PAPER-II

1
CHAPTER
COMPARATIVE
POLITICS

0, Discuss the political economy approach to of capital creating pillar for studying political economy
the comparative analysis of politics. approach.
(CSE 2021) In comparative politics, political economy has
Ans: Comparative politics is the study and participated in three major theoretical developments:
appraisal of domestic politics across countries. In his
"History of Economic Analysis" Joseph Schumpeter
Itpolitics
helpedininwhich
establishing an analytical perspective to
uncovering regularities, patterns
defined political economy as an exposition of a and casual mechanisms are of primary interest
Comprehensive set of economic politics on the strength rather than political order.
of certain unifying normative principles. (i) Political economists provided path-breaking
Adam Smith, also called 'Father of Political insights into the interaction between corporations
Economy approach' in his work "An Inquiry into the and governments. It explains why policies
Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" discussed in autocracies tend to differ from policies in
the major themes of commodity, values, capital, and democracies and government spending is higher in
simple and complex labour. countries with proportional electoral system than
Political economy, an interdisciplinary or hybrid in countries with majoritarian electoral system.
approach involving politics and economy is one of (11) Political economists are at the forefront of
the modern approaches to the study of comparative explaining how government decisions are altered
politics. It is the methodology of economics applied by the increase in global economic integrations.
to the analysis of political behaviour, processes and
Q. Discuss the subject matter of comparative
institutions.
For e.g. - Marx related his conception of the state politics. Outline the limitations of
to the prevalent mode of production. According to him, comparative political analysis. (CSE 2020)
the character of the state changes with the change in Ans: Comparative politics involves comparing the
the mode of production. Marxists consider politics as political system in different types of state and political
a Super-structure on economic base. system. The subject matter of comparative politics
Within the political economy approach, the concept varies from traditional comparative politics to modern
of dependency has been widely used in comparative comparative politics.

analysisof the third world systems, particularly in The traditional comparative politics compares
Latin America. Political economy approach has been the constitution of the western world. It is a study of
applied by neo-Marxist scholars like Hamza Alavi in government hence also called comparative government.
analysing the nature of economic policies adopted by While modern comparative poitics is wider in scope
the post-colonial states. and compares political processes, socio-cultural factors
In contemporary times, Marxist scholars like in societies of developing world, etc. The subject matter

Jhumanuel Wallerstein has highlighted the exploitative of system's approach is the analysis of social systemn.
While political development approach analyses
ature of globalization from Marxist perspective and
now globalization has increased poverty, hunger, and political system i.e., studying political system on the
social unrest. parameters of equality, capacity and differentiation;
Marx's major work "Das Kapital" is subtitled Political modernization approach, sees the relationship
ritique of Political Economy" and emphasizes between economic development particularly
COmmodities, money, surplus value, and accumulation industrialization and politics.
14 POLITICAL SCIENCE & INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
And, the subject matter of Limitations
political culture Politics: The tradss
approach as the name suggests, is comparison of Traditional Comparative
in scope. It exclud
culture like attitude of
people political system, civic comparative politics is n a r r o w
des the
constitution of non-western countries while
culture, etc. making
comparison. It is static,
as it studies constitution rather
Limitation of Comparative Political Analysis it is ethnocentric as it focus
than politics. Further, on
The traditional comparative politics is narrow the West and takes Western politics as benchmark
in scope. It excludes the constitution of non-western It
is also parochial.
countries while making comparison. It is static, as it Comparative Politics: While, odern
Modern
studies constitution rather than politics. Further, it is such as System
comparative politics approach
ethnocentric as it focuses on the West and takes western
politics as benchmark. It is also parochial.
approach, structural functional
approach, politicaj
development approach, etc., suffers from the limitation
While, modern comparative politics approach such and jargons t
as System's approach, structural functional
that, it brings unnecessary complication
approach, does not have analytical importance. Further, Marxist
political development approach, etc., suffers from the are also critical of Behavioralist, they see svstem
limitation that, it brings unnecessary complication
and jargons. It does not have analytical importance. approach as status-quoist and non-universalistic, which
takes Western world as ideal.
Further, Marxists are also critical of Behavioralist, Still, the comparative politics is a widely used
they see system approach as status-quoist and non-
method of research and understanding because of its
universalistic, which takes western world as ideal.
useful framework to understand politics and culture
of different nations. The simplicity of its procedure
Q. Examine the significance of comparative and the complexity of outcomes of analysis make it
method in political analysis. Discuss its perfect for undertaking research at beginner or even at
limitations. (CSE 2019) higher levels.
Ans: Comparative politics involves comparing the
political system in different types of state and political Q. Describe the
system. The subject matter of comparative politics
changing nature of Comparative
Politics. Briefly explain the Political Economy
varies from traditional comparative politics to modern
approach to the study of Comparative
comparative politics. Politics.
Aristotle is regarded as the father of comparative (CSE 2018)
politics as he studied 158 Constitutions and gave Ans: Study of comparative politics involves
classification of the Constitutions. conscious comparisons in studying political experience,
institutions, behavior and processes of the systems or
Significance gOvernment in a comprehensive manner. It includes
It can be divided into two phases i.e., traditional the study of even
comparative politics and modern comparative politics. their immediate
extra-constitutional agencies having
The traditional comparative politics compares the connection with formal governmental
organs.
Constitution of the western world. It is a study
of government hence also called Comparative Politics is as old as Political Science
comparative Aristotle is known the father of Political
as
government. He Science
While modern comparative politics used comparative method for comprehendin8
scope and
is wider in
analyzing principles, issues and problems of aru
compares political
processes, socio City States of his times. He used the Grees
cultural
factors in societies of developing
world, etc. for knowledge gaine
The subject matter of building his theory of politics.
system's approach is the several political Following Aristo
thinkers began using the comparai
analysis of social system. While political development method for
approach analyses political system 1.e., studying analyzing andpresenting their views an
political system on the parameters of equality, conclusion about politics.
Thus, it can be legitimat
and differentiation, Political modernization capacity observed that
comparative
sees the
approach, Aristotle. politics had its orign with
relationship between economic development The dissatisfaction
particularly industrialization and politics. with the
traditional oach

subject matter of political culture approach asWhile,

the
the name and
of Comparative Government due toappits la
scope of
suggests, is comparison of culture like attitude of people comprehensives in scope, unrealisticC nature and
unscientific
political system, civic culture, etc.
for methodology
developing a
led
new science
of the need
to the birth
of Politics
Comparative ro
 COMPARATIVE POLITICS 175
hle of explaining all phenomena of politics in all condition of human
This reduction of realism to a
of the globe as well as for building a scientific nature reappear in the works of Morgenthau.
parts
theory of politics.
According to him, like all politics, international politics
From a legal-institutional study, Comparative is also shaped by human nature. He argued that the
Politics came to be transformed into a behavioral,
P
social world is a projection of human nature into the
OCess-oriented, functional and scientific study of all collective plane. Thus, in concrete terms for classical
proce
nlitical systems in terms of their structures, functions, realists the essential continuity of the power seeking
and development politics is rooteda in
nvironments processes. This behavior of states in international
atempt continues even today and Comparative Politics the biological drives of human beings.
finues to be a popular and highly productive area
contin
Neo-realism concur that international politics is
of the study
of politics. essentially a struggle for power but unlike classical
Political Economy approach sought studying of realists, they do not base it to human nature. According
production and trade andtheir relations with law. to politics can be explained
neo-realists, international
three levels of analysis, Individual, State and
Custom and government as well as with the distribution on

