Outline

Concept of sampling
Methods of Sampling
Sample size Estimation

Sampling and Sample size determination

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH)

University of Gondar
College of Medicine and Health Sciences
Institute of Public Health

October 18, 2019

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling
Methods of Sampling
Sample size Estimation

Learning Objectives

Distinguish between random and non-random sampling

Decide when and how to use various sampling techniques
Be aware of the different types of error that can occur in a
study
Decided how large is large enough
Distinguish between the different methods sample size
determination
Able to correct the final sample size with different
considerations

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Population
Concept of sampling
Sample
Methods of Sampling
Sampling error
Sample size Estimation

Population

Sample surveys are almost never conducted for the purposes

of describing the particular sample under study.
Rather they are conducted for purposes of understanding the
larger population from which the sample was initially selected

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Population
Concept of sampling
Sample
Methods of Sampling
Sampling error
Sample size Estimation

What is sampling?

Sampling refers to strategies that enable us to pick a

subgroup from a larger group and then use this subgroup as a
basis for making inferences about the larger group.
The manner in which a sample is drawn is an important factor
in determining how useful the sample will be for making
inferences about the population from which it is drawn.
It is quite possible to have a very large sample upon which no
sound decision can be based.
This occurs because the respondents in the sample are not
really similar to the population about which we want to make
generalizations.
To be useful, the sample must be representative of the
population about which we wish to make generalizations
Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Population
Concept of sampling
Sample
Methods of Sampling
Sampling error
Sample size Estimation

Sampling

We are interested on the population, but unlikely to collect

data from each individual
The figure illustrates the procedure of sampling

The ultimate goal of sampling is to make the sample

representative of the target population

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Population
Concept of sampling
Sample
Methods of Sampling
Sampling error
Sample size Estimation

Sampling

error in research

1 Sampling error/ Random error: Sampling error is any type

of bias that is attributable to mistakes in either drawing a
sample or determining the sample size
2 Non-sampling error:Non-sampling error is any error which
will be committed during data collection, coding, entry, and
so on

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Population
Concept of sampling
Sample
Methods of Sampling
Sampling error
Sample size Estimation

Sampling error

One of the most frequent cause that makes the sample

unrepresentative of the total population is sampling error.
Sampling error comprises the differences between the sample
and the population that are due solely to the particular
participants that have been selected.
Sampling error can make a sample unrepresentative of its
population
Procedure of sampling
Sample size.

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Population
Concept of sampling
Sample
Methods of Sampling
Sampling error
Sample size Estimation

Sampling

sampling Bias
occurs when the process of sampling actually introduces an
inherent bias into the study
There are two types of sampling bias
1 Omission bias
E.g A study into heart disease that used only males, generally
volunteers, cannot be extrapolated to the entire population,
which includes women and other ethnic groups
2 Inclusive Bias
Inclusive bias occurs when samples are selected for convenience
Enlisting students outside a bar, for a psychological study, will
not give a fully representative group

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Population
Concept of sampling
Sample
Methods of Sampling
Sampling error
Sample size Estimation

Non-sampling error

A non-sampling error is an error that results solely from the

manner in which the observations are made.
It can occur whether the total study population or a sample is
being used.
These biased observations can be innocent but very
devastating to the findings of the study

Causes
The interviewers effect
The respondent effect
Measurement Bias
Non-response

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Population
Concept of sampling
Sample
Methods of Sampling
Sampling error
Sample size Estimation

Advantage of sampling
Feasibility it may be the only feasible method of collecting
data
Reduced cost sampling reduces demands on resource such as
finance, personal and material
Greater accuracy sampling may lead to better accuracy of
collecting data
Greater speed data can be collected and summarized more
quickly

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Population
Concept of sampling
Sample
Methods of Sampling
Sampling error
Sample size Estimation

Disadvantage of sampling
Bias
Demands more rigid control in undertaking sample operation
Minority and smallness in number of sub-groups often render
study to be suspected.
Sample results are good approximations at best.

