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Substation Monitoring

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12 views91 pages

Substation Monitoring

Uploaded by

Rabin Rabinsons
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOC, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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MONITORING SND CONTROLLING OF SUB-STATION USING GSM

COMMUNICATION

i
ABSTRACT

One of the most costly equipment in electrical power systems


are the High Voltage Power Sub Station. Faults and failures for these
equipments does not only cause repair cost, furthermore economic
losses occur due to interruptions in consumers’ energy supply.
Preventive tests and on-line monitoring are used to predict incipient
fault conditions, and to schedule outage maintenance and retirement
of the Sub Station. This project presents a survey on various
approaches on monitoring and fault detection of electrical power Sub
Station used to optimize maintenance techniques. The majority of
these devices have been in service for many years in different
(electrical, mechanical and environmental) conditions. They are the
main components and constitute a large portion of capital investment.
Operation of distribution Sub station under rated condition (as per
specification in their nameplate) guarantees their long service life.
However, their life is significantly reduced if they are subjected to
overloading, heating, low or high voltage/current resulting to
unexpected failures and loss of Supply.
.

Keywords: HVPT, GSM

ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
TITLE
NO. NO.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
ABSTRACT iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ix
INTRODUCTION 1
1 1.1 Importance of power Sub 1
station
1.2 Problem outline 2
1.3 Objective 3
1.4 Research outline 4
2 LITERATURE SURVEY 5
3 MATLAB MODELING OF SUB 8
STATION
3.1 Introduction 8
3.2 Model of Power Sub station 9
3.3 Internal Model 11
3.4 Fault Analysis 12
3.5 ANN 13
4 CONVENTIONAL MPPT 18
TECHNIQUES

iii
4.1 Introduction 18
4.2 Failure Modes 19
4.3 Insulation 20
4.4 Oil level 21
4.5 Mode of Faults 22
4.6 Condition Monitoring 22
4.7 Analysis 28
5 OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES 32
5.1 Proposed Technique 32
5.2 Algorithm 33
5.3 ANN 33
5.4 BLOCK diagram 34
6 SIMUTION OF MPPT BASED
36
SUB STATION SYSTEM
6.1 Matlab Simulink
36

6.2 Simulation Model


37

7 RESULTS & DISCUSSION 40


8 CONCLUSION 41
REFERENCES 43

iv
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title Page


No. No.

Figure Block diagram of the proposed work 5


1.1

Figure 75W SUB STATION module test 15


3.1 conditions

Figure SUB STATION system with MPPT 17


3.2

Figure DC-DC boost Converter 19


3.3

Figure SUB STATION curve 25


4.1

Figure Flowchart for P&O 26


4.2

Figure Deviation from MPP 27


4.3

Figure Flowchart for PSO 32


5.1

Figure DC-DC Boost Converter Model 36


6.1

Figure Simulink Model of SUB STATION 37


v
6.2 system

Figure Simulink model of Conventional P & 38


6.3 O

Figure Simulink Model for Proposed System 38


6.4

Figure Proposed Simulink Model for PSO 39


6.5

Figure Output Voltage of P & O 40


6.6

Figure SUB STATION Power 40


6.7

Figure SUB STATION irradiation 41


6.8

Figure Output Voltage 41


6.8

Figure Demux and Line RMS 41


6.9

Figure Output Power With and Without PSO 42


6.10

Figure SUB STATION Boost Converter 42


6.11 Voltage and Current

Figure SUB STATION Boost Converter 42


vi
6.12 Power and Current

Figure SUB STATION Boost Converter 43


6.13 Power and Current 750 Irradiance

Figure Line RMS 44


6.14

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

NAME ABBREVIATIONS
GSM Internet Of Things
HVPT High Voltage Power Sub station
HES Hybrid Energy System
P&O Perturb & Observe
MPPT Maximum PowerPoint Tracking
THD Total Harmonics distortion
PSO Particle Swarm Optimization
DC Direct Current
AC Alternating Current

vii
viii
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

A controller is used to control (makes sense!) some process


or aspect of the environment. A typical microcontroller application
is the monitoring of my house. As the temperature rises, the
controller causes the windows to open.

If the temperature goes above a certain threshold, the air conditioner


is activated. If the system detects my mother-in-law approaching,
the doors are locked and the windows barred.

In addition, upon detecting that my computer is turned on, the stereo


turns on at a deafening volume (for more on this, see the section on
development tools).At one time, controllers were built exclusively
from logic components, and were usually large,heavyboxes (before
this, they were even bigger, more complex analog
monstrosities),microprocessors were used and the entire controller
could fit on a small circuit board.

Later on,This is still common - you can find many [good]


controllers powered by one of the many common microprocessors
(including Zilog Z80, Intel 8088, Motorola 6809, and others).

As the process of miniaturization continued, all of the components


needed for a controller were built right onto one chip. A one chip
computer or microcontroller was born.

1
A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip, which includes, on
one chip, all or most of the parts needed for a controller. The
microcontroller could be called a "one-chip solution".

It typically includes:

CPU(central processing unit)

RAM(Random Access Memory)

EPROM/PROM/ROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only


Memory).

Since most of the time Power Sub station is an outdoor unit it is


very much experienced to external (lightning strokes) and internal
disturbances (switching surges). Due to these effects the insulation
system of Power Sub station may deteriorate with respect to time
and also there is every possibility of winding displacement or
deformation. Therefore condition monitoring due to magnetic forces
being imposed on the winding of the Power Sub station is very
much required to avoid further catastrophic effects on Power Sub
station. Condition monitoring of Power Sub station can be done
either online or offline.

The parameters that can be used for condition monitoring of the


Power Sub station can be input current, voltage and output current,
moisture, pressure of oil, basing on type and nature of gases released
during Power Sub station operation, neutral current behavior or
most importantly the temperature of the oil. These parameters can
be used to assess condition of the Power Sub station either in
offline mode or online mode.
2
Various methods for conditioning monitoring could be Dissolved
Gas Analysis (DGA), Partial Discharge (PD), Frequency Response
Analysis (FRA), signal processing tools for assessment of condition
of the insulation. In order to avoid the delay in the assessment of the
condition of insulation system and also for better.

3
preventive maintenance of Power Sub station both online and
offline methods can be carried out. The failure of Power Sub
station is caused due to winding failures which may be due to
electrical and/or mechanical reasons. In the thesis both neutral
current and also temperature measurement has been considered for
condition assessment of Power Sub station. Nearly 3 to 4
percentages of failures are caused due to failure of High Voltage
bushing roughly 4 to 5 percentage of failures due to Sub station oil
over heating / aging or entry of moisture through gasket joints.
Online monitoring is the collection of data and diagnosis is
interpretation of data for condition assessment of Power Sub station
[71].

1.1 Problem outline

In offline methods manually personnel carryout periodic checks


about the condition of the Sub station interms of significant
parameters such as temperature, Current, Voltage at input and at
output side, neutral current measurement.

In offline personal attention is required such as collecting the details


of temperature of oil, temperature of winding, current, voltage at
input and output side by visiting the site of the power Sub station
regularly and periodically. Due to this the spirit of condition
monitoring may not be achieved because the incipient disturbances
may gain their severity with time to time that is even on hourly or
daily basis. Therefore condition monitoring should be on hourly
basis/daily basis not on periodic basis to minimize or avoid further

4
catastrophic effects. More over DGA is offline method to monitor
and analyze the condition of Power Sub station because collection
of oil and different gases from the site itself is time consuming
which is to be minimized.

