DATA COMMUNICATIONS

When we communicate, we are sharing information or data. This sharing can be local or
remote. Local communication usually occurs face to face, while remote communication takes
place over a distance. The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed
upon by the parties creating and using it.
Data communications is the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the
communicating devices must be part of a communications system made up of a combination
of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs). The effectiveness of a data
communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy,
timeliness, and jitter.
Components
A data communications system has five components, namely:
i) Message.
The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
ii) Sender.
The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, a telephone
handset, a video camera, and so on.
iii) Receiver.
The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
iv) Transmission medium.
The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender
to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial
cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
v) Protocol.
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected
but not able to communicate, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by
a person who speaks only Japanese.

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 NETWORKS
A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of communication. In this
definition, a device can be a host, such as a large computer, desktop, laptop, workstation,
cellular phone, or security system. A device in this definition can also be a connecting device
such as a router that connects the network to other networks, a switch that connects devices
together, or a modem (modulator-demodulator) that changes the form of data.

Physical Structures
Before discussing networks, we need to define some network attributes.
1. Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications
pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For communication to occur,
two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the same time. There
are two possible types of connections:
a) point-to-point and
b) multipoint

Point-to-Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two
devices share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is
shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously,
it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared
connection.
2. Nodes
A node is a physical electronic device hooked up to a network, for example a computer,
printer, router, and so on. If set up properly, a node is capable of sending and/or
receiving information over a network.

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 Nodes may be set up adjacent to one other, wherein Node A can connect directly to
Node B, or there may be an intermediate node, like a switch or a router, set up between
Node A and Node B. Typically, routers connect networks to the Internet and switches
operate within a network to facilitate intra-network communication.
3. Links
Links connect nodes on a network. Links can be wired, like Ethernet, or cable-free, like
WiFi. Links to can either be point-to-point, where Node A is connected to Node B, or
multipoint, where Node A is connected to Node B and Node C.
When we’re talking about information being transmitted, this may also be described as
a one-to-one vs. a one-to-many relationship.
4. Protocol
A protocol is a mutually agreed upon set of rules that allows two nodes on a network to
exchange data.
“A protocol defines the rules governing the syntax (what can be communicated),
semantics (how it can be communicated), and synchronization (when and at what speed
it can be communicated) of the communications procedure. Protocols can be
implemented on hardware, software, or a combination of both. Protocols can be created
by anyone, but the most widely adopted protocols are based on standards.”
Both wired and cable-free links can have protocols. While anyone can create a protocol,
the most widely adopted protocols are often based on standards published by Internet
organizations such as the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

5. Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically.
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology
of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and
linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of nodes (such as
computers, switches, routers, or other devices) and the connections between them in a
computer network. It defines the paths that information takes from one node to another
and influences the efficiency, scalability, and reliability of the network.
There are different types of network topologies, including:
 Mesh
 Star
 Bus
 Ring
 Tree
 Hybrid

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Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. The
term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects. To
find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we first
consider that each node must be connected to every other node. Node 1 must be connected to
n − 1 nodes, node 2 must be connected to n − 1 nodes, and finally node n must be connected to
n − 1 nodes. We need n(n − 1) physical links. To accommodate that many links, every device
on the network must have n − 1 input/output (I/O) ports (see Figure 1.4 on next page) to be
connected to the other n − 1 stations.

A mesh topology is a point-to-point connection where nodes are interconnected. In this form
of topology, data is transmitted via two methods: routing and flooding. Routing is where
nodes use routing logic to work out the shortest distance to the packet’s destination. In contrast,
flooding is where data is sent to all nodes within the network. Flooding doesn’t require any
form of routing logic to work.
Mesh topologies are used first and foremost because they are reliable. The interconnectivity
of nodes makes them extremely resistant to failures. There is no single machine failure that
could bring down the entire network. The absence of a single point of failure is one of the
reasons why this is a popular topology choice. This setup is also secure from being
compromised.
However, mesh topologies are far from perfect. They require an immense amount of
configuration once they are deployed. The topological layout is more complex than many
other topologies and this is reflected by how long it takes to set up. You’ll need to accommodate
a whole host of new wiring which can add up to be quite expensive.

Star Topology
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller,
usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh
topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as

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an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller,
which then relays the data to the other connected device.