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Types of sampling

A great deal of work has been done over the years in

developing sampling methods that provide representative
samples for the general population
The sample that we draw for our study determines the
generalization of our findings
When we draw our sample, we want to have a good
representation of all of the kinds of people in the population
Methods of sampling
1 Probability Sampling
2 Non-probability Sampling

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Sampling Methods

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Probability Sampling Methods

 Probability sampling method is any method of sampling that

utilizes some form of random selection
Probability sampling Techniques

Simple random sampling

systematic sampling

stratified sampling

cluster sampling

Multistage sampling
Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

Objective: To select a size of n from population of size N

Desire the sample to be representative of the population from
which the sample is selected
Each individual in the population should have an equal chance
to be selected

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Assumptions

We use SRS when the following assumptions are satisfied

among the population to be studied;

Assumption
if the population is homogeneous
If frame is available
If the study area is not very wide

Note: Homogeneity refers to the similarity of the population with

regard to the outcome variable

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

procedure

The specific procedures that you need to follow may vary

depending on your resources, but all involve some type of
random process

Depending on the complexity of the population, we can use

different tools to select n samples from the frame

Techniques of participant selection

Lottery method,
Table of random number (available in statistics textbooks)
Computer generated random number (software or website)

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Software

OpenEpi is a free computer program which helps us to

generate random number

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Exercises 1

Case: The regional health office of Amhara regional state

want to asses the effectiveness of under five mortality in the
region. Research team were formed to do the activities. You
are one of the team member who is nominated to assist the
methodology section. The team decided to conducted the
study in Bahirdar (N=15,000 and n=899).

Using the given information and assuming homogeneity and

availability of frame;.
1 Think about the assumptions of SRS and decided if all are
satisfied
2 Generate random number using Openepi software
3 State the steps you followed

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Systematic Random Sampling

Here are the steps you need to follow in order to achieve a

systematic random sample:
number the units in the population from 1 to N
decide on the n (sample size) that you want or need
K=N/n= interval size
randomly select an integer between 1 to k
finally take every k th unit

Assumption
Homogeneous population
Frame is not available
If the study area is not very wide

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Exercises 2

Repeated exercises 1 assuming as there is no frame for under

five children in Bahirdar
1 Define the steps of systematic random sampling and compute
the required quantity

2 use lottery method to choose the starting point

3 list at least 10 numbers for the sample

4 State possible limitations of the method for this population

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Stratified Random Sampling

When individual members of a population are different from

each other, the population is considered to be heterogeneous
(having significant variation among individuals
Stratified random sampling is a method of probability
Sampling in which the population is divided into different
subgroups and samples are selected from each subgroup

Assumption
Heterogeneous population

Frame may or may not be available

If the study area is not very wide

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Procedures

Divide the population into non-overlapping groups (strata)

N1; N2; N3; : : : ; Ni, such that
N1 + N2 + N3 + · · · + Ni = N
Then do a simple random sample depending on the type of
allocation

Elements within each strata are homogeneous, but are

heterogeneous across strata.

A simple random or a systematic sample is taken from each

strata relative to the proportion of that stratum to each of the
others
The number of strata depends on the group of homogeneity

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Allocation

There are different sample allocation methods in order to select

sample from each strata:
1 Proportional allocation: allocating sampling proportional to
the total population of each strata using the formula:
Where
n
ni = ∗ Ni (1)
N

n =total sample size to be selected

N =total population
Ni = total population of each strata
ni =sample size from each strata

2 Equal allocation: allocatingSampling

Alemakef equalandsample
Sample sizefor
Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) each strata
determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Exercises 3

Consider exercises 1 and the population of under five children

are heterogeneous with regard to the characteristics mothers
employment status (unemployed, private, and government
employee)

1 Define the steps of stratified random sampling and compute

the required quantity

2 Determine the size of the sample for each strata

3 State possible advantage and disadvantage of the method for

this population

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Cluster Sampling

A cluster sample is a simple random sample of groups or

clusters of elements (vs. a simple random sample of individual
objects)

This method is useful when it is difficult or costly to develop a

complete list of the population members or when the
population elements are widely dispersed geographically.
Cluster sampling may increase sampling error due to
similarities among cluster members

Assumption
Homogeneous population
Wide geographical area coverage (with different levels)

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Non-probability sampling

Most probability sampling strategies have a random or chance

component, though there are some important exceptions.

