Module – 1

INTRODUCTION

A pavement may be defined as a relatively stable layer constructed over the natural soil. The main
function of pavement is to support and distribute the heavy wheel load of vehicles over a wide area
of underlying subgrade.

A pavement layer material is considered more effective or superior, if it is able to distribute the
wheel load stress through a layer area per unit thickness of the layer. It is always desirable to
construct the pavement well above the maximum level of the ground water of the highest water
table, to keep the subgrade soil relatively dry even during rainy season.

Desirable Characteristics of Pavement

The pavement should have the following desirable characteristics

1. It should be structurally sound to withstand the heavy loads imposed on it.

2. It should have sufficient thickness and composition such that the vehicle loads are
distributed to a safe value on the embankment on which it rest.
3. It should have a strong and wear resistant surface.
4. It should be dust proof.
5. It should have a smooth surface such that vehicles can travel at good speed comfortably and
the wear and tear of vehicles is minimum.
6. It should have a texture which is sufficiently rough to prevent skidding of vehicles.
7. It should not generate high level of sound.
8. It should be sufficiently impervious to water such that the water dose not reaches the soil
subgrade.
9. It should have a long life, and the cost of maintaining it should be low.
10. It should economical to construct.

Types of pavements

The pavements can be classified based on the structural performance into two types:

1. Flexible pavement
2. Rigid Pavement

The main difference between these two types of pavements manner in which ever they distribute the
load over their subgrade.

Flexible pavement

In flexible pavements, wheel loads are transferred by grain to grain contact of the aggregates
through the granular structure, as shown in the figure below.
  Flexible pavements have very low or negligible flexural strength.
 The wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the stress
decreases with the depth. Taking advantage of these flexible pavements normally has
many layers.
 The design of flexible pavement uses the concept of layered system.
 The top layer has to be of best quality to sustain maximum compressive stress, in
addition to wear and tear
 The lower layer will experience lesser magnitude of stress and low quality material can
be used
 Flexible pavements are constructed using bituminous materials. Life of the pavement is
about 5 to 4 years and requires maintenance.

 Flexible pavement layers reflect the deformation of the lower layers on to the surface
layer i.e., if there is any undulations in subgrade then it will be transferred to the surface
layer.

COMPONENTS OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

Functions of pavement components

Seal Coat - Seal Coat is a thin surface treatment used to water proof the surface and to provide skid
resistance.

Tack Coat - Tack Coat is very light application of asphalt, it provides proper bonding between two
layer of binder course and must be thin, uniformly cover the entire surface and set very fast.

Prime Coat - Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to granular bases on
which the binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two layers.
(1) SUBIRADE

The soil subgrade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the other layers of the pavement. The
loads on the pavements are ultimately supported by the soil subgrade and dispersed to the earth
mass below.

The subgrade should possess the following properties:

(a) Strength
(b) Drainage
(c) Ease of compaction
(d) Permanency of compaction, etc..
It is important to note that in no case the soil subgrade should be over stressed.

(2) SUB BASE COURSE

It is a layer of selected granular soil, stabilized soil or gravels, boulders, broken stones, bricks, etc..
The main purpose of providing sub-base layer is to permit the building of relatively thick pavement
at a low cost. In the design of sub-base course economy is the essential requirement. As far as
possible, locally available material should be used. The sub- base course usually is provided fine
grained soils for any one or more purposes.

a) To increase the structural support for the base and surface courses.
(b) To improve drainage.
(c) To eliminate frost heave and salt heave
(d) To prevent the base and surface courses from the ill effect of poor qualities of the
underlying soils.
(3) BASE COURSE
It is the foundation layer, designed for its structural stability. The main function of the base course
in pavements is to improve the load supporting capacity by distributing the load through a finite
thickness. The minimum thickness of base course should not be less than 7.5 cms. Base course
should fulfil the following conditions.

a) The base course should have sufficient thickness to distribute the heavy wheel load
pressure adequately to the subgrade.
b) They should possess sufficient structural stability to resist the vertical pressure and
horizontal shear stresses developed due to moving or standing wheel loads.
c) It should possess sufficient density.
d) It should possess sufficient resistance to weathering.