Every device in the network is directly connected to the switch and indirectly connected to
every other node. The relationship between these elements is that the central network hub is a
server and other devices are treated as clients. The central node has the responsibility of
managing data transmissions across the whole network and acts as a repeater. With star
topologies, computers are connected with a coaxial cable, twisted pair, or optical fiber cable.
Star topologies are most commonly-used because you can manage the entire network from
one location: the central switch. As a consequence, if a node that isn’t the central node goes
down then the network will remain up. This gives star topologies a layer of protection against
failures that aren’t always present with other topology setups. Likewise, you can add new
computers without having to take the network offline like you would have to do with a ring
topology.
In terms of physical network structure, star topologies require fewer cables than other topology
types. This makes them simple to set up and manage over the long-term. The simplicity of
the overall network design makes it much easier for administrators to run troubleshooting when
dealing with network performance faults.
Though star topologies may be relatively safe from failure, if the central switch goes down
then the entire network will go down. As such, the administrator needs to manage the health
of the central node closely to make sure that it doesn’t go down. The performance of the
network is also tied to the central node’s configurations and performance. Star topologies
are easy to manage in most ways but they are far from cheap to set up and use.

Bus Topology
The preceding topology examples all describe point-to-point connections. A bus topology, on
the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a
network.
Bus topology is a network type where every device is connected to a single cable that runs from
one end of the network to the other. This type of network topology is often referred to as line

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topology. In a bus topology, data is transmitted in one direction only. If the bus topology has
two endpoints then it is referred to as a linear bus topology. Smaller networks with this type
of topology use a coaxial or RJ45 cable to link devices together. However, the bus topology
layout is outdated and you’re unlikely to encounter a company using a bus topology today.

Bus topologies were often used in smaller networks. One of the main reasons is that they keep
the layout simple. All devices are connected to a single cable so you don’t need to manage a
complex topological setup.
The layout also helped make bus topologies cost-effective because they can be run with a
single cable. In the event that more devices need to be added then you could simply join your
cable to another cable.
However, relying on one cable does mean that bus topologies have a single point of failure.
If the cable fails then the entire network will go down. A cable failure would cost organizations
a lot of time while they attempt to resume service. Further to this, high network traffic would
decrease network performance because all the data travels through one cable.
This limitation makes bus topologies suitable only for smaller networks. The primary reason
is that the more network nodes you have, the slower your transmission speeds are going to be.
It is also worth noting that bus topologies are limited in the sense that they are half-duplex,
which means that data can’t be transmitted in two opposite directions simultaneously.

Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two
devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater, which
regenerates the bits and passes them along.
In networks with ring topology, computers are connected to each other in a circular
format. Every device in the network will have two neighbors and no more or no less. Ring
topologies were commonly used in the past but you would be hard-pressed to find an enterprise
still using them today.

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The first node is connected to the last node to link the loop together. As a consequence of being
laid out in this format packets need to travel through all network nodes on the way to their
destination.

If ring topologies are configured to be bidirectional then they are referred to as dual ring
topologies. Dual ring topologies provide each node with two connections, one in each direction.
Thus, data can flow in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction.
With ring topologies, the risk of packet collisions is very low due to the use of token-based
protocols, which only allow one station to transmit data at a given time. This is compounded
by the fact that data can move through network nodes at high speeds which can be expanded
on when more nodes are added.
Dual ring topologies provided an extra layer of protection because they were more resistant
to failures. For instance, if a ring goes down within a node then the other ring can step up and
back it up. Ring topologies were also low cost to install.
One of the reasons why ring topologies were replaced is because they are very vulnerable to
failure. The failure of one node can take the entire network out of operation. This means
that ring topology networks need to be constantly managed to ensure that all network nodes
are in good health. However, even if the nodes were in good health your network could still
be knocked offline by a transmission line failure!
Ring topologies also raised scalability concerns. For instance, bandwidth is shared by all
devices within the network. In addition, the more devices that are added to a network the
more communication delay the network experiences. This means that the number of devices
added to a network topology needed to be monitored carefully to make sure that the network
resources weren’t stretched beyond their limit.
Making changes to a ring topology was also complicated because you need to shut down the
network to make changes to existing nodes or add new nodes. This is far from ideal as you’ll
need to factor in downtime every time you want to make a change to the topological structure!