International system. In this context they criticize

of national income and wealth. Liberal models analvses
classical realism that it could not explain behavior at
the impact of economic factors on political life, imDact
the level above the state. On the other hand, neorealist
of political decisions on economic life, use of models uses the "system theory" to explain the states behavior
such as rational choice theory for studying political
in terms of structures of the international system.
behavior. Marxist approaches seek to determine the
In classical realism, according to Morgenthau,
inherent exploitative nature of capitalism. According
to W. Roseberry, political economy at present goes power is a source for individual states' pride and
projection. While in neo-realism, according to K. Waltz,
for combination of mathematical techmiques with
power is also a source of security maximization. Hence,
normative theories to compare political units.
we can safely conclude that none of these schools
actually tell about the reality of international politics.
Q. Bring out the major differences between the It is the neoclassical realism which emphasized on both
Classical Realism of Hans Morgenthau and ie. human nature and structure of international politics
the Neorealism of Kenneth Waltz. which tells the reality of international politics.
(CSE 2018)
Ans: Realism belongs to hegemonic school of Q. Explain the Political-Sociological Approach
internatiornal politics as it provides most powerful in the field of comparative politics and
explanation of state of insecurity and war which is discuss its limitations. (CSE 2017)
regular condition of international arena. For realists, Ans: Political-Sociological approach is used to
international politics first and foremost is about study the relationship between man, society and the
struggle for power, self-interest and the survival. state. Aristotle is known as the father of political
However, regardless of the common central theme, sociology. In his Theory of Revolution', he emphasized
tne notion that there is a monolithic theory of realism that state should not let inequalities to develop in
nas been rejected both by those who are sympathetic the society. In modern times political-sociological
O and those who are critical of the realist tradition. approach got divided in two major schemes- Marxist
Therefore, the belief that there is no single realism and Weberian.
ads logically to a conclusion of different schools of Marxist Approach: Karl Marx is the father of
Realism. modern political sociology as he suggested that politics
The difference between classical realism of can be understood only when we understand the basic
genthau and neo-Realism of Kenneth Waltz is as structure of the society and relation between classes.
follows...
The school of classical realism begins with
Within Marxism there are two schools - Instrumentalist
and Structuralist or Relative Autonomy School.
hucydides' representation of power politics as a law of It suggests that the state is an instrument of
uman behavior. The behavior of state as a self-seeking the dominant class whereas Structuralism
approach
suggests that in some cases state gain relative autonomy.
goist is understood to be a reflection of characteristics
t human beings. Classical realists argue that it is Gramsci has highlighted the role of civil society through
the nature of man that the essential features of his concept of integral state. Marxist scholars
Orm and class structure of society, nature of society,
analyze
ternational politics such as competition, fear revolutions, etc.
protest,
nsecurity, etc. can be explained.
 1/6 POLITICAL SCIENCE & INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
trend of countries quittino
Weberian School: Max Waber was critic of Marx There has been a recent
Brexit, Qatar comin
and supporter of capitalism. He does not support regional institutions; for example,
Marx's view that of OPEC, etc. This move by USA make protectionisk
asCapitalism will advance society out

On the other hand, environment stronger around

the
globe. lt can hamper
E t polarized into two classes. like SAARC, Afican Union,
held
ne that there will be proliferation of class i.e. the ongoing regional institutions
Helen Thompsonas
etc. The recentdynamics is seen by
d d l e clasS. The Political-Sociology approach is back-in".
However,
include following area of research Caste, Class,
-