1.2 Objective

To avoid the delay in condition monitoring of the Power Sub station


by offline mode, it is advantageous to collect the data of various
parameters of the Power Sub station by online mode. The key
benefits of online monitoring and diagnosis facilitates are early
detection of faults which prevent equipment failure especially
catastrophic failures and also helps in long term data acquisition and
understanding about Power Sub station condition and subsequently
performance time to time. In addition the online monitoring reduces
maintenance time and cost.

5
Thus online monitoring technology such as General Packet Radio
Servicing (GSM) system is used to collect the data of Sub Station
parameters. At receiving and sending end the modem architecture is
similar for GSM systems. By using GSM system Current, voltage,
temperature of oil and temperature of winding of Sub station are
collected on hourly basis and the obtained data of Sub station
parameters at receiving end is analyzed in MATLAB environment
for assessment of condition monitoring and also diagnosis of Power
Sub station by using signal processing tool such as Wavelet
Transforms (WT) to identify the faults and Neural Networks for
training the faults.

1.3 Research outline:

During normal operating condition of Power Sub station, the Power


Sub station parameters in terms of current, voltage, temperature of
oil, temperature of winding and neutral currents are collected using
GSM. By using data corresponding to current, voltage , temperature
of oil, temperature of winding and neutral currents are analyzed by
Multi Resolution decomposition of the data (signal) supported by
Wavelet Transforms for the existence of fault. Here the data is of
non-stationary in nature Short Time Fourier Transform (STFT) is
not applied for data or signal analysis. By using Daubechies
Wavelet till level 5 thus the hidden information in the signal can be
retrieved especially if the fault signal is changing very severely for a
very small duration of time. Not only this, magnitude of Wavelet
coefficients of each signal provide the information regarding
severity of the signal. Thus WT is used to extract features from
6
Current, voltage, temperature of oil and temperature of winding of
Sub station, the neutral current for identifying the fault in the Power
Sub station.

After extracting the features from current, voltage, temperature of


oil and temperature of winding of Sub station optimization
technique is used for generating the optimal training data set for
training NN for classifying the faults. In general ANN is and trained
by BP algorithm. Because the proposed model is ANN which is
trained by Fire Fly optimization algorithm for detection and
classification of the faults it proved to be effective. By collecting the
Power Sub station data from the remote end and carrying out
analysis (WT,ANN based FFA) for identification and classification
of faults (for condition assessment) proved effective as it saves time
and provides quick corrective action by assessing condition of the
Power Sub station time to time.

7
8

The key benefits of online monitoring and diagnosis facilitates early


detection of faults which prevent equipment failure especially
catastrophic failure and also helps in long term data acquisition and
understanding about Power Sub station performance time to time.
Online monitoring reduces maintenance time and cost. The essential
criterion for developing an effective monitoring and diagnosis
system are evaluating its performance to defect incipient failures.
The block diagram for the proposed work is given in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Block diagram of the proposed work.

8
9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

Structure and Implementation of Wireless Sensor Network and


Protocol for Smart Energy Meter structure and actualize a
remote sensor system and convention for savvy vitality meter
In this paper we design and implement a wireless sensor network
and protocol for smart energy meter applications. The system
consists of a digital energy meter, a ZigBee coordinator and a
management program. A ZigBee module from Atmel was adopted
as a communication unit. The designed system is capable of
automatically reading the unit and sending a terminal and a cover
alarm to the management program. The system can support up to
100 energy meters, 10-hop network depth and automatically detect a
new energy meter. The trial results show that the framework
proposed in this paper is plausible to actualized in down to earth
applications for programmed meter perusing

The power framework is one of the most significant foundations in


the advanced society since it is the electrical force wellspring of the

9
10

electrical machines, for example engines and generators, utilized in


the plant and furthermore for the electrical apparatuses and lighting
in families. As of late, a computerization framework has been
applied to numerous fundamental foundations, for example, power,
gas, and water frameworks so as to encourage the standard work, for
example, a manual control and a unit recording activity. These days,
the unit recording must be finished by human before the finish of
every month. Since the unit recording was finished by human, the
human blunder turns into the serious issue of framework. As of late,
the savvy meter idea has been prominently received by many
driving power organizations in USA and EUROPE so as to beat the
issue of human mistake in the unit recording just as give the
programmed method to report the vitality meter debilitation and the
altering movement of got into mischief supporters by utilizing the
development remote and wired correspondence advancements

Design and Implementation of an GSM Access Point for Smart


Home

Network communication and micro-electro-mechanical embedded


technologies have attracted much attention in recent years. Through
these technologies, the capabilities of sensing, identification, and
communication can be embedded in various smart devices. These
smart devices can automatically connect to the Internet and form an
intelligent network called Internet of Things (GSM). However, these
devices are embedded with different wireless communication

10
11

interfaces such as Wi-Fi and ZigBee. This paper presents the design
and implementation of an GSM access point that supports
functionalities of coordination of various wireless transmission
protocols. Based on the existing Wi-Fi access point, we have
embedded a ZigBee module and implemented ZigBee and UPnP
protocols into the designed GSM access point, which supports
ZigBee communication capabilities over the Internet

In recent years, the Internet of Things (GSM) has attracted much


attention because of the provided functionalities that can advance
humanity in terms of intelligence, automation, convenience, etc The
GSM can change objects that are precisely unidentifiable into
identifiable, recognized, interconnected intelligent objects based on
the standard communication protocols, called Smart Objects. The
GSM consists of a number of smart objects that are embedded with
wired/wireless communication interfaces to communicate and
interact with each other without human intervention. The basic
concept of GSM is that various smart objects can be automatically
linked into a network for interacting with humans through
perception and networking technologies. Smart objects in the GSM
have the ability to send information through the Internet to provide
the interaction among multiple things and people. For example, a
smart power meter can get information with regard to energy usage
from various electrical devices. Afterward, the smart power meter
sends information wirelessly to the access point and the information
is further forwarded to user devices through the Internet.

11
12

Smart & Intelligent Gsm Based Amr System


In the year of May 2012 the authors Abhinandan Jain, Dilip Kumar,
Jyoti Kedia presented a paper titled “SMART & INTELLIGENT
GSM BASED AMR SYSTEM” . This paper represents the
development of fully automated energy meter which is having
capabilities like remote monitoring & controlling energy meter.
Automatic meter reading (AMR) system continuously monitors the
energy meter & sends data on request of service provider through
SMS. It saves huge human labor.

Automated Wireless Meter Reading System For Monitoring &


Controlling Power Consumption

In the year of June 2012 the authors O. Homa Kesav, B. Abdul


Rahim presented a paper titled “AUTOMATED WIRELESS
METER READING SYSTEM FOR MONITORING &
CONTROLLING POWER CONSUMPTION. In this paper the
design presents new method for avoiding high construction &
maintenance cost in the existing system. The system is designed in
such a way that if the consumer is unable to pay the bill the power
connection maybe disconnected automatically from remote server.
The ARM 7 based hardware system consist of a processor core

12
13

board & the peripheral board. The embedded C language is used as


programming language in this system.

