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Chapter04 Lecture

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Chapter04 Lecture

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trikieu985
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Lecture PowerPoint to accompany

Talaro
Chapter 4
An Introduction to Cells
and Procaryotic Cell –
Structure and Function

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
All living things (single and multicellular) are made
of cells that share some common characteristics:

◦ basic shape – spherical, cubical, cylindrical


◦ internal content – cytoplasm, surrounded by a membrane
◦ DNA chromosome(s), ribosomes, metabolic capabilities

Two basic cell types: eucaryotic and procaryotic

2
Eucaryotic cells: animals, plants, fungi, and protists
◦ contain double-membrane bound nucleus with DNA
chromosomes
◦ contain membrane-bound organelles that
compartmentalize the cytoplasm and perform specific
functions

Procaryotic cells: bacteria and archaea


◦ no nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles

3
 Growth and development
 Reproduction and heredity – genome composed
of DNA packed in chromosomes; produce
offspring sexually or asexually
 Metabolism – chemical and physical life
processes
 Movement and/or irritability – respond to
internal/external stimuli; self-propulsion/
motility of many organisms
 Cell support, protection, and storage
mechanisms – cell walls, vacuoles, granules and
inclusions
 Transport of nutrients and waste

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Appendages
 Motility – flagella and axial filaments (periplasmic flagella)
 Attachment – fimbriae
 Channels - pili

▪ Flagellum/Flagella : roi, tiêm mao, tiên mao, chiên mao


▪ Pilus/Pili : lông roi giới tính, khuẩn mao giới

▪ Fimbriae : nhung mao, khuẩn mao

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Flagella
 3 parts:
◦ filament – long, thin, helical structure composed of
protein flagellin
◦ hook - curved sheath
◦ basal body – stack of rings firmly anchored in cell wall

 Number and arrangement of flagella varies:


◦ monotrichous, lophotrichous, amphitrichous, peritrichous

 Functions in motility of cell through environment

 Generally, all spirilla, about half of the bacilli,


and a small number of cocci are flagellated
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1. Monotrichous (đơn mao) – single flagellum at one
end

2. Lophotrichous (chùm mao) – small bunches


arising from one end of cell

3. Amphitrichous (song chùm mao) – flagella at both


ends of cell

4. Peritrichous (chu mao) – flagella dispersed over


surface of cell; slowest

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Vibrio, Pseudomonas
Pseudomonas
Spirillum, H. pylori

E. coli, Salmonella
Aquaspirillum, Spirillum
Bacillus, Proteus
11
Treponema pallidum

12
Guide bacteria in a direction in response to external
stimulus:
(hóa hướng động & quang hướng động)

chemical stimuli – chemotaxis; positive and negative

light stimuli – phototaxis (photosynthetic bacteria)

Used to invade the surface of mucous membranes


during infections (H. pylori, V. cholerae)

13
 Fine, proteinaceous, hairlike bristles from
the cell surface
 Function in adhesion to other cells and
surfaces

14
 Rigid tubular structure made of pilin protein
 Found only in Gram negative cells
 Function to join bacterial cells for partial DNA
transfer called conjugation

15
 Coating of molecules external to the cell wall,
made of sugars and/or proteins
 Two types:
1. slime layer (màng nhày) - loosely organized and attached
2. Capsule (vỏ/bao nhày) - highly organized, tightly attached
 Functions:
◦ protect cells from dehydration and nutrient loss
◦ inhibit killing by white blood cells by phagocytosis
➔ contributing to pathogenicity
◦ attachment - formation of biofilms

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Colonization
Survival and Persistence

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Acetobacter xylinum Acetobacter spp. Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Gluconobacter spp. Gluconacetobacter xylinus

25
Jing Wang et al., 2019
26
Kefir or kephir
Tibicos or water kefir

27
Kei-Xian Tan et al., 2020 28
Exopolysaccharide - Biopolymer
❖ Bacterial cellulose
❖ Kefiran
❖ Xanthan gum:
▪ A laxative
▪ Toothpastes and cosmetic
▪ Food addictive: thickening agent and stabilizer
▪ To reduce blood sugar and total cholesterol in people
with diabetes
❖ Dextran:
▪ An antithrombotic (antiplatelet)
▪ Intravenous solutions function both as volume
expanders and means of parenteral nutrition
▪ Size-exclusion chromatography matrices (Sephadex)
29
 External covering outside the cytoplasm
 Composed of two basic layers:
◦ cell wall and cell membrane
 Maintains cell integrity
 Two generally different groups of bacteria
demonstrated by Gram stain:

◦ Gram-positive bacteria: thick cell wall composed


primarily of peptidoglycan and cell membrane

◦ Gram-negative bacteria: outer cell membrane, thin


peptidoglycan layer, and cell membrane

30
Insert figure 4.12
Comparative cell envelopes

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 Peptidoglycan is primary component:
◦ unique macromolecule composed of a repeating
framework of long glycan chains cross-linked by
short peptide fragments

 Determines cell shape, prevents lysis


(bursting) or collapsing due to changing
osmotic pressures

32
 Thick, homogeneous sheath
of peptidoglycan

◦ 20-80 nm thick

◦ function in cell wall


maintenance and enlargement
during cell division; binding of
some pathogens to tissues

33
 An outer membrane + a thin peptidoglycan layer
 OM is similar to cell membrane bilayer structure
◦ Outermost layer: lipopolysaccharides (LPS) - lipid portion
(lipid A) is released during infections and cell lysis ➔
endotoxin

 the polysaccharides give rise to the somatic (O) antigen (can


be used in identification) → induce specific immunity

 porin proteins in upper layer – regulate molecules entering


and leaving cell

◦ Bottom layer composed of phospholipids and lipoproteins

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 Single, thin sheet of peptidoglycan (8-11nm)

 Protective structure while providing some flexibility


and sensitivity to lysis

 Periplasmic space surrounds peptidoglycan

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Differential stain that distinguishes cells with a
Gram (+) cell wall from those with a Gram (-) cell
wall

◦ Gram-positive - retain crystal violet and stain purple

◦ Gram-negative - lose crystal violet and stain red from


safranin counterstain

 Important basis of bacterial classification and


identification

 Practical aid in diagnosing infection and guiding


drug treatment

39
40
 Some bacterial groups lack typical cell wall
structure i.e. Mycobacterium and Nocardia

◦ Gram-positive cell wall structure with lipid mycolic acid


(cord factor)
 pathogenicity and high degree of resistance to certain
chemicals and dyes
 basis for acid-fast stain used for diagnosis of infections
caused by these microorganisms

 Some have no cell wall i.e. Mycoplasma


◦ cell wall is stabilized by sterols
◦ pleomorphic (alter shape or size in response to
environmental conditions)

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43
Mycoplasma 44
 Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins
 Functions in:
◦ providing site for energy reactions, nutrient
processing, and synthesis
◦ transport into and out of the cell

45
 Chromosome
◦ single, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that
contains all the genetic information
◦ DNA is tightly coiled around a protein, aggregated in a
dense area called the nucleoid (vùng nhân)

46
 Plasmids
◦ small circular, double-stranded DNA, max 8% gDNA
◦ free or integrated into the chromosome
◦ duplicated and passed on to offspring
◦ not essential to bacterial growth and metabolism
◦ role in adaptation, may encode antibiotic resistance,
tolerance to toxic metals, enzymes and toxins
◦ used in genetic engineering- readily manipulated and
transferred from cell to cell

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 Ribosomes
◦ made of 60% ribosomal RNA and 40% protein
◦ consist of two subunits: large and small
◦ procaryotic differ from eucaryotic ribosomes in
size and number of proteins
◦ site of protein synthesis
◦ present in all cells

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 Inclusions (thể vùi) and granules (hạt)
◦ intracellular storage bodies
◦ vary in size, number and content
◦ Bacterial cell can use them when environmental sources
are depleted
◦ Single membrane containing glycogen, poly-b-
hydroxybutyrate, gas vesicles for floating…

➢ Sulfur granules of photosynthetic bacteria and


polyphosphate granules of Corynebacterium and
Mycobacterium

51
Magnetosome containing iron oxide poly-b-hydroxybutyrate IB
Orient the cells in the earth’s magnetic field
➔ into locations with favorable oxygen
levels or nutrient-rich sediments

Carboxysomes in cyanobacteria store


enzyme responsible for CO2 fixation

52
Endospores
◦ inert, resting, cells produced by some G+ genera:
Clostridium, Bacillus and Sporosarcina
 have a 2-phase life cycle:
 vegetative cell – metabolically active and growing
 endospore – when exposed to adverse environmental conditions;
capable of high resistance and very long-term survival
◦ sporulation - formation of endospores
 hardiest of all life forms
 withstands extremes in heat, drying, freezing, radiation and
chemicals
 not a means of reproduction
◦ Germination - return to vegetative growth

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 Dehydrated, metabolically inactive thick coat

 Resistance linked to high levels of calcium and

dipicolinic acid

 Longevity verges on immortality - 25 million years.