"regionalism is out, sovereignty

established fact that regional institutions better
Ethnicity, Revolution, Bureaucracy, Political Parties, it is an
Pressure Groups, etc. This approach appears to be most manage problems caused by hyper globalization, secure
favourable stance in multilateral bodies and also reduce
relevant approach in the study of developing countries.
member countries.
trust deficits between
Limitations of Political-Sociological Approach world has witnessed
Due to the Covid-19 crisis that
Looking for sociological reasons behind political has increased.
in 2020, the need for regional cooperation
phenomena would have made political science a sub The states need to get out of their parochial national
discipline of sociology. Hence, scholars like Theda blocs to fight with
interests and must build regional
Skocpol suggest "Bringing the State Back In". She these unforeseen circumstances.
emphasized that we have to recognize the centrality
of the state.
examine the Marxist aspect of
Political sociologists became more inclined toward Q. Critically
repressive social control and state surveillance. political economy approach to the study of
Their attention has diverted to more subtle forms of comparative politics. (CSE 2016)
supremacy and coercion such as that captured by Ans: Marxian approach of political economy
Bourdieu's concept of symbolic violence or Foucault's is a comparative study which deals with how the
of governmentality. relationship between politics and economics shapes the
It is a cumbersome and resource intensive requiring balance of freedom and equality. Marx, in his book Das
extensive field work. Thus, only with study of society Kapital, has provided a critique of political economy
and its components, one cannot explain the conflicts where he criticised A. Smith's policy prescriptions.
between countries. Other approaches put together can Smith's policies did not result in wealth of nations
explain the international relations better. rather wealth of a few at the cost of many.
Marxist school of political economy later on
Q American President Donald Trump's developedinthe form of instrumentalist or dependency
proposal to withdraw from the 'NAFTA school of A. G. Frank and Immanuel Wallerstein. They
to the growth of transnational
would bring unforeseen consequences to the pointed
has led to
capitalism which
regionalization of world politics. Elaborate underdevelopment of countries.
developing
They point to unequal exchange in prevailing laws of
(CSE 2017 trade and economics that perennially subjugate the
Ans: NAFTA was a free trade agreement among poorer countries. The approach however has been
the countries of North America i.e. America, Mexico criticized for its narrow focus on the
and Canada which came to force in 1994. But recently economy.
There is also the
Donald Trump has proposed to withdraw from this since many
ideological bias against capitalism,
agreement citing it "worst trade deal" in line with his
developing countries like India have been
able to reduce
'America First' sentiment. In the place of erstwhile
poverty based on capitalism to some
extent. Lane
NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), Kenworthy points to the approach that
ignores historical, political and cultural contexts. Also,
USMCA (United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement) comparisons of modes of production give it a functional
has been instated for the trade between these three twist ignoring the role of human
countries. agency.
In international politics, regionalization is the
expression ofa common sense of identity and purpose h i c h are the major approaches of
combined with the creation and implementation of comparative politics? Explain in brief,
institutions that express a particular identity and
collective action within a geographical region. NAFTA
shape political economy approach to the studythe
of
has allowed North America to see itself as a comparative inquiry. (CSE 2015)
region. A Ans:
new deal has been
signed by the abbreviation USMCA. Comparative politics is the of the
domestic politics, political institutions, study
and conflicts
 cOMPARATIVE POLITICS 177
countries. It is not defined by the object of its Indian context, therefore, is not very successful and
of
dy, but rather by the method it applies to study has been mostly an academic discipline. Communism
litical phenomena. Aristotle is known as the father has not threatened the stability of the Indian state or
fromparative politics. He has studied more than 160 the physical extinction of nation-state like Indonesia.
of
Constitutions to give his "Theory of Revolutions' and Instead, it was amalgamated as a part of the reformist
ons
classification of government. parliamentary system of India.
Farlier, it was sufficient to study Constitutions The Indian democracy was introduced as a
hecause social, economic, cultural variable do not give gamble and it has paid off. While the contemporary
any contrasting features in western societies. However, independent nations have seen coup, authoritarianism
in spite of parliamentary system in both, in United plagued their democratic process, India is largely
Kingdom and India, the socio-cultural variable cannot untouched by it barring a brief period of 'Emergency'.
he overlooked. We can, therefore, divide the evolution The paradoxical feature of high voter turnout even
with low literacy rates since independence has baffled
of comparative politics into two phases. A closer
analysis reveals that most of the economic decisions many western commentators who have traditionally
are influenced by non-economic factors like cultural associated democracy with educational awareness.
values, personality, political needs and consideration We have introduced the special representation for
of status. This approach aims to combine disciplines Scheduled Caste, as a measure of affirmative action,
for a holistic understanding of any concept. Political before many western countries could do it. We adopted
economy combines mathematical techniques with universal adult franchise and voting rights to women
normative theories to have a better understanding of before western democracies like Sweden.
poverty, inequality, underdevelopment and suggesting The tension between authoritarian and centralizing
measures to improve these situations. tendencies and decentralizing tendencies are evident
Adam Smith, known as the father of modern-day in the party and associational sectors Indian political
political economy, gave the theory of the 'Wealth of life. The traditional features like personality cult are
Nations'. The laissez-faire doctrine showed that the also present wherein Indian politics has produced
unrestrained economic system can lead to socially many charismatic leaders. Many of the above features,
Politics cannot deliver however, are visible in the post-colonial societies and
disastrous consequences. therefore not strictly indigenous.
goodsuntil it is able to tackle the economic problem
efectively. A Marxist aspect of the political economy,
ipso facto emerged as a critic of the liberal political Q. "The Feminist approach to international
economy. However, there are limitations of this politics is biased." Comment (CSE 2014)
Pproach like its narrow focus, ideological orientations, Ans: A Feminist approach is based on the
eglect of institutions, etc. It is helpful, none the less, experience of women and it can add new dimensions
o study relations between mode of production and to understand the world politics system. Feminist
Various historical social formations. It is also helpful
o understand issues like demands, cost, allocation of
international relations scholars seek to illuminate
that how the international relations are a gender
Tesources, utility, optimization, etc.
construction, in which both men and women are
essential actors in real world.
Party system in India neither western nor
J. Ann Tickner in her work "Reformulation of
indigenous. Explain (CSE 2014)9 Morgenthau's Principle" points out that "women less
Ans: In India, party system exhibits traditional world" of international politics is not a mere coincidence.
enjoyed like
taracteristics
ike ethnicity,
dynastic, cult or identity- It is due to hegemonic position
sed. Political parties use these traits to contest Realismand liberalism which operate on Public Private
by schools
ons. Hence, India displays a curious case of Dichotomy. The study of international politics has
in the sense that it has
npation which is traditional using Western tools traditionally been 'gender-blind'
states and inter-state relations,
doocracy. Political parties themselves lack internal focused primarily on
relations. This
Sracy, transparency and The
accountability. and
ignoring sexual politics gendered
due to the hegemony maintained by the
eSs of strong Marxist and Communist trend in is mainly
theories of realism & liberalism in the field
pe and later in Asia was not replicated in India. mainstream
there were considerable awareness and debate of international politics. Both these perspectives accept
atour
socialist ideas, the vigor was never great that the world affairs are shaped in a significant way,
enough
gh to overthrow the state. Communism in the by relations among nation-states.
178 POLITICAL SCIENCE & INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
societies tend to take a
However, since 1980s, feminist perspective on While developing
the existing n stand
world affairs has gained prominence, which has against the state, challenging
highlighted the gender-bias inherent in the theories of controlinside and outside of each nation s
of
Schuurman while comparing both the soei
international politics. Feminism is an umbrella
such as absolute pouo
terminology because it compasses many schools points to urban problems
in itself. inefficient state administration
as the main
isessues
in developing societies which is not so in advan
As social constructionists, Alexander Wendt and ed
Post-modernist school, Ashley Richards point out that societies.
every school looks international relations from their Examples:
own perspective, hence feminist approach cannot be Advanced Societies: Transgender Rights o
called as completely objective. As per Shazia Qureshi, Police Profiling, Immigration, etc.
it is based in favor of women and aims to transform Developing Societies: Campaign Against
the "Androcentric" world of international relations. It Corruption 2011 in India, Poverty Reduction
takes up subaltern women perspective to deal with, in South Africa, etc.
evaluate, and analyses contemporary world politics. Conclusion
Feminist school hence cannot be labeled as completely
Though Social Movements in both the societies
bias itself. However, it aims to remove existing bias in
in certain areas but its main
international theory and politics. may agree or disagree
motive is to bring social change rather than changing
Q. Compare and Contrast Social Movements the entire structure of state. Moreover, recent trends
in advanced industrial and developing show emergence of New Social Movement which
societies. covers areas that does not emerge to fulfil basic needs.
(CSE 2013) Example: Anti-Corruption Campaign, Environmental
Ans: Social Movements according to Sidney Movements, etc.
Tarrow is "Collective challenges, based on common
purposes and social solidarity in sustained interaction
with elites, opponents and authorities." Q. "Examining political phenomena through
There are three important elements in the above a proces of cross-global investigation of
definition that Social Movement consists of i.e. has become the fundamental function of
an
1. Collective Action Comparative Politics." Discuss (CSE 2012)
2. Social Change
Ans: Comparative
3. Common Purpose of other countries,
politics is the comparative study
citizens, different political units Dre
Points of Comparison are as Follows either in whole or in and
part, analyzes the similarities ta
Since 1970s Social Movement is expanding and and differences between those political units. The 0f
now it has basically shifted from Marxist Class scope and methodology is
Conflict Model witha Theory of Institutional Civil raditional approach and
constantly evolving, tne Phe
scope of the study was limited
Society which emphasizes ongoing challenges of
to comparison political systems and institutions or
of
Power Inequalities through extension of
Principles
uropean, mostly western countries. It was realizea
of Legality, Plurality, and Publicity to all areas of
social life which is common for both advanced and
that there's a need to expand the scope and
developing societies.
Cnange the approach to comparative politics.
realization led the emergence of modern
to ches
At present ethnic conflicts, democratization to comparative politics that approa
movements and revolution have been added to
made the discipline
comparative' in the true sense.
Social Movements as a central topic
ot concern.
Example: 2014 Pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine, Traditional Approaches
Rwandan Civil War, etc. Traditional approach value