GSM Based Smart Energy Meter Monitorring & Theft


Detection Using Atmega

In the year of November 2016 the authors S. V. Anushree T.


Shanthi presented a paper titled “GSM BASED SMART ENERGY
METER MONITORRING & THEFT DETECTION USING
ATMEGA”. The main objective of the system is detection of theft
of electricity increases the cost paid by customers & can have
serious safety consequences. Identify the theft by sending alert SMS
to owner send meter reading & rate every month to the owner .this
system has an additional set up of GSM which portraits the global
connection environment to the user & allow them to view the status
of meter reading from anywhere at any time theft of electricity as a
material impact on customers in terms of cost & safety.

Smart Energy Meter


The authors Rajesh T S, Anup Jose, Midhun P, .Vishnu Das
presented a paper titled “SMART ENERGY METER”. The
traditional metering system has many disadvantages as manually
reading has shortcomings such as errors in taking readings,
inaccuracy, external conditions affecting readings, delayed work &
location of consumers. In order to overcome the problem of
traditional meter reading system automatic meter reading system is

13
14

used. The three key elements in automatic meter reading system are
consumption measurement, meter reading, transmission of measure
data & data processing & billing.

CHAPTER 3

MODELLING OF SUB STATION

1.4 Introduction

In order to assess the condition of behavior of Sub station it is


required to observe and measure the transient behavior of Sub
station parameters. It is necessary to know how the system
components will behave during internal and external disturbances.
Thus modeling of the power Sub station is very crucial in order to
have better understanding of behaviors of power Sub station during
disturbances across power Sub station. By virtue of winding
electrical characteristics the winding can be represented in the form
of resistance, inductance and capacitance. Generally the switching
surges or lightning strokes consists of the combination of low
frequency components and high frequency components.

For understanding the transient behavior of power Sub station,


capacitive behavior of the Sub station is significant. To determine
the behavior of power Sub station for surges mathematical modeling
of power Sub station is very much required. To determine the
system modeling the behavior of reactive components of the
winding is important which can be done by studying the behavior of
14
15

inductors and capacitors but, Sub station can be modeled by either


terminal characteristics based model or by physical model.

The terminal based model is necessary for insulation coordination of


power system and is used to know the wave shapes of current and
voltage at terminals of the Sub station, i.e. terminal characteristics of
the Sub station is provided by terminal based model of the Sub
station. Terminal based Sub station refers to terminal performance
and characteristics of the Sub station by using mathematical
equations or pole-zero configurations. Where as physical based
model is quite useful to model all parts of the Sub station with clear
details and can be developed according to the physical components
associated with Sub station winding layers. This type of Sub station
modeling uses network equivalent parameters in terms of resistance,
inductance and capacitance. This model (physical based model) is
quite useful to study the behaviors of power Sub station under
resonance condition and distribution of electrical stresses along Sub
station winding.

1.5 Winding model of power Sub station substation

15
16

Electrical winding of power Sub station form the electrical circuit


and thus winding construction should be very careful to ensure
safety and reliable operation of potential Sub station. Electrical and
mechanical strength should be ensure for power Sub station winding
during transient surges(lightning strokes) and short circuit
conditions(leads to mechanical stresses) such that the temperature of
the winding should be within the operating limits [48]. The physical
representation of winding is shown in Fig. 3.1(a). The detailed
equivalent circuit of Sub station network is shown in Fig. 3.1(b)
[21].

Fig. 3.1(a) Winding cross section through turns.

16
17

Fig. 3.1(b) Detailed equivalent network of Sub station.

17
18

The cross section of the term is numbered as rectangular block,


therefore the winding could be a layer of winding if the axis is
vertical and could be a disc if it is a horizontal [55]. The line
terminal is A and winding continues beyond E. By virtue of the
electrical characteristics of the winding during surges, each section
of the winding is represented by inductive elements together with
the shunt and series capacitors as shown in Fig. 3.2(a) and Fig.
3.2(b) [21]. The cross sectional winding model of the Sub station is
shown in Fig. 3.2(c).

Fig. 3.2(a) Simplified equivalent network.

18
19

Fig. 3.2(b) Further simplified equivalent network.

19
20

Fig. 3.2(c) Cross-section of a Sub station.

By virtue of electrical characteristics affected by capacitance that


exist between adjacent turns in a disc capacitance to ground.
Similarly the effects of self and mutual inductances with respect to
inductive turns and the disc/sections will exist. However capacitance
and inductance are of distributed nature but for practical purposes
these elements will be considered as lumped elements [13]. The
behavior of Sub station winding will be due to two oppositely
reactive elements because of high frequency and low frequency
components of the surge. Therefore winding resistance may not
exhibit significant effect during surges. From the behavioral
perspective of the winding during disturbances the following
elements will affect the behavior of the winding due to electrical
surges [49].

• Series capacitance Cs or capacitance between the


turns

• Ground capacitance Cg

20
21

• Self inductance L

• Mutual inductance M

In general the electrical surges especially in transient period will


have steep wave fronts and relatively longer tails, and thus in the
laboratories these properties of electrical surges (lightning strokes)
are approximated with impulse wave to estimate the behavior of Sub
station winding [50].

1.6 Internal model of the Sub station subjected to impulse


voltages

In order to assess the condition of the power Sub station against the
impact due to surges it is required to study the internal model of Sub
station. To get clear understanding of the electrical stresses
experienced by the Sub station, it is advisable to study the behavior
of the winding in three phases soon after the impact of voltage

21
22

surge across the Sub station [46]. The three phases could be extremely
short interval usually a fraction of micro second, during this interval
significant amount of current may not penetrate across the Sub station
winding because of its inductance. The displacement currents flows
through the winding [51]. Therefore, the initial voltage distribution

model of the Sub station consists of only capacitive elements as


shown in Fig. 3.4.

Fig. 3.4 Model for determining the initial voltage distribution in a Sub
station winding subjected to a surge.

It can be observed that the model comprises of one type of element.


Therefore, its response is same for all frequencies [56]. Moreover the
model consists of multiple number of meshes and capacitance is
uniformly distributed along the winding. Thus each section (short
length conductor) of the winding consists of capacitance to ground to
the adjacent ground. The elementary length of winding is as shown in
Fig.3.5.

22
23

Fig. 3.5 Elementary length ∆x of the winding.

been released, the incipient fault can be identified and is explained by


dissolved gas analysis.

1.7 Dissolved gas analysis

Sub Station will be under the influence of electrical, mechanical, and


thermal stresses which cause the degradation of quality of insulation.
To avoid any kind of danger to the power Sub station, periodic
monitoring of the Sub Station is crucial for reducing maintenance
costs, minimizing the probability of destructive failures. The detection
of incipient faults in oil immersed Sub Station is by examination of
gases dissolved in oil. Dissolved gas analysis (DGA) has gained
importance as a diagnostic method for the detection of Sub station’s
internal faults. Due to the effects of electrical and thermal stresses the
degradation of Sub station insulation will be interms of the various
types of gases dissolved in the oil insulation [73]. Therefore, gas-in-
23
24

oil concentrations, gas generation rates and the total combustible


gases in the oil are used to estimate the condition of a Sub station. The
gases available from chromatographic analysis of insulation oil
contain concentrations (ppm by volume) of dissolved hydrogen (H2),
methane (CH4), acetylene (C2H2), ethylene (C2H4), ethane (C2H6),
carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2). The conventional
key gas and ratio methods are based on experience of personnel in
fault diagnosis using DGA data. To improve and computerize Sub
station fault diagnosis, artificial intelligence can be used for Sub
station fault diagnosis. Traditional ANN method can directly acquire
experience from the training data, and overcome some of the
shortcomings of the expert system. In this thesis Artificial Neural
Network is introduced into fault diagnosis of power Sub station using
DGA.

