Surveyeing

Module 4
Chapter: Theodolite Traversing

1. Define theodolite. Write the different purposes of theodolite.

Ans: Theodolite is a measurement instrument utilized in surveying to determine horizontal
and vertical angles with the tiny low telescope that may move within the horizontal and
vertical planes.
It is an electronic machine which looks sort of a tiny telescope. It is extensively used for the
measurement of vertical and horizontal angles for scaling functions and within the housing
industry. The accuracy with that these angles may be measured ranges from 5mins to 0.1 sec.
It is utilized in triangulation networks.
Followings are the major uses of theodolite:

 Measuring horizontal and vertical angles

 Locating points on a line
 Finding the difference in the level
 Prolonging survey lines
 Ranging curves
 Setting out grades
 Tachometric surveying

2. Write the different types of theodolite.

Ans: Theodolite may be of two types:
(i) Transit theodolite
(ii) Non-transit theodolite

Theodolite may also be classified as:

(i) Vernier theodolites – when fitted with vernier scale.

(ii) Micrometer theodolites – when fitted with micrometer.

3. Some Definitions related to theodolite.

Ans: (i) Centering: The setting of a theodolite over a station mark by means of a plumb bob
is known as centering. The plumb bob is suspended from a hook fixed below the vertical axis.

(ii) Transiting: The method of turning the telescope about its horizontal axis in a vertical
plane through 180° is known as transiting.

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(iii) Face left: Face left means that the vertical circle of the theodolite is on the left of the
observer at the time of taking readings. The observation taken in the face left position is
called face – left observation.

(iv) Face right: Face right refers to the situation when the vertical circle of the theodolite is
on the right of the observer at the time of taking readings. The observation taken in the face
right position is called face – right observation.

(v) Swinging the telescope: Swinging indicates the turning of the telescope in a horizontal
plane. It is called ‘right swing’ when the telescope is turned clockwise and ‘left swing’ when
the telescope is turned anticlockwise.

4. Write the different components of transit theodolite. Write the functions of different
components of transit theodolite.

Ans: Following are the parts of a theodolite:

 Telescope
 Vertical circle
 Index frame
 The standards
 The upper plate
 The lower plate
 The levelling head
 The shifting head
 Plate level
 Tripod
 Plumb bob
 Magnetic compass
 Trivet
 Foot screw
 Tribrach
 Spindles
 Altitude bubbles

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Telescope

A telescope is a focusing instrument which has object piece at one end and eye piece at the
other end. It rotates about horizontal axis in vertical plane. The graduations are up to an
accuracy of 20”.

Vertical Circle

Vertical circle is fitted to telescope and moves simultaneously with telescope. It has
graduation in each quadrant numbered from 0 to 90 degrees.

Index Frame

It is also called as T-frame or vernier frame. It consists of two arms vertical and horizontal.
Vertical arm helps to lock the telescope at desired level and horizontal arm is useful to take
the measurements of vertical angles.

The Standards

The standards are the frames which supports telescope and allow it to rotate about vertical
axis. Generally, these are in letter A-shape. So, standards are also called as A-frame.

The Upper Plate

This is also called as vernier plate. The top surface of upper plate gives support to the
standards. It also consists of an upper clamping screw with respect to tangents screw which
helps to fixing it to the lower plate. When the upper clamping screw is tightened both upper
and lower plates are attached and moved together with some relative motion because of upper

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tangent screw. The upper [late also consists two verniers with magnifiers which are arranged
diagonally. It is attached tow inner spindle.

The Lower Plate

This is also called as scale plate. Because it contains a scale on which 0 to 360° readings are
graduated. It is attached to the outer spindle and consists of lower clamping screw. If lower
clamp screw is loosened and upper clamp screw is tightened, both plates can rotate together.
Similarly, if lower clamping screw is tightened and upper clamp is loosened then, only upper
plate is movable and lower plate is fixed with tribratch plate.

The Levelling Head

The levelling head contains two parallel triangular plates called as tribratch plates. The upper
one is known as upper tribratch plate and is used to level the upper plate and telescope with
the help of levelling screws provided at its three ends. The lower one is called as lower
tribratch plate and is attached to the tripod stand.

The Shifting Head

Shifting head also contains two parallel plates which are moved one over the other with in
small area. Shifting head lies below the lower plate. It is useful to centering the whole
instrument over the station.

Plate Level

Plate levels are carried by the upper plate which are right angles to each other with one of
them is parallel to trunnion axis. These plate levels help the telescope to settle in exact
vertical position.