For base courses suitable local materials such as soft aggregates, bricks, slag, stabilized soil, etc.,
may be used.
Base course under rigid pavements is provided for the following purposes:

a) To prevent pumping in fine grained soils.

b) To protect soils susceptible to frost action.
c) To provide - levelling course on rough shaped formations.
d) To increase the structural stability.
(4) SURFACE / WEARING COURSE
It is that component of pavement with which the wheels of vehicles are in actual contact.
The main purpose of wearing course is to provide smooth and dense riding surface that resists the
pressure exerted by tyres. It also resists the wear and tear due to traffic. It also offers resistance to
the infiltration of surface water into the base or subgrade layer which might sufficiently lower the
supporting power of the base and subgrade. It also prevents the pavement base from, ravelling and
disintegrating effect of traffic.

The thickness of the surface course depends on the applied load and stability of base course.
The surface course also adds appreciable strength to the entire pavement structure.

In flexible pavements, bituminous surfacing is provided as wearing course. In rigid

pavements, cement concrete layer acts as a base as well as wearing course.

Difference between Highway pavement and Airfield pavement

Several distinct differences exist between the two types of pavement. Notable among them
wire magnitude of applied load, tire pressure, geometric section of the pavement and the number of
repetitions of load applied to the pavement during the design life of the pavement
Highway Pavement Airfield Pavement
1) Volume of traffic Highway pavements are typically The majority of airport pavements
constructed to support a high see only a few dozen aircraft passes
volume of automobile and truck per day.
traffic.
2) Repetitions of loads The number of repetitions of load is The number of repetitions of load is
about 1000 to 2000 trucks per day considerably less i.e.. 20,000 to
per lane. 40,000 coverages during life time.

3) Distress type Highway pavements are more Airport pavements predominantly

prone to load associated distress exhibit environmental associated
types, such as rutting and fatigue distress types such as weathering
cracking. raveling and cracking.

4) Gross load It is less i.e. around 20 tonnes for Gross load on the airport pavement is
dual tandem wheels greater the than (about 50 to 250
tonnes) on the Highway pavements

5) Application of loads A major portion of the load is Loads are primarily applied in the
applied just several feet from the centre of the airfield slabs.
edge of the rigid highway
pavement.

6) Tire pressure Highway pavement can withstand a The tire pressure of aircraft is much
tire pressure upto 4 to 7 kg/cm². greater than highway vehicles i.e., up
to 25 to 30kg/cm².

7) Design criteria The design of highway pavements The design of airport pavements is
is based on moving loads with the based on moving loads in the interior
loading duration as an input for of runways but stationary loads at the
viscoelastic behaviours. end of runways. As a result thicker
 pavements are used at the runway
end than in the interior.

8) Major failure Pumping can be a major problem Pumping is of lesser importance for
on highways. rigid airfield pavements.

9) Width of pavement Width of highway pavement Width of the pavement depends upon
depends upon to number of lanes the class of airport, type of area in
and the number of lanes depends operation & standard clearance
upon the traffic intensity. Usually value. Width of airfield pavement
the width of two lane pavement is 7 ranges from 13 – 60 m.
m.
10) Design wheel load Design wheel load is about 5.1 Design wheel load is about 50
tonnes. tonnes.

Design strategies of variables

In order to complete a pavement design numerous variables must be determined.

1. Pavement performance
The initial and terminal serviceability of the pavement are required inputs. Serviceability is a
measure of the functional level of service at a given point in time of the life of a pavement. In
addition to serviceability, the pavement service life, or period of performance, for a pavement
must be established.
2. Traffic
Accurate cumulative load estimates are very important to pavement structural design. Load
estimates should be based on vehicle counts and classification, truck weight data, and anticipated
growth in traffic volumes and weights.