Environmental issues have drawn attention all over based

study of perceived to be
tnek
with the outlookcomparative politics and associ
ted
the world. Now, both advanced ana which underlined the
aeVELOp rtance

governments and constitutions,impor*

societies are working together. of state,
their
ana
Points of Contrast between both the Societies comparative
It
study.
In advanced societies, Social Movements tend to emphasises on the and

concentrate on matters involving society rather organisations, and avoids formal institutio:ical
than state. process, social factors in including the po due
their studies. It
to the little
gap between
institutions
happei n
the
t
and sociery
 COMPARATIVE POLITICS 179

western
n world. However, this approach leads to certain areas including, but not limited to the study of politics
which needed to be corrected.
[imitations of authoritarian states, public goods provision and
Limitations. of Traditional Approach distributive politics, political violence, political identity,
Localised or Parochial in Nature: It was limited including ethnic and religious politics, democratization
and regime change, elections, electoral and party
to western countries, as the non-western countries
lacked constitutions, or other institutions of systems, political economy of development, collective
action, voting behavior, etc.
societies were more important than the State, such However, the comparative politics as it lost
the
as feudal forces.
normative approach to a more scientific, fact based,
Static: Since the legal-institutional approach was
the discipline was static in nature as descriptive approach, leading to the crisis of governance
adopted, across the Some scholars are in favour of value-
globe.
it overlooked dynamics or operations of socio- where the
based approaches to comparative politics,
cultural economic factors. institutions such as
value is attached to the political
.Descriptive: Traditional approach was descriptive It
democracy is given more space over dictatorship.
and hence didn't prescribe any other method should be prescriptive rather than descriptive.
for political analysis and lost relevance as an
explanatory tool or as a method of analysis. of nature
Q. Elucidate the transdisciplinary
According to scholars such as Macridis, the modern comparative politics and identify
traditional approach was non-comparative, the contributions of political sociologists
descriptive, parochial, static and monographic. (CSE 2012)
towards this goal.
Factors post World war-II led to emergence
Ans: Comparative politics is a field in political
of newly decolonized countries and their political
science characterized either by the use of the comparative
structures of their own. This led to evolution of
method or other empirical methods to explore politics
comparative politics to a m o r e inclusive approach, within countries. Substantively, this c a n include
Contributions
encompassing the behavioural approach. questions relating to political institutions, political
of David Easton, Gabriel Almond, James Coleman,
made use behavior, conflict, and the c a u s e s and consequences
Karl Deutsh, G. B. Powell, Robert Dahl economic development. When applied to specific
of interrelated set of concept a basis of comparative of
fields of study, comparative politics may be referred to
analysis. government (the
study of what by other names, such as comparative
It basically concentrates upon the of forms of goverrnment) it was
comparative study
-

and not what should be. It rejects the normative-

called traditional comparative politics.
Is
government.
prescriptive approach of the comparative The realization that the traditional approaches
t aims at developing an empirical and objective theory of comparative politics to
of explaining and comparing
all nas limited the scope
the study and discipline of the organs of government
politics capable
phenomena of politics. rise of approaches. It was
modern
modern comparative as leaontothethe of government and
5ehavioral approach used in based idea that the structure
processes and the social,
Politics focussed on the study of political the social and by
affected
processes are highly
political
Pouical actors, focused on understanding economic and cultural factors.