Tripod

Tripod is nothing but a stand on which theodolite is mounted. It should place in such a way
that theodolite should be in exact levelled position. The tripod has legs with steel shoes at
their ends. These hold the ground strongly without any movement when placed. Tripod has
an external screw which helps to attach the theodolite by tribratch plate in fixed position.

Plumb Bob

Plumb bob is tool having a cone shaped weight attached to a long thread. The weight is
hanged using thread from the centre of tripod stand and centering of theodolite is done.

Magnetic Compass

Simpler theodolites may contain circular compass box in the centre of upper plate. When we
select north as reference meridian it will be useful.

Trivet

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It is a circular plate having a central, threaded hole for fixing the theodolite on the tripod
stand by a wing nut. It is also called the base plate. Three foot screws are secured to this plate
by means of a ball and socket arrangement.

Foot Screws

These are meant for levelling the instrument. The lower part of the foot screws are secured in
the trivet by means of ball and socket arrangement, and the upper threaded part passes
through hole in the tribrach plate.

Tribrach

The tribrach is a triangular plate carrying three foot screws at its end.

Spindles

The theodolite consists of two spindles or axes – one inner and the other outer. The inner axis
is solid and conical, and the outer is hollow. The two spindles are coaxial.

Surveying
Module 5

1. Define digital Planimeter. Write the different component of digital planimeter.

Ans: The digital planimeter is a computerised instrument with pole arms or rollers. It gives
directly the reading of an area calculated in sq. inches, sq. metres, sq. kilometers, etc. The
storage unit is used for downloading data into a computer. The unique facility is that it
provides adding areas, accumulating measurements and average multiple measurements. The
digital planimeters requires initial setting for unit and scale. Therefore, it never requires a
multiplying constant like an ordinary planimeter for calculation of area. The measuring
capacity of a digital planimeter is 100 times larger than an ordinary planimeter.

Components of planimeter

i) Tracing arm
ii) Tracing point
iii) Anchor arm
iv) Weight and needle point
v) Clamp
vi) Hinge

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 vii) Tangent screw
viii) Index
ix) Wheel
x) Dial
xi) Vernier

2. Write the uses of digital planimeter.

Ans: Following are the uses of digital planimeter:

i) Digital planimeter can be used to measure the area of irreglar shapes by tracing an
ouline or perimeter, which then translates into a flat shape, often a rectangle.

ii) A skilled person can calculate the area of irregular shapes such as square, cube,
cylinder or spherical surfaces. With a digital planimeter he can count out and mark
on any number measuring board and then use this board to obtain a flat surface
measurement.

iii) Digital planimeter is used as a mathematical instrument. It is used for the purpose
of measuring and calculating the area of plane figure.

iv) It is also used in the building trade to calculate the areas of large floors.

v) The digital planimeter is also used in manufacturing industry to measure objects in

factories.

3. Define Drone surveying.

Ans: A drone survey refers to the use of a drone, or unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), to
capture aerial data with downward-facing sensors, such as RGB or multispectral cameras, and
LIDAR payloads. During a drone survey with an RGB camera, the ground is photographed
several times from different angles, and each image is tagged with coordinates.

4. Define Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) or write the principle of EDM.

Ans: Electronic distance measurement (EDM) is a method of determining the length between
two points using electromagnetic waves. EDM is commonly carried out with digital
instruments called theodolites or total station.

EDM instruments are highly reliable and convenient pieces of surveying equipment and can
be used to measure distances of up to 100 kilometres.

5. Write the uses of Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM).

Ans: Following are the uses of EDM:

i) Electronic distance measurement in general is a term used as a

method for distance measurement by electronic means.

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 ii) In this method instruments are used to measure distance that rely
on propagation, reflection and reception of electromagnetic waves
like radio, visible light or infrared waves.

6. Define micro optic theodolite. Write its uses.

Ans: Micro Optic theodolites are traditional angle measurement instruments that are used in
geodetic survey and engineering measurement.

Uses:

i) Used in Geodetic survey.

ii) Used in engineering measurements.
iii) Used for all routine survey work in construction.

7. Define Electronic Digital Theodolite. Write its uses.

Ans: Electronic Digital Theodolites consist of a telescope that is mounted on a base, as well
as an electronic readout screen that is used to display horizontal and vertical angles. Digital
theodolites are convenient because the digital readouts take the place of traditional graduated
circles and this creates more accurate readings.

Uses:

i) It is used to measure the horizontal angle and vertical angle between two points
accurately up to a precision of 1” (one second).

ii) It is used to check the alignments of roads, railways track tunnel and bridges.

iii) It is used for measurements of bearing and measurements of horizontal and

vertical distances and determination of the direction of true north.