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Tree Topology
As the name suggests, a tree topology network is a structure that is shaped like a tree with its
many branches. Tree topologies have a root node that is connected to another node hierarchy.
The hierarchy is parent-child where there is only one mutual connection between two
connected nodes. As a general rule, a tree topology needs to have three levels to the hierarchy
to be classified this way. This form of topology is used within Wide Area Networks to sustain
lots of spread-out devices.

The main reason why tree topologies are used is to extend bus and star topologies. Under
this hierarchical format, it is easy to add more nodes to the network when your organization
grows in size. This format also lends itself well to finding errors and
troubleshooting because you can check for network performance issues systematically
throughout the tree.
The most significant weakness of tree topology is the root node. If the root node fails then all
of its subtrees become partitioned. There will still be partial connectivity within the network
amongst other devices such as the failed node’s parent.
Maintaining the network system is not simple either because the more nodes you add, the
more difficult it becomes to manage the network. Another disadvantage of a tree topology is
the number of cables you need. Cables are required to connect every device throughout the
hierarchy which makes the network layout more complex when compared to a simpler
topology.

Hybrid Topology
When a topology is composed of two or more different topologies it is referred to as a hybrid
topology. Hybrid topologies are most-commonly encountered in larger enterprises where
individual departments have network topologies that different from another topology in the
organization. Connecting these topologies together will result in a hybrid topology. As a
consequence, the capabilities and vulnerabilities depend on the types of topology that are tied
together.

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There are many reasons why hybrid topologies are used but they all have one thing in
common: flexibility. There are few constraints on the network structure that a hybrid topology
cannot accommodate, and you can incorporate multiple topologies into one hybrid setup.
As a consequence, hybrid topologies are very scalable. The scalability of hybrid setups makes
them well-suited to larger networks.
Unfortunately, hybrid topologies can be quite complex, depending on the topologies that you
decide to use. Each topology that is part of your hybrid topology will have to be managed
according to its unique network requirements. This makes administrators’ jobs more difficult
because they are going to have to attempt to manage multiple topologies rather than a single
one. In addition, setting up a hybrid topology can end up being quite costly.

NETWORK TYPES
Now we discuss different types of networks: LANs and WANs.
A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and connects some hosts in a single
office, building, or campus. Each host in a LAN has an identifier, which is an address that
uniquely defines the host in the LAN. A packet sent by a host to another host carries both the
source host’s and the destination host’s addresses.
When LANs were used in isolation (which is rare today), they were designed to allow resources
to be shared between the hosts. As we will see shortly, LANs today are connected to each other
and to WANs to create communication at a wider level.

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A wide area network (WAN) is also an interconnection of devices capable of communication.
However, there are some differences between a LAN and a WAN. A LAN is normally limited
in size, spanning an office, a building, or a campus; a WAN has a wider geographical span,
spanning a town, a state, a country, or even the world. A LAN interconnects hosts; a WAN
interconnects connecting devices such as switches, routers, or modems.
There are two distinct examples of WANs today:
 point-to-point
 WANs and switched WANs.
A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects two communicating devices through a
transmission medium (cable or air).

A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends. It is used in the backbone of a global
communications network today.

Today, it is very rare to see a LAN or a WAN in isolation; they are connected to one another.
When two or more networks are connected, they make an internetwork, or internet.

THE OSI MODEL

Although, when speaking of the Internet, everyone talks about the TCP/IP protocol suite, it is
not the only suite of protocols defined. Established in 1947, the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards. Almost three-fourths of the countries in the world are represented in
the ISO. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. OSI was introduced in 1983 by representatives of the
major computer and telecom companies, and was adopted by ISO as an international standard
in 1984.
The modern Internet is not based on OSI, but on the simpler Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) model. TCP/IP is a protocol suite (a set of protocols
organized in different layers) used in the Internet today. It is a hierarchical protocol made up
of interactive modules, each of which provides a specific functionality. The term hierarchical

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means that each upper-level protocol is supported by the services provided by one or more
lower-level protocols. The TCP/IP protocol suite is defined as five layers.
However, the OSI 7-layer model is still widely used, as it helps visualize and communicate
how networks operate, and helps isolate and troubleshoot networking problems.
The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows
communication between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate but related
layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across a network.

1. Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless connection between network
nodes. It defines the connector, the electrical cable or wireless technology connecting the
devices, and is responsible for transmission of the raw data, which is simply a series of 0s and
1s, while taking care of bit rate control.
2. Data Link Layer
The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection between two physically-connected
nodes on a network. It breaks up packets into frames and sends them from source to destination.
This layer is composed of two parts—Logical Link Control (LLC), which identifies network
protocols, performs error checking and synchronizes frames, and Media Access
Control (MAC) which uses MAC addresses to connect devices and define permissions to
transmit and receive data.

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 3. Network Layer
The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments into network packets,
and reassembling the packets on the receiving end. The other is routing packets by discovering
the best path across a physical network. The network layer uses network addresses (typically
Internet Protocol addresses) to route packets to a destination node.
4. Transport Layer
The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer and breaks it into “segments” on
the transmitting end. It is responsible for reassembling the segments on the receiving end,
turning it back into data that can be used by the session layer. The transport layer carries out
flow control, sending data at a rate that matches the connection speed of the receiving device,
and error control, checking if data was received incorrectly and if not, requesting it again.
5. Session Layer
The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions, between devices. It is
responsible for opening sessions, ensuring they remain open and functional while data is being
transferred, and closing them when communication ends. The session layer can also set
checkpoints during a data transfer—if the session is interrupted, devices can resume data
transfer from the last checkpoint.
6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It defines how two devices should
encode, encrypt, and compress data so it is received correctly on the other end. The presentation
layer takes any data transmitted by the application layer and prepares it for transmission over
the session layer.
7. Application Layer
The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers and email clients. It
provides protocols that allow software to send and receive information and present meaningful
data to users. A few examples of application layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name System (DNS).

Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI model helps users and operators of computer networks:
 Determine the required hardware and software to build their network.
 Understand and communicate the process followed by components communicating
across a network.
 Perform troubleshooting, by identifying which network layer is causing an issue and
focusing efforts on that layer.

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The OSI model helps network device manufacturers and networking software vendors:
 Create devices and software that can communicate with products from any other
vendor, allowing open interoperability
 Define which parts of the network their products should work with.
 Communicate to users at which network layers their product operates – for example,
only at the application layer, or across the stack.

OSI versus TCP/IP

When we compare the two models, we find that two layers, session and presentation, are
missing from the TCP/IP protocol suite. These two layers were not added to the TCP/IP
protocol suite after the publication of the OSI model. The application layer in the suite is
usually considered to be the combination of three layers in the OSI model.

Two reasons were mentioned for this decision. First, TCP/IP has more than one transport-layer
protocol. Some of the functionalities of the session layer are available in some of the transport-
layer protocols. Second, the application layer is not only one piece of software. Many
applications can be developed at this layer. If some of the functionalities mentioned in the
session and presentation layers are needed for a particular application, they can be included in
the development of that piece of software.
In summary, the key difference between the models is that TCP/IP is simpler, collapsing
several OSI layers into one:
 OSI layers 5, 6, 7 are combined into one Application Layer in TCP/IP
 OSI layers 1, 2 are combined into one Network Access Layer in TCP/IP – however
TCP/IP does not take responsibility for sequencing and acknowledgement functions,
leaving these to the underlying transport layer.
Other important differences are as follows:

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  TCP/IP is a functional model designed to solve specific communication problems, and
which is based on specific, standard protocols. OSI is a generic, protocol-independent
model intended to describe all forms of network communication.
 In TCP/IP, most applications use all the layers, while in OSI simple applications do not
use all seven layers. Only layers 1, 2 and 3 are mandatory to enable any data
communication.

INTERNET PROTOCOL
The Internet Protocol (IP) is a protocol, or set of rules, for routing and addressing packets of
data so that they can travel across networks and arrive at the correct destination. Data traversing
the Internet is divided into smaller pieces, called packets. IP information is attached to each
packet, and this information helps routers to send packets to the right place. Every device
or domain that connects to the Internet is assigned an IP address, and as packets are directed to
the IP address attached to them, data arrives where it is needed.
Once the packets arrive at their destination, they are handled differently depending on which
transport protocol is used in combination with IP.
To understand why protocols are necessary, consider the process of mailing a letter. On the
envelope, addresses are written in the following order: name, street address, city, state, and zip
code. If an envelope is dropped into a mailbox with the zip code written first, followed by the
street address, followed by the state, and so on, the post office won't deliver it. There is an
agreed-upon protocol for writing addresses in order for the postal system to work. In the same
way, all IP data packets must present certain information in a certain order, and all IP addresses
follow a standardized format.