 Resistant to ordinary cleaning methods and boiling

 Pressurized steam at 120oC for 20-30 minutes will

destroy

55
 Variety in shape, size, and arrangement but
typically described by one of three basic shapes:
◦ coccus – spherical (Staphylococcus, Streptococcus)
◦ bacillus – rod (Bacillus, Lactobacillus, E. coli)
 coccobacillus – very short and plump (Haemophilus influenzae,
Gardnerella vaginalis, Chlamydia trachomatis)
 vibrio – gently curved, comma (1 turn)
◦ spirillum (xoắn thể) - helical, twisted rod
➢ Campylobacter, Helicobacter (~2 turns)
 Spirochete/spirochaete (xoắn khuẩn) - spring–like
➢ Leptospira, Borrelia

❖ Branching filaments: Actinomyces

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 Arrangement of cells is dependent on pattern of
division and how cells remain attached after
division:
◦ cocci:
 singles
 diplococci – in pairs
 tetrads – groups of four
 irregular clusters
 chains
 cubical packets
◦ bacilli:
 chains
 palisades

59
Streptococcus
pneumoniae
Neisseria
Streptococcus
gonorrhoeae
pyogenes

Sarcina
Micrococcus ventriculi
sp.

Staphylococcus 60
Coxiella burnetii, Moraxella bovis,
Bacillus cereus
Klebsiella rhinoscleromatis…

Streptobacillus moniliformis Corynebacterium diphtheriae

Haemophilus influenzae
Gardnerella vaginalis
Chlamydia trachomatis
61
1. Microscopic morphology
2. Macroscopic morphology – colony appearance
3. Physiological / biochemical characteristics
4. Chemical analysis
5. Serological analysis
6. Genetic and molecular analysis
• G + C base composition
• DNA analysis using genetic probes
• Nucleic acid sequencing and rRNA analysis

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 Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology –
five volume resource covering all known procaryotes

◦ classification based on genetic information – phylogenetic


◦ two domains: Archaea and Bacteria
◦ five major subgroups with 25 different phyla

63
 Domain Archaea – primitive, adapted to extreme
habitats and modes of nutrition

 Domain Bacteria -
◦ Phylum Proteobacteria – Gram-negative cell walls
◦ Phylum Firmicutes – mainly Gram-positive with low G + C
content
◦ Phylum Actinobacteria – Gram-positive with high G + C
content

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 Species –a collection of bacterial cells which
share an overall similar pattern of traits in
contrast to other bacteria whose pattern differs
significantly

 Strain or variety – a culture derived from a single


parent that differs in structure or metabolism
from other cultures of that species (biovars,
morphovars)

 Type – a subspecies that can show differences in


antigenic makeup (serotype or serovar),
susceptibility to phage (phage type) and in
pathogenicity (pathotype)
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Arthrospira platensis
 Free-living nonpathogenic bacteria
 Photosynthetic bacteria
◦ Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
 Gram-negative cell walls
 extensive thylakoids with photosynthetic chlorophyll pigments
and gas inclusions (carboxysomes)
◦ Green and purple sulfur bacteria
 contain photosynthetic pigment bacteriochlorophyll
 do not give off oxygen as a product of photosynthesis
◦ Gliding, fruiting bacteria
 Gram-negative
 Glide over moist surfaces

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Spirulina platensis/Arthrospira platensis
 Unusual forms of medically significant obligate
intracellular parasites
◦ Rickettsias
 Very tiny, Gram-negative bacteria
 Most are pathogens that alternate between mammals and
fleas, lice or ticks.
 Obligate intracellular pathogens
 Cannot survive or multiply outside of a host cell
 Cannot carry out metabolism on their own
 Rickettsia rickettisii – Rocky Mountain spotted fever
 Rickettsia prowazekii – epidemic typhus
 Coxiella burnetti – Q fever

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◦ Chlamydias
 Tiny
 Obligate intracellular parasites
 Not transmitted by arthropods
 Chlamydia trachomatis – severe eye infection and one
of the most common sexually transmitted diseases
 Chlamydia pneumoniae – lung infections
 Chlamydia psittaci – ornithosis, parrot fever

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 Constitute third Domain Archaea
 Seem more closely related to Domain Eukarya
than to bacteria
 Live in the most extreme habitats in nature,
extremophiles
 Adapted to heat, salt, acid pH, pressure and
atmosphere
 Includes: CH4 producers, hyperthermophiles,
extreme halophiles, and sulfur reducers
➔ Compare Bacteria – Archaea - Eukaryotes

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Anna WĘGRZYN, CHEMIK 2014, 68, 8, 8, 710–722

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