Sampling strategies have a random or chance component,

though there are some important exceptions.

It is this random component that gives us confidence that our

sample is a reasonably good representation of the population.

This random component can be time-consuming and

expensive.

Hence, in the presence of constraints, the alternative sampling

method is non-probability sampling method.

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Non-probability sampling

Non-probability sampling strategies are used when it is

practically impossible to use probability sampling strategies.

Convenience sampling:

purposive Sampling:

Judgment Sampling:

Snowball sampling: Used in studies involving respondents

who are rare to find. To start with, the researcher compiles a
short list of sample units from various sources. Each of these
respondents are contacted to provide names of other probable
respondents

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Convenience or haphazard sampling

Convenience sampling is sometimes referred to as haphazard

or accidental sampling.

It is not normally representative of the target population

because sample units are only selected if they can be accessed
easily and conveniently.

The obvious advantage is that the method is easy to use, but

that advantage is greatly offset by the presence of bias.

Although useful applications of the technique are limited, it

can deliver accurate results when the population is
homogeneous.

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Volunteer sampling

As the term implies, this type of sampling occurs when people

volunteer to be involved in the study.

In psychological experiments or pharmaceutical trials (drug

testing), for example, it would be difficult and unethical to
enlist random participants from the general public.

In these instances, the sample is taken from a group of

volunteers.

Sometimes, the researcher offers payment to attract

respondents.

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

In exchange, the volunteers accept the possibility of a lengthy,

demanding or sometimes unpleasant process.

Sampling voluntary participants as opposed to the general

population may introduce strong biases.

Often in opinion polling, only the people who care strongly

enough about the subject tend to respond.

The silent majority does not typically respond, resulting in

large selection bias.

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Judgment sampling

This approach is used when a sample is taken based on

certain judgments about the overall population.

The underlying assumption is that the investigator will select

units that are characteristic of the population.

The critical issue here is objectivity: how much can judgment

be relied upon to arrive at a typical sample?

Judgment sampling is subject to the researcher’s biases.

One advantage of judgment sampling is the reduced cost and

time involved in acquiring the sample

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Quota sampling

It is the non probability equivalent of stratified sampling.

Like stratified sampling, the researcher first identifies the
stratums and their proportions as they are represented in the
population.
Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the
required number of subjects from each stratum.
This differs from stratified sampling, where the strata are
filled by random sampling.
This is one of the most common forms of non-probability
sampling.
Sampling is done until a specific number of units (quotas) for
various sub-populations have been selected.
Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

The main argument against quota sampling is that it does not

meet the basic requirement of randomness.
Some units may have no chance of selection or the chance of
selection may be unknown.
Therefore, the sample may be biased.
Quota sampling is generally less expensive than random
sampling.
It is also easy to administer, especially considering the tasks of
listing the whole population, randomly selecting the sample
and following-up on non-respondents can be omitted from the
procedure.
Quota sampling is an effective sampling method when
information is urgently required and can be conducted without
sampling frames.
In many cases where the population has no suitable frame,
quota sampling may be the only appropriate sampling method.
Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

Snowball sampling

A technique for selecting a research sample where existing

study subjects recruit future subjects from among their
friends.
Thus the sample group appears to grow like a rolling
snowball.
This sampling technique is often used in hidden populations
which are difficult for researchers to access; example
populations would be drug users or commercial sex workers.
Because sample members are not selected from a sampling
frame, snowball samples are subject to numerous biases. For
example, people who have many friends are more likely to be
recruited into the sample

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Probability Sampling Method
Methods of Sampling Non-probability sampling Method
Sample size Estimation

summary
Selecting a sampling method
Population to be studied
Size or geographical distribution
Heterogeneity with respect to variable
Availability of list of sampling units
Level of precision required
Resources available

Probability samples are the best: Ensure

Representativness
Precision
within available constraints
Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Sample size Determination

How Big is Big Enough?