8. Write a short note on Total Station.

Ans: A total station is an electronic/optical instrument used in modern surveying. It is also

used by surveyor or archaeologists to record excavations as well as by police, crime scene
investigators, private accident Re-constructionists and insurance companies to take
measurements of scenes. The total station is an electronic theodolite (transit) integrated with
an electronic distance meter (EDM), plus internal data storage and/or external data collector.

The total station is designed for measuring of slant distances, horizontal and vertical angles
and elevations in topographic and geodetic works, tachometric surveys, as well as for
solution of application geodetic tasks. The measurement results can be recorded into the
internal memory and transferred to a personal computer interface.

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Angles and distances are measured from the total station to points under survey, and the
coordinates (X, Y, and Z or northing, easting and elevation) of surveyed points relative to the
total station position are calculated using trigonometry and triangulation.

Data can be downloaded from the total station to a computer and application software used to
compute results and generate a map of the surveyed area.

9. Write the different components of total station.

Ans: Following are the different component of total station.

i) Handle ii) Objective lens

iii) Collimator iv) Vertical circle lock
v) Vertical tangent screw vi) Horizontal circle lock
vii) Horizontal circle tangent screw viii) Base
ix) Tribrach x) Tribrach leveling screws
xi) Optical plummet lens focus xii) Optical plummet eyepiece
xiii) Keyboard xiv) Tribrach lock
xv) Tripod

10. Define remote sensing.

Ans: Remote sensing may be defined as art and science of gathering the information
about objects, occurrence or area without having physical contact with it. Eyesight’s
and photographs are common examples of remote sensing in which artificial light
energy from electricity or sunlight is made to strike an object.

11. Write a short note on ‘Remote sensing’.

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Ans: Remote sensing is the process of detecting and monitoring the physical characteristics
of an area by measuring its reflected and emitted radiation at a distance (typically from
satellite or aircraft). Special cameras collect remotely sensed images, which help researchers
"sense" things about the Earth. Some examples are:

 Cameras on satellites and airplanes take images of large areas on the Earth's surface,
allowing us to see much more than we can see when standing on the ground.
 Sonar systems on ships can be used to create images of the ocean floor without
needing to travel to the bottom of the ocean.
 Cameras on satellites can be used to make images of temperature changes in the
oceans.

Some specific uses of remotely sensed images of the Earth include:

 Large forest fires can be mapped from space, allowing rangers to see a much larger
area than from the ground.
 Tracking clouds to help predict the weather or watching erupting volcanoes, and help
watching for dust storms.
 Tracking the growth of a city and changes in farmland or forests over several years or
decades.
 Discovery and mapping of the rugged topography of the ocean floor (e.g., huge
mountain ranges, deep canyons, and the “magnetic striping” on the ocean floor).

12. Write the applications of remote sensing in Civil engineering.

Ans: There are various applications of remote sensing which may be grouped into the
following:

i. Resource Exploration
ii. Environmental Study
iii. Land use
iv. Site Investigation
v. Archaeological Investigation and
vi. Natural Hazards Study

i) Resource Exploration: Geologists use remote sensing to study the formation of

sedimentary rocks and identify deposits of various minerals, detect oil fields and
identify underground storage of water. Remote sensing is used for identifying
potential fishing zone, coral reef mapping and to find other wealth from ocean.
ii) Environmental Study: Remote sensing is used to study cloud motion and predict
rains. With satellite data it is possible to study water discharge from various industries
to find out dispersion and harmful effects, if any, on living animals. Oil spillage and
oil slicks can be studied using remote sensing.

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iii) Land Use: By remote sensing, mapping of larger areas is possible in short time.
Forest area, agricultural area, residential and industrial area can be measured regularly
and monitored. It is possible to find out areas of different crops.
iv) Site Investigation: Remote sensing is used extensively in site investigations for
dams, bridges, pipelines. It can be used to locate construction materials like sand and
gravel for the new projects.
v) Archaeological Investigation: Many structures of old era are now buried under the
ground and are not known. But by studying changes in moisture content and other
characteristics of the buried objects and upper new layer, remote sensors are able to
recognize the buried structures of archaeological importance.
vi) Natural Hazard Study: Using remote sensing the following natural hazards can
be predicted to some extent and hazards minimized:
 Earthquake
 Volcanoes
 Landslides
 Floods and
 Hurricane and Cyclones

13. Write the full form of GPS

Ans: Global Positioning System

14. Write a short note on ‘Global Positioning System’ (GPS).

Ans: GPS stands for Global Positioning System by which anyone can always obtain the
location and time information anywhere in the world. It is a system of earth-orbiting satellites
which provides a precise location on earth’s surface in latitude/longitude coordinates. GPS is
a powerful and widely used integrated tool (like in GNSS) that is used in Civil Engineering
for collection of tabulated location data.