3. Subgrade soil characterization

The stiffness or strength of the subgrade soil has a significant impact on the structural
requirements of a pavement and is one of the most sensitive variables within the flexible
pavement design.
In areas with exceptionally soft or expansive soils consideration of unique design elements such
as installation of positive flow subsurface drainage, chemical treatment of soil, use of
geosynthetics or over - excavation should occur.

4. Materials
Quality pavement materials arid constructions are essential. All the materials should meet the
specified requirements.

5. Environment considerations
The two main environmental factors to be considered are
i) Temperature: Temperature affects the stability of bituminous bitumen oxidation rates,
thermal induced cracking, contract - ion and expansion of PCC pavement and curling and
warping of PCC pavement.
ii) Rainfall: Rainfall will influence the properties of the subgrade soil, base and surfacing
material.
In addition freezing and thawing of the subgrade soils and pavement layers remains a major
concern for pavement engineers.

6. Drainage
 Water and pavement layers are not good for each other. Maintaining proper drainage within the
pavement structure is an important design consideration. Pavement engineers need to consider
the effects of moisture on the performance of the pavement.

Comparison between Rigid and flexible pavement

Features Flexible Pavements Rigid Pavements
1. Flexural strength Negligible or very low Very high

2. Design principle Layered system concept Plate Theory (Slab action)

3. Stress Compressive stress Tensile stress and Temperature

stress
4. Transfer of stress Grain-to-grain transfer & deformation No such transfer and
on top is reflected on bottom layer. deformation, if any, it is not
reflected below.
5. Material Granular material: Load spreading Portland Cement, concrete;
ability depends upon the type of capable of transmitting load
material and thickness. Distribute the stress through a wider area
load in the form of a truncated cone. below.

6. Design life Flexible pavements are generally CC pavements of major roads

designed and constructed for a design are generally designed and
life of 15 years. constructed for 30 years period.

7. Curing period The curing period for bituminous Generally a long curing period
surface course is less and hence the of 28 days is required before
surface can be opened to traffic within opening to traffic.
24 hours

8. Night visibility Night visibility of bituminous surface Good night visibility even under
is very poor, particularly under wet wet weather conditions.
weather conditions.
9. Life cycle cost For longer service life, the life cycle The life cycle cost of CC
costs of flexible pavements are higher pavements is much lower than
than cc pavements. that of flexible pavements.
10. Total thickness of Higher than CC pavements Lower than flexible pavements.
pavement particularly for the construction of
highways passing through weak
subgrade soils and carrying heavy
traffic loads.
11. Durability Less durable More durable

Fundamentals of Design of Pavements

Boussineeq's Theory or Stresses in homogeneous mass or one layer theory
If subgrade, sub-base and surface layers in a pavement are assumed as one, solid homogeneous
mass than the analysis of the stresses can be very much simplified and such a theory is called
Boussineeq's Theory or one layer theory.
Assumptions
1. Boussineeq analysed the distribution of stresses as ideal, elastic, homogeneous and isotropic
solid obeying Hookes Law and present equations for horizontal and vertical stresses in such a
material under a load.
2. According to him all stresses vanish at infinity.
3. The shear stress component at any point on the ground surface is zero.
4. Vertical stress on the surface is zero except on the point of application.
5. The sum of vertical components along the imaginary hemisphere with load at centre is equal to
vertical load applied.
6. The vertical stress under a load at any horizontal section decreases from the maximum at a
point located directly beneath the load to zero at a very large distance from this point as per
pressure bulb.

The vertical stress (σz) at any point below the surface due to a uniformly distributed load on a
circular area, the point being located on the vertical axis passing through the centre of the circle is
given bay a following relation.

The radial or horizontal stress in given by

Where
σz = vertical stress on a point on the x -axis
σx = σy = horizontal stress
p = applied pressure per unit area
a = radius of circular loaded plate
z = depth
µ = Poisson's ratio.
The Poisson’s ratio, µ is the ratio of the strain normal to the applied stress to the strain parallel to
the applied stress. For soils generally µ = 0.5.

If E = Ratio of unit stress to the unit strain in the region of elastic behaviour. The vertical
displacement at the surface (when z = 0) under the centre of the applied load is given by

Put µ =0.5 the above expression reduced to

The above equation is applicable for a flexible plate.

For a rigid plate,

LIMITATIONS
1 The assumption that soil is perfectly elastic and homogeneous is not true. Soil may be elastic
only up to certain limit.
2 The pavement consists of a number of layers, each with its own modulus of elasticity. Hence,
the assumption of one constant property for the entire mass is not justified.
3 The assumption that the load is uniformly distributed may not be correct.

Problems :
1. A circular load of radius 15 cm with uniform contact pressure of 7.0 kg/cm² is applied on the
surface of a homogeneous elastic mass. Determine the vertical stress under the centre of the load
at a depth of 45 cm from the surface.

2. Calculate the deflection at the surface of a pavement due to a wheel load of 40 k N and a tyre
pressure of 0.5MN/m². The value of E of the pavement and subgrade may be assumed to be
uniformly equal to 20 MN/m².
Burmister's theory
Assumptions

1. The materials in the pavement layers are isotropic, elastic and homogeneous.
2. The surface layer is infinite in horizontal direction & finite in vertical direction.
3. The boundary and continuity condition as well as compactability are to be satisfied for the layers
as well as structure beneath that is soil at the point of contact.
4. The shear stress developed at point of contact of the structure and soil as zero.

Principle

Burmister proposed an analysis of two-layer system, the top layer of finite thickness and the bottom
layer of Semi-infinite mass. The top layer represents the surfacing, base and sub-base where as the
bottom layer represents the subgrade soil. The following equation gives the deflection at surface

1.5 p a
Deflection under a flexible Plate, Δ= Fw
E2

1.18 p a
Deflection under a rigid Plate, Δ= Fw
E2
Where,
Δ = Deflection at the surface
p = Load intensity on the circular plate
a = Radius of plate
E2 = Modulus of Elasticity of the lower layer from the graph
Fw = Displacement factor obtained from the graph presented by Burmister.

Burimister suggested that the displacement under the wheel load can be limited to 5 mm for flexible
pavements.
Difference between Boussinesq's & Burmister's theory
Boussinesq's theory Burmister's theory
1. Also known as Single Layer Theory. 1. Also known as Double Layer Theory.
2. All the layers are assumed to have same 2. Each layer has different modulus of
modulus of elasticity. elasticity.
3. Base, sub-base & subgrade layer are assumed 3. Base and sub-base courses are assumed as
to form an homogeneous form top layer and subgrade as bottom layer
4. The pavement layers are assumed to be of 4. The top layer is of finite depth and bottom
infinite depth. layer is of infinite depth.
5. No deflection factor is used in the deflection 5. A deflection factor 'Fw' is used in the
equation. deflection equation.
6. Shear stress component at any point on the 6. Shear stress at the point of contact between
ground surface is zero. the surface & soil is zero
7. Analysis of stresses is simple. 7. Analysis of stresses is comparatively difficult
than single layer
8. Es = Esb > Eb 8. Es > Esb > Eb
9. Equations are developed to determine the 9. No such equations are developed
vertical and horizontal stresses.
10.The soil is assumed to be perfectly elastic 10.It is assumed that materials in the top layer
and homogeneous. are elastic and homogeneous.

Note :
1. Generally displacement factor is estimated by trail thickness for a ratio of E 1/E2 or EP/ Es
where E1 or EP is young's modulus of elasticity of structure that is pavement.
2. The displacement under wheel load is max i.e., 0.5 cm for flexible pavement.
Problems
1. Design the thickness of flexible pavement by Burmister's two layer analysis for a wheel load of
40 KN and a tyre pressure of 0.5 MN/m². The modulus of elasticity of the pavement material is
150 MN/m² and that of the subgrade is 30 MN/ m²
Given: Wheel load P = 40 KN = 40 ×1000 N
6
10
Tyre pressure q = 0.5 MN/m² = 0.5 × N/ mm²
1000 ×1000
Modulus of elasticity of the pavement E1= 150 MN/m²
Modulus of elasticity of the subgrade E2= 20 MN/m²
Solution
Wheel load
Tyre pressure= 2
πa
P
q= 2
πa
a=
√ √P
πq
=
40 ×1000
π ×0.5
=159.58 mm∴ a=16 cm
 E1 150 E2 1
Here = =5∨ =
E2 30 E1 5

Assume trail thickness of pavement, h = 2 a = 2 × 16 = 32 cm

E1 h
From graph for =5 and h = 2a or = 2
E2 a
F2 = FW = 0.43
1.5 p a 0.43 ×1.5 × 0.5× 16
∴ deflction of flexible plate , Δ=F W = =0.172 cm<0.5 cm
E2 30
Hence adopt pavement thickness, h = 32cm

2. Determine the thickness of flexible pavement by two layer theory for a wheel load of 5000 kg
EP
and tyre pressure 7 kg/cm² take allowable deflection as 0.5 cm and = 10 and Es= 120 kg/cm²
ES

Given: Wheel load P = 5000 kg

Tyre pressure q = 7 kg/cm²
EP
= 10 and Es= 120 kg/cm²
ES
Solution
Wheel load
Tyre pressure= 2
πa
P
q= 2
πa
a=
√ √
P
πq
=
5000
π×7
=15 cm
Assume trail thickness of pavement, h = 2 a = 2 × 15 = 30 cm
EP h
From graph for =10 and h = 2a or = 2
ES a
F2 = FW = 0.32
 1.5 p a 0.32 ×1.5 ×7 × 15
∴ deflction of flexible plate , Δ=F W = =0.42 cm< 0.5 cm
ES 120
Hence adopt pavement thickness, h = 30 cm
3. Plate bearing tests were conducted with a 75 cm dia plate on soil subgrade and a granular base.
The stress noticed when the deflection was 0.25 cm on the subgrade soil was 0.07 MN/m². On
the base course the yielded 0.25 cm deflection under a stress of 0.14 MN/m². Design the
pavement for an allowable deflection of 0.5 cm, under a wheel load of 40 KN and a tyre pressure
of 0.5MN/m².
Solution
i) Calculate elastic modulus Es=E₂ = for soil subgrade
1.18 p a
For single layer and rigid plate, Δ= FW
ES
Here p = 0.07 N/mm², a = 75/2=37.5 cm, Δ=0.25 cm and Fw = 1 for single layer
1.18 × 0.07 ×37.5 ×1
0.25=
ES

1.18× 0.07 ×37.5 ×1 2

∴ ES = =12.4 N /mm
0.25
ii) Calculate displacement factor Fw for base course
1.18 p a
Δ= FW
ES
Here p = 0.14 MN/m², a = 75/2=37.5 cm, Δ=0.25 cm and ES = 12.4 N/ mm²

1.18 × 0.14 ×37.5 × F W

0.25=
12.4

0 .25
∴ FW = 12.4=0.5
1.18 × 0.14 ×37.5

Assume trail thickness of pavement, h = 15 cm

h 15
∴ = =0.4∨h=0.4 a
a 37.5
From graph for h = 0.4 a and F W =0.5

E S E2 1
= =
EP E1 100
iii) Design of flexible pavement for wheel load, P 40 KN = 40 × 1000 N and tyre pressure,
q =0.5 MN/m² = 0.5 N/mm²
a=
P
πq √ √
=
40 ×1000
π ×0.5
=16 cm

1.5 p a
∴ deflction for flexible plate , Δ=F W
ES
1.5 × 0.5 ×16 × F W
0.5=
12.4
0 .5× 12.4
∴ FW = =0.52
1.5 × 0.5 ×16
 ES 1
From graph for F W =0.5 2 and =
EP 100
∴ thickness of pavement , h=0.4 × 16=6.4 cm

Stresses and deflections, Principle, Assumptions and Limitations

of Boussinesq’s theory, Burmister theory and problems on above.