Generally the larger the better, but that takes more time and
money

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

if large..

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

If too few. . . .

May fail to detect an important effect

Estimates of effect may be too imprecise (wide CI’s)

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Sample size Estimation

Determining the sample size for a study is a crucial

component of study design.
The goal is to include sufficient numbers of subjects so that
statistically significant results can be detected.
Among the questions that a researcher should ask when
planning a survey or study is that ”How large a sample do I
need?”
The answer will depend on the aims, nature and scope of the
study and on the expected result.
All of which should be carefully considered at the planning
stage.

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Sample size Estimation

In general, sample size depends on:

The type of data analysis to be performed
The desired precision of the estimates one wishes to achieve
The kind and number of comparisons that will be made
The number of variables that have to be examined
simultaneously
How heterogeneous the sampled population is
The objective of the study

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Sample size Estimation Approaches

We can use three approaches to determine sample size:

1 Rules of thumb for determining the sample size

2 Confidence interval approach

3 Hypothesis testing approach

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Rules of thumb

1 For smaller samples (N < 100), there is little point in

sampling. Survey the entire population.
2 If the population size is around 500 (give or take 100), 50%
should be sampled.
3 If the population size is around 1500, 20% should be sampled.
4 Beyond a certain point (N = 5000), the population size is
almost irrelevant and a sample size of 400 may be adequate.
5 Statistician maximalist: at least 500
6 To make generalizations about entire population, need a total
sample size of 200-400 (depending on total population and
confidence level desired

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Statistical formula

There are three possible categories of outcome variables

1 Where the variable of interest has only two alternatives
response: yes/no, dead/alive, vaccinated/not vaccinated and
so on.
2 When the outcome variable with multiple, mutually exclusive
alternatives responses, such as marital status, religion, blood
group and so on. For these two categories of outcome
variables, the data are generally express as percentages or
rates. So we can use percentage to compute the sample size.
3 Continuous response variables such as birth weight, age at first
marriage, blood pressure and cerium uric acid level, for which
numerical measurement are usually made.In this case the data
are summarize in the form of means and standard deviations or
their derivatives

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Confidence Interval approach

1 Identify major study variable

2 Determine type of estimate (%, mean, ratio,...)
3 Indicate expected frequency of factor of interest
4 Decide on desired precision of the estimate
5 Decide on acceptable risk that estimate will fall outside its
real population value
6 Adjust for population size
7 Adjust for estimated design effect
8 Adjust for expected response rate

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Sample size and power

Sample size and power are essential for the evaluation of the
role of chance

If a study has a inadequate sample size, then a result could

not show us a real difference as a difference

A true association will be difficult or impossible to distinguish

from a non-true association because of inadequate power

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Confidence level and α

α:The significance level of a test: the probability of rejecting
the null hypothesis when it is true (or the probability of
making a Type I error). It is usually 5% (0.05)
Confidence level: The probability that an estimate of a
population parameter is within certain specified limits of the
true value; (commonly denoted by 1 - α, and is usually 95%)

Power and β
Power: The probability of correctly rejecting the null
hypothesis when it is false; commonly denoted by 1 - β.
β:The probability of failing to reject the null hypothesis when
it is false (or the probability of making a Type II error).

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Sample Size required for single Proportions

The formula requires the knowledge of p, the proportion in

the population possessing the characteristic of interest
Formula
(Z α2 )2 P(1 − P)
n= (2)
W2
Where p can be obtained from:
Estimates may be available from previous studies
A pilot or preliminary sample
If not; to come with larger size, set p = 0:5

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Z α2 isthevalueofZfromstandardnormalcurveatα = 2
For α= 0.05 the Z0.025 = 1.96
For α= 0.1 the Z0.05 = 1.65 and so on.

