MODULEI

:IMAGI
NGEQUI
PMENTTECHNOLOGY

Pur
pose

Thi
smodul
ewi
l
lmakeyouunder
standt
hepr
inci
plesandoper
ati
onsofmedi
cal
i
magi
ngequi
pmenti
nor
dert
obeabl
etohandl
ethem saf
ely andef
fect
ivel
y
dur
ingi
magi
ngpr
ocedur
es.

Act
ivi
ti
es

I
nthi
smodul
e,t
hel
ect
urescapt
uret
hef
oll
owi
ng:

1
.El
ect
ri
ci
ty

 Gener
ati
on

 Mai
nssuppl
y

 Tr
ansmi
ssi
on

 Mai
nssuppl
ycabl
es

2.Mai
nsvol
tagecompensat
ion

 Pr
inci
ples

 Met
hods

3.El
ect
ri
calsaf
etydevi
ces

 Ear
thi
ng

I
nsul
ati
on

 Fuses

 Ci
rcui
tbr
eaker
s

 Mai
nsi
sol
ati
onswi
tches

4.Pr
imar
yci
rcui
toft
heH.
T.Tr
ans
for
mer

 Theaut
otr
ansf
ormer
  H.
T.Cont
roldevi
ces

 Ki
l
o-vol
tagei
ndi
cat
ion

5.Thex-
rayhi
ght
ensi
onci
rcui
t
 Hi
ght
ensi
ont
ransf
ormer
 Hi
ght
ensi
ongener
atort
ank
 Rect
ifi
cat
ion
 Hi
ght
ensi
ont
ubehead
 Hi
ght
ensi
oncabl
es
 Hi
ght
ensi
onchangeovers
wit
ch

BROADOBJECTI
VES

Byt
heendoft
hissemest
eryoushoul
dbeabl
eto:

1
. Expl
aint
hegener
ati
onofel
ect
ri
ci
ty

2. Expl
aint
hedi
str
ibut
ionofel
ect
ri
calener
gy

3. Descr
ibet
hemai
nssuppl
ycabl
es

4. Di
scussel
ect
ri
calener
gysuppl
ytot
hei
magi
ngdepar
tment
.

5. Di
scusst
heef
fect
sofel
ect
ri
calr
esi
stanceon powersuppl
ytoi
magi
ng
equi
pment
.

5. Expl
aint
hepr
inci
pleofmai
nsvol
tagecompensat
ion.

6. Descr
ibet
hemet
hodsofmai
nsvol
tagecompensat
ion.

7. St
atet
heef
fect
sofi
ncor
rectmai
nsvol
tagei
nput
.

8. Expl
aint
hemet
hodsofcompensat
ionf
orvol
tagedr
op-
on-
load.

9. Di
scussel
ect
ri
calsaf
etywhenusi
ngel
ect
ri
calequi
pment
.

1
0.Descr
ibedevi
ces/measur
esus
edt
oachi
eveel
ect
ri
calsaf
ety.

1
2 Descr
ibet
hepr
imar
yci
rcui
toft
hehi
ght
ensi
ont
ransf
ormer
.
1
3 Descr
ibet
heKVcont
roldevi
cesf
ort
heX-
rayt
ube.

1
4 Expl
aint
hemet
hodsofKVi
ndi
cat
ion

1
5 Expl
aint
hemeani
ngoft
hef
oll
owi
ngt
ermsasr
elat
edt
otheX-
rayci
rcui
t.

(
i) Hi
ght
ensi
on
(
ii
) Lowt
ensi
on
(
ii
i
)Pr
imar
yci
rcui
t
(
iv)Hi
ghTensi
onCi
rcui
t
(
v)Hi
ght
ensi
ongener
ator
1
6Expl
aint
heneedf
orahi
ght
ens
ions
uppl
yfort
heX-
rayt
ube
1
7Li
stt
hecomponent
soft
hehi
ght
ensi
onci
rcui
toft
heX-
rayuni
t
1
8 Descr
ibet
hehi
ght
ensi
ont
ubehead
1
9Descr
ibet
hehi
ght
ensi
ont
ransf
ormert
ank(
hight
ensi
ongener
atort
ank.
20Expl
aint
her
ect
ifi
cat
ionasappl
i
edt
otheel
ect
ri
ci
ty
21Expl
aint
heneedf
orr
ect
ifi
cat
ioni
nthehi
ght
ensi
onci
rcui
t.
22Descr
ibeatl
eastt
wot
ypesofr
ect
ifi
ersi
ncommonusei
nX-
rayci
rcui
ts.
23Li
stal
lrect
ifi
cat
ionsyst
emsus
edi
nthehi
ght
ensi
onci
rcui
ts.
24Descr
ibef
ull
yeachoft
her
ect
ifi
cat
ions
yst
emsl
i
stedabove.
25Descr
ibest
ruct
ure,f
unct
ionandappl
i
cat
ionoft
hehi
ght
ensi
onswi
tch.
26Descr
ibedesi
gn,const
ruct
ion,mai
ntenancer
equi
rement
sandhow t
otest
t
hepat
encyoft
hehi
ght
ens
ioncabl
es.
27Expl
aint
hepr
ocedur
eofexchangi
nghi
ght
ensi
oncabl
es.

ELECTRI
CITY

Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives

1
. Descr
ibet
hegener
ati
onofel
ect
ri
calener
gy.

2. Expl
aint
hemeani
ngofSi
neWaveoft
heA.
C.Suppl
y

3. Descr
ibet
hegener
ati
onofpol
y-phasesyst
ems

4. Li
stt
hemet
hodsofconnect
ingout
putt
ermi
nal
sinpol
y-phasesyst
ems.

5. Di
ffer
ent
iat
ethemet
hodsl
i
stedi
n4above
6. Dr
aw ci
rcui
tdi
agr
amst
oshow met
hodsofconnect
ionanddi
str
ibut
ionof
el
ect
ri
calener
gy.

7. Di
ffer
ent
iat
ebet
weenphaseandl
i
nevol
tages

8. Descr
ibehowel
ect
ri
calener
gyi
sused.

9. Expl
ainpowerl
osesandt
hel
i
nevol
tagedr
op

1
0. Descr
ibet
heconst
ruct
ion,i
mpor
tanceofcont
rol
l
edr
esi
stanceandcol
or
codi
ngoff
eedercabl
es.

1
1. Descr
ibet
hest
ruct
ure,oper
ati
onandl
ocat
ionofmai
nsswi
tches.

MAI
NSVOLTAGECOMPENSATI
ON

Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives

1
. Expl
ainwhymai
nsvol
tagecompens
ati
oni
snecessar
y.

2. Descr
ibebot
hmanualandaut
omat
icmet
hodsofcompensat
ionf
ormai
ns
vol
tagedr
op.

3. Expl
ainwhycompensat
ionf
ormai
nres
ist
ancei
snecessar
y.

4. Expl
ainwhymai
nsf
requencycompensat
ioni
snecessar
y.

5. Descr
ibe bot
h manual and aut
omat
ic means of mai
ns f
requency
compensat
ion.

6. Expl
ainwhyi
tisi
mpor
tantf
ort
her
adi
ogr
aphert
obeabl
etocont
rolt
he
t
ubevol
tageusedf
orexposur
e.

PRI
MARYCI
RCUI
TOFTHEHI
GHTENSI
ONTRANSFORMER

Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives

1
. Descr
ibet
hepr
inci
plesofaut
otr
ansf
ormerandi
tsappl
i
cat
ion asat
ube
vol
tagecont
roldevi
ce.

2. St
ater
easonsf
orki
l
o-vol
tagei
ndi
cat
ion

3. Descr
ibe bot
h cal
i
brat
ed aut
o-t
ransf
ormerand pr
e-r
eadi
ngKVmet
eras
 meansf
ori
ndi
cat
ingt
heki
l
o-vol
tage.

4. Descr
ibemet
hodsusedt
ocompens
atef
orKVdr
opdur
ingexposur
e.

ELECTRI
CALSAFETYDEVI
CES

Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives

1
.Descr
ibepur
poses,st
ruct
ureandl
ocat
ionoff
usesandci
rcui
tbr
eaker
s.

2.Expl
ainanddi
ffer
ent
iat
einsul
ati
onandear
thi
ng

3.Descr
ibet
hest
ruct
ure,oper
ati
onandl
ocat
ionofmai
nsswi
tches.

4.Descr
ibet
hepur
poses,oper
ati
onandl
ocat
ionofi
nter
locki
ngci
rcui
ts.

REFERENCES

1X-
rayphysi
candequi
pmentbyF.Jaundr
ellThompsonandW.
J.Ashwor
th

2X-
rayequi
pmentf
orst
udentr
adi
ogr
apher
sDN&MOChesney

3Amanualofr
adi
ogr
aphi
cequi
pmentSybi
lM.St
ockl
eyLi
brar
y.

4Fundament
alPhys
icsofr
adi
ologyW.
J.Mer
edi
thandJ.
B.Massey.

5Medi
calX-
rayTechni
quesi
ndi
agnost
icr
adi
ologybyG.
J.VanderPl
aat
s.

6Equi
pmentf
ordi
agnost
icr
adi
ogr
aphybyE.Fost
er
ELECTRI
CAL
ENERGY
(
ELECTRI
CITY)
I
MAGI
NGEQUI
PMENTTECHNOLOGY(
I.
E.T)

I
ntr
oduct
ion

 Medi
calphysi
csandchemi
str
y(MPC)andI
magi
ngEqui
pmentTechnol
ogy
ar
etwocl
osel
yrel
atedsubj
ect
s.

 Ther
efor
e,knowl
edgeofbot
hsubj
ect
sisessent
ialf
oracompet
enti
magi
ng
t
echnol
ogi
st.

