Lecture PowerPoint to accompany

Talaro
Chapter 4
An Introduction to Cells
and Procaryotic Cell –
Structure and Function

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
All living things (single and multicellular) are made
of cells that share some common characteristics:

◦ basic shape – spherical, cubical, cylindrical

◦ internal content – cytoplasm, surrounded by a membrane
◦ DNA chromosome(s), ribosomes, metabolic capabilities

Two basic cell types: eucaryotic and procaryotic

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Eucaryotic cells: animals, plants, fungi, and protists
◦ contain double-membrane bound nucleus with DNA
chromosomes
◦ contain membrane-bound organelles that
compartmentalize the cytoplasm and perform specific
functions

Procaryotic cells: bacteria and archaea

◦ no nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles

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 Growth and development
 Reproduction and heredity – genome composed
of DNA packed in chromosomes; produce
offspring sexually or asexually
 Metabolism – chemical and physical life
processes
 Movement and/or irritability – respond to
internal/external stimuli; self-propulsion/
motility of many organisms
 Cell support, protection, and storage
mechanisms – cell walls, vacuoles, granules and
inclusions
 Transport of nutrients and waste

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Appendages
 Motility – flagella and axial filaments (periplasmic flagella)
 Attachment – fimbriae
 Channels - pili

▪ Flagellum/Flagella : roi, tiêm mao, tiên mao, chiên mao

▪ Pilus/Pili : lông roi giới tính, khuẩn mao giới

▪ Fimbriae : nhung mao, khuẩn mao

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 Flagella
 3 parts:
◦ filament – long, thin, helical structure composed of
protein flagellin
◦ hook - curved sheath
◦ basal body – stack of rings firmly anchored in cell wall

 Number and arrangement of flagella varies:

◦ monotrichous, lophotrichous, amphitrichous, peritrichous

 Functions in motility of cell through environment

 Generally, all spirilla, about half of the bacilli,

and a small number of cocci are flagellated
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1. Monotrichous (đơn mao) – single flagellum at one
end

2. Lophotrichous (chùm mao) – small bunches

arising from one end of cell

3. Amphitrichous (song chùm mao) – flagella at both

ends of cell

4. Peritrichous (chu mao) – flagella dispersed over

surface of cell; slowest

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 Vibrio, Pseudomonas
Pseudomonas
Spirillum, H. pylori

E. coli, Salmonella
Aquaspirillum, Spirillum
Bacillus, Proteus
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Treponema pallidum

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Guide bacteria in a direction in response to external
stimulus:
(hóa hướng động & quang hướng động)

chemical stimuli – chemotaxis; positive and negative

light stimuli – phototaxis (photosynthetic bacteria)

Used to invade the surface of mucous membranes

during infections (H. pylori, V. cholerae)

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 Fine, proteinaceous, hairlike bristles from
the cell surface
 Function in adhesion to other cells and
surfaces

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 Rigid tubular structure made of pilin protein
 Found only in Gram negative cells
 Function to join bacterial cells for partial DNA
transfer called conjugation

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 Coating of molecules external to the cell wall,
made of sugars and/or proteins
 Two types:
1. slime layer (màng nhày) - loosely organized and attached
2. Capsule (vỏ/bao nhày) - highly organized, tightly attached
 Functions:
◦ protect cells from dehydration and nutrient loss
◦ inhibit killing by white blood cells by phagocytosis
➔ contributing to pathogenicity
◦ attachment - formation of biofilms

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Colonization
Survival and Persistence

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Acetobacter xylinum Acetobacter spp. Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Gluconobacter spp. Gluconacetobacter xylinus

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Jing Wang et al., 2019
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Kefir or kephir
Tibicos or water kefir

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Kei-Xian Tan et al., 2020 28
 Exopolysaccharide - Biopolymer
❖ Bacterial cellulose
❖ Kefiran
❖ Xanthan gum:
▪ A laxative
▪ Toothpastes and cosmetic
▪ Food addictive: thickening agent and stabilizer
▪ To reduce blood sugar and total cholesterol in people
with diabetes
❖ Dextran:
▪ An antithrombotic (antiplatelet)
▪ Intravenous solutions function both as volume
expanders and means of parenteral nutrition
▪ Size-exclusion chromatography matrices (Sephadex)
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 External covering outside the cytoplasm
 Composed of two basic layers:
◦ cell wall and cell membrane
 Maintains cell integrity
 Two generally different groups of bacteria
demonstrated by Gram stain:

◦ Gram-positive bacteria: thick cell wall composed

primarily of peptidoglycan and cell membrane

◦ Gram-negative bacteria: outer cell membrane, thin

peptidoglycan layer, and cell membrane

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Insert figure 4.12
Comparative cell envelopes

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 Peptidoglycan is primary component:
◦ unique macromolecule composed of a repeating
framework of long glycan chains cross-linked by
short peptide fragments

 Determines cell shape, prevents lysis

(bursting) or collapsing due to changing
osmotic pressures

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 Thick, homogeneous sheath
of peptidoglycan

◦ 20-80 nm thick

◦ function in cell wall

maintenance and enlargement
during cell division; binding of
some pathogens to tissues

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 An outer membrane + a thin peptidoglycan layer
 OM is similar to cell membrane bilayer structure
◦ Outermost layer: lipopolysaccharides (LPS) - lipid portion
(lipid A) is released during infections and cell lysis ➔
endotoxin

 the polysaccharides give rise to the somatic (O) antigen (can

be used in identification) → induce specific immunity

 porin proteins in upper layer – regulate molecules entering

and leaving cell

◦ Bottom layer composed of phospholipids and lipoproteins

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 Single, thin sheet of peptidoglycan (8-11nm)

 Protective structure while providing some flexibility

and sensitivity to lysis

 Periplasmic space surrounds peptidoglycan

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Differential stain that distinguishes cells with a
Gram (+) cell wall from those with a Gram (-) cell
wall

◦ Gram-positive - retain crystal violet and stain purple

◦ Gram-negative - lose crystal violet and stain red from

safranin counterstain

 Important basis of bacterial classification and

identification

 Practical aid in diagnosing infection and guiding

drug treatment

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 Some bacterial groups lack typical cell wall
structure i.e. Mycobacterium and Nocardia

◦ Gram-positive cell wall structure with lipid mycolic acid

(cord factor)
 pathogenicity and high degree of resistance to certain
chemicals and dyes
 basis for acid-fast stain used for diagnosis of infections
caused by these microorganisms

 Some have no cell wall i.e. Mycoplasma

◦ cell wall is stabilized by sterols
◦ pleomorphic (alter shape or size in response to
environmental conditions)

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Mycoplasma 44
 Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins
 Functions in:
◦ providing site for energy reactions, nutrient
processing, and synthesis
◦ transport into and out of the cell

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 Chromosome
◦ single, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that
contains all the genetic information
◦ DNA is tightly coiled around a protein, aggregated in a
dense area called the nucleoid (vùng nhân)

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 Plasmids
◦ small circular, double-stranded DNA, max 8% gDNA
◦ free or integrated into the chromosome
◦ duplicated and passed on to offspring
◦ not essential to bacterial growth and metabolism
◦ role in adaptation, may encode antibiotic resistance,
tolerance to toxic metals, enzymes and toxins
◦ used in genetic engineering- readily manipulated and
transferred from cell to cell

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 Ribosomes
◦ made of 60% ribosomal RNA and 40% protein
◦ consist of two subunits: large and small
◦ procaryotic differ from eucaryotic ribosomes in
size and number of proteins
◦ site of protein synthesis
◦ present in all cells

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 Inclusions (thể vùi) and granules (hạt)
◦ intracellular storage bodies
◦ vary in size, number and content
◦ Bacterial cell can use them when environmental sources
are depleted
◦ Single membrane containing glycogen, poly-b-
hydroxybutyrate, gas vesicles for floating…

➢ Sulfur granules of photosynthetic bacteria and

polyphosphate granules of Corynebacterium and
Mycobacterium

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Magnetosome containing iron oxide poly-b-hydroxybutyrate IB
Orient the cells in the earth’s magnetic field
➔ into locations with favorable oxygen
levels or nutrient-rich sediments

Carboxysomes in cyanobacteria store

enzyme responsible for CO2 fixation

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 Endospores
◦ inert, resting, cells produced by some G+ genera:
Clostridium, Bacillus and Sporosarcina
 have a 2-phase life cycle:
 vegetative cell – metabolically active and growing
 endospore – when exposed to adverse environmental conditions;
capable of high resistance and very long-term survival
◦ sporulation - formation of endospores
 hardiest of all life forms
 withstands extremes in heat, drying, freezing, radiation and
chemicals
 not a means of reproduction
◦ Germination - return to vegetative growth

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 Dehydrated, metabolically inactive thick coat

 Resistance linked to high levels of calcium and

dipicolinic acid

 Longevity verges on immortality - 25 million years.