1.1 Failure modes of power Sub station

In general power Sub station consist of winding, tank, bushing,


cellulose and oil insulation. These parts must function in a
coordinated manner to ensure proper operation of power Sub station.
As per the review the failures across the Sub station is shown in Fig.
2.1 [84].

The Sub station had higher contribution of winding faults due to


surges. Even in the power Substation the higher percentages of
failure will be across the winding and insulation and the Sub station
constituent components are shown in Fig. 2.2.

24
25

Fig.. 4.1 Failures across the Sub station.

Fig. 4.2 Parts of the Sub station.

1.2 Fault tree for the Solid insulation

The functionality of the solid insulation function is to provide


dielectric and mechanical isolation to the windings. In general the
solid insulation of power Sub station is cellulose based product such
25
26

as press board and is the weakest link in the Sub station and has the
most influence in the aging process. The dielectric strength of
paper/press board is measured interms of degree of polymerization
(DP) which is the average number of rings in the chain of chemical
composition of press board. New DP number could be from 1200-
1400. If DP is less than 200 then the paper insulation can’t withstand
to the electrical stresses and other mechanical forces that may exert
on the insulation.

The aging of the insulation (cellulose) can’t be reversible and it is


not economical to replace. The aging of cellulose could be due to
water content, oxygen and heat.

Therefore in order to maintain healthy insulation it is advisable to


dry the Sub station to take out moisture or water content across the
insulation [11]. Degassing of the oil also reduces the gas content in
the paper to improve the life of the dielectric strength of the
insulation [12]. The fault of cellulose is shown in Fig. 4.3.

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27

Fig. 4.3 Fault tree of cellulose.

1.3 Oil insulation

The highly refined product from mineral crude oil consisting of


hydrocarbon composition is used as Sub station oil. The purpose of
Sub station oil is to provide insulation and cooling during the
operation of power Sub station. Alternatively the function of oil is to
impregnate the cellulose and isolate between the different parts in
the Sub station [28].

The major cause for deterioration of oil insulation is due to


oxidation. The particles which have conductive properties may result
in deterioration of oil insulation due to aging or during disturbances
the decomposition of oil may result in some conductive particles

27
28

leading to decrease in dielectric strength of oil. The fault tree for oil
insulation is shown in Fig. 4.4.

Fig. 2.4 The fault tree for oil insulation.

1.4 Mode of faults in Sub station windings

The active part of the Sub station is winding of the Sub station
which carries the current at operating voltages. During lightning
strikes (consist of high frequency and low frequency spectral
components) the winding of the Sub station experiences electro
static and magnetic forces due to the approximation of winding with
two oppositely reactive elements inductance and capacitance. Due to
the presence of high and low frequency components in electrical
28
29

signals during switching surges or external disturbances the winding


experiences electromagnetic forces due to which the winding may
lead to its deformation in inter turn fault. Due to this there will be
change in the behavior of neutral current. Thus neutral current could
be one of the parameters to observe the condition of power Sub
station [18]. Thus during the disturbances there is every possibility
of winding deformation leading to inter turn faults. The mode of
faults in the winding is shown in Fig. 2.5.

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30

Fig. 2.5 Fault mode for Sub station winding

1.5 Condition monitoring purpose and practice

Assessment of Condition monitoring of power Sub station and its


management is very crucial since the technical policies of power
utilities have change parallel with economical considerations.

In order to reduce the maintenance cost and extend the life time of
components condition based maintenance is essential. To increase
the life expectancy of power Sub station Condition monitoring and
assessment has gained importance and also to avoid further
detrimental effects of incipient faults in power Sub station [8].

Therefore power Sub station problems can be characterized into 3


categories.

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31

• Incipient faults.
• Problems evolving from ageing processes.
• Augmentation of operating conditions with respect to Sub
station capabilities.

In general slowly developing sever faults may take certain period


of time to exhibit its detrimental effects. Thus condition
monitoring of these kinds of faults provides

31
32

better assessment methodologies for Sub station life management


process so as to enable knowledge based decision for preventive
maintenance [82].

There are several factors and parameters with which life time
models of Sub station can be established. These parameters are
required to be observed and studied for better condition monitoring.
They are

• Main dielectric insulation system.


• Conductor system of Sub station, cellulose structure with
information regarding DP, solid insulation.
• Operating conditions of online tap changer (OLTC).
• Mechanical condition of winding.
• Bushings, partial discharges.

By studying the statistics provided by CIGRE [22] it can be


concluded that winding and core contributes for possibility of power
Sub station failures. Due to electromagnetic effects there is every
possibility of inter turn faults or winding deformations due to the
behavior of two oppositely reactive elements. (These effects can be
minimized by proposing condition monitoring techniques). The
integrity of the Sub station winding is challenged by

• Forces associated with short circuits.


32
33

• During transportation there may be excessive mechanical


acceleration.
• Dynamic forces during the operating conditions of power
Sub station.

Moreover during operational condition of power Sub station the


temperature of the oil gradually increases. Over a time the
temperature of oil will be in such a way that the consistency of
dielectric strength to be maintained will be reduced. Any kind of
complacency at this stage may lead to accidents across Sub station.
Thus condition monitoring of Sub station and its assessment is very
critical for proper reliable operation of power Sub station. There are
several methods for condition monitoring of power Sub station as
shown in Fig. 2.6.

33
34

Fig. 2.6 Methods for condition monitoring of Sub station

As per the literature survey various methods are used for condition
monitoring of Sub station and are tabulated in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Condition monitoring techniques.

Tests To detect

DGA Ageing of oil, paper, hot spot, arcing or


PD

Degree of polymerization Ageing of insulating paper

Furfural Ageing of insulation

Tan delta Water content & ageing of insulation


paper

FRA Detects physical movement of


windings

34
35

PD Deterioration of insulation system/able


to detect some

localized defects

In most of the condition monitoring systems the parameter can be


temperature. Thermal analysis of power Sub station can provide
useful information regarding the dynamic status of incipient faults in
the Sub station [15]. Thus hot spot temperature (HST) technique is
quite useful for assessment of power Sub station insulation system.
HST has one limiting factor that will affect the age of power Sub
station.

1.6 Condition monitoring by winding vibrations analysis

The winding vibration can occur in power Sub station due to


electro dynamic forces caused by interaction of current through the
winding and leakage flux. Moreover magnetostriction phenomenon
also causes vibration in the core of the Sub station [35].

1.7 Dissolved Gas Analysis

DGA is used for condition monitoring of insulation of power Sub


station. The type and the rate at which the various gases that have
been liberated before and during fault can provide information
regarding condition of power Sub station. DGA test basically refers
to Sub station oil test which provides information regarding
35
36

chemical and physical properties of the power Sub station [31]. By


measurement of 2- fururaldehide and carbon oxides may indicate the
condition of solid insulations of power Sub station. In order to
assess the condition of power Sub station basing on DGA various
interpretation methods have been proposed [66]. These methods
provide information regarding oil characteristics, detect PD and
overheating of insulation system. But the diagnosis basing on these
parameters are inconsistent.

