus time and velocity (or speed) versus time.
• Such graphs may be straight lines or curves and we are reminded at this point
that distance is a scalar quantity whilst displacement is a vector quantity
(distance in a specified direction). Consequently, speed is a scalar measure
whilst velocity, which is speed in a specified direction, is a vector measure.
• When drawing travel graphs, time is always on the horizontal axis.
 TRAVEL GRAPHS

Distance-Time Graphs
• We will first look at a straight-line distance-time
graph. The graph below shows the journey of a
cyclist from his home.
• Let us examine the graph and interpret the
different segments (branches) of the journey.
Each straight line on the graph tells us
something about the journey.
 TRAVEL GRAPHS

• The first point on the x-axis tells us that at 8:00

a.m. the cyclist began his journey since his
distance from home was 0 km.
• At 9:00 a.m., the cyclist was 10 km away from
home and at 10:00 a.m. the cyclist was 20 km
away from home.
• Between 10 a.m. and 11 a.m., the cyclist was at
rest because his distance from home remained
the same for that period (20 km).
 TRAVEL GRAPHS

•
 TRAVEL GRAPHS

•
 TRAVEL GRAPHS

•
QUESTION