 Ref
erencest
othesubj
ectmay bemadef
rom t
imet
oti
mei
nrel
ati
ont
o
t
hei
rappl
i
cat
iont
ospeci
fi
cequi
pment
.

 I
.
E.T.gi
ves i
n si
mpl
eter
ms t
he pr
inci
ples under
lyi
ng t
he oper
ati
on of
equi
pmentsot
hatst
udent
soncompl
eti
on,maybeabl
eto;

1
.Sel
ectt
hemostsui
tabl
eequi
pmentf
orapar
ti
cul
ari
nst
all
ati
on.

2.Us
etheequi
pmentt
oit
sful
lpot
ent
ial
.

3.Gi
vesoundadvi
cet
opl
anner
sint
hesel
ect
ionofnewequi
pment
.

4.Tor
elat
etheequi
pmentyouar
eusi
ngwi
tht
heknowl
edgegai
nedf
rom
cl
ass.

Not
e:Updat
eyourknowl
edgeasnew equi
pment
sornew model
sar
e
bei
ngi
ntr
oducedf
rom t
imet
oti
me.

GENERATI
ONOFELECTRI
CITY

 To oper
ateany X-
ray equi
pment
,oneneedst
heavai
l
abi
l
ity ofel
ect
ri
cal
ener
gy(
tomakei
twor
k).Thi
sel
ect
ri
calener
gyi
sinmostcasest
akenf
rom
t
hemai
nssuppl
y.Char
act
eri
sti
csoft
hesuppl
yinf
luencet
heoper
ati
onof
t
heequi
pment
.

 El
ect
ri
calener
gy i
sasour
ceofpowerandcanbegener
atedandeasi
l
y
t
rans
mit
tedovergr
eatdi
stancest
othepl
aceswher
eiti
sgoi
ngt
obeused.

 Theel
ect
ri
calsyst
emsweus
eembr
acet
hreesepar
ateel
ement
s.
 (
i) Gener
ati
onofel
ect
ri
calener
gyi
napowerst
ati
on

(
ii
)Di
str
ibut
ion and t
ransmi
ssi
on oft
he el
ect
ri
calener
gy by means of
coppercabl
esorpowerl
i
nes
.

(
ii
i
)Use of el
ect
ri
calener
gy.I
n var
ious pi
eces of equi
pment f
or t
he
pr
ovi
si
onofl
i
ghtandheatandf
orot
herwor
ks(
inourcase)pr
oduct
ion
ofr
adi
ogr
aphi
cimages.

DI
RECTANDALTERANTI
NGCURRENTS

Ther
ear
etwoki
ndsofEl
ect
ri
calCur
rent

(
i) Di
rectorcont
inuouscur
rent
.

(
ii
)Al
ter
nat
ingcur
rent
[ac]

Di
rectcur
rentorcont
inuousi
sthesi
mpl
estofsor
tandi
sthet
ypepr
ovi
dedby
abat
ter
y.I
tisaf
low ofel
ect
ri
ci
tyi
nonedi
rect
ional
ongconduct
orswhi
ch
car
ryi
tinacompl
eteci
rcui
t.

I
tcanbeseent
hatt
hecur
rentoncei
treachesi
tsf
ullval
ueatt
hepoi
ntAi
n
t
imei
scont
inuousandunvar
ying.I
tisnotgoi
ngupanddownt
hever
ti
calaxi
s
oft
hegr
aphasshownbel
ow.

I
tisnotchangi
ngi
ndi
rect
ioni
.
e.i
tdoesnotcomet
otheot
hersi
deoft
he
hor
izont
alt
ime-
axi
sasshownbel
ow.
Al
ter
nat
ingcur
rent
:Var
yandchangei
tsdi
rect
ionandf
lowi
nconduct
orswhi
ch
car
ryi
tin compl
ete ci
rcui
t.El
ect
ri
ci
tyi
sswi
ngi
ngback and f
ort
hin sucha
ci
rcui
t.A-
Ccanbepr
oducedbyr
otat
ingacoi
lofwi
rei
nmagnet
icf
iel
d.Thecoi
l
hasi
nducedi
nitanel
ect
romot
ivef
orce(
EMF)i
.
e.el
ect
ri
calpr
essur
ewhi
cht
ri
es
t
omakeel
ect
ri
ci
tymor
eandt
hisEMFcanbeusedt
omakecur
rentf
low i
na
compl
eteci
rcui
t.

Asket
chdepi
cti
ngt
hecoi
lwhi
chr
otat
esatauni
for
mrat
eini
tsmagnet
icf
iel
d,
andt
heext
ernalci
rcui
tinwhi
chcur
rentcanbemadet
ofl
owbymeansofEMF
gener
atedi
nthecoi
l
.

Agr
apht
oshowcur
rentagai
nstt
ime-
scal
eisasshownbel
ow:

Theaboveshowsacur
rentmovi
ngupanddownt
hever
ti
calaxi
s(t
husvar
ying
i
nval
ue)andappear
sonbot
hsi
desoft
het
imeaxi
s(i
.
e.changi
ngdi
rect
ion.Thi
s
f
orm ofcur
renti
scal
l
edasi
newave.

THESI
NEWAVEOFALTERNATI
NGCURRENT

The el
ect
romagnet
icf
orce gener
ated atany i
nst
anti
srel
ated t
othe angl
e
t
hroughwhi
cht
hecoi
lhasmovedbybei
ngdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onalt
othesi
neof
t
hisangl
e.Thi
siswhyt
hisACwavei
sknownasasi
ne-
wave.

Thewavegr
owsupt
omaxi
mum val
ue(
consi
der
edaposi
ti
vemaxi
mum)
,fal
l
s
backt
ozer
oagai
n,changesdi
rect
ionandgr
owst
oamaxi
mum val
uei
nthi
s
newdi
rect
ion(
consi
der
edanegat
ivemaxi
mum)
.

Onecompl
et 360o r
ewave( otat
ionoft
hecoi
l
)cal
l
edonecycl
eismadeupof
t
wohal
f-wavecur
rentf
lowi
ngi
ndi
ffer
entdi
rect
ionf
oreachhal
fcycl
e.

FREQUENCYOFALTERNATI
NGCURRENT

A compl
ete cycl
eispr
oduced by one compl
eter
otat
ion oft
he coi
lini
ts
magnet
icf
iel
d.Ther
efor
e,t
her
ateofr
epet
it
ionoft
hewavef
orm dependson
t
her
ateatwhi
cht
hecoi
li
srevol
vingi
nagi
venper
iodoft
ime.

Thenumberofcycl
esofACandt
henumberofcompl
eter
evol
uti
onsi
sthe
same.Thenumberofcompl
etecycl
espersecondi
scal
l
edt
hef
requency of
t
heal
ter
nat
ingcur
rent
.Incaseofonecoi
lrot
ati
ngbet
weent
hemagnet
icpol
es,
i
tisknownassi
ngl
ephaseal
ter
nat
ingcur
rent
.

POLYPHASEALTERNATI
NGCURRENT

Consi
deracasewher
emor
ethanonecoi
lisr
otat
edt
hroughamagnet
icf
iel
d
e.
g.3coi
l
s,pr
oduci
ngt
hreesi
newavessi
mul
taneousl
y.

I
l
lust
rat
ion

Thet
hreecoi
l
sar
egr
oupedr
oundeachot
heranddi
spl
acedequal
l
yfr
om each
ot
herwi
t n3600 Ther
hi efor
etheyar
esepar
atedf
rom eachot 200.Thi
herby1 s
meanst
hatwhenCoi
lAi
satzer
oposi
ti
oni
nthemagnet
icf
iel
d,Coi
lBmustbe
200 posi
at1 ti
on.Thecoi
l
srot
atet
oget
herandeachpr
oducei
nitasepar
ateAC
si
newaveofEMF.Al
lthewavesar
eoft
hesamepat
ter
nandal
lgoupand
downt
opeaksoft
hesamehei
ght
.Ont
hever
ti
calaxi
sbutt
heydonotal
lreach
t
hei
rpeaksatt
het
imei
.
e.t
heyar
enoti
nst
epwi
theachot
her
.Theyar
eoutof
phase.

Waveswhi
char
einst
epwi
theachot
herar
esai
dtobeI
N-PHASE.
Thet
hreesi
newavesar
eoutofphasebecausewhenatanyonet
imeacoi
lis
atzer
oval
ueposi
ti
on,TheEMFi
satzer
o.Whent
hecoi
lisat90o,t
heEMFi
sat
posi
ti
vemaxi
mum,whent
hecoi
li 80o t
sat1 heEMFi
satzer
oagai
n,whent
he
coi
lisat270o t
heEMFi
satnegat
i mum andwhenat3600 t
vemaxi heEMFi
sat
zer
oagai
n.

Ther
efor
e,t
het
hreecoi
l
sar
edi
sposedi
ntheEMf
iel
dasf
oll
ows:

Aatzer 20o Cat240o

I
tfol
l
owst
hatwhenatanyonet
imecoi
lAi
satzer
oinval
ue,t
heval
uei
ncoi
lB
mustbef
ail
i
ngf
rom aposi
ti
vemaxi
mum ( ng300 pastt
bei he90posi
ti
on)
.And
t
heonei
ncoi
lCmustbeappr
oachi
nganegat
ivemaxi
mum ( ng300 away
bei
f
rom 270oposi
ti
on)asi
l
lust
rat
edbel
ow.