The gases will be liberated because of rise in temperature of oil by


breaking the chemical bonds between the atoms which will make the
hydrocarbon molecules of mineral oil [67]. The gases generated will
be hydrogen H2, methane CH4, ethane C2H2, carbon dioxide CO2,
carbon monoxide CO comes under key gases. CO and oxygen are
due to deterioration of solid insulation and the remaining gases are
due to deterioration of oil insulation [32].

When mineral oil contains normal value of gas then it can refer to
incipient fault. If the value of gases interms of Parts Per Million
(PPM) exceeds normal limits then sample frequency must be
increased because exceeding the PPM above normal limit refers to
initiation of incipient fault. If the PPM value exceeds the actual limit
then it can be concluded that critical condition of Sub station and it
may be advised to remove from service [65]. As per ANSI/IEEE C
57.104 standards normal limits and action limits of values of PPM of
various gases are listed in Table 2.2 and the classification of
dissolved gases is shown in Fig. 2.7 [75].

36
37

Even though DGA is used for identifying incipient faults, it has


certain uncertainties to identify the exact condition of power Sub
station. Firstly, the combinations of gas ratios from measurements
can’t indicate certain types of faults in power Sub station. Secondly,
with respect to boarder line cases of faults DGA may not be able to
diagnose the fault in the system [52]. Thirdly, the interpretation
schemes that are proposed in DGA are based on statistical analysis
therefore only experts can provide information on the existence of
faults. In the conventional interpretation schemes of the DGA, the
relationship between measured gas concentrations and different fault
types did not explored completely [81].

Table 4.2 Normal and action limits of dissolved gases.

Normal and action limits of


dissolved gases
S. Gas
No Normal limit/ action limit/
(PPM) (PPM)

1 H2 150 1000

2 CH4 25 80

3 C2H4 20 150

4 C2H2 15 70

5 C2H6 10 35

37
38

6 CO2 10000 15000

Fig. 4.7 Classifications of dissolved gases.

Thus the conventional schemes can’t provide the diagnosis results


for every possible combinations of dissolved gas ratio. To overcome
this disadvantage signal processing tools / intelligent techniques can
be proposed.

1.8 Condition monitoring by on load tap changer

Without interrupting the load current output voltage to be


regulated at required levels by using on load tap changer of Sub
station [19]. This can be achieved by adding or removing the number
of turns of the windings to regulate the output voltage level o Sub
station. On-load tap changer activities are shown in Fig. 2.8.

38
39

Fig. 4.8 On-load tap changer activities.

The operation of ON load tap changer offers certain disadvantages


with respect to voltage stability, desired voltage levels and power
loss. Therefore Sub station faults are attributed even with tap
changer fault.

1.9 Fuzzy logic

Human expert behavior can be mimicked to learn specific


knowledge with the help of Fuzzy logic. Fuzzy logic is an expert
system which can own this knowledge and provides decision making
capability with proper reasoning. The expert system extracts the
inferences from the real time scenario and presents the knowledge in
different forms and structures including production rules, frames,
combinations of frames and rules along with schematic nets and
objects.

The complex insulation structure of Sub station degrades with


time and the degradation of insulation associates with different
39
40

mechanisms under multiple stresses and therefore only expert


personnel can identify and diagnoses the potential faults of power
Sub station [77].

An expert system engineer executes the decision making and


inferences by formulating the original problem into a set of if-then-
else rules which requires developing a set of consistent
comprehensive (complete) rules [78]. Since if-then-else rules are
framed while formulating Fuzzy logic (to realize real time
engineering scenario), it offers certain difficulties listed here under
[83].

• Only expert personnel can make if-then-else rules but if the


expert engineering is lack of domain knowledge then
defuzzification process may not lead to real time scenario.
• There could be every possibility of obtaining vague
information while defining different mechanisms involved in
potential Sub station with linguistic variables and
subsequently the membership functions.

1.10 Transfer Function Analysis

Due to aging of cellulose or due to lightning stroke the


electromagnetic interaction between the reactive elements will cause
deformation of winding or inter turn faults across power Sub station
[16]. In most of the times these are also slowly developing faults
which require condition monitoring of power Sub station. Transfer
function method can be used to identify the condition of the power
Sub station for identifying the fault. The method is proposed by

40
41

Malewski which is Fourier transform of output divided by Fourier


transform of input [1].

This method is based on two-port network and is implied to


observe the ratio between applied voltage and response [2]. In this
method the response to input ratio is Fourier transformed and basing

on the characteristics of this ratio in network analyzer the detection


of fault can be done as shown in Fig. 2.9

Fig. 4.9 Measuring the Transfer Function in frequency domain.

41
42

Fourier Transform will provide information regarding the spectral


components of output and input [44]. By observing the spectral
components of output and input ratio before and after fault in
network analyzer and by comparing them fault can be detected [3].
But Fourier transform is applicable for stationary signals not for non-
stationary signals such as voltage, current signals during
disturbances [14]. Therefore, this method is not provided suitable
condition assessment without proper observation from expert
personnel.

Fig.4.10 Measuring of Sub station parameters in frequency


domain.

The applied voltage is measured across the transform bushing and


output will be either current or induced voltage on the other terminal
[43]. In his method the voltage will be applied at one side of the
42
43

winding and other side is grounded as shown in Fig.2.11. In practice,


measurement of input and output parameters can be performed much
faster in time domain as compared with the frequency domain.
Depending upon the test setup and the number of channels, inside
the digital measuring systems several transfer functions can be
measured at the same time [25]. More over in this method time taken
for calculations will be few seconds in network analyzer, because
one impulse excitation takes 1milli-sec, storage of samples, signal
processing and calculation can take a few seconds, where as duration
of measurements in frequency domain will takes few minutes
because the network analyzer in frequency domain will be
constructed as two-channel version only and thus, only one response
and one transfer function can be monitored/calculated for each test
in frequency domain [20]. Because of limited Band-width of
transient voltages the error in sub sequent transfer function
calculations increases at higher frequency for time domain method.

Major problem in transfer function method of analysis in time


domain or frequency domain is that small differences which have
been compared during healthy and unhealthy conditions will be
attributed as incipient faults [6]. Therefore, even though there is no
fault the small differences in output of the Sub station will be treated
as faults in this method, because the analysis is based on comparison
of output graphs during healthy and unhealthy conditions [36]. This
situation may exist because of complex nature of composite
insulation system of Sub station during minor faults (breakdown
between small winding systems) and thus the exact identifying of
43
44

fault is a difficult task in many practical cases. Thus, precise signal


processing tools are advised to detect these types of faults for
condition monitoring of power Sub station [7].

1.11 Sweep Frequency Response Analysis

Sweep frequency response analysis is quite useful for detecting


condition monitoring of power Sub station by detecting winding
displacement and deformation of power Sub station. This method
involves the injection of sinusoidal signals with one frequency at a
time into one end of the winding. This is Signature based analysis
and has failed to provide information during leakage reactance tests
and short circuit impedance tests [34]. These tests have not shown
any difference between healthy and unhealthy condition of power
Sub station.