Margin of error (w)

The margin of error (w) measures the precision of the estimate
Small value of w indicates high precision
It lies in the interval (0%; 5%]
For p close to 50%, w is assumed to be close to 5%
For smaller value of p, w is assumed to be lower than 5%

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Sample size for single mean

The formula requires the knowledge of σ , population

standard deviation for the variable of interest
Formula
(Z α2 )2 σ 2
n= (3)
W2
Where σ can be obtained from:
Estimates may be available from previous studies
A pilot or preliminary sample

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Example 1

1 A survey is being planned to determine what proportion of

families in a certain area are medically indigent. It is believed
that the proportion cannot be greater than 0.35. A 95%
confidence interval is desired with w= 0.05. What sample size
should be selected
Solution

(Z α2 )2 p(1 − p) 1.962 0.35 ∗ 0.65

n= = = 360
W2 0.052

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Example 2

1 A hospital director wishes to estimate the mean weight of

babies born in the hospital. How large a sample of birth
records should be taken if she/he wants a 95% CI of 0.5 wide?
Assume that a reasonable estimate of σ is 0.5 and w=0.05
Solution

(Z α2 )2 σ 2 1.962 22
n= = = 384.16 ≈ 384
W2 0.032

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Design Effect

It is a correction of bias in the variance introduced in the

sampling design, by selecting subjects due to the use of
clusters.
The design effect can be calculated after study completion,
but should be accounted for at the design stage.
The design effect is 1 (i.e., no design effect) when taking a
simple random sample.
The design effect varies using cluster sampling; it is usually
estimated that the design effect is 2 in multistage sampling
having cluster sampling.

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Design Effect

Global and Cluster variance

P(1 − P)
Var (SRS) =
n
(Pi − P)2
P
Var (cluster ) =
k(k − 1)
variance(cluster )
DesignEffect =
Variance(SRS)

Where:
p=global proportion
pi=proportion of the i th cluster
n=number of subjects
Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

sample size Formula

SRS/SRS/SRS

Cluster sampling:

where:
P=expected Prevalence
d= Absolute precision
g=design effect

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Sample size for analytic study

Desired values for the probabilities of a and b

The proportion of the baseline (controls or non-exposed)
population
EXPOSED (for case-control studies), or DISEASED (for
cohort/intervention studies)
Often based on previous studies or reports
Magnitude of the expected effect (RR, OR)
Often based on previous studies or reports
Minimum effect that investigator considers worth detecting
Formula: different formula depending on study design,
research question, and type of data

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Sample size formula for analytic study

Formula
The sample size which will be randomly taken from each
group can be determined by:

p0 = proportion of controls or unexposed

p1 = proportion of cases or exposed
1 - alpha=level of confidence and Z1−α is the value of Z from
standard normal distribution
1 - β= power and Z1−β is the value of z from standard
normal distribution

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Example 3

A cohort study was conducted to investigate the relationship

between oral contraceptive and risk of MI among women of
childbearing age. From previous study, 15% of non OC users were
diseases. Where as among users of OC, 25% were diseased
Determine the sample sized to be used for the current study
Solution
p0 = proportion of non OC users who are diseases = 0.15
p1 = proportion of OC users who are diseases = 0.25
p0 = (1 -p0 ) = 1.0 - 0.15 = 0.85
p1 = (1 -p1 ) = 1.0 - 0.25 = 0.75
Z1− α2 = 1.96 = value of the standard normal distribution

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

solution

Solution

(Z1− α2 + Z1−β )2 (po qo + p1 q1 )

n=
(p0 − q1 )2
(0.15 ∗ 0.855 + 0.25 ∗ 0.75)(1.96 + 0.84)2
n= = 247
(0.15 − 0.25)2

Thus, 247 OC users and 247 none OC users needed for the
study

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

reference

1 Chap T. Le. Introductory bio statistics

2 Martin Bland. An introduction to Medical Statistics

3 Biostatistics a methodology for the health sciences Second

edition

4 Pagano and Gauvereau. Principles of Statistician

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination
 Outline
Concept of sampling Rules of thumb
Methods of Sampling Statistical formula
Sample size Estimation

Alemakef Wagnew M.(Bsc. in statistics and MPH) Sampling and Sample size determination