Vol
tagespr
ovi
dedby t
heset
hreesepar
atesour
cesofel
ect
ri
ci
ty ar
eoutof
phasewi
theachot
herasshowni
nthei
l
lust
rat
ion.Soi
tispossi
blet
opr
ovi
dea
gener
atorwi
tht
hreecoi
l
swhi
chcanpr
oducet
hreesepar
atesuppl
i
esofA.
C.

STARCONNECTEDTHREEPHASECI
RCUI
TS

Thet
hreevol
tagescanbedemonst
rat
edgr
aphi
cal
l
ysuper
imposedononet
ime
axi
sasshownbel
ow.

Thegr
aphshowst
hatwhenoneoft
hecur
vesi
satzer
otheot
hert
wohave
val
ueswhi
char
eequalandoppos
ite,eachi
satt
hesameper
iodoft
ime(
30oof
r
otat
ion)awayf
rom t
hemaxi
mum val
ue,andeachi
satt
hesamehei
ghtont
he
ver
ti
calaxi
s.Thi
smeanst
hatt
hesum oft
hecur
rent
srepr
esent
edby t
hese
t
hreesi
newavesofel
ect
romot
ivef
orcei
szer
o,andi
tist
rue.

I
fal
lthe si
ne wavesar
e bei
ngequal
l
y used.i
.
e.al
lthe phasesar
e equal
l
y
l
oaded.Thi
sisal
so t
rue f
oral
lot
heri
nst
antoft
ime al
ong hor
izont
alaxi
s
because oft
hese i
tisnotnecess
aryt
o pr
ovi
de a gener
atori
n a 3 phase
syst
em wi
thsi
xconduct
ingwi
res
.

I
foneendofeachoft
het
hreewi
ndi
ngsi
sconnect
edi
nacommoncent
re
poi
ntandf
ourt
ermi
nal
sar
eus
ed,asi
nthef
igur
ebel
ow,t
hewi
ndi
ngsar
esai
d
t
obest
arconnect
ed.

Conduct
orsI
,IIand I
I
Iar
e connect
ed t
othe f
ree endsoft
he wi
ndi
ngsand
conduct
orI
Visconnect
edt
othecommoncent
repoi
ntasshowni
nthef
igur
e.
Ther
efor
eift
heel
ect
ri
call
oadspl
acedoneachoft
het
hreephasesar
eequal
,
t
hecur
rentf
lowi
ngt
owar
dst
hecent
rei
noneoft
hewi
ndi
ngsi
sequalt
othe
sum oft
hecur
rent
sfl
owi
ngawayf
rom t
hecent
rei
ntheot
hert
wowi
ndi
ngs.t
o
what
evert
heext
ernalci
rcui
tsar
eusi
ngt
heel
ect
ri
calpowerandbackt
othe
wi
ndi
ngsagai
n.Thet
hreeconduct
orsI
,I
IandI
I
Iar
eknownast
het
hreel
i
nesof
t
hesuppl
y,andt
hef
our
thoneI
VFor
mthecommoncent
repoi
nti
sknownas
t
heneut
ralcabl
e.Suchasyst
em ofdi
str
ibut
ioni
sknownasat
hree-
phase,f
our
-
wi
resyst
em whi
chi
sst
ar–connect
ed.

I
tist
hest
andar
dmet
hodofdi
str
ibut
ionofel
ect
ri
ci
ty.

DELTACONNECTEDTHREE-
PHASECI
RCUI
TS

Thewi
ndi
ngscanbeconnect
edt
olookl
i
ket
ri
angl
easi
l
lust
rat
edbel
ow:

Si
ncet
het
ri
angl
eissi
mil
art
oaGr
eekcapi
tall
ett
er‘
del
ta’t
hisar
rangementi
s
knownasdel
taconnect
ionormeshconnect
ion.

Advant
agesofst
ar-
connect
edar
rangementoverDel
ta-
connect
ion.

 Themachi
ner
yischeapt
opr
oduce

 Ther
eisl
essst
ressandl
i
abi
l
ityt
obr
eakdowni
nregar
dtoi
nsul
ati
on.

 Di
str
ibut
ioncanbear
rangedt
opr
ovi
det
wodi
ffer
entvol
tagessi
mpl
y by
meansoft
wo connect
ions.I
tcan t
her
efor
e si
mpl
y meett
he needsof
di
ffer
entt
ypesofuserandcansuppl
ypowerf
ordomest
icconsumeratone
vol
tageandf
ori
ndust
ry,hos
pit
alandl
argei
nst
it
uti
onsathi
ghervol
tageas
wi
l
lbeexpl
ainedi
ndi
str
ibut
ionofel
ect
ri
calener
gy.

DI
STRI
BUT
IONOFELECTRI
CALENERGY

Theusesofel
ect
ri
calener
gyconst
it
utevar
iousl
oadsconnect
edt
othephases
oft
hesuppl
y.Thet
hreeconduct
orsI
,IIandI
I
Iar
ethet
hreel
i
nesoft
hesuppl
y
andI
Vist
heneut
ral
.Eachl
oadcanbeconnect
edbet
weenanyoneoft
hel
i
nes
andt
heneut
rali
.
e.L1
,L2andL3.Loadscanobt
aint
hei
rvol
tagesf
rom oneof
t
hewi
ndi
ngsandt
heneut
ralpr
oduci
ngwhati
scal
l
edt
hephasevol
tages–and
i
sbet
ween230–240vol
ts(
UK)
.

Loadscanal
soobt
ainvol
tagesf
rom anyt
wooft
het
hreel
i
nesi
.
e.L4,L5,L6.
Thi
svol
tagesoobt
ainedi
scal
l
edLi
nevol
tage.
Apoi
ntt
orememberi
sthatt
hesevol
tagesdonothavet
hei
rvol
tagesi
nst
ep
wi
theachot
herandt
hevol
tagesdonotcomet
opeakval
ueatt
hesamet
ime.
i
.
e.outofst
epand t
her
efor
ethe vol
tage pr
oduced i
snott
wice t
he phase
vol
tage(
480vol
ts)buti
nfacti
ssmal
l
erbyappr
oxi
mat
ely1
.73t
imest
hephase
vol
tage.I
fthephasevol
tagei
s240vol
tst
hel
i
nevol
tagewi
l
lbe240x1
.73=
41
5.2vol
tswhi
chi
susual
l
yst
atedas41
5vol
ts.

Vol
tagesobt
ainedf
rom t
hreephasesuppl
i
es

Devi
ceswhi
chuseel
ect
ri
ci
ty haveawi
der
angeofpowerr
equi
rement
s,f
rom
el
ect
ri
calci
rcui
tsconsumi
ngl
essami
l
li
wat
tst
o el
ect
ri
calket
tl
eswor
kingat
ki
l
owat
ts.

Anynat
ionalel
ect
ri
calsuppl
ysyst
em f
orgener
alusemustt
her
efor
ebeabl
eto
cope wi
tht
hese wi
de var
iat
ions.I
nrequi
rement
sforel
ect
ri
calpowerand i
t
doest
hisby maki
ngavai
l
abl
eoneormor
e“phases”ofA.
C.Thevol
tagesso
obt
ainedar
eoft
wopossi
bleval
uesandar
ecal
l
ed:

 Phasevol
tage

 Li
nevol
tage

Phasevol
tages

The vol
tagesobt
ained f
rom eachsepar
ate wi
ndi
ngoft
heAC gener
atorar
e
cal
l
edphasevol
tages.I
nthet
hree-
phasest
ar-
connect
edsyst
em (
asshowni
n
t
hef
igur
e),eachsi
ngl
ephasevol
tagei
stheEMFi
nducedi
ntoeachwi
ndi
ng.A
phasevol
tagecant
her
efor
ebeobt
ainedbet
ween:

 Theneut
ralcabl
eandt
hel
i
necabl
eI

 Theneut
ralcabl
eandt
hel
i
necabl
eII

 Theneut
ralcabl
eandt
hel
i
necabl
eII
I

asshownbel
ow.
Li
nevol
tages

Al
ter
nat
ivel
y,el
ect
ri
call
oads can al
so be obt
ained bet
ween any t
wo LI
NE
CONDUCTORi
.
e.

 Li
neIandLi
neI
I

 Li
neI
Iandl
i
neI
I
Ior

 Li
neIandl
i
neI
I
I

Eachoft
hesei
nvol
vest
wowi
ndi
ngs;e.
g.L1andLI
Iar
econnect
edt
oW1andW2
whi
char
einser
ieswi
theachot
her
.Thevol
tagessoobt
ainedar
ecal
l
edt
heLi
ne
Vol
tage.

Thest
arconnect
edphasevol
tages(
240Vbet
weenneut
ralandany onel
i
ne
cabl
e),andl
i
nevol
tagesbet
ween any t
wo l
i
necabl
es)ar
eil
l
ust
rat
edi
nthe
f
igur
ebel
ow.

Not
e:Thel
i
nevol
tagesobt
ainedbet
weenanyt
wooft
hel
i
neswi
l
lnotbet
wice
(
i.
e.480)asi
tlooksr
easonabl
yfr
om t
hef
igur
e.Thi
sisbecauseoft
hephase
di
ffer
encebet
weent
hephasevol
tages(
i.
e.1
20outofphasewi
theachot
heras
expl
ainedear
li
er)
.

Thust
heywi
l
lnotbepr
ovi
dingt
hesameval
ueofEMFatt
hesamet
ime.Thusi
t
i
spossi
blet
o obt
aint
wo di
ffer
entvol
tagesf
rom ast
ar-
connect
edf
our
-wi
re
syst
em.i
.
e.240vol
tssi
ngl
e phase,or41
5vol
tst
hree phase suppl
y(t
othe
pr
imar
ywi
ndi
ngsoft
hreephaset
rans
for
merf
orexampl
e).