Segments of GPS

i. Space Segments – A number of GPS fly in a circular orbit around the earth at an altitude of
approximately 20,000 km (four GPS satellites per one orbit) with a period of 12 hours. At
least 6 satellites are always within line of sight from any location and these satellites are
powered by solar cells.

ii. Control Segments – Control Segment consists of the control station, monitor station,
ground antenna. Control station maintains optimum GPS constellation. Monitor station
checks the exact altitude, position, speed of orbiting satellite. Ground antennas communicate
with GPS satellite. It is responsible for the proper functioning of all the operations of GPS.

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 iii. User Segments – GPS receiver is composed of an antenna, receiver processor, and highly
stable clock. At least 4 GPS satellites are required for calculating the exact position.

Application of GPS in Civil Engineering

i. Geodetic Control Survey– GPS is the system created and maintained by the United States.
GLONASS is the Russian counterpart to GPS. These two systems combined called as Global
Navigational Satellite System (GNSS) and continue to advance and improve its capabilities
which has become a common tool for surveying and can perform geodetic control surveying
in a very short time as compared to classical terrestrial survey methods.

ii. Cadastral Survey– Cadastral surveying is the survey related to land boundaries and
subdivisions and is used for boundary determination. With GPS, the cadastral survey
provides very accurate results, and since the major work of the land is on real estate so it is
considered as the most important of all the types of surveys. GPS receivers proved to be of
high accuracy of the measurements and faster alternatives.

iii. Photogrammetry, Remote sensing and surveying– GPS is integrated into

photogrammetry and it increases the ease of spatial data acquisition. In Remote Sensing, GPS
can be used to yield applications in various fields like environmental modelling, Disaster
mitigation, mobile mapping, etc. GPS receivers provide very accurate data and are widely
used in surveying.

iv. Navigation– GPS helps in determining the ground position of an object and helps in the
navigation to any location.

15. Write the full form of GIS.

Ans: Geographic Information System.

16. Write a short note on ‘Geographic Information System’ (GIS).

Ans: A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool that examines spatial
relationships, patterns and trends. It is used for capturing, storing, checking, and displaying
data related to positions on Earth’s surface. It is an organized collection of computer
hardware, software, and geographical data to analyse and display all forms of referenced
information. In GIS global reference system WGS 84 (World Geodetic System 1984) is used
for geospatial information.

Components of GIS

i. Data: GIS stores location data as thematic layers and information about features. GIS data
are of two types –
o Raster – It stores data in rows and columns. They can be discrete or continuous.

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o Vectors – It is used to store spatial data which is comprised of lines or arcs.

ii. Hardware – Hardware such as mobile phones, CPU runs GIS software, dual monitors,
extra storage and graphic processing cards are must-haves too in GIS.

iii. Software – ArcGIS and QGIS are the most commonly used desktop GIS software. There
are other GIS software’s other than desktop GIS like GeoServer, MapServer, GeoTool, etc.

iv. People – GIS users are technical specialists who design and maintain like managers,
programmers, analysts, etc.

v. Method – The map can be created by automated raster to vector or can be done manually
by scanned images.

Application of GIS in Civil Engineering

i. Remote Sensing – It gathers the information about an object (It may be terrain, land,
topography, hill etc.) without coming contact (physically) the object and this information or
data is then used in GIS.

ii. Transportation – GPS helps to review the existing infrastructure, involves surveys of
roads. GIS integrates, manage, analyse and visualize the wide range of data sets.

iii. Watershed analysis – Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) are a type of raster GIS layer
and it is used in Watershed analysis to delineate watersheds and to derive features such as
streams, stream network, catchment areas, basin etc.

iv. Pollution monitoring – Different types of data can be integrated and correlated with GIS
like chemical, physical, demographic. All this information can be analysed and elaborated in
order to derive thematic cartography which is then integrated with health data.

v. Resource management – GIS in natural resource management is being used in analysing,

organizing, managing and monitoring the natural hazards. It provides spatial data of the
disasters which are indicated through the GIS-based map.

vi. Terrain mapping and analysis – Terrain Analysis is the analysis and interpretation of
topographic features such as slope, elevation, contour lines, upslope, downslope, etc. through
GIS.

Software for GIS

o ArcGIS
o QGIS
o gvSIG
o Grass GIS

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o SAGA GIS
o SuperGIS
o Map Window GIS
o IDRISI
o AutoCAD Map 3D
o Bentley Map
o ILWIS

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