In general in SRA method the significant difference in low


frequency region, change in the shape of plot indicates mechanical
or electrical problems with the winding and core of Sub station. In
general measuring the frequency response of Sub station winding for
wide range of input frequencies will be used for diagnosing the
power Sub station, after observing any kind of deviations with
standard measured references of the output [29].

1.12 Intelligent Frame work

To develop intelligent techniques it is necessary to process the


collected data and transform them into the knowledge required for
the condition monitoring of Sub station. Various efforts have been

44
45

made to develop the intelligent techniques for monitoring overall


monitoring of the Sub station.

For example CIGRE [26, 30] proposed number of methods while


applying artificial intelligence to process huge volumes of measured
data and extracted the

45
required features from the observed data for condition assignment of
Sub station [40]. However still there is disadvantage to develop a
common frame work or defining proper requirements and procedures,
especially while using expert systems such as fuzzy logic and few
Signal processing tools such as FT, FFT [42]. In general approach for
intelligent frame work for power Sub station condition monitoring is
shown in the Fig. 2.12.

The various ON-LINE [24] and OFF-LINE techniques are shown in


Table 2.3. Typical ON-LINE sensor based measurement and OFF-
LINE based measurement or transfer condition monitoring. The
primary aspect of the frame work is the coordination and integration of
number of ON-LINE sensors to provide time to time information about
condition of the Sub station interms of temperature of oil, winding and
the values of currents and voltages.

46
CHAPTER 5

PROPOSED TECHNIQUES

5.1 PROPOSED SYSTEM:

The proposed project is about acquiring real time status of Sub station
health parameters. Temperature, voltage and current of Sub Station are
monitored and send over internet The live tracking of these parameters
can be done using GSM technology from anywhere around the
world .This is cost effective in nature. Thus the responsible authority
can access information on any power failure or maintenance. The Sub
Station play a vital

role in distribution part of power system. Therefore the monitoring and


protection of Sub station is very crucial.

47
This system introduces a new and improved method of Sub station
health parameter monitoring using GSM. The sensors incorporated in
the system collect the data of Sub station health parameters such as
voltage, temperature and current. These data are send to an GSM
platform, ThingSpeak using. These data can be sent and accessed using
GSM technology. Thus the real time data collection, storage and
monitoring of the Sub station health parameters are possible with the
system.

5.2 ALGORITHM OF PROPOSED SYSTEM:

 Start

 Initialize proposed system with GPIO pin.

 All sensors such as current sensor, temperature sensor, oil level


sensor, take the reading.

 All analog values convert them into digital.

 All parameter values are passed to microcontroller.

 Microcontroller display these values on LCD.

 Microcontroller sends these values on GSM Cloud server.

5.4 BLOCK BIAGRAM

48
.

5.3 METHODOLOGY

The internet of things is about connecting the unconnected things. It


allows things to accessible from the internet that historically have not
been. The internet of things is able to improve quality of life for
everyone by taking advantage of these connected thing and data
produced. The billions of m2m connection make possible everything in
GSM. The process element leverages the connection between data
thing and people to deliver the right information. To right thing or
person, at the right time, it is these billions of connection that add
value. Distribution Sub Station have a long life if they are operated
under appraised conditions.

49
However, their life is essentially decreased if they are overloaded,
resulting in unexpected failures and loss of supply to an expansive
number of customers hence affecting system unwavering quality.
Overloading and ineffective cooling of Sub Station are the major
significant reasons for failure in distribution Sub Station. Most power
companies use Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition system for
web-based monitoring of power Sub Station yet amplifying the system
for online monitoring of distribution Sub Station is an a costly
suggestion.

 Distribution Sub Station are as of now observed physically


where a man intermittently visits a Sub station site for support
and records parameter of significance. This type of monitoring
can't give data about incidental over-load and overheating of
Sub station oil and windings. Every one of these variables can
essentially decrease Sub station life.

 Normal Sub station measurement system generally detects a


single Sub station parameter, for example, control, current,
voltage, and stage. While some ways could recognize multi-
parameter, the time of acquisition and operation parameters is
too long, and testing pace is not sufficiently quick.

 A monitoring system can only monitor the operation state or


guard against steal the power, and is not able to monitor all
useful data of distribution Sub Station to reduce costs

50
 Auspicious detection data will not be sent to observing centers
in time, which cannot judge distribution Sub Station three
phase equilibrium.

 Detection system itself is not reliable. The main principle


execution is the device itself instability, poor anti jamming
capability, low measurement accuracy of the data.

According to the above requirements, we need a distribution Sub


station real-time monitoring system to detect all operating parameters
operation, and send to the monitoring center in time. It leads to Online
monitoring of key operational parameters of distribution Sub Station
can provide useful information about the health of Sub Station which
will help the utilities to optimally use their Sub Station and keep the
asset in operation for a longer period. This will also help identify
problems before any catastrophic failure which can result in a
significant cost savings and greater reliability.

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

51
POWER SUPPLY

Fig 3.2: Block diagram of power supply

The given block diagram includes following:

Transformer: A transformer is an electro-magnetic static device,


which transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another, either at
the same voltage or at different voltage but at the same frequency.

52
Rectifier: The function of the rectifier is to convert AC to DC current
or voltage. Usually in the rectifier circuit full wave bridge rectifier is
used.

Filter: The Filter is used to remove the pulsated AC. A filter circuit
uses capacitor and inductor. The function of the capacitor is to block
the DC voltage and bypass the AC voltage. The function of the
inductor is to block the AC voltage and bypass the DC voltage.

Voltage Regulator: Voltage regulator constitutes an indispensable part


of the power supply section of any electronic systems. The main
advantage of the regulator ICs is that it regulates or maintains the
output constant, in spite of the variation in the input supply.

Voltage Regulation

• Two basic categories of voltage regulation are:

 line regulation

 load regulation

• The purpose of line regulation is to maintain a nearly


constant output voltage when the input voltage varies.

• The purpose of load regulation is to maintain a nearly


constant output voltage when the load varies

Line Regulation

53
Load regulation: A change in load current (due to a varying R L)
has practically no effect on the output voltage of a regulator
(within certain limits)

• Load regulation can be defined as the percentage change in


the output voltage from no-load (NL) to full-load (FL).

• Where:

54
VNL = the no-load output voltage

VFL = the full-load output voltage

Types of Regulator

• Fundamental classes of voltage regulators are linear regulators


and switching regulators.

• Two basic types of linear regulator are the series regulator and
the shunt regulator .

• The series regulator is connected in series with the load and the
shunt regulator is connected in parallel with the load.

IC Voltage Regulators

• Regulation circuits in integrated circuit form are widely used.

• Their operation is no different but they are treated as a single


device with associated components.

• These are generally three terminal devices that provide a positive


or negative output.

• Some types have variable voltage outputs.

• A typical 7800 series voltage regulator is used for positive


voltages.

• The 7900 series are negative voltage regulators.

• These voltage regulators when used with heatsinks can safely


produce current values of 1A and greater.
55
• The capacitors act as line filtration.

• Several types of both linear (series and shunt) and switching


regulators are available in integrated circuit (IC) form.

• Single IC regulators contain the circuitry for:

• reference source

• comparator amplifier

• control device

• overload protection

• Generally, the linear regulators are three-terminal devices that


provides either positive or negative output voltages that can be
either fixed or adjustable

Fixed Voltage Regulator

• The fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage V i


applied to one input terminal, a regulated output dc voltage V o
from a second terminal, and the third terminal connected to
ground.

