C8.

1 ‒ Rate of Reac on
● The rate of a chemical reac on tells you how fast reactants turn into products.
● Reac on rate is important in the chemical industry. Any industrial process has to make money by
producing useful products. This means the right amount of product needed must be made as cheaply
as possible. If it takes too long to produce, it will be hard to make a profit when it is sold. The rate of
the reac on must be fast enough to make it quickly but safely.
● The rate of a reac on measures the speed of a reac on. Reac ons happen at different rates. An
explosion is a very fast reac on, whereas the rus ng of iron is a very slow reac on.
● To work out the rate of a chemical reac on, you can find out how quickly:
○ The reactants are used up as they make products, or
○ The products of the reac on are made.
● You can find out how quickly the reactants are used up in some reac ons by measuring the mass of a
reac on mixture.
○ If the reac on gives off a gas, the mass of the reac on mixture decreases. You can measure and
record the mass at regular me intervals.
● The rate of a reac on at any given me can be found from the gradient,
or slope, of the line on a graph or amount of reactant or product
against me. The steeper the gradient, the faster the reac on is at that
me.
● A graph can be produced by measuring the mass of gas released or the
volume of gas produced at intervals of me.
● You can calculate the mean rate of reac on a er a given me using the
equa on:

C8.2 ‒ Collision theory and surface area

● The collision theory states that reac ons can only happen if par cles collide. The par cles must also
collide with enough energy to change into new substances. The minimum energy they need to react is
called the ac va on energy.
● You can increase the rate of reac on if you:
○ Increase the frequency of reac ng of reac ng par cles colliding with each other
○ Increase the energy they have when they collide.
● If you increase the chance of par cles reac ng, you will also increase the rate of the reac on
● There are four main factors which affect the rate of chemical reac ons: temperature, surface area of
solids, concentra on of solu ons or pressure of gases and the presence of a catalyst.

Surface area and reac on rate

● When a solid reacts in a solu on, the size of the pieces of solid affects the rate of the reac on. The
par cles inside a large lump of solid are not in contact with the reactant par cles in the solu on, so
they cannot react. The par cles inside the solid have to wait for the par cles on the surface to react
first before they are exposed and have a chance to react.
● In smaller pieces, or in a powder, each ny piece of solid is surrounded by solu on. Many more
par cles of the solid are exposed and able to react at a given me. This means that reac ons can take
place much more quickly.
● You can compare solids with different surface areas quan ta vely by looking at their surface area to
volume ra o (SA:V). The smaller the size of the pieces of a solid material, the larger its surface area to
volume ra o. As the side of a cube decreases in size by a factor of 10, its surface area to volume ra o
increases by 10. You get a larger surface area of reactant par cles exposed, for the same volume of
material. So the larger the SA:V the faster the reac on.

C8.3 ‒ The effect of temperature

● Increasing the temperature increases the rate of a reac on. There are two reasons:
○ Par cles collide more o en
○ Par cle collide with more energy
● Therefore, a small change in temperature has a large effect on reac on rates. At ordinary temperatures
a rise of 10℃ will roughly double the rate of many reac ons, so they go twice as fast.
● When you heat up a substance, kine c energy is transferred to its par cles. In solu ons and in gases,
this means that the par cles move around faster. When par cles move around faster, they also collide
more o en. When par cles collide more frequently, there are more chances for them to react. This
increases the rate of the reac on.
● Par cles that are moving around more quickly have more energy. This means that any collisions they
have are much more energe c.
● When you increase the temperature of a reac ng mixture, a high propor on of the collision will result
in the reac on taking place in any given me. This is because a high propor on of par cles have energy
greater than the ac va on energy.

● An increased propor on of par cles exceeding the ac va on energy

has a greater effect on the rate than the increased frequency of
collisions.
● The graph shows the me taken for the reac on to finish changes
with temperature. The nega ve slope shows that as temperature
increases, the me it takes for the reac on to finish decreases.
However, as the temperature increases, the rate of reac on also
increases.

C8.4 ‒ The effect of concentra on and pressure

● Some buildings and statues are made of limestone or marble. These have stood for centuries. However,
they are now crumbling away at a greater rate than before. This is because both limestone and marble
are mainly calcium carbonate. This reacts with acids, leaving the stone so and crumbly. The rate of
the reac on has speeded up because the concentra on of acids in rainwater has increased.
● Increasing the concentra on of reactants in a solu on increases the rate of reac on because there are
more par cles of the reactants moving around in the same volume of solu on. The more “crowded
 together” the reactant par cles are, the more likely it is that they will collide. So the increased
frequency of collisions results in a faster reac on.
● Increasing the pressure of reac ng gases has the same effect. Increased pressure squashes the gas
par cles more closely together. There are more par cles of gas in a given space. This increases the
chance that they will collide and react. So increasing the pressure produces more frequent collisions,
which will increase the rate of the reac on.