ltural factors shaping the political system. Thus, modern approaches called for replacement
n especially
western and in non-western societies,
of normativism by empiricism
to examine and
extra-constitutional affect the working of the
Cmes important to understand analyze various factors that
system. The interdisciplinary natuire
of economic
tOrs like nature of society, culture, stage
Modernenre poltical
lopment, level of
modernisation.
of the modern approaches distinguished it from
methods is against the rigid
parative politics led to the
rise of new the traditional approaches as it
uch made the study a more vibrant discipline. compartmentalization of disciplines which has led to
Politics a reduction of
cross-flow between various fields of
Methods of Modern Comparative
portant research. The major types are sociological
approach,
Systems Approach psychological economic approach, system
approach,
Structural Functional Approach and political economy approach.
Political Economy Politics includes, among
The field of Comparative
Political Sociology institutions and regimes;
others, the study of political
Political Culture electoral behavior and procedures; identity,
ideology,
As a modern sub-discipline, comparative politics
and culture; policy; political economy; political
public
Onstituted by research across a range of substantive
 RELATIONS
180 POLITICAL sCIENCE & INTERNATIONAL
science. It believes :
and between sociology and political in
Violence; social movements and organizations; between sociology and politieal
a two-way relationship
protest and revolution. on social and political
Since the Second World War, western scholars, science, giving equal importance
variables. For example, party system, political
in the
especiallythe American scholars were more interested the working of party system
to undertake empirical research of various political sociology does not describe to and reflection of the
phenomena related with sociology. These research only in terms of its response
also investigates how tho
area of sociology. It was
in the socio-economic scene, but
activities expanded conditioned by the party system
comprehended that these novel research findings were society is as much of politics analyses
neither pure politics pure sociology and, therefore,
nor In Indian scenario, while sociology
Indian politics in terms of its caste-ridden society,
they were ultimately placed under the new title termed how politics in
as 'Political Sociology. political sociology adds to that enquiry
Political Sociology asa discipline aims to examine India has affected the Indian caste system, giving rise
the interaction between politics and society. In basic to politicisation of caste.
term, political sociology explores to understand the This discrepancy between the sociology of politics
process of interaction between government and society, and political sociology would help in understanding the
decision making authorities and conflicting social meaning of political sociology.
forces and interests. It is the study of interactions Examples of political sociologists include Mosca,
and relationships between politics and civilisation; Pareto, Michels; they presented 'Elite' theory as a
theory
between a political system and its social, economic in which power is observed as being concentrated in
and cultural environment. It is related with
glitches
regarding the management of conflict, the articulation
elite groupsand societies. The origin of Elite theory
lies most evidently in the writings of Gaetano Mosca
of interests and issues, and political
integration and (1858-1941), Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923), and Robert
organisation. Political Sociology is a linking bridge Michels (1876-1936).
 2
CHAPTER
STATE IN COMPARATIVE
PERSPECTIVE
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. "The post-colonial state was thought of an () Instrumentalist or Dependency School: This ap-
entity that stood outside and above society proach produced on important challenge to mod-
as an autonomous agency." Explain ernization and growth theories of development.
The scholars from third world countries such as A.
(CSE 2021) G. Frank, Samir Amin challenged the Euro-centric
Ans: The post-colonial state refers to the states
notion that development was a catch-up game in
that got independence in the recent past. Modern state
which backward third world mired in tradition,
is an imported concept for post-colonial states. These
could only become developed with the help of
states have been thought as an entity and are analysed
western capitalism. They argued that contact with
by different schools of thought to get better insights of
western capitalism created, rather than solved,
them as an autonomous agency.
under development in third world.
Liberal Perspective of Post-Colonial States (ii) Structuralists or Theory of Overdeveloped States:
Liberal scholars have applied the political Hamza Alavi, a neo-Marxist scholar has applied
developmernt and political modernization approaches structural approach to study the nature of state in
in the context of post-colonial states. To explain the
unique conditions and dynamics of politics and
Pakistan. However, his theory is useful in under
standing the nature of state in other third world
administration in the developing nations, Liberal countries. Alavi has rejected the instrumentalist
scholars F.W. Riggs presented the concept of "Prismatic approach for the third world countries as he con-
Society". He contended that societies are in the process sidered it to be relevant only where capitalism is
ofdevelopment moving from a fused mode (little fully developed (i.e. western states).
or no differentiations) to a diffracted condition (high According to Alavi, there is a structural mismatch
degree of functional specialization). between the political and social evolution in a
According to Riggs, such prismatic societies are post-
colonial state. It means that development of political
characterized by formalism (theory practice gap), and socio-economic structure has not been in
sync
neterogeneity (co-existence of the tradition and resulting in fully-developed state machinery, while
nodern) and functional overlaps (similar functions are the socio-economic structure is still in transition from
performed by different institutions). primitive to modern.
These features are reflected in the prevalence Alavi argues that this mismatch exists in
ot
poly-communalism in society (interaction amon8 post
colonial states owing to the colonial legacy. Unlike
Communities based on suspicion and distrust); tne western countries, where capitalist state developed
Zaar Canteen' model of economy and its price with the rise of
naturally indigenous bourgeois class,
terminacy (caused by influenced of economic state in post-colonial societies is an
imported institution
ehavior); poly-normativism in decision process (use as imperial masters imposed modern
O state in a pre-
both rational and irrational
criteria). modern society.
unnar Myrdal explained post-colonial states as Though post-colonial states are
t States" which lacks institutional discipline and an autonomous agency, however they thought
to be
4pacity to enact laws and effectively implemented it. lack complete
autonomy due to prevalence of neo-colonialism as
arist Perspective of Post-Colonial States explained by Immanuel Wallerstein through his World
There are two schools of thought in Marxist Systems Theory. lt 1s proposed that these states should

alysis of post-colonial states: focus on autonomous development to attain autonomy.

182 POLITICAL SCIENCE & INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
the increased participation of the o. Do you think
that sustairnable developmen:
as really
attainable by 2030?
underprivileged in the political process goals are

of thedeveloping societies strengthened (CSE 2019

Ans: Set forward by the United Nations (UN.in
democracy or created political chaos and Development Goals (SDG) are
conflict? Comment (CSE 2020) 2015, the Sustainable a

Ans: Democracy is simply defined as a form collection of 17 global goals aimed improving the
at

of human life around the

of government in which leaders are elected by the planet and the quality World
people. But elections are merely the procedural by the year 2030.
These goals were formulated in UN report
aspect and democracy is much more than elections
our world: the 2030 Agenda for
Mahatma Gandhi famously said that, by democracy he 'Transforming
Sustainable Development. The goals are highlv
understood as something that gives the weak the same
a world free of fear and
chance as the strong. Therefore, there are substantive ambitious which envisages
part to the democracy as well, which means that violence. A world with universal literacy. A world with
democracy should be representative, fair to all, and equitable and universal
access to quality education at
comes with a bunch of human and natural rights. all levels, to health care and social protection, where
Participation of underprivileged sections in the
physical, mental and social well-being are assured.
democracy such as the poor, illiterate and marginalized But it will be very difficult to achieve all sustainable
has been frowned upon in the past. When the 1st Indian Hoogeveen,
Hans
development goals by 2030.
elections were taking place, a section of western media of the Kingdom of the
permanent representative
raised question over giving universal adult franchise Netherlands to the UN's Food and Agriculture
to the Indian masses, most of whom were illiterate has said that, "We are not going to
and ignorant. It was argued that, giving the power Organization
achieve the goals by the next decade. We are all lagging
to vote all the citizens would lead to majoritarianism, far behind."
communalism and chaos.
SDG 1 calls for No Poverty, but still a large part
Various critiques of developing countries,
Of Africa and Asia remains below poverty line. As
especially the ones rooted in western ethnocentrism
have always despised the idea of democracy in the third per FAO, poverty and hunger are bound to aggravate
after the current slowdown induced due to Corona
world. According to them increased participation of
underprivileged in democracy would lead to practices pandemic. Sustainable development goal 2 says Zero
like buying votes, democracy being reduced to mere Hunger. But globally, hunger has grown for the third
elections when the underprivileged will be pursued just year in a row.
before the elections, an uprising of ethnic, communal A new UN report titled Asia and the Pacific SDG
and caste politics, etc. Progress Report, 2021 by UN Economic and Social
But, the experience of democracy in developing Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), suggest
countries including India, have proved to be contrary that, the Asia-Pacific region is not on track to achieve
to the mentioned perception. Participation of any of the United Nations-mandated Sustainable
underprivileged has indeed strengthened democracy Development Goals (SDG) by 2030. At the current
and given birth to a new form of politics. In India the pace, the region may achieve less than 10 per cent of
participation of underprivileged has led to a political the SDG targets.
culture where the political parties are sensitive to the Therefore, there are logistical, funding, political
rights of marginalized.
will, capacity building, a detailed plan and policies
The reservation for SCs and STs is a manifestation and other challenges which need to be worked
of rights being given to the marginalized in a democracy. upon
to really attain sustainable
Further, the implementation of the Mandal Commission goal by 2030.
Report was a product of increasing importance of OBCs
into Indian politics. The participation of SCs, STs and Q. Is democracy promotion in developing
OBC in democracy has deepened democracy as the countries a feasible idea? (CSE 2019)
marginalized section have gained more rights in the Ans: The end of the Cold
form of employment, political power, rights and laws War
by Western scholars. Francis Fukuyama termed
celebrated
was

against discrimination, etc.

remarkable incident as end of tne
Further, marginalized sections have also formed
western
history and claimed tna
liberal democracy has
political parties and have deepened democracy by being triumphed over otn
ideologies. Likewise, the end of
partners in coalition. Example: BSP, LIP, etc. as coalition ideology thesis D
Daniel Bell and
in many state and central government. Seymour
what matters is economic
Martin Lipset asserted
tn
and no other factors cou
 STATE IN cOMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE 183
Consequently,
Bush
U.S.
first under Bush Sr. and Q. Describe the nature of the
changing State
then under Bus Jr.
post-9/11 pursued the policy in the developing societies in the context of
nstalling democracy through barrel of gun in inclusive growth in the 21st century.
developing ntries. Afghanistan and Iraq were
aded by NATO in 2001 and 2004 respectively. It (CSE 2018)
aso argued that installing democratic regimes in Ans: Concept of State comprises the core of
shose countries will ensure more peace and stability political thought as a discipline. Political thought has
theregion. But the idea didn't seem feasible at all. been defined as "thought about the State, its structure,
remOal
The
of Saddam regime has made
Iraq more
its nature, and its purpose". The world has been
unstable and it finally
finally resulted in
in rise
rise of
of radical
radical forces divided in two types of societies the developing and
torces
in the form of ISIS. Similarly, in Afghanistan, the Kabul the developed.
regime fell like house of cards and the Taliban once In past, according to F.W. Riggs, developing
again took control of the country as the NATO societies had prismatic society, the one which is in the
troops state of transition. It has feature of both agricultural
left.Afghanistan once
again has become breeding
ground for terrorism. and industrial society. The economic model followed
Democracy promotion in developing countries was "Bazar and Canteen model" which showed that
economic model will depend upon the bargaining
specially in Arab world has been denounced
by many
scholars who believe in Arab exceptionalism. As power. So, obviously, rich had more say in economy.
per The administrative model followed was "Sala model",
them, democratic values and cultural values of Arab
world are contradictory. according to which, there is no pure rational basis of
Democracy promotion doesn't seem a good idea administration.
The influence of family and community could
in developing countries as it leads to coming into
be
power of unstable government. Nepal hasn't seen a seen in decision making. This created
and monopolization of
inequality
stable government ever since abolishment of
system
development. According to
Hamza Alavi, the states were over-developed states.
of monarchy in the Himalayan
country. Similarly, Structure remained traditional while modern state has
in countries like Pakistan, Thailand, etc., the elected
been imposed much earlier. Economic and
democratic government has a considerable influence political
by the military establishment. development was not happening simultaneously.
Hence, there was no inclusive growth. Gunnar Myrdal
Democracy promotion in Latin and South American calls such state as "soft state" which means the state
countries has led to populist leaders like Nicolas
Maduro in Venezuela who has neglected the demands
having limited capacity to impose social discipline.
There was reluctance on the part of state to enforce
or better governance, employment generation, inflation the laws which favors the rich and do not lead to
control, etc. of citizerns. inclusive growth. For example, China has
growth model
Democracy promotion in North African countries which is socialist in politics but capitalist in
economy.
ureLibya and Egypt failed miserably. After the ousting "Mix market economy model" was
adopted by many
oTCGhaddafi in Libya and Mubarak in Egypt, the states countries, including India.
ave become weak. The civil war in Libya has created With advent of globalization,
inequality aggravated
tability leading to migrant crisis, destruction of further and led to "99% vs. 1% effect" which in turn
es,etc. The country has become a breeding ground led to social unrest. But with 21st century on the
door,
terrorist organization like ISIS. Similarly, the change can be seen in the nature of developing societies
Spring led to the coming into power of Muslim in terms of being inclusive. Rise of
participative culture
Nerhood in Egypt a political party which advocates can also be seen. With the advancement of ICT, inclusive

tical Islam and despise western liberal model of growth came at forefront. For example, Pradhan
Cracy. The Muslim Brotherhood leader was soon Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana, with JAM trinity, brought
ed by the military regime and Egypt today is a economic inclusivity. With the culture of RTI, right
ulitary dictatorship. based legislation has further strengthened in political
At the same time, the democracy in developing arena. The rise of NGOs and voluntary organization

hdsuch as in South East Asia, Japan, South Asia has furthered inclusive growth in social arena.
as Since the development has become the central
aso to stable democratic states such as South
led
Korea
ta, Bangladesh, etc. But the promotion of democracy concern of developing countries, nature of state is
has
t o be gradual focused on institution building. undergoing structural transformation through welfare
force be programs. In many countries, affirmative actions are
CoPrOmotion of democracy through can
roductive as seen in the examples above. also followed to create inclusive society.
 RELATIONS
184 POLITICAL SCIENCE&INTERNATIONAL the role of MNCs
regarding as
Joseph Nye ditfusion vertically in #h Said
Q. Examine LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual that there
is power
i n shaping the t e
and Transgender) movement in developed from state
to big companies nation. "The ( oreign
N.Complex
ot
interest a
societies and how it is affect the political and national
policy model" by Kehone and
participation in developing societies. Interdependence relations betu Dest
(CSE 2017) explain the complex ween
model to
'over economic dependence of one
because of
Ans: Social Movements in developed countries are states
Lhinaand Vietnar
country on the other. For example, mam,
Old Social Movements in 19th century on Vietna
categorized as
onwards. The old enemies but the trade surplus or China tmam
and New Social Movements from 1960s between both countries.
because it has changed the relations
LGBT movement is a new social movement
of Dependency theory of
Samir Amin says that thete
is connected with the quality of life and prevention
is "unequal exchange
between core and peripherl
discrimination. These movements with post-modern
and states. World System
Theory of lmmanuel Wallensteia
view such as deconstruction of ideas of masculinity effect of capitalism on Third World
of LGBT under has explained the
femininity seek to include recognition all conflicts, inter-state and
the 3rd generation human rights. LGBT movements countries. He attributes
Thus, most of the countries in
cultural intra-state to capitalism.
in developed countries include methods like still the supplier of raw material
social the Third World are
activity including lobbying, street marches, and manutactured goods
groups, use of social media, paintings,
etc. Such and consumer of higher goods
movements have impacted developing societies like of developed countries.
for the terrorist organization, we can talk
India where transgender had to struggle Regarding
recognition as third gender. about 'State Sponsored Terrorism' by Saudi Arabia
State sovereignty is
In India, LGBT community has fought against and Pakistan and how the
the Section 377 of (IPC) Indian Penal Code which compromised. The Third World also talks about the
was a colonial-era law under which homosexual "Economic Imperialism or Neo-Colonialism" through
acts were criminalized as "unnatural offence". The the partisanship in the UNO, Dispute Redressal
Supreme Court of India in "Navtej Singh Johar Case Mechanism of WTO; for example, Indian Food Security
had decriminalized all consensual sex among adults Act controversy, India's patent laws on medicines, et.
including homosexuals. They are also wielding their influence onstae
The political participation of LGBT community sovereign issues like financial matters and trade relate
has also increased in developing countries. The matters. Through these institutions developed countries
NALSA judgment of Supreme Court in 2014 has are exploiting the Least Developed Countries and
provided for several positive measures like skill Medium Developed Countries such as Venezuela. IM
development, reservation policies in education and forced East-European countries to adopt the "shock
jobs and also recognized the third gender as a voter therapy" to open their markets. Hence, the modem
identityfor the first time. Many political parties state is facing
many challenges in increasing compe
have given parliamentary seat to transgenders for interdependent globalized world due to transnationa
contesting elections in India. It shows a positive trend actors.
in developing world which will grow in future as
developmental politics. Q. Doyou subscribe to the view that
the moa
constructs of the State and
Q. Discuss the changing nature of modern state politics are p
with reference to transnational actors. eminently Eurocentric and not indigeno ous

and
(CSE 2017) appropriate for the analysis ot n
Ans: State is a core concept of
western societies? (CSE2015)
political science. Ans:
It begins and ends with state. Transnational actors Roy C. Macridis in his work "The 5tuuy.
have come to be as Comparative
considered political, social, of Govt." points out that all
cultural, and economic agents or
groups comparative politics are "parochial" existirng
that have and sufre
trans-societal relation "Single Culture
ons across borders. They pursue
modern state as a result of the Treaty of Westpi
Configuration." Since the ris
f the
their goals somewhat
indeperndently
rations, Trans-national actors which
or
EOvernmental 1648, the concept of state
modern state are mainly MNCs, Terrorist
the aftect is inextricably bound uf
European history and western
Organizations
and International institutions like WT0,
UN, etc.
AIIB, NDB. The
non-western societiespolitical
colonial third world
theory
which are uta
post

from their colonialcountries this 1aedofs

acquired
masters.
 STATE IN cOMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE 185
Most of the post-colonial states were
atrally. The Berlin Conference of 1884formed
drew
MDGs: Achievements and Failures
r i c boundaries across a
To assure an
appropriate monitoring and
geom.
mble. of Africa. It
divided coherent
map, resulting in the evaluation within and among countries and to conceive
and
rwed disparate groups, resulting in groups
events like
suitable policies and interventions, reliable,
timely
and
Rwandan genocide of 1994 and the internationally comparable data on the MDG indicators
instant rise are of
tthoritarianism in post-colonial Africa. One can
of .
primary importance. They are also essential in
rgue that when encouraging
the boundaries, the basic featureof Several funding and allocating aid effectively.
he nation-state is of western origin, how its methodologies and indicators have been
working developed to measure progress towards the MDGs,
can be any different. such as the MDG indicators website, the UN Data and -

However, as suggested by Sudipta Kaviraj 'outside the UNICEF Portal. Moreover,

Europe the modern state succeeded as an instrument progress towards MDG
achievement can be tracked through the MDG Monitor,
and as an idea'. Except for leaders like Gandhi and both globally and at the country level.
Tagore, others enthusiastically adopted the idea and Furthermore, there have been numerous
instrument of modern-state and India is an optimistic consultations on the MDGs
by various organizations.
exampleof the establishment of a modern nation-state Some of the consultations and surveys have had an
outside Europe, without violence as was seen in France official character and others should be considered
and America. private' initiatives, by organizations such as non-
We can say that the concept of modern state and governmental organizations (NGOs) and private
politics, given to the world by Europe, has been altered foundations. More than a few official reports have
by non-western societies to their needs. And, with this, tracked the global assessment of progress, based on
new lenses to analyze them- is required along with the those data. Although considerable progress has been
traditional ones. made, reliable data and statistics analyses remain poorI
especially in many developing countries.
MDGs have managed to focus world attention
Q. What are the real objectives of Millennium and global political consensus on the needs of the
Development Goals (MDGs)? Do you think poorest and to achieve a significant change in the
that millennium development goals have Official Development Assistance (ODA) commitments.
been able to achieve the desired goals They have provided a framework allowing countries
of poverty alleviation and sustainable to plan theirsocial and economic development and
donors to provide effective support at national and
development? (CSE 2015) international level. Most activities worldwide have
Ans: The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) targeted MDGs 4, 5 and 6, focusing on maternal and
are eight goals to be achieved by 2015 that respond to child health and communicable diseases, especially
the world's main development challenges. The MDGs in the developing countries, while fewer initiatives
are drawn from the actions and targets contained have focused on MDGs 1, 2, 3 and 7, which are more
in the Millennium Declaration that was adopted by difficult to influence. Some studies have underlined
189 nations-and signed by 147 heads of state and regional differences in the importance that is attributed
8Overnments during the UN Millennium Summit in to specific MDGs. For example, MDGs 4 and 5 have
September 2000. been considered most important in the African region,
while MDGs 7 and 8 in the Western Pacific Region.
Goals: Low-income countries have attached high relevance
oal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger to MDG1 when compared to high-income countries.
Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education Arab countries have not considered MDGs among
Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower the top priority for the policy makers, academia and
women social actors in general mainly due to ethnic, religious,
Goal 4: Reduce child mortality political and social limitations.
Goal 5: Improve maternal health A UN report on progress towards the MDGs has
Goal 6: Combat HIV/ AIDS, malaria and other highlighted several achievements in all health and
diseases education areas the hunger reduction goal was on
Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability track; the target of decreasing extreme poverty by
Partnership for half had been met, as well as the goal of halving the
Goal 8: Develop a Global
proportion of people who lack steady access to drinking
Development Millennium Development Goals
water; conditions for more than 200 million people living
(MDGs)
186 POLITICAL sCIENCE & INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
and bodies been
have formedt
Various treaties
in favelas had been improved; significant achievements
commons.
The Antarctic Treaty for usin
have been made in the fight against communicable govern global The UNCLOS
for scientific purposes,
diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis and child Antarctica only in ocean, The Outer
navigation
and maternal mortality have been reduced. Moreover, for free and open for peaceful purposes
for using space
of Space Treaty deal to limit
primary school admission of girls has equaled that
Climate
concluded Paris
reduced and the recently below 2 degree Celsius of
boys and developing countries experienced a
the Earth's temperature
debt burden and an improved climate for trade. are some
of the ettorts to manage
pre-industrial level
However, progress has been highly unequal. The global commons.
is mainly due to the and greed of global
global
reduction in income poverty revisionist states
But rising of global
of a few countries in Asia, such as China, the existence
rapid growth capitalism are threatening
unilaterally withdrew
India, Indonesia and Vietnam. In many other countries, commons. Trump government w a s not profitable for
or poverty has it
poverty reduction has been quite slow, from Paris Climate
deal as
China has pursed
even increased. Sub-Saharan Africa remains the most American oil companies. Similarly,
underdeveloped region. Projections indicate that in South China by building
Sea
the effort to colonize bases. Again, Russia is
still
2015 more than 600 million people worldwide will artificial Islands and military
be using unsafe water sources, almost 1 billion
will be in the ecologically fragile Arctic,
exploring oil and gas Hardin
living in very poor conditions, mothers will
continue to
Thus, as Garrett
points out, today we see
die giving birth, and children will die from preventable o n account of environmental
"tragedy of commons and diffusion
environmental sustainability remains a n a m e of development
aiseases. Also, degradation in the
such degradation. Nations
global challenge due to a fast decline of biodiversity of responsibility in checking
of n a r r o w national
and an increase in gas emissions. The goals of primary
needs to m o v e from realist concept
interest. The Covid pandemic has
education and gender equality also remain unfulflled, interest to global
with broad negative consequences, given that achieving good lesson in this regard. Human health
taught a
the MDGs deeply relies on education and women's is interdependent across the globe and is a global
are severe inequalities attention and needs to be
empowerment. Moreover, there common. It requires global
between rural The onus is on
that exist among populations, especially promptly addressed by global society.
and urban areas, or that affect marginalized people us, whether we have learnt any lesson or not.
even if of
MDG8 remains one of the most challenging
for the achievement of all MDGs. were Q. 'A minimal State ensures maximum ot
primary importance MDGs
say that though
were
In nut-shell we can
Individual Liberty'. Examine the concept of
behavioral changes
set to change the social, economic, Minimal State. (CSE 2013)
down the line they
in the world but somewhere
i.e. why SDGs Ans: The idea of 'minimal state' has been forwarded
failed to achieve the targets effectively,
came in to existence. by the larger philosophical tradition of Liberalism.
(Sustainable Development Goals) Classical liberalism, in opposition to feudal society,
Hopefully by the end of 2030 (the Target year for SDGs)
we will achieve the desired targets. emphasised on individual liberty, and against State's
unnecessary authority.
This
Q. "Global commons belong global society
to atomic tendency of minimal state has bearing
on several aspects of lives of individuals. It impacted
and require global attention." Comment. indicate in social, political, economic and
(CSE 2013) cultural
spheres. Locke, being the Social Contract Theorist
Ans: Global commons are those natural resources has advocated fundamental
which do not fall under the jurisdiction and control ot
right of property
individuals, and state being the 'necessary or
evil'.
existence of which is
any international states and the Freedom conceptualized
for the collective benefit of the humanity and has very limited role to
as
being negative, where sta
required play. Similarly in econome
the Earth as a whole. It can be tangible resource like spheres, Adam Smith
Ocean, Sea bed minerals or intangible like the outer where market will determine the
presented laissez faire theory
space and global environment. and resources and not state. redistribution of gooa
State was given the role o
Truly, these global commons should belong to maintainer of law and order. It
will ultimately lead to
global society guided by democratic and inclusive national prosperity. On the
other hand market
natural environment where the force
principles. Any failure on this part would result in race was to work as
among nations to acquire these resources and would be of the fittest is surv
imminent, as
detrimental to global peace and existence of this planet
Spencer, supporting negative suggested by Herbe
as a whole. and
progressing as a liberty, eliminating We
society
with best talent.
 STATE IN cOMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE 187
Although, Liberalism, came
under
thoughts in 19th-20th century, and influence of
Socialist
Again, different models are also representative of
welfarism, ibut by the end of transformed centric world views. The Billiard Ball Model
the 20th sees state
o of rational choice theories led by century, the as the
principal actor in international politics. It believes
mpioned minimal state and
libertarians in
Westphalian notion of sovereignty and states are
night watchman state guided by the principle of self-interest. To further this
dheories.
the It proponents included FA Hayek, Isiah
Berlin, Milton
on Friedman and Robert Nozick. Market interest, war is a permanent feature in this state centric
world view. To borrow the words of
fundamentalism came back in trend
in liberalism. Clausewitz, 'Nar
is a continuation of
Milton Friedman held that Market fundamentalism, and world view'.
politics by other means, in this
ree market is a precondition for human freedom.
iticized excessive taxation on rich, and consideredThey
it as the
Liberalism is also state centric world view. But
robbery on part of State. Similarly, Isaiha Berlin and his point of departure of liberalism from realism is that,
it isguided by Lockean world view of states. It means
two concepts of liberty" advocated for negative liberty that as per Liberals, there is a
holding that positive liberty can be misused by State. degree of cooperation
among States. States are interdependent upon each
Nozick as being staunch liberatarian held that minimal other for trade, solving transnational
state would give individual freedom to problems, etc.
pursuetheir The structural realists also believe in state centric
welfare. "Inequalities at the level of production cannot world view. But unlike classical realist who
be rectified at the level of distribution". explains
the power struggle of states on the basis of human
However, the concept of negative liberty, free nature, the neo realist blames 'anarchical' international
market economy, and minimal state has been criticised structure. Kenneth Waltz defines this 'Anarchy as
by Marxists as being unresponsive to the needs of the absence of central authority. Further, the Neo-realists
masses and unable to secure welfare for all. are classified as 'Offensive Neo-Realists' and 'Defensive
out the gross inequalities it
They point
promotes by free market Neo-realists'.
and under neoliberalism. Masses show their discontent The Offernsive Neo-realists believe in a state centric
with social movements such as world view, where states
"Occupy Wall Street" are power maximizers.
John
movements. Environmentalist have criticized this Mearsheimer in his book "Tragedy of Great Power
free market economy for disruptions in climate, and Politics, comes to the conclusion that state maximize
increased pollution -breaking down the sustainability their power to address security dilemma and become
of the economy, to lead a healthy life. regional hegemon and then global hegemon. While,
Global financial crisis of 2008 has exposed the the detensive neo-realist like Waltz sees, state as only
tailure and issues in Washington Consensus. Joseph security maximizers who build arms and alliances to
Shglits, Paul Krugman, Thomas Piketty all highlighted address security dilemma.
State centrism have been criticised by other school
the pitfalls of minimal state and its impact on true of thought. Social constructivist Alexander Wendt calls
reedom. Thus, 'capitalism if not regulated, will lead
O unfreedom' in the words of Amartya Sen. 'Anarchy and state centrism a social construct. He
held that 'Anarchy Problematique' is arbitrarily made
up by the realist. Feminist scholar like J Ann Tickner
Examine the major principles of State centric
calls state centrism a masculinist construct. She
-

argues
world views. (CSE 2013)
Ans: Nation state has emerged as one of the most
for replacing 'National Security' by 'Human Security.
On the same note, Marxist scholars in international
Powerful actors in international politics. In almost all relations see state centrism as an effort by elites to
thajor schools of thought the argument is built around further capitalism.
ate. Classical Realism, Neo Realism, Liberalism,
gish School of Thought, etc. are representative of Q What are the great debates between 'classical"
tate centric world view. and 'modern' realists? Is there any thin line
Classical Realism sees state as the primary actor in of continuity between these two traditions?
orld politics. In his book 'Politics Among Nations,
(CSE 2012)
Nenthau sees international politics as politics among