What is an IP address? How does IP addressing work?

An IP address is a unique identifier assigned to a device or domain that connects to the Internet.
Each IP address is a series of characters, such as '192.168.1.1'. Via DNS resolvers, which
translate human-readable domain names into IP addresses, users are able to access websites
without memorizing this complex series of characters. Each IP packet will contain both the IP
address of the device or domain sending the packet and the IP address of the intended recipient,
much like how both the destination address and the return address are included on a piece of
mail.

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The network layer in the Internet has gone through several versions, but only two versions have
survived: IP Version 4 (IPv4) and IP Version 6 (IPv6). Although IPv4 is almost depleted, we
discuss it because there are still some areas that use this version and also because it is the
foundation for IPv6.
IPv4 Addressing
The identifier used in the IP layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite to identify the connection of
each device to the Internet is called the Internet address or IP address. An IPv4 address is a 32-
bit address that uniquely and universally defines the connection of a host or a router to the
Internet. The IP address is the address of the connection, not the host or the router, because if
the device is moved to another network, the IP address may be changed.
IPv4 addresses are unique in the sense that each address defines one, and only one, connection
to the Internet. If a device has two connections to the Internet, via two networks, it has two
IPv4 addresses. IPv4 addresses are universal in the sense that the addressing system must be
accepted by any host that wants to be connected to the Internet.
Address Space
A protocol like IPv4 that defines addresses has an address space. An address space is the total
number of addresses used by the protocol. If a protocol uses b bits to define an address, the
address space is 2𝑏 because each bit can have two different values (0 or 1). IPv4 uses 32-bit
addresses, which means that the address space is 232 or 4,294,967,296 (more than 4 billion).
If there were no restrictions, more than 4 billion devices could be connected to the Internet.
Main and Auxiliary Protocols
The network layer in version 4 can be thought of as one main protocol and three auxiliary
protocols.
i) The main protocol, Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4), is responsible for packetizing,
forwarding, and delivery of a packet at the network layer.
ii) The Internet Control Message Protocol version 4 (ICMPv4) helps IPv4 to handle
some errors that may occur in the network layer delivery.
iii) The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is used to help IPv4 in
multicasting.
iv) The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to glue the network and data-link
layers in mapping network-layer addresses to link-layer addresses.

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IPv4
IPv4 is an unreliable datagram protocol—a best-effort delivery service. The term best effort
means that IPv4 packets can be corrupted, be lost, arrive out of order, be delayed or create
congestion for the network. If reliability is important, IPv4 must be paired with a reliable
transport-layer protocol such as TCP.
IPv4 is also a connectionless protocol that uses the datagram approach (packets used by the IP
are called datagrams). This means that each datagram is handled independently, and each
datagram can follow a different route to the destination. This implies that datagrams sent by
the same source to the same destination could arrive out of order. Again, IPv4 relies on a
higher-level protocol to take care of all these problems.
ICMPv4
The IPv4 has no error-reporting or error-correcting mechanism. In addition, the IP protocol
also lacks a mechanism for host and management queries. A host sometimes needs to determine
if a router or another host is alive. And sometimes a network manager needs information from
another host or router.
The Internet Control Message Protocol version 4 (ICMPv4) has been designed to compensate
for the above two deficiencies. It is a companion to the IP protocol. ICMP itself is a network-
layer protocol. However, its messages are not passed directly to the data-link layer as would be
expected. Instead, the messages are first encapsulated inside IP datagrams before going to the
lower layer. When an IP datagram encapsulates an ICMP message, the value of the protocol
field in the IP datagram is set to 1 to indicate that the IP payroll is an ICMP message.
IGMP
The protocol that is used today for collecting information about group membership is the
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP). IGMP is a protocol defined at the network
layer; it is one of the auxiliary protocols, like ICMP, that is considered part of the IP. IGMP
messages, like ICMP messages, are encapsulated in an IP datagram.
ARP
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol that maps dynamic IP addresses to permanent
physical machine addresses in a local area network (LAN). The physical machine address is
also known as a media access control (MAC) address. ARP translates 32-bit addresses to 48-
bit addresses and vice versa, which is necessary because IP addresses in IP version 4 (IPv4)
are 32 bits but MAC addresses are 48 bits.
ARP works between Layer 2 and Layer 3 of the OSI model. The MAC address exists on Layer
2 of the OSI model, the data link layer. The IP address exists on Layer 3, the network layer.