Inves ga ng Effect of Concentra on on Rate of Reac on

A: Measuring Turbidity
Objec ve → To inves gate the effect of changing concentra on on the rate of reac on by measuring the
forma on of a precipitate.
Hypothesis → A precipitate will be formed quicker if the concentra on of the reactants is greater
Equipment:
○ 40 g/dm³ sodium thiosulfate solu on
○ 1.0 mol/dm³ dilute hydrochloric acid
○ Conical flask
○ Black cross on white paper
○ White paper or white le
○ Stopwatch or mer
Method:
1. Measure 50 cm³ of Na₂S₂O₃ solu on into a flask
2. Measure 5 cm³ of dilute HCl into a measuring cylinder
3. Draw a black cross on a piece of white paper and put it underneath the flask
4. Add the acid into the flask and immediately start the stopwatch
5. Solid sulfur is formed which precipitates in solu on turning cloudy:
Na₂S₂O₃ + 2HCl → 2NaCl + S + SO₂ + H₂O
6. Look down at the cross and stop the stopwatch when the cross can no longer be seen
7. Repeat using different concentra ons of sodium thiosulfate solu on
Conclusion → As there are more reactant par cles in a given volume collisions occur more frequently,
increasing the rate of reac on

B: Measuring Gas Volume

Objec ve → To inves gate the effect of changing concentra on on the rate of reac on by measuring the
volume of gas given off.
Hypothesis → the same amount of gas will be produced in less me if the concentra on of reactants is
increased.
Equipment:
○ Magnesium ribbon cut into 3cm lengths
○ Sulfuric acid 1 mol/dm³ and 1.5 mol/dm³
○ Conical flask
○ Safety goggles
○ Gas syringe
○ Stop clock
Method:
1. Measure 50 cm³ of 1 mol/dm³ H₂SO₄ solu on into a flask.
2. Add the magnesium ribbon to the flask and connect it to the gas collec on equipment
3. Star the stopwatch and record the volume of gas every 10 seconds in a table
4. When the reac on is complete, repeat using 1.5 mol/dm³ sulfuric acid.
Conclusion → As there are more reactant par cles in a given volume collisions occur more frequently,
increasing the rate of reac on.

C8.5 ‒ The effect of catalysts

● A catalyst is a substance that changes the rate of reac on. However, it is not chemically changed at the
end of the reac on. A catalyst is not used up in the reac on, so it can be used over and over again.
● Different catalysts are needed for different reac ons. Many of the catalysts used in industry involve
transi on metals. Examples include iron, used to make ammonia, and pla num, used to make nitric
acid.
● Catalysts are normally used in the form of powders, pellets or fine gauzes. This gives them the biggest
possible surface area to volume ra o, making them as effec ve as possible, as the reac ons they
catalyse o en involve gases reac ng on their surfaces.
● Catalysts increase rate of reac ons by providing an alterna ve reac on pathway to the products, with a
lower ac va on energy than the reac on without the catalyst present. So with a catalyst, a higher
propor on of the reactant par cles have sufficient energy to react. This means the frequency of
effec ve collisions increases and the rate of reac on speeds up.

● Catalysts are o en very expensive precious metals. Gold, pla num and palladium are all costly, but are
the most effec ve catalysts for par cular reac ons. It is usually cheaper to use a catalyst then pay for
the extra energy needed without one. To get the same rate of reac on without a catalyst would require
higher temperatures and pressures.
● Catalysts save money and help the environment. That is because high temperatures and pressures
o en involve burning fossil fuels. So opera ng at lower temperatures and pressures conserves these
non-renewable resources. It also stops more CO₂ entering the atmosphere when they are burnt,
helping to combat climate change.
● Not only does a catalyst speed up a reac on, but it doesn’t get used up in the reac on, so a ny
amount of catalyst can be used to speed up a reac on over and over again.
● However, the catalysts used in chemical plants eventually become poisoned so that they do not work
any more. This happens because impuri es in the reac on mixture combine with the catalyst and stop
it working properly.
 C8.6 ‒ Reversible reac ons
● In some reac ons the products can react together to make the original reactants again. This is called a
reversible reac on.
● A reversible reac on can go in both direc ons, so two “half-arrows” are used in the equa on. One
arrow points in the forwards direc on and one in the backwards direc on.
A+B⇌C+D

Examples of reversible reac on

1. Litmus is a complex molecule. This can be represented as HLit (where H is hydrogen). HLit is red. If you
add alkali, HLit turns into the Lit- ion by losing a H+ ions. Lit- is blue. If you add more acid, blue Lit-
changes back to red HLit.

2. Other reversible reac ons involve salts and their water of crystallisa on. For example:

3. When you heat ammonium chloride, a reversible reac on takes place.

Ammonium chloride breaks down on hea ng. It forms ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas. This is
an example of thermal decomposi on.