Thevol
tages(
bot
hphaseandl
i
nevol
tages)
,mustbe‘
stepped-
up’t
oaver
yhi
gh
val
uei
nor
dert
otr
ansmi
tel
ect
ri
calpoweref
fici
ent
lyoverl
ongdi
stances,t
hen
‘
stepped-
down’agai
nandt
akent
otheconsumer
se.
g.houses,hospi
talet
c.

The hi
ghert
he vol
tage i
s suppl
i
ed t
o oper
atel
arge equi
pmentsuch as i
n
hospi
tal
s orf
act
ori
es. The l
owerphas
e vol
tages i
s sui
tabl
eforoper
ati
ng
el
ect
ri
calequi
pmentwhi
chdoesnotr
equi
remuchel
ect
ri
calpowere.
g.domest
ic
use.

Var
iousf
ormsofener
gyar
eusedt
odr
ivet
hegener
ator
sint
hepowerst
ati
ons.

I
nst
eadofmovi
ngcoi
l
sofwi
rei
namagnet
icf
iel
dthegener
ator
swhi
char
e
cal
l
edal
ter
nat
orsmovemagnet
sinf
rontofcoi
l
sofwi
rewoundoni
roncor
es,
sot
hebasi
cpr
inci
plei
sthesame,t
hatofr
elat
ivemot
ionbet
weenconduct
ors
andmagnet
icf
iel
ds.

Eachpowerst
ati
onhasanumberofal
ter
nat
orsandf
rom t
hese.Theel
ect
ri
ci
ty
i
str
ansmi
tt
edal
ongcoppercabl
eto wher
eiti
sused,of
ten overver
ylong
di
stances.

I
tisbet
teri
fthesecabl
escanbeassmal
lins
izeandwei
ghtasi
sconveni
ent
ly
possi
ble.Bi
ggercur
rent
srequi
ret
hickercabl
es.El
ect
ri
calpoweri
spr
opor
ti
onal
t
ovol
tagexcur
rent
.Itf
oll
owst
her
efor
ethati
fal
argeamountofpoweri
sto
bet
ransmi
tt
edbymeansofacabl
e,t
hecabl
emustcar
ryasmal
lcur
renti
fthe
vol
tagei
shi
ghandabi
gcur
renti
fthevol
tagei
slow.

I
n suppl
y syst
ems t
he cabl
es or l
i
nes r
ecei
ve t
he el
ect
ri
ci
ty f
rom t
he
al
ter
nat
ors.Theel
ect
ri
calpr
essur
etover
yhi
ghvol
tagesoft
heor
derof60-
270
kv(
kil
ovol
ts)
.Thesehi
ghvol
tagesal
l
owt
heus
eofsmal
l
ercabl
es.

Thepoweri
sthenconver
tedt
olowervol
tagesby useoft
ransf
ormer
sint
he
subst
ances.I
tist
hensuppl
i
edt
otheuser
sat230-
240vol
tsf
orphasevol
tage
and400–41
5vol
tsf
ort
hel
i
nevol
tage.

Rel
ati
onshi
pBet
weenPowerandCur
rent

El
ect
ri
calpoweri
sexpr
essedi
nwat
tsorki
l
owat
ts

El
ect
ri
calcur
renti
smeasur
edi
namper
es(
amps)

1amp–r
ateoff
lowof1coul
omb(
aquant
it
yofel
ect
ri
ci
ty)persecond.
Ther
efor
eI=Power(
wat
ts)
/Vol
t(
pressur
e)

e.
g.A25wat
tsl
ambona240vmai
ns

Ther
efor
eI= 25amper
es

240Vol
ts

=0.
1Coul
ombs/second.

I
fthe25w bul
bisr
epl
acedby 1
00w bul
b,t
hel
ambwi
l
lgi
veabr
ight
erl
i
ght
.
Connect
edst
il
ltot
he240Vmai
ns,i
twi
l
ltakemor
ecur
rentf
rom t
hemai
nsf
rom
t
hesameel
ect
ri
calpr
essur
ei.
e.

1
00Amper
es

240

~0.
4Amps

I
faki
l
owat
tel
ect
ri
cfi
rei
sconnect
edt
oa240vel
ect
ri
cpr
essur
e,i
twi
l
ldr
aw a
hi
ghercur
renti
.
e.

1
000w=4amps

240v

Ther
efor
eiti
scl
eart
hatmor
e cur
renti
staken f
rom t
he mai
nswhen t
he
equi
pmenti
soper
ati
ngathi
gherpower
.

Cur
rentdr
awnbyt
heX-
raysetf
rom t
hemai
ns

X-
ray equi
pmentt
her
efor
edr
awsmor
ecur
rentwheni
tisusi
ngmor
epower
.
Thepowerusedbyt
heX-
rayuni
tisr
elat
edt
oit
sradi
ogr
aphi
cout
put
.Theval
ue
ofkvandmAsel
ect
eddet
ermi
net
hecur
rentwhi
cht
heX-
ray sett
akesf
rom
t
hemai
nswheni
tisoper
ati
ng.

TheKVandMAar
etheel
ect
ri
call
oadswhi
char
epl
acedont
heX-
rayt
ube.Thi
s
canbet
urnedi
ntoKi
l
ovol
t-
Amper
e(KVA)i
nacal
cul
ati
onwhi
chconver
tst
he
peakKVandMAi
ntoef
fect
iveval
uesandmul
ti
pli
est
het
wot
oget
her
.Thusa
t
ube l
oad of50MA and 80KVP r
epr
esent
sa consumpt
ion ofpowerwhi
chi
s
about3.
25KVA.

Whent
heX-
rayexposur
eismadewi
tht
hes
etubef
act
orst
hecur
rentt
hatwi
l
l
bet
akenf
rom t
hemai
nsmaybeest
imat
edbyconver
ti
ngt
heKVAt
oVA(
Vol
t
amper
es)anddi
vidi
ngbyt
heval
ueoft
hemai
nsvol
tage.

i
.
e.VA - 3250 ~ 1
3Amper
es

Mai
nsvol
tage

Soi
tcanbeseent
hatever
yti
meanX-
rayseti
susedt
omakeanexposur
e,i
t
dr
awscur
rentf
rom t
hemai
nsandt
heval
ueoft
hiscur
rentwi
l
ldependont
he
MAandKVused.Hi
ghval
uesmeanl
argercur
rent
sar
edr
awnf
rom t
hemai
ns.
Cur
rentdr
awn al
so depends on t
he vol
tage oft
he suppl
yto whi
ch i
tis
connect
ed.

Forexampl
e,i
fthe X-
ray setwasconnect
ed t
othe 41
5 vol
tsoft
he l
i
ne
vol
tagei
nst
eadoft
he240vol
tst
hen t
hesamet
ubel
oadsr
esul
tin smal
l
er
cur
rent
si.
e.

3250~ 8Amper
es

41
5

Al
oad of4.
5 KVA on t
he t
ube dr
awscur
rentof1
1Amps.When t
he seti
s
connect
edt
othe41
5vol
tsoft
hel
i
nes
uppl
y

i
.
e.4500 1
1Amper
es

41
5

Changei
nthevol
tagecl
ear
lyr
esul
tinpr
opor
ti
onalchangesi
ncur
rentdr
awn
byanygi
venl
oadi
nKVAorKwt
s.

MAI
NSCABLES

Themai
nssuppl
ycabl
est
othehos
pit
alus
ual
l
ygodi
rectt
otheengi
neer
sand
el
ect
ri
ci
ansdepar
tment
swhi
chcont
aint
henecessar
y cont
rolswi
tches,f
uses,
ci
rcui
tbr
eaker
sanddi
str
ibut
ionpanel
s.T
het
ypeofcabl
ethenusedt
osuppl
y
anX-
raydepar
tmentwi
l
lbedet
ermi
nedby:
1
. Techni
calf
act
ors e.
g.t
he t
ype ofX-
ray equi
pmenti
nst
all
ed and t
he
numberofsuppl
yconduct
orsr
equi
red

2. Localser
vicef
aci
l
iti
es–e.
g.t
heaccessr
out
eanddi
stancet
hroughser
vice
duct
s.

Cabl
esusedar
eei
ther

Asi
ngl
emul
ti
-cor
ecabl
eor

Asepar
atesi
ngl
e-cor
ecabl
es(
pyr
otenax)
.

MULTI
CORECABLE

I
nthemul
ti
-cor
ecabl
ethesepar
ateconduct
ors,eachmadeofmanyst
randsof
copperwi
rear
einsul
atedf
rom eachot
herbyr
ubber
,pl
ast
ics(
PVC)ori
nsul
ati
ng
paper
.

The t
hree i
nsul
ati
ng conduct
orsar
ethen bound t
oget
herby i
nsul
ati
ng and
wat
er-
prooft
ape,andt
hewhol
ecover
edwi
thpr
otect
ivewi
rear
mour
.

SI
NGLE-
CORECABLE(
PYROTENAXTYPE)
.

I
nthesi
ngl
ecor
ecabl
etheconduct
ori
ssol
i
dcopperandi
sinsul
atedf
rom t
he
out
ercopperar
mourt
ube by a cont
inuous f
il
li
ng ofcompr
essed mi
ner
al
i
nsul
ati
ngmat
eri
al.Thear
mourmaybeusedasanear
thi
ngconduct
or.

Not
e:Thesecabl
eswhi
chcar
ryt
hecur
rentf
rom t
hemai
nssuppl
ypoi
ntt
othe
X-
rayr
oom orwar
dar
ecal
l
edf
eedercabl
es.