IPv6
With the growth of the Internet, it was clear that a larger address space was needed as a long-
term solution. The larger address space, however, requires that the length of IP addresses also
be increased, which means the format of the IP packets needs to be changed.

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The address depletion of IPv4 and other shortcomings of this protocol prompted a new version
of IP protocol in the early 1990s. The new version, which is called Internet Protocol version
6 (IPv6) or IP new generation (IPng), was a proposal to augment the address space of IPv4
and at the same time redesign the format of the IP packet and revise some auxiliary protocols
such as ICMP. It is interesting to know that IPv5 was a proposal, based on the OSI model, that
never materialized.
The main changes needed in the new protocol were as follows:
 Larger address space,
 better header format,
 new options,
 allowance for extension,
 support for resource allocation, and
 support for more security.
The implementation of these changes made it necessary to create a new version of the ICMP
protocol, ICMPv6.
IPv6 Addressing
The main reason for migration from IPv4 to IPv6 is the small size of the address space in IPv4.
An IPv6 address is 128 bits or 16 bytes (octets) long, 4 times the address length in IPv4.
A computer normally stores the address in binary, but it is clear that 128 bits cannot easily be
handled by humans. The address space of IPv6 contains 2128 addresses. This address space is
296 times the IPv4 address—definitely no address depletion.

TRANSITION FROM IPV4 TO IPV6

Although we have a new version of the IP, how can we make the transition to stop using IPv4
and start using IPv6? The first solution that comes to mind is to define a transition day on which
every host or router should stop using the old version and start using the new version. However,
this is not practical; because of the huge number of systems on the Internet, the transition from
IPv4 to IPv6 cannot happen suddenly. It will take a considerable amount of time before every
system in the Internet can move from IPv4 to IPv6. The transition must be smooth to prevent
any problems between the IPv4 and IPv6 systems.
Three strategies have been devised for the transition: dual stack, tunneling, and header
translation. One or all of these three strategies can be implemented during the transition
period.
It is recommended that all hosts, before migrating completely to version 6, have a dual stack
of protocols during the transition. In other words, a station must run IPv4 and IPv6
simultaneously until all the Internet uses IPv6.
Tunneling is a strategy used when two computers using IPv6 want to communicate with each
other and the packet must pass through a region that uses IPv4. To pass through this region,
the packet must have an IPv4 address. So the IPv6 packet is encapsulated in an IPv4 packet

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when it enters the region, and it leaves its capsule when it exits the region. It seems as if the
IPv6 packet goes through a tunnel at one end and emerges at the other end.
Header translation is necessary when the majority of the Internet has moved to IPv6 but some
systems still use IPv4. The sender wants to use IPv6, but the receiver does not understand IPv6.
Tunneling does not work in this situation because the packet must be in the IPv4 format to be
understood by the receiver. In this case, the header format must be totally changed through
header translation
What is UDP/IP?
The User Datagram Protocol, or UDP, is another widely used transport protocol. It is faster
than TCP, but it is also less reliable. UDP does not make sure all packets are delivered and in
order, and it does not establish a connection before beginning or receiving transmissions.

Types of Network Routing Protocols

Routing is one of the most fundamental areas of networking that an administrator has to know.
Routing protocols determine how your data gets to its destination and helps to make that routing
process as smooth as possible. However, there are so many different types of routing protocol
that it can be very difficult to keep track of them all!
All routing protocols can be classified into the following:
 Distance Vector or Link State Protocols
 Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP) or Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGP)
 Classful or Classless Protocols

Distance Vector and Link State Protocols

Distance vector routing protocols are protocols that use distance to work out the best routing
path for packets within a network.
These protocols measure the distance based on how many hops data has to pass to get to its
destination. The number of hops is essentially the number of routers it takes to reach the
destination.
Generally, distance vector protocols send a routing table full of information to neighboring
devices. This approach makes them low investment for administrators as they can be deployed
without much need to be managed. The only issue is that they require more bandwidth to send
on the routing tables and can run into routing loops as well.
Link state protocols take a different approach to finding the best routing path in that they share
information with other routers in proximity. The route is calculated based on the speed of
the path to the destination and the cost of resources.