 Resistant to ordinary cleaning methods and boiling

 Pressurized steam at 120oC for 20-30 minutes will

destroy

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 Variety in shape, size, and arrangement but
typically described by one of three basic shapes:
◦ coccus – spherical (Staphylococcus, Streptococcus)
◦ bacillus – rod (Bacillus, Lactobacillus, E. coli)
 coccobacillus – very short and plump (Haemophilus influenzae,
Gardnerella vaginalis, Chlamydia trachomatis)
 vibrio – gently curved, comma (1 turn)
◦ spirillum (xoắn thể) - helical, twisted rod
➢ Campylobacter, Helicobacter (~2 turns)
 Spirochete/spirochaete (xoắn khuẩn) - spring–like
➢ Leptospira, Borrelia

❖ Branching filaments: Actinomyces

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 Arrangement of cells is dependent on pattern of
division and how cells remain attached after
division:
◦ cocci:
 singles
 diplococci – in pairs
 tetrads – groups of four
 irregular clusters
 chains
 cubical packets
◦ bacilli:
 chains
 palisades

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Streptococcus
pneumoniae
Neisseria
Streptococcus
gonorrhoeae
pyogenes

Sarcina
Micrococcus ventriculi
sp.

Staphylococcus 60
 Coxiella burnetii, Moraxella bovis,
Bacillus cereus
Klebsiella rhinoscleromatis…

Streptobacillus moniliformis Corynebacterium diphtheriae

Haemophilus influenzae
Gardnerella vaginalis
Chlamydia trachomatis
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1. Microscopic morphology
2. Macroscopic morphology – colony appearance
3. Physiological / biochemical characteristics
4. Chemical analysis
5. Serological analysis
6. Genetic and molecular analysis
• G + C base composition
• DNA analysis using genetic probes
• Nucleic acid sequencing and rRNA analysis

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 Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology –
five volume resource covering all known procaryotes

◦ classification based on genetic information – phylogenetic

◦ two domains: Archaea and Bacteria
◦ five major subgroups with 25 different phyla

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 Domain Archaea – primitive, adapted to extreme
habitats and modes of nutrition

 Domain Bacteria -
◦ Phylum Proteobacteria – Gram-negative cell walls
◦ Phylum Firmicutes – mainly Gram-positive with low G + C
content
◦ Phylum Actinobacteria – Gram-positive with high G + C
content

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 Species –a collection of bacterial cells which
share an overall similar pattern of traits in
contrast to other bacteria whose pattern differs
significantly

 Strain or variety – a culture derived from a single

parent that differs in structure or metabolism
from other cultures of that species (biovars,
morphovars)

 Type – a subspecies that can show differences in

antigenic makeup (serotype or serovar),
susceptibility to phage (phage type) and in
pathogenicity (pathotype)
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 Arthrospira platensis
 Free-living nonpathogenic bacteria
 Photosynthetic bacteria
◦ Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
 Gram-negative cell walls
 extensive thylakoids with photosynthetic chlorophyll pigments
and gas inclusions (carboxysomes)
◦ Green and purple sulfur bacteria
 contain photosynthetic pigment bacteriochlorophyll
 do not give off oxygen as a product of photosynthesis
◦ Gliding, fruiting bacteria
 Gram-negative
 Glide over moist surfaces

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Spirulina platensis/Arthrospira platensis
 Unusual forms of medically significant obligate
intracellular parasites
◦ Rickettsias
 Very tiny, Gram-negative bacteria
 Most are pathogens that alternate between mammals and
fleas, lice or ticks.
 Obligate intracellular pathogens
 Cannot survive or multiply outside of a host cell
 Cannot carry out metabolism on their own
 Rickettsia rickettisii – Rocky Mountain spotted fever
 Rickettsia prowazekii – epidemic typhus
 Coxiella burnetti – Q fever

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◦ Chlamydias
 Tiny
 Obligate intracellular parasites
 Not transmitted by arthropods
 Chlamydia trachomatis – severe eye infection and one
of the most common sexually transmitted diseases
 Chlamydia pneumoniae – lung infections
 Chlamydia psittaci – ornithosis, parrot fever

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 Constitute third Domain Archaea
 Seem more closely related to Domain Eukarya
than to bacteria
 Live in the most extreme habitats in nature,
extremophiles
 Adapted to heat, salt, acid pH, pressure and
atmosphere
 Includes: CH4 producers, hyperthermophiles,
extreme halophiles, and sulfur reducers
➔ Compare Bacteria – Archaea - Eukaryotes

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Anna WĘGRZYN, CHEMIK 2014, 68, 8, 8, 710–722