X-
rayEqui
pmentandAt
hree-
phasef
our
-wi
resyst
em

Thef
igur
eaboveshowst
hat
:

AtA i
sasi
ngl
ephasesuppl
y -phasevol
tagei
.
e.onel
i
ne+ Neut
ralusedt
o
pr
ovi
de powerf
orX-
ray equi
pmentofl
ow out
pute.
g.– Dent
alset
s,smal
l
por
tabl
esset
s,Mobi
l
euni
tsofr
est
ri
ctedr
adi
ogr
aphi
cout
put(
50MAand90Kv)

Thi
sequi
pmentmaydr
aw cur
rentofupt
o15Amp.Somemobi
l
eequi
pmenthas
muchgr
eat
err
adi
ogr
aphi
cout
putt
hant
hef
act
orsment
ionedabovee.
g.some
hast
ubecur
rentof300MAatt
ubevol
tageofupt
o100kvp.Ther
efor
e,i
fthese
set
shavet
obeoper
atedatt
hei
rful
lout
putont
hephasevol
tage,speci
alwal
l
socket
sandwi
ri
ngsui
tabl
eforcar
ryi
nghi
ghcur
rent
smustbeavai
l
abl
e.

LOADB:Neut
ral+t
wol
i
nes

i
.
e.phasevol
tageandl
i
nevol
tage=240vand41
5v

Usedt
o oper
atemaj
oruni
tswhi
char
eper
manenti
nst
all
ati
onsi
ntheX-
ray
depar
tment
.

Tubecur
rent=upt
o500MA

Tubevol
tage–upt
o100-
130kvp

Thephasevol
tagei
susedf
or;

Var
iouscont
rolci
rcui
ts [
Thatdonotr
equi
ret
hel
i
nevol
tage.
]
Mot
ors

Li
ght
set
c.

LOADC: Connect
ionsf
rom al
l3l
i
nesandt
heneut
ral
.

Thesuppl
yisf
edt
othepr
imar
y wi
ndi
ngsofspeci
al3-
phaset
ransf
ormer
sto
pr
ovi
depowerf
ort
hreephaseX-
rayequi
pmentatt
he41
5vl
i
nevol
tage.

Phasevol
tage–(
240v)usedf
oraxi
l
lar
yfeat
ures

Tubecur
rent1
000MA

Tubevol
tage–upt
o150KVP

Cabl
econnect
ionst
owal
lpl
ugs.

The wal
lsocket
spr
ovi
deconnect
ion t
o oneoft
he suppl
yli
nesandt
othe
neut
rall
i
nei
nthesyst
em ofdi
str
ibut
ionoft
het
hreeconduct
orsi
nthecabl
e;

Onei
sint
endedf
orconnect
iont
otheLI
VEl
i
ne

One i
sint
ended f
orconnect
ion t
othe NEUTRALl
i
ne and t
he t
hir
d pr
ovi
des
connect
iont
oEARTHf
orel
ect
ri
calsaf
etyi
fthei
nsul
ati
onbr
eaksdown.

Suchacabl
eist
husdescr
ibedasaTHREE-
COREDCABLE(
i.
e.cabl
ewi
tht
hree
conduct
orsi
nit
).

Thesecabl
esar
eusedf
orl
i
ght
ingandl
owpowersi
ngl
ephaseel
ect
ri
calsuppl
i
es
e.
g.

 X-
rayf
il
mil
l
umi
nat
ors

 Dent
alandmobi
l
ex-
rayuni
ts

 El
ect
ri
calket
tl
eset
c.

Wi
ri
ngofat
hree-
pinpl
ug–Thei
nter
nat
ionalel
ect
ri
ccol
orcode:

Whenel
ect
ri
calappar
atusi
sfi
tt
edwi
that
hree-
cor
efl
exi
blel
ead,t
hei
nsul
ati
on
i
nthet
hreewi
resi
sdi
sti
nct
ivel
y col
oredsot
hatt
hecor
rectconnect
ionscan
easi
l
ybemadet
othepl
ug.Thus:
The i
nsul
ati
on cover
ing t
he “
ear
thi
ng conduct
or”i
s gr
een or yel
low or
pr
efer
abl
yst
ri
ppedal
ter
nat
elygr
een/yel
l
owt
hroughouti
tsl
engt
h.

The ‘
neut
ralconduct
or’i
nsul
ati
on i
sbl
ue and t
hatoft
he l
i
ve conduct
ori
s
br
own.

Whenacabl
eisat
tachedt
oit
spl
ug,t
heper
sondoi
ngt
hewi
ri
ngmustcheckt
hat
t
he wi
ri
ngar
e cor
rectt
o make sur
ethatt
he ear
thl
ead goest
othe met
al
f
ramewor
kandt
hel
i
vel
eadt
othes
wit
chi
fonei
spr
ovi
ded.

At
hree-
pinpl
ugofr
eli
abl
emakewi
l
lhavei
tspi
nsmar
kedt
hus:

L–f
orLi
ve

N–f
orNeut
raland

E–f
orEar
th.

CURRENTLOADSANDPOWERLOSSES

Mai
nsvol
tagedr
opunderl
oad

WhenanX-
rayset(
oranyot
herpi
eceofel
ect
ri
calequi
pment
)isi
nuseandi
s
dr
awi
ng cur
rentf
rom t
he mai
ns suppl
y,s
ome f
orce mustbe expended i
n
maki
ngt
hecur
rentf
low t
hrought
her
esi
stanceoft
heconduct
orswhi
char
e
car
ryi
ngi
t.Theseconduct
orshaver
esi
stanceandvol
tagei
susedupi
nmaki
ng
t
hecur
rentf
lowagai
nsti
t.Thevol
tager
equi
reddependson:

1
. Theval
ueofcur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hrought
heconduct
or

2. Ther
esi
stanceoft
heconduct
or

The vol
tage (
E)necessar
yto dr
ive a par
ti
cul
arcur
rent(
I)t
hrough a
par
ti
cul
arr
esi
stance(
R)i
sthepr
oductoft
hecur
rentandr
esi
stancei
.
e.E=
RI

e.
g.I
fanexposur
ecausedacur
rentof8Ampst
ofl
ow f
rom t
hemai
ns,and
t
hecabl
esbr
ingi
ngt
hesuppl
ytot
heX-
ray sethavear
esi
stanceof0.
4
ohms,f
orever
y1000ofcabl
ethevol
tager
equi
redt
odr
ivet
hiscur
renti
s=
8x0.
4=3.
2vol
ts.
 Thi
smeanst
hatassoonast
heX-
rayexposur
ebegi
nsandacur
rentof8
Ampsf
lowsal
ongt
hesuppl
ycabl
es,t
he41
5voft
hemai
nsf
all(
atonceand
f
ort
hedur
ati
onoft
heexposur
e)t
o41
5–3.
2=41
1.8vol
ts.

Thi
sfal
lin mai
ns vol
tage by an amountnecessar
yto over
come t
he
r
esi
stanceoft
hecabl
esands
endcur
rentl
oadsal
ongt
hem i
sknownas
vol
tagedr
opunderl
oad.

I
ftheX-
ray seti
stooper
atepr
oper
ly andobt
aint
hepoweri
tneeds,t
his
vol
tagedr
opmustnotbet
ool
argeaper
cent
ageoft
hemai
nsvol
tage.I
n
t
heaboveexampl
eiti
sabout0.
77%-negl
i
gibl
e.

I
fthe same exposur
es wer
e used as above and t
he X-
ray set
/tube
connect
ed t
o a phase vol
tage (
240v)
,the t
ube wi
l
lnow dr
aw a hi
gher
cur
rentof1
3Amps.

Cur
rent=1
3Amp

Resi
stance=0.
40hms

Ther
efor
evol
tagedr
op=1
3x0.
4=5.
2vol
ts

~2.
1%

Thi
sshowst
hatt
hemai
nsvol
tagedr
opget
sbi
ggerast
hesuppl
yvol
tagei
s
smal
l
erbecausesmal
lsuppl
y vol
tagemeansl
argercur
rent
sfort
hesame
amountofpowerbei
ngusedbyt
het
ube.

Whenmai
nsvol
tager
equi
rement
sar
ebei
ngconsi
der
edi
nrel
ati
ont
othe
i
nst
all
ati
onoft
heX-
rayset
s,vol
tagedr
opsi
nexcessof5-
or6per
centof
t
hemai
nsvol
tagear
etobeavoi
ded.Theyr
esul
tint
ool
ow avol
tagebei
ng
l
eftt
o wor
kthe X-
ray set
.Thi
smakesi
timpossi
blet
o obt
ain suf
fici
ent
r
adi
ogr
aphi
c out
puteven when t
he cont
rol
s ar
e sett
o gi
ve adequat
e
exposur
efact
orsf
orapar
ti
cul
arexami
nat
ion.Lar
gevol
tagedr
opsaf
fect
KV,MAandt
heaccur
acyoft
het
imer
sandcant
her
efor
eleadt
over
ypoor
r
adi
ogr
aphi
cresul
ts.

I
mpor
tantconsi
der
ati
ons
1
. Resi
stancei
nsuppl
y cabl
esgi
vesr
iset
oaf
alli
nthemai
nsvol
tagewhen
cur
rentbei
ngusedbyt
heX-
raysetf
lowsf
rom t
hemai
ns.

2. Theval
ueoft
hiscur
rentdependsonMAandKVandont
hesuppl
yvol
tage.
Hi
ghersuppl
y vol
tagef
ort
hes
amet
ubef
act
orsmeansaf
low ofsmal
l
er
cur
rent
s,(
connectsuppl
ytol
i
ner
athert
hanphasevol
tage)
.

3. Themai
nsvol
tagedr
opunderl
oaddependsont
her
esi
stanceoft
hemai
ns
andont
hecur
rentf
lowi
ng.Hi
ghersuppl
y vol
tageent
ail
ssmal
l
ervol
tage
dr
opst
hanl
owersuppl
yvol
tagef
ort
hesamet
ubef
act
ors.