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Link state routing protocols use an algorithm to work this out. One of the key differences to a
distance vector protocol is that link state protocols don’t send out routing tables; instead, routers
notify each other when route changes are detected.
Routers using the link state protocol creates three types of tables; neighbor table, topology
table, and routing table. The neighbor table stores details of neighboring routers using the link
state routing protocol, the topology table stores the whole network topology, and the routing
table stores the most efficient routes.
IGP and EGPs
Routing protocols can also be categorized as Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs) or Exterior
Gateway Protocols (EGPs).
IGPs are routing protocols that exchange routing information with other routers within a single
autonomous system (AS). An AS is defined as one network or a collection of networks under
the control of one enterprise. The company AS is thus separate from the ISP AS.
Each of the following is classified as an IGP:
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
 Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
 Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS)
 Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)
On the other hand, EGPs are routing protocols that are used to transfer routing information
between routers in different autonomous systems. These protocols are more complex and BGP
is the only EGP protocol that you’re likely to encounter. However, it is important to note that
there is an EGP protocol named EGP.
Examples of EGPs include:
 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
 Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)
 The ISO’s InterDomain Routing Protocol (IDRP)

Classful and Classless Routing Protocols

Classful routing protocols don’t send subnet mask information during routing updates but
classless routing protocols do. RIPv1 and IGRP are considered to be classful protocols. These
two are classful protocols because they don’t include subnet mask information in their routing
updates. Classful routing protocols have since become outdated by classless routing protocols.
Classless routing protocols send IP subnet mask information during routing updates.
RIPv2, EIGRP, OSPF, and IS-IS are all types of class routing protocols that include subnet
mask information within updates.

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Types of Routing Protocol
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
Routing Information Protocol or RIP is one of the first routing protocols to be created. RIP is
used in both Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs), and also runs
on the Application layer of the OSI model. There are multiple versions of RIP
including RIPv1 and RIPv2. The original version or RIPv1 determines network paths based
on the IP destination and the hop count of the journey.
RIPv1 interacts with the network by broadcasting its IP table to all routers connected to the
network. RIPv2 is a little more sophisticated than this and sends its routing table on to a
multicast address. RIPv2 also uses authentication to keep data more secure and chooses a
subnet mask and gateway for future traffic. The main limitation of RIP is that it has a maximum
hop count of 15 which makes it unsuitable for larger networks.

Interior Gateway Protocol (IGRP)

Interior Gateway Protocol or IGRP is a distance vector routing protocol produced by Cisco.
IGRP was designed to build on the foundations laid down on RIP to function more effectively
within larger connected networks and removed the 15 hop cap that was placed on RIP. IGRP
uses metrics such as bandwidth, delay, reliability, and load to compare the viability of routes
within the network. However, only bandwidth and delay are used under IGRP’s default
settings.
IGRP is ideal for larger networks because it broadcasts updates every 90 seconds and has a
maximum hop count of 255. This allows it to sustain larger networks than a protocol like RIP.
IGRP is also widely used because it is resistant to routing loops because it updates itself
automatically when route changes occur within the network.

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

Open Shortest Path First or OSPF protocol is a link-state IGP that was tailor-made for IP
networks using the Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm. The SPF routing algorithm is used
to calculate the shortest path spanning-tree to ensure efficient data transmission of packets.
OSPF routers maintain databases detailing information about the surrounding topology of the
network. This database is filled with data taken from Link State Advertisements (LSAs) sent
by other routers. LSAs are packets that detail information about how many resources a given
path would take.
OSPF also uses the Dijkstra algorithm to recalculate network paths when the topology
changes. This protocol is also relatively secure as it can authenticate protocol changes to keep
data secure. It is used by many organizations because it’s scalable to large environments.
Topology changes are tracked and OSPF can recalculate compromised packet routes if a
previously-used route has been blocked.