The two hot gases rise up the test tube. When they cool down near the mouth of the tube, they react
with each other. The gases re-form ammonium chloride again. The white ammonium chloride solid
forms on the inside of the glass:

C8.7 ‒ Energy and reversible reac ons

● In reversible reac ons, the forward and reverse reac ons involve equal but opposite energy transfers.
A reversible reac on that is exothermic in one direc on must be endothermic in the other direc on.
The amount of energy released by the exothermic reac on exactly equals the amount taken in by the
endothermic reac on.
● The reac on below shows a reversible reac on where A and B react to form C and D. the products of
this reac on (C and D) can then react to form A and B.
● Energy cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reac on. The amount of energy transferred to the
surroundings when the reac on goes in one direc on in a reversible reac on must be exactly the same
as the energy transferred back in when the reac on goes in the opposite direc on.
● You see how this works if you look at what happens when blue copper (II) sulfate crystals are heated.
The crystals contain water as part of the la ce formed when the copper (II) sulfate crystallised. The
copper sulphate is hydrated. Hea ng the copper (II) sulfate drives off the water from the crystals
producing the anhydrous (without water) copper (II) sulfate. This is an endothermic reac on.
● When you add water to anhydrous copper (II) sulfate, hydrated copper (II) sulfate is formed. The colour
change in the reac on, from white to blue, is a useful test for the presence of water. The reac on in
this direc on is exothermic. You could see steam rising if you add water dropwise to anhydrous copper
(II) sulfate powder.

● The forward reac on to produce anhydrous copper (II) sulfate from blue hydrated copper (II) sulfate is
endothermic, so takes in heat energy from the environment. Therefore, increasing the temperature
con nuously favours this direc on of reac on and stops the anhydrous copper (II) sulfate turning back
into the hydrated copper (II) sulfate.
● The reac on of anhydrous copper (II) sulfate with water is an exothermic reac on to release heat
energy to the surroundings, causing the mixture to get hot.

C8.8 ‒ Dynamic equilibrium

● In a closed system no reactants or products can escape. For a reversible reac on in a closed system,
equilibrium is reached when the rate of the forward reac on is equal to the rate of the reverse
reac on. At equilibrium both reac ons con nue to happen, but the amounts of reactants and products
remain constant.
● In a reversible reac on, as the concentra on of products builds up, the rate at which they react to
reform reactants increases. As this starts to happen, the rate of the forward reac on is decreasing. That
is because the concentra on of reactants is decreasing from its original maximum value. Eventually
both forward and reverse reac ons are happening at the same rate, but in opposite direc ons.
● When this happens, the reactants are making products at the same rate as the products are making
reactants. Overall, there is no change in the amount of products and reactants. The reac on has
reached equilibrium.
● As the forward and reverse reac ons are con nuously taking place, a state of “dynamic” equilibrium
has been reached.
 ● You can change the rela ve amounts of the reactants and products in a reac ng mixture at equilibrium
by changing the condi ons. This is important for the chemical industry in controlling reac ons.
● This is an applica on of Le Châtelier's principle. Le Châtelier no ced that whenever you change the
condi ons in a system at equilibrium, the posi on of equilibrium shi s so as to cancel out the change.
The change in condi ons can be changes in concentra on, pressure or temperature.

Affec ng the composi on of an equilibrium mixture

● If the concentra on of chlorine is lowered, the rate
of forward reac on decreases and the rate of
reverse reac on increases.
○ More iodine trichloride is turned back into
iodine monochloride and chlorine un l
equilibrium is established again.

● This principle is very important in the chemical

industry. Industrial chemists need to find the
condi ons that:
○ Give as much product as possible
○ In a short a me as possible

C8.9 ‒ Altering condi ons

● If you change the condi ons of a system at equilibrium, the posi on of equilibrium shi s as if to try to
cancel out the change.
● Increasing the concentra on of a reactant will cause the posi on of the equilibrium to shi to the right,
in favour of the products, in order to reduce the concentra on of the reactant. It opposes the change
that is introduced.

Pressure and equilibrium

● If a reversible reac on involves changing numbers of gas molecules, altering the pressure can also
affect the equilibrium mixture. In many reversible reac ons, there are more molecules of gas on one
side of the equa on than on the other. By changing the pressure at which the reac on is carried out,
you can change the amount of products that are made.

If the forward reac on produces more molecules of If the forward reac on produces fewer molecules of
gas… gas…

… an increase in pressure decreases the amount of … an increase in pressure increases the amount of
products formed. products formed.

… a decrease in pressure increases the amount of … a decrease in pressure decreases the amount of
products formed. products formed.

● For example, in the reversible reac on:

2NO₂ (g) ⇌ N₂O4 (g)
There are more gaseous reactant molecules than gaseous product molecules. Therefore, increasing the
pressure will increase the amount of N₂O₄ (product) in the mixture at equilibrium.
Changing temperature
● Reversible reac on are exothermic in one direc on and endothermic in the other direc on
● Increasing the temperature favours the reac on in the endothermic reac on. The equilibrium shi s as
if to lower the temperature by taking in energy.
● Decreasing the temperature favours the exothermic reac on.

If the forward reac on is exothermic… If the forward reac on is endothermic…

…an increase in temperature decreases the amount …an increase in temperature increases the amount
of products formed. of products formed.

… a decrease in temperature increases the amount …a decrease in temperature decreases the amount
of products formed. of products formed.

● For example, for the reversible reac on:

The forward reac on is exothermic, so increasing the temperature will produce more NO₂ (reactant) in
the mixture at equilibrium.