4. Ther
esi
stanceoft
hesuppl
y cabl
esshoul
dbeassmal
laspossi
ble.Thi
sis
par
ti
cul
arl
yimpor
tantwhen ver
y hi
gh cur
rent
s ar
etof
low.When t
he
cur
rent
sar
enotl
arge,cabl
esmay havehi
gherr
esi
stancewi
thoutgi
ving
r
iset
oexcessi
vevol
tagedr
ops.

POWERLOSTI
NCABLES

Thevol
tagedr
opunderl
oadi
slostvol
tssof
arast
heoper
ati
onoft
heX-
ray
seti
sconcer
ned.Thi
svol
tageusedupi
nmaki
ngcur
rentf
low r
epr
esent
slost
powerandi
tsener
gyappear
sasheati
nthecabl
es.

Ther
efor
e,maj
orX-
ray set
sshoul
d be oper
ated f
rom t
he hi
ghestavai
l
abl
e
suppl
yvol
tagei
nor
dert
omi
nimi
zel
oss
es.

2
Heatpr
oduceαI (
squar
eofcur
rentf
lowi
ng)hence,doubl
i
ngt
hesuppl
yvol
tage
r
educest
hecur
rentbyaf
act
orof2andt
heheatbyaf
act
orof4.

VOLTAGECHANGES(
Int
hemai
nssuppl
y)

Forsat
isf
act
oryoper
ati
onofanyX-
rayequi
pmentt
hemai
nssuppl
ymustbe
st
abl
einvol
tageandi
nfr
equency.

However
,assoon asX-
ray exposur
e begi
ns,a f
alli
nthe mai
nsvol
tage i
s
pr
oduced.Thi
sisbecause,i
tisdr
awi
ngacur
rentwhi
chi
nthecaseofX-
rayset
maybever
ybi
g.Ot
herpi
ecesofequi
pmente.
g.l
i
ftsmaygi
vet
hesameef
fect
.

I
naddi
ti
ont
othesechangesoccur
ri
ngr
api
dlyoverashor
tper
iodoft
ime,t
her
e
ar
eot
herchangeswhi
choccuroverl
ongper
iodsoft
ime.

Thesechangesar
eduet
odi
ffer
encesi
ndemandwhi
chexi
stsatdi
ffer
entt
imes
i
nthe day and atdi
ffer
entseasons.E.
g.Bi
g demandsf
ori
ndust
ri
alneeds
dur
ingawor
kingdaycompar
edt
odemanddur
ingni
ghthour
s.

El
ect
ri
cfi
resonwi
ntermor
ningscompar
edt
ohotsummereveni
nget
c.

Bi
gdemandsofel
ect
ri
ci
tymakeal
ter
nat
orsi
npowerst
ati
onswor
ksmor
eand
canmaket
hem r
otat
eatsl
owerspeedt
husdecr
easevol
tagei
nduced–al
ter
s
r
ateofmot
ionbet
weenE.
M.F.andcoi
l
s.Thi
sist
her
ever
sewhendemandi
slow.

I
NSUMMARY

1
. Sl
ow var
iat
ionsoverl
ong per
iodsdue t
o di
ffer
encesi
n demand.These
var
iat
ionsoccurout
sideX-
rayexpos
ure.

2. Rapi
dvar
iat
ionsi
nshor
tint
erval
soft
imeduet
oheavyl
oadsbei
ngappl
i
ed
ont
hes
amesuppl
ycabl
e(out
sideandi
nsi
deX-
rayexposur
eanddur
ingi
t)
.

3. Thevol
tagedr
opunderl
oadwhi
choccur
sdur
ing(
notout
side)t
heX-
ray
exposur
ebecausei
tiscausebyt
heexposur
eandbyt
hecur
rentt
akenby
t
heX-
rayequi
pmenti
tsel
f.

The changesi
n 2 and 3 ar
ise because t
he l
oad cur
rent
sfl
owsagai
nstt
he
r
esi
stanceoft
hegener
ator
swher
ethesuppl
yispr
oducedandoft
hecabl
es
andt
rans
for
mer
sbet
weent
hegener
ator
sandt
hehospi
taldepar
tmentwher
e
t
heX-
rayseti
sused.

The bi
ggert
he l
oad cur
rent
s,t
he bi
ggert
he f
allofvol
tage wi
th a gi
ven
r
esi
stanceoft
hemai
nssuppl
y.

Themai
nsvol
tagecompensat
ori
sdesi
gnedt
omai
ntai
navol
tageout
putf
rom
t
heaut
otr
ansf
ormeroft
heX-
rayuni
t.

FREQUENCYCHANGES

Thedi
ffer
encesi
nthespeedofr
otat
ionoft
heal
ter
nat
orswhi
choccursl
owl
y
asar
esul
tofvar
yingdemandsofel
ect
ri
ci
tychangenotonl
ythevol
tagebut
al
sot
hef
requency.
Thi
sisduet
orat
eofr
epet
it
ionoft
heA.
C.wavepat
ter
n(i
.
e.No.ofcycl
es/sec)
dependsont
hespeedofr
otat
ionofal
ter
nat
ors.

Whent
heyr
otat
esl
owl
y,t
hef
requencyf
all
sandvi
cever
sa.

Avar
iat
ionofpl
usormi
nus5%i
saccept
abl
e.
MAI
NSSUPPLYVOLTAGE
COMPENSATI
ON
MAI
NSSUPPLYVOLTAGECOMPENSATI
ON

The changesi
nthe (
previ
oust
opi
c)ar
e compensat
ed by t
he mai
nsvol
tage
compensat
or.Themai
nsvol
tagecompensat
ori
sdesi
gnedt
omai
ntai
navol
tage
out
putf
rom t
heaut
otr
ansf
ormer
,whi
chi
sunchangeddespi
tet
heal
ter
ati
onsi
n
t
heappl
i
edpr
imar
yvol
taget
otheaut
otr
ansf
ormer
.

The mai
n pur
pose ofcompens
ati
ng f
ort
he mai
nsvol
tage i
sto mai
ntai
na
vol
tageout
putf
rom t
heaut
otr
ansf
ormeroft
heX-
rayuni
t.

Pr
inci
plesofmai
nsvol
tagecompensat
ion

Themai
nsvol
tagecompensat
ordoesnotpr
eventchangesi
nthemai
nsf
rom
occur
ri
ng.Rat
hert
hey hel
pto mai
ntai
n a st
abl
e vol
tage out
putf
rom t
he
aut
otr
ansf
ormerdespi
tet
hechanges.Thi
sisbecausef
orany set
ti
ngoft
he
aut
otr
ansf
ormert
opr
ovi
deaconsi
stentki
l
ovol
tage,t
hevol
tageout
putf
rom
t
he t
rans
for
mermustbe consi
stent
.Ifnot
,then t
he out
putvol
tage wi
l
lbe
di
ffer
ent
,resul
ti
ngi
nar
iseorf
alloft
heexpect
edvol
tage.

METHODSOFVOLTAGECOMPENSATI
ON

Twowaysofmai
nsvol
tagecompensat
ionar
e:

1
. Manualcont
rol

2.Anaut
omat
icmet
hodcont
rol

MANUALLYADJUSTEDMAI
NSVOLTAGECOMPENSATOR
Compens
ati
oni
sdoneby mai
ntai
ningt
hevol
t/t
urnr
ati
o e.
g.240v over240
t
urns=1
V/t
urn

I
fsuppl
yfal
l
sfr
om 240vt
o230vt
hencont
roli
sadj
ust
edt
oincl
ude230t
urns
ofwi
ndi
ngs.

MMVCwor
ksi
nthepr
inci
pleoft
rans
for
mat
ionr
ati
oofat
ransf
ormert
hati
s,
assumi
ngt
hatnopoweri
slost
,thei
nducedEMFi
nthesecondar
ywi
ndi
ngsof
t
het
ransf
ormeri
sequalt
othepr
oductofvol
tpert
urni
nthepr
imar
ywi
ndi
ng,
andt
henumberoft
urnsi
nthe2o wi
ndi
ngsi
.
e.r
ati
oexpr
essedas:

Vs=VPxTS

T.
P

Wher
eVS–secondar
y(i
nduced)vol
tage

VP–pr
imar
y(appl
i
ed)vol
tage

TS–No.oft
urnsi
nthesecondar
ywi
ndi
ng

TP–No.oft
urnsi
nthepr
imar
ywi
ndi
ng

Const
ruct
ion

I
tconsi
stsof
:

- A numberoft
appi
ngs on t
he i
nputsi
de oft
he aut
otr
ansf
ormer
.Each
t
appi
ngendsonast
uds(
ter
minal
)andcanbeonei
thersi
de.

- Amoveabl
esel
ect
orswi
tchconnect
ingt
oanyoneoft
hest
uds.

- A vol
tmet
er,connect
ed acr
oss a f
ixed number of t
appi
ngs on t
he
aut
otr
ansf
ormer
.Iti
sal
socal
l
edal
i
nesvol
tagecompensat
ormet
er.I
tdoes
notusual
l
y havef
igur
esoni
tsdi
ali
nst
eadi
thasar
efer
encemar
k(e.
g.
mar
kedr
ed)
,andwhent
hei
ncomi
ngvol
tagef
rom t
hemai
nssuppl
yisati
ts
cor
rectval
uet
hepoi
nteroft
hemet
eri
sagai
nstt
hismar
kont
hescal
e.