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Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)
Exterior Gateway Protocol or EGP is a protocol that is used to exchange data between gateway
hosts that neighbor each other within autonomous systems. In other words, EGP provides a
forum for routers to share information across different domains. The most high profile example
of an EGP is the internet itself. The routing table of the EGP protocol includes known routers,
route costs, and network addresses of neighboring devices. EGP was widely-used by larger
organizations but has since been replaced by BGP.
The reason why this protocol has fallen out of favor is that it doesn’t support multipath
networking environments. The EGP protocol works by keeping a database of nearby networks
and the routing paths it could take to reach them. This route information is sent on to connected
routers. Once it arrives, the devices can update their routing tables and undertake more
informed path selection throughout the network.

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol or EIGRP is a distance vector routing protocol
that is used for IP, AppleTalk, and NetWare networks. EIGRP is a Cisco proprietary protocol
that was designed to follow on from the original IGRP protocol. When using EIGRP, a router
takes information from its neighbors’ routing tables and records them. Neighbors are queried
for a route and when a change occurs the router notifies its neighbors about the change. This
has the end result of making neighboring routers aware of what is going on in nearby devices.
EIGRP is equipped with a number of features to maximize efficiency, including Reliable
Transport Protocol (RTP) and a Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL). Packet
transmissions are made more effective because routes are recalculated to speed up the
convergence process.

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

Border Gateway Protocol or BGP is the routing protocol of the internet that is classified as
a distance path vector protocol. BGP was designed to replace EGP with a decentralized
approach to routing. The BGP Best Path Selection Algorithm is used to select the best routes
for data packet transfers. If you don’t have any custom settings then BGP will select routes
with the shortest path to the destination.
However many administrators choose to change routing decisions to criteria in line with their
needs. The best routing path selection algorithm can be customized by changing the BGP
cost community attribute. BGP can make routing decisions based Factors such as weight,
local preference, locally generated, AS_Path length, origin type, multi-exit discriminator,
eBGP over iBGP, IGP metric, router ID, cluster list and neighbor IP address.
BGP only sends updated router table data when something changes. As a result, there is no
auto-discovery of topology changes which means that the user has to configure BGP manually.
In terms of security, BGP protocol can be authenticated so that only approved routers can
exchange data with each other.

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Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS)
Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS) is a link-state, IP routing protocol and
IGPP protocol used on the internet to send IP routing information. IS-IS uses a modified
version of the Dijkstra algorithm. An IS-IS network consists of a range of components
including end systems, (user devices), intermediate systems (routers), areas, and domains.
Under IS-IS routers are organized into groups called areas and multiple areas are grouped
together to make up a domain. Routers within the area are placed with Layer 1 and routers that
connect segments together are classified as Layer 2. There are two types of network addresses
used by IS-IS; Network Service Access Point (NSAP) and Network Entity Title (NET).

Dynamic Routing Protocols

Dynamic routing protocols are another type of routing protocols that are critical to modern
enterprise-grade networks. Dynamic routing protocols allow routers to automatically add
information to their routing tables from connected routers. With these protocols, routers
send out topology updates whenever the topological structure of the network changes. This
means that the user doesn’t have to worry about keeping network paths up-to-date.
One of the main advantages of dynamic routing protocols is that they reduce the need to manage
configurations. The downside is that this comes at the cost of allocating resources like CPU
and bandwidth to keep them running on an ongoing basis. OSPF, EIGRP, and RIP are
considered to be dynamic routing protocols.

Routing Protocols and Metrics

No matter what type of routing protocol is being used, there will be clear metrics that are used
to measure which route is the best to take. A routing protocol can identify multiple paths to a
destination network but needs to have the ability to work out which is the most efficient.
Metrics allow the protocol to determine which routing path should be chosen to provide the
network with the best service.
The simplest metric to consider is hop count. The RIP protocol uses hop count to measure
the distance it takes for a data packet to reach its destination. The more hops that a packet has
to travel through, the farther the packet has to travel. Thus the RIP protocol aims to choose
routes while minimizing hops where possible. There are many metrics besides hop count that
are used by IP routing protocols. Metrics used include:
 Hop count – Measures the number of routers that a packet must travel through
 Bandwidth – Chooses the routing path based on which has the highest bandwidth
 Delay – Chooses the routing path based on which takes the least time
 Reliability – Assesses the likelihood that a network link will fail based on error counts
and previous failures

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 Cost – A value configured by the administrator or the IOS which is used to measure
the cost of a route based on one metric or a range of metrics
 Load – Chooses the routing path based on the traffic utilization of connected links

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