• The series 78XX regulators are the three-terminal devices that


provide a fixed positive output voltage.

56
• An unregulated input voltage Vi is filtered by a capacitor C1 and
connected to the IC’s IN terminal.

• The IC’s OUT terminal provides a regulated +12 V, which is


filtered by capacitor C2.

The third IC terminal is connected to ground (GND

• Voltage regulators keep a constant dc output despite input voltage


or load changes.

• The two basic categories of voltage regulators are linear and


switching.

57
• The two types of linear voltage regulators are series and shunt.

• The three types of switching are step-up, step-down, and


inverting.

• Switching regulators are more efficient than linear making them


ideal for low voltage high current applications.

• IC regulators are available with fixed positive or negative output


voltages or variable negative or positive output voltages.

• Both linear and switching type regulators are available in IC


form.

• Current capacity of a voltage regulator can be increased with an


external pass transistor.

58
MICROCONTROLLER – ATMEGA 8

Features

• High-performance, Low-power AVR®

- 8-bit Microcontroller

• Advanced RISC Architecture

– 130 Powerful Instructions – Most Single-clock Cycle Execution

– 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers

– Fully Static Operation

– Up to 16 MIPS Throughput at 16 MHz

– On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier

• High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments

– 8K Bytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory

– 512 Bytes EEPROM

– 1K Byte Internal SRAM

– Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM

– Data retention: 20 years at 85°C/100 years at 25°C (1)

– Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits

• In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program

– True Read-While-Write Operation


59
– Programming Lock for Software Security

• Peripheral Features

– Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler, one compare

•Six Channels 10-bit Accuracy

– Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface

– Programmable Serial USART

– Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface

– Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip

•Oscillator

– On-chip Analog Comparator

•Special Microcontroller Features

– Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection

– Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator

– External and Internal Interrupt Sources

– Five Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save

•I/O and Packages

– 23 Programmable I/O Lines

– 28-lead PDIP, 32-lead TQFP, and 32-pad QFN/MLF

•Operating Voltages

– 2.7 - 5.5V (ATmega8L)


60
– 4.5 - 5.5V (ATmega8)

•Power Consumption at 4 Mhz, 3V, 25°C

– Active: 3.6 mA

– Idle Mode: 1.0 mA

– Power-down Mode: 0.5 µA

Pin Configurations

61
The ATmega8 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on
the AVR RISC architecture.

By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the


ATmega8 achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz,
allowing the system designer to optimize power consumption versus
processing speed.

Pin Descriptions

VCC :-Digital supply voltage.

GND:- Ground.
62
Port B(PC7..PB0) :- is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal
pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port B output buffers have
symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source
capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will
source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are
tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,even if the clock is not
running.

Port C (PC5..PC0) :- Port C is an 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with


internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port C output
buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low
will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins
are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is
not running.

Port D (PD7..PD0) :- Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with


internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port D output
buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low
will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins
are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,even if the clock is
not running.

RESET (Reset input):- A low level on this pin for longer than the
minimum pulse length will generate a reset, even if the clock is not
running. The Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to generate a reset.

63
AVCC:- AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, Port
C (3..0), and ADC (7..6). It should be externally connected to VCC,
even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be connected
to VCC through a low-pass filter.

AREF:- AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.These
pins are powered from the analog supply and serve as 10-bit ADC
channels.

Basic Function:- The main function of the CPU core is to ensure


correct program execution. The CPU must therefore be able to access
memories,

perform calculations, control peripherals, and handle interrupts.

In order to maximize performance and parallelism, the AVR uses a


Harvard architecture with separate memories and buses for program
and data.

Instructions in the Program memory are executed with a single level


pipelining. While one instruction is being executed, the next instruction
is pre-fetched from the Program memory. This concept enables
instructions to be executed in every clock cycle.

64
The Program memory is In-System Reprogrammable Flash
memory.The fast-access Register File contains 32 x 8-bit general
purpose working registers with a single clock cycle access time. This
allows single-cycle Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) operation. In a
typical ALU operation, two operands are output from the Register File,
the operation is executed, and the result is stored back in the Register
File in one clock cycle.

Six of the 32 registers can be used as three 16-bit indirect address


register pointers for Data Space addressing enabling efficient address
calculations. One of the these address pointers can also be used as an
address pointer for look up tables in Flash Program memory. These
added function registers are the 16-bit X, Y and Z-register.The ALU
supports arithmetic and logic operations between registers or between a
constant and a register. Single register operations can also be executed
in the ALU.After an arithmetic operation, the Status Register is updated
to reflect information about the result of the operation.The Program
flow is provided by conditional and unconditional jump and call
instructions, able to directly address the whole address space. Most
AVR instructions have a single 16-bit word format. Every Program
memory address contains a 16- or 32-bit instruction.

65
Program Flash memory space is divided in two sections, the Boot
program section and the Application program section. Both sections
have dedicated Lock Bits for write and read/write protection. The SPM
instruction that writes into the Application Flash memory section must
reside in the Boot program section.During interrupts and subroutine
calls, the return address Program Counter (PC) is stored on the Stack.
The Stack is effectively allocated in the general data SRAM, and
consequently the Stack size is only limited by the total SRAM size and
the usage of the SRAM. All user programs must initialize the SP in the
reset routine (before subroutines or interrupts are executed). The Stack
Pointer SP is read/write accessible in the I/O space.The data SRAM can
easily be accessed through the five different addressing modes
supported in the AVR architecture.The memory spaces in the AVR
architecture are all linear and regular memory maps.

A flexible interrupt module has its control registers in the I/O


space with an additional global interrupt enable bit in the Status
Register. All interrupts have a separate Interrupt Vector in the Interrupt
Vector table. The interrupts have priority in accordance with their
Interrupt Vector position. The lower the Interrupt Vector address, the
higher the priority.The I/O memory space contains 64 addresses for
CPU peripheral functions as Control Registers, SPI, and other I/O
functions. The I/O Memory can be accessed directly, or as the Data
Space locations following those of the Register File, 0x20 - 0x5F.

66
Liquid-crystal display

Fig 4.5 Pin Diagram of LCD

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other


electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating
properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly,
instead using a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or
monochrome.. LCDs are available to display arbitrary images (as in a
general-purpose computer display) or fixed images with low
information content, which can be displayed or hidden, such as preset
words, digits, and 7-segment displays, as in a digital clock. They use
the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of
a large number of small pixels, while other displays have larger
elements.

LCDs are used in a wide range of applications including computer


monitors, televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and
indoor and outdoor signage. Small LCD screens are common in
portable consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches,

67
calculators, and mobile telephones, including smartphones. LCD
screens are also used on consumer electronics products such as DVD
players, video game devices and clocks. LCD screens have replaced
heavy, bulky cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in nearly all applications.
LCD screens are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT
and plasma displays, with LCD screens available in sizes ranging from
tiny digital watches to huge, big-screen television set.

Since LCD screens do not use phosphors, they do not suffer image
burn-in when a static image is displayed on a screen for a long time
(e.g., the table frame for an aircraft schedule on an indoor sign). LCDs
are, however, susceptible to image persistence.. The LCD screen is
more energy-efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT
can. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in
battery-powered electronic equipment more efficiently than CRTs can
be. By 2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded
sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became obsolete for most
purposes.

Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned


between two transparentelectrodes, and two polarizingfilters (parallel
and perpendicular), the axes of transmission of which are (in most of
the cases) perpendicular to each other. Without the liquid crystal
between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter
would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. Before an electric
field is applied, the orientation of the liquid-crystal molecules is
determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted
68
nematic (TN) device, the surface alignment directions at the two
electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange
themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This induces the rotation of
the polarization of the incident light, and the device appears gray. If the
applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the
center of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization
of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal
layer. This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the
second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By
controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each
pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus
constituting different levels of gray. Color LCD systems use the same
technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue
pixelsThe optical effect of a TN device in the voltage-on state is far less
dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-
off state. Because of this, TN displays with low information content
and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers
such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more
sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state). As most of
2010-era LCDs are used in television sets, monitors and smartphones,
they have high-resolution matrix arrays of pixels to display arbitrary
images using backlighting with a dark background. When no image is
displayed, different arrangements are used. For this purpose, TN LCDs
are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature
crossed polarizers. In many applications IPS LCDs have replaced TN

69
LCDs, in particular in smartphones such as iPhones. Both the liquid
crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic
compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a
long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and
degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an
alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as
the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is
identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field).

Displays for a small number of individual digits or fixed symbols (as in


digital watches and pocket calculators) can be implemented with
independent electrodes for each segment. In contrast, full alphanumeric
or variable graphics displays are usually implemented with pixels
arranged as a matrix consisting of electrically connected rows on one
side of the LC layer and columns on the other side, which makes it
possible to address each pixel at the intersections. The general method
of matrix addressing consists of sequentially addressing one side of the
matrix, for example by selecting the rows one-by-one and applying the
picture information on the other side at the columns row-by-row. For
details on the various matrix addressing schemes seePassive-matrix and
active-matrix addressed LCDs

70
Reflective twisted nematic liquid crystal display.
1. Polarizing filter film with a vertical axis to polarize light as it
enters.
2. Glass substrate with ITOelectrodes. The shapes of these
electrodes will determine the shapes that will appear when the
LCD is switched ON. Vertical ridges etched on the surface are
smooth.

3. Twisted nematic liquid crystal.

4. Glass substrate with common electrode film (ITO) with horizontal


ridges to line up with the horizontal filter.

5. Polarizing filter film with a horizontal axis to block/pass light.

6. Reflective surface to send light back to viewer. (In a backlit LCD,


this layer is replaced with a light source.)

Illumination

Since LCD panels produce no light of their own, they require external
light to produce a visible image. In a "transmissive" type of LCD, this
light is provided at the back of the glass "stack" and is called the
backlight. While passive-matrix displays are usually not backlit (e.g.
calculators, wristwatches), active-matrix displays almost always are. [30]
[31]

The common implementations of LCD backlight technology are:

71
CCFL: The LCD panel is lit either by two cold cathodefluorescent
lamps placed at opposite edges of the display or an array of parallel
CCFLs behind larger displays. A diffuser then spreads the light out
evenly across the whole display. For many years, this technology had
been used almost exclusively. Unlike white LEDs, most CCFLs have
an even-white spectral output resulting in better color gamut for the
display. However, CCFLs are less energy efficient than LEDs and
require a somewhat costly inverter to convert whatever DC voltage the
device uses (usually 5 or 12 V) to ~1000 V needed to light a CCFL. [32]
The thickness of the inverter transformers also limit how thin the
display can be made.

 EL-WLED: The LCD panel is lit by a row of white LEDs placed at


one or more edges of the screen. A light diffuser is then used to spread
the light evenly across the whole display. As of 2012, this design is the
most popular one in desktop computer monitors. It allows for the
thinnest displays. Some LCD monitors using this technology have a
feature called "Dynamic Contrast" where the backlight is dimmed to
the brightest color that appears on the screen, allowing the 1000:1
contrast ratio of the LCD panel to be scaled to different light intensities,
resulting in the "30000:1" contrast ratios seen in the advertising on
some of these monitors. Since computer screen images usually have
full white somewhere in the image, the backlight will usually be at full
intensity, making this "feature" mostly a marketing gimmick.
 WLED array: The LCD panel is lit by a full array of white LEDs
placed behind a diffuser behind the panel. LCDs that use this
72
implementation will usually have the ability to dim the LEDs in the
dark areas of the image being displayed, effectively increasing the
contrast ratio of the display. As of 2012, this design gets most of its use
from upscale, larger-screen LCD televisions.
 RGB-LED: Similar to the WLED array, except the panel is lit by a
full array of RGB LEDs. While displays lit with white LEDs usually
have a poorer color gamut than CCFL lit displays, panels lit with RGB
LEDs have very wide color gamuts. This implementation is most
popular on professional graphics editing LCDs. As of 2012, LCDs in
this category usually cost more than $1000.

73
CHAPTER 7

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

This section completely focuses on inter – turn short circuit fault


analysis in three phase Sub station through simulation and
experimental test bed. The parameters listed in Table 5.3 are used for
both simulation and experiment. The current and flux linkage value
have been observed from the simulation model and from experiment
result for analysis.

Table 5.3 Three phase Sub station parameter

Supply Three phase

Type step down

Voltage 415V/24V

Frequency 50 Hz

Rating 120VA

Secondary current 5A

Turns Ratio 1452/84

Number of Tapping 3

The construction of three phase Sub station secondary winding R phase


has been shown in Figure 5.15. It has 3 tapping. Each tapping is located
74
with equal interval of 21 turns. Similarly Y phase and B phase having
same tapping construction. Inter - turn short circuit fault is created by
short circuiting the tapping terminal one by one manually. The flux
linkage and current have been monitored to analyse the fault locations
in the secondary winding portion. In the Table 5.4 the short circuit
level in terms of voltage, turns and percentages in the secondary
winding of three phase Sub station is shown.

CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION

An GSM based Sub station monitoring system for power Sub station
was designed, implemented and tested. It is quite useful as compared to
manual monitoring and also it is reliable as it is not possible to monitor
always the oil level, oil temperature rise, ambient temperature rise, load
current manually. A server module can be added to this system to
periodically receive and store Sub station parameters information about
all the power Sub Station in a database application. After receiving
message on any abnormality, we can take immediate action to prevent
75
any catastrophic failures of power Sub Station. We need not have to
check all power Sub Station and corresponding phase currents and
voltages and thus we can recover the system in less time and faults
before any uncertain failures thus resulting in significant cost saving as
well as improving system reliability.

The proposed technique with results has shown that the protection
scheme works properly with accuracy, sensitivity of this scheme very
high for the abnormal and faulty conditions. Sub station Health
Monitoring will help to identify or recognize unexpected situations
before any serious failure, which leads to greater reliability and
significant cost savings. If Sub station is in abnormal condition, we can
know from anywhere. No human power need to monitor the Sub
station. Details about the Sub station are automatically updated in
webpage.

Future work

In future work we can develop database of all parameters of


distribution Sub station, which are placed at different places. We can
get all information by placing the proposed system modules at every
Sub station. We can send the data through Wi-Fi module and through
Ethernet router. With server, we can store data on webpage or website.
A Wi-Fi module connects to nearby network and sends information to
monitoring node.

76
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