- I
tthe i
ncomi
ng vol
tage f
all
sthen t
he out
put i
nthe 2o si
de of t
he
 aut
otr
ansf
ormergoesdowncor
respondi
ngl
y.

- To avoi
dthi
slow out
put
,ther
adi
ogr
aphermanual
l
y adj
ust
sthesel
ect
or
swi
tchf
orexampl
e:

- I
fthesuppl
yfal
l
sto235vol
ts,t
hiswi
l
lbeshownbyt
hepoi
nterwhi
chwi
l
lbe
bel
ow t
he r
efer
ence mar
k.The manual
l
y cont
rol
l
ed sel
ect
ori
s moved
t
owar
dsC(
int
hedi
agr
am)
.Itwi
l
lreachat
urnwhi
chi
ncl
udes235t
urnsof
t
heaut
otr
ansf
ormeri
ntheci
rcui
t.Att
hatpoi
nt235vol
tsexi
stacr
oss235
t
urnsmaki
ngar
ati
oof1vol
tpert
urnandt
hemet
erneedl
ewi
l
lmoveback
t
other
efer
encemar
k.

- I
font
heot
herhandt
hemai
nsvol
tager
isest
oe.
g.245vol
tst
hemet
erwi
l
l
i
ndi
cat
ethi
sbyhavi
ngt
hepoi
nterabovet
her
efer
encemar
k.Thesel
ect
or
swi
tchi
smovedt
owar
dsB.T
hisbr
ingsmor
etur
nsoft
heaut
otr
ansf
ormer
i
ntot
heci
rcui
twi
thsel
ect
ors
wit
chat245t
urnsoft
heA.
T.t
hevol
ts/t
urns
r
ati
oisagai
n1v/t
urnandt
hepoi
nteri
satr
efer
encemar
kagai
n.

MAI
NTAI
NINGCURRENTTOTHEA.
T.

Ast
hesi
mpl
esel
ect
orabovemovesf
rom onest
udt
othenext
,itbr
eakst
he
cur
rentt
otheaut
otr
ansf
ormerf
oraper
iodoft
imebet
weenst
uds.

I
nanX-
rayset
,topr
eventt
hisdi
scont
inui
tyi
ntheaut
o-t
ransf
ormercur
renta
ci
rcui
tisar
rangedasshownbel
ow:

Thesel
ect
orswi
tchhast
wopol
eswhi
chmovet
oget
herandar
econnect
edbya
r
esi
stor
.The pol
esar
e setso t
hatwhen one i
sbet
ween st
udst
he ot
heri
s
connect
edt
oast
ud.Ther
esi
storwhi
chj
oinst
het
wopol
espr
ovi
desapat
hway
f
or t
he cur
rent t
o f
low. Thus t
he aut
otr
ansf
ormer does not have a
di
scont
inuousci
rcui
twhat
evert
heposi
ti
onoft
hesel
ect
orswi
tchont
hemai
ns
vol
tagecompensat
or.

AUTOMATI
CMAI
NSVOLTAGECOMPENSATI
ON

SomeX-
raygener
ator
sincl
udeaspeci
aldevi
cewhi
chcompensat
est
hemai
ns
vol
tagef
luct
uat
ionsaut
omat
ical
l
y.Ther
efor
esuchequi
pmentdonothavet
he
manual
l
y adj
ust
edknobi
nst
eadt
hemai
nscompensat
ionswi
tchi
sinsi
det
he
cont
rolt
abl
emount
edsi
dewaysandoper
atedby at
oot
hedwheel(
arat
chet
)
whi
chi
srot
atedei
thercl
ockwi
seorant
i-
clockwi
sebyamechani
sm.

Cl
ockwi
sedi
rect
ionwi
l
lcompensat
eforaf
alli
nthemai
nsvol
tageandt
heant
i-
cl
ockwi
sedi
rect
ioncompensat
eforar
ise.

Aut
omat
icmai
nsvol
tagecompensat
or

ThepawlPi
ssuspendedf
rom amet
albarB.

Thepawldangl
esbet
weent
wopai
rsofel
ect
romagnet
s

BarBhavet
woi
mpor
tantchar
act
eri
sti
cs

(
i)I
tiscont
inual
l
yswungi
nas
hor
ttoandf
rom excur
sionf
rom r
ightt
olef
tby
meansofanel
ect
ri
cmot
orandconnect
ingr
od.

(
ii
)Ital
ter
nat
ely opensandcl
oseseachoft
het
wopai
rsofcont
act
satDon
t
heupanddownst
rokepr
oducedbyt
hemot
or.

Undernor
malmai
nsvol
tagecondi
ti
ons
,theel
ect
romagnet
sar
enotener
gized.
Thepawlswi
ngsgent
lybet
weent
hem wi
thoutengagi
ngt
het
eet
hoft
her
atchet
.
However
,achangei
nthemai
nsvol
tagemoment
ari
l
y ener
gizesoneorot
her
pai
rofel
ect
romagnet
sbymeansofaci
rcui
t(br
idgeci
rcui
t)
.

I
fmai
nsvol
tager
ecor
dsaf
all
,theel
ect
romagnet
sont
her
ightar
eener
gized.
Thepawli
spul
l
edt
other
ightandbr
ief
ly hel
dby t
hemagnet
sandwheni
tis
r
eleasedi
tmovest
her
atchetcl
ockwi
sehencecompensat
ingf
ort
hef
all
.

I
fmai
nsvol
tagei
shi
gh,t
heel
ect
romagnet
sont
hel
eftar
eener
gizedandt
he
r
ever
sesequenceoccur
sandhencecompensat
efort
her
ise.

Br
idgeCi
rcui
t

I
tiscomposedof
:

 4r
esi
stor
s

 Conduct
ingwi
res

Sol
ongast
hef
ourr
esi
stor
sar
eequalt
hevol
tagesacr
ossAandBar
ezer
o
andnocur
rentf
lowst
hrought
hemet
er.I
fanyoft
her
esi
stor
sshoul
dal
teri
n
val
ueavol
tagei
sputacr
ossAandBandcur
rentf
lowsi
nthepar
toft
heci
rcui
t
cont
aini
ngt
hemet
er.
I
ntheabovedi
agr
am,abr
idgeci
rcui
thasbeenconst
ruct
edi
nwhi
char
elaycoi
l
Coccupi
est
heposi
ti
onoft
hemet
er.

Twooft
her
esi
stor
shavebeenr
epl
acedbyl
ampsL1andL2.

Thebr
idge i
sfor
med by t
wo r
esi
stor
sR9 andR10 andL1 andL2 (
eachl
amp
havi
ng1
2Vacr
ossi
t)
.

Thel
ampsar
eext
remel
ysensi
ti
vet
ovol
tagechanges.

A var
iat
ion ofonl
y 1vol
tacr
ossei
therl
ampal
ter
sthecur
rentf
lowi
ngand
t
her
efor
ethet
emper
atur
eoft
hel
ampf
il
ament
.

Al
ter
ati
oni
nit
stemper
atur
ehasamar
kedef
fectupont
her
esi
stanceoft
he
l
ampandt
hebr
idgebecomesi
mbal
anceast
hel
ampsr
esi
stanceal
ter
s.

Suppl
i
edt
othebr
idgeci
rcui
tisar
ect
ifi
edci
rcui
tatat
ensi
onofabout1
7Vwhi
ch
i
sder
ivedf
rom andconsequent
lyr
elat
edt
othemai
nsvol
tage–i
twi
l
lvar
yin
t
hesamemannerast
hemai
nsvol
tage.

Pr
ovi
dedt
hebr
idgei
sbal
anced,t
her
eisno vol
tageacr
ossAandBandno
cur
rentt
hrought
her
elaycoi
l

Cont
actDal
ter
nat
elyopensandcl
oses(
thi
sbei
ngdonebyanel
ect
ri
cmot
or)
.

Thi
smot
ori
sener
gizedcont
inuousl
yfr
om t
het
imet
hecont
rolt
abl
eisswi
tched
on.

Thef
ourel
ect
romagnet
sshowni
nfl
uencet
hepawlasr
equi
red.

Al
ter
nat
ionsoft
hecont
actatD,opposest
heal
ter
nat
ionsatcont
actE.

Ther
efor
e,asl
ongast
hemai
nsvol
tager
emai
nsst
eady,t
heci
rcui
tst
oei
ther
pai
rofel
ect
romagnet
sisnevercompl
etei
.
e.when D makest
he ci
rcui
t,E
br
eaksi
tandvi
cever
sa.

I
fhowever
,themai
nsvol
tagevar
ies,t
hebr
idgeci
rcui
tbecomesi
mbal
anced
and t
her
eisa vol
tage i
nthe r
elay coi
lC,whi
chi
ntur
n oper
atesE i
n one
di
rect
ionort
heot
her
.Di
nit
sal
ter
nat
ionswi
l
lthusi
nter
mit
tent
lyener
gizet
he
el
ect
romagnet
saccor
dingl
y.
Cont
actF opens when t
he r
adi
ogr
apherput
sthe exposur
e swi
tch i
nthe
‘
prepar
e’posi
ti
on.Thi
spr
event
sthe aut
omat
ic compensat
orf
rom oper
ati
ng
dur
ingt
hecour
seofanexposur
e.Hence,t
hisaut
omat
iccompensat
orcannot
compensat
efor var
iat
ions i
nthe mai
ns vol
tage whi
ch occur dur
ing t
he
exposur
e.T
hisi
snotpossi
blebecause:

 Loadcur
rentofpr
imar
yci
rcui
thasaver
yhi
ghval
uedur
ingexposur
e.

 At
tent
ioni
sgi
vent
othepat
ientandnott
othemet
er.

 Exposur
eti
mesar
ever
yshor
ttoal
l
owcompensat
ion.

- I
nsummar
yvol
tagecompensat
orsactt
opr
eventef
fectoft
hechanges
on mai
ns vol
tage and wor
ks on t
he pr
inci
ple of mai
ntai
ning t
he
vol
tage/t
urnr
ati
o(mai
ntai
nout
putofaut
otr
ansf
ormer
).

COMPENSATI
ONFORMAI
NSVOLTAGEDROPON-
LOAD

When an X-
ray exposur
e begi
ns,t
he mai
nsvol
tage f
all
sbecause t
he l
oad
cur
rentf
lowsagai
nstt
her
esi
stanceoft
hemai
nssuppl
y.Thi
sisr
efer
redt
oas
t
hemai
nsvol
tagedr
oporl
i
nedr
opunderl
oad.Thi
sdr
opl
ast
sonl
yfort
he
dur
ati
onofX-
ray exposur
eforagi
venr
esi
stance,t
hedr
opdependsont
he
l
oadcur
rent
.Thegr
eat
ert
het
ubel
oad,t
hehi
ghert
hecur
rentdr
awnf
rom t
he
mai
nsandhencet
hehi
ghert
hevol
tagedr
op.

Li
nedr
opcompensat
iont
ransf
ormer

Thi
sspeci
alt
ransf
ormercompensat
esonl
yfort
hef
alli
nthemai
nsvol
tage
whent
hel
oadi
sappl
i
ed.

I
tisasmal
lcur
rentt
ransf
ormerwi
thi
tspr
imar
yinser
ieswi
tht
hel
oadcur
rent
(
repr
esent
edbyTabove)
.
Thesecondar
y wi
ndi
ngoft
hecompensat
ingt
ransf
ormerhasar
esi
stor(
R)i
n
par
all
elwi
thi
t.When t
he cur
rentf
lowsi
nit
spr
imar
y wi
ndi
ngs,i
tinducesa
cur
rentt
hatf
lowsi
nthe20 wi
ndi
ngsandavol
tagei
sdevel
opedacr
osst
he
r
esi
stor(
R).

Thevol
tageconsequent
ly appl
i
ed/avai
l
abl
eacr
osst
hepoi
ntsX andYi
sthe
l
oadboos
tervol
taget
ocompensat
efort
hel
i
nedr
opwhi
choccur
s.

Bysel
ect
ionoft
het
ransf
ormerr
ati
oint
hecompensat
ingt
ransf
ormerandof
t
her
esi
stori
nR,t
heext
ravol
tagecanbemadet
omat
cht
hel
i
nevol
tagedr
op
e.
g.i
facer
tai
nKVandMAcauseal
oadont
hel
i
neof50Amps,t
he50Amps
o
f
lowst
hrought
he1 wi
ndi
ngoft
hecompens
ati
ngt
ransf
ormer
.

Ther
efor
eift
het
ransf
ormerr
ati
ois20:
1thencur
rentf
lowi
ngi
nthe2o wi
ndi
ng
oft
hecompensat
ingt
ransf
ormer=50=2.
5Amps

20

I
fthe val
ue oft
he r
esi
storR = 20 ohmst
hen (
2.5 x 20hm)= 5 vol
tsar
e
devel
opedacr
osst
her
esi
stor
.Thi
sist
heboost
ervol
tageavai
l
abl
eacr
ossXY
henceBoost
ervol
tageαl
i
nel
oad.

MAI
NSSUPPLYANDTHEX-
RAYSET

Thechangesi
nthemai
nssuppl
ymaybe:

1
.Invol
tage

2.I
nfr
equency

Vol
tagechangesar
e:

 Sl
ow changes – overa per
iod ofhour
s because oft
he di
ffer
ence i
n
demandsatvar
ioust
imesoft
heday.

 Rapi
dchangesbecausesomeequi
pmente.
g.l
i
ftont
hesamel
i
nedr
awsa
heavycur
rentf
orashor
tint
erval
.

 Thef
alli
nthemai
nsvol
tagecausedbyt
heX-
rayseti
tsel
fdr
awi
ngcur
rent
f
ort
hedi
agnost
icexposur
e.
Ef
fect
soft
hesevol
tagechangesont
heX-
raysetwi
l
lbe:

(
i) Ki
l
ovol
tage ofX-
ray t
ube wi
l
lchange due t
o al
ter
ati
on i
nthe vol
tage
o
suppl
i
edbyt
heaut
otr
ansf
ormert
othe1 wi
ndi
ngsoft
heH.
T.t
ransf
ormer
.

(
ii
)Change i
n X-
ray t
ube cur
rentdue t
o change i
n vol
tage suppl
i
ed t
othe
A/t
ransf
ormert
othet
ubef
il
amentt
ransf
ormerandhencei
ntheheatof
t
hef
il
ament
.Smal
l
erchangesi
nfi
l
amentheatcanpr
oducel
argechanges
oft
ubecur
rent(
MA)andcanbenot
iceabl
eont
her
adi
ogr
aphi
cresul
t(KV
changemaynotbenot
iceabl
e)

(
ii
i
)Change i
n vol
tage suppl
i
ed t
o t
ransf
ormer
s heat
ing t
he f
il
ament of
r
ect
ifyi
ngval
vesi
nthehi
ght
ens
ionci
rcui
ts. Fal
linvol
t owerTo =
age=l
r
educeel
ect
ronemi
ssi
on.

(
iv)Changei
nvol
tagesoper
ati
ngmanyot
hercomponent
soft
heX-
raysete.
g.
t
imer
s,mot
ors,var
iousr
elays–l
essi
mpor
tantt
han(
i)and(
ii
)above.

Ef
fect
soff
requencychanges

(
i) Any componentdr
iven by asynchr
onousel
ect
ri
cmot
orswi
l
lrun atan
i
ncor
rectspeed(
e.g.r
otat
inganodeoft
heX-
rayt
ube–wi
l
lal
tert
her
ati
ng
oft
he t
ube and coul
dlead t
o over
load,el
ect
romagnet
ic synchr
onous
t
imer
swi
l
lleadt
oexposur
eint
erval
snotbei
ngsetont
het
imer
).

(
ii
)Fr
equency sensi
ti
ve t
ype ofst
abi
l
izer
swi
l
lhave an al
ter
ed out
put
.Thi
s
o
changest
hevol
tageappl
i
edt
othe1 wi
ndi
ngoft
hef
il
amentt
ransf
ormer
,
al
ter
ing t
he f
il
amentheatand hence X-
ray t
ube cur
rent(
MA)
. Smal
l
f
requencychangescanr
esul
tinl
argechangesoft
het
ubecur
rent
.Var
ious
devi
cesar
eincl
udedi
ntheX-
rayt
ubet
ocompensat
eforbot
hvol
tageand
f
requencychangesandt
heyi
ncl
ude:

 Mai
nsvol
tagecompensat
ors

 Li
nedr
opcompensat
ors

 Vol
tagest
abi
l
izer
s

 Fr
equencychangecompens
ator
s
 Spacechar
gecompensat
or

 KVcompensat
ors
 PRI
MARY
CI
RCUI
T
OFHI
GH
TENSI
ON
TRANSFORMER
PRI
MARYCI
RCUI
TOFTHEHI
GHTENSI
ONTRANSFORMER

 Aut
otr
ansf
ormer

 H.
T.Cont
roldevi
ces

 Ki
l
ovol
tagei
ndi
cat
ion

THEAUTOTRANSFORMER

Thi
sisat
ypeoft
ransf
ormerwhi
chhasonewi
ndi
ngonl
yandnott
woasi
nthe
caseofH.
T.
T.

 At
ransf
ormerwi
tht
wowi
ndi
ngswor
ksont
hepr
inci
pleofel
ect
romagnet
ic
i
nduct
ionbet
weenpr
imar
ywi
ndi
ngandt
hesecondar
ywi
ndi
ng.

 Theaut
otr
ansf
ormerwi
thi
tss
ingl
ewi
ndi
ngwor
ksont
hepr
inci
pleofsel
f
o
i
nduct
ion. Becauset
her
eisonl
y onewi
ndi
ngt
he1 and2o ci
rcui
tsar
e
met
all
i
cconnect
ionwi
theachot
hermaki
ngi
tunsui
tabl
efor
:

o Tr
ansf
ormi
nghi
ghvol
tagesf
rom oneval
uet
oanot
her

o St
eppi
ngupvol
tagest
ohi
ghval
ues

Ther
efor
eitcanbeusedt
ost
epvol
tagesbot
hupanddownf
rom t
hemai
ns
suppl
yval
ueasl
ongast
heyar
enotus
edi
nhi
ghvol
tageci
rcui
ts.

Advant
agesofA.
T.overt
wowi
ndi
ngt
ransf
ormer

1
. Theyar
esmal
l
eri
nsi
ze(
rel
ati
vesi
mpl
i
cit
y)

2. Ar
eeconomi
calofcopperwi
re(
Fai
rl
ysmal
l
)

3. Cost
sless

4. Theycangi
ve/pr
ovi
deadj
ust e2o vol
abl tage(
i.
e.var
i e2o out
abl putvol
tage)

5. Oper
atedbymanualcont
rol
ssi
tedonx-
rayuni
t’
scont
rolpanel

6. Abl
eto mai
ntai
nthevol
tspert
urnr
ati
on ataconst
antval
uewhen t
he
i
nputvol
tagevar
iesoverqui
teawi
der
angeofval
ues
7. Abl
etocont
rolt
heout
putoft
heHTTbyvar
yingt
hevol
tagesuppl
y

8. Abl
etosuppl
y anumberofci
rcui
tswi
thasui
tabl
evol
tagebecauseofi
t
mul
ti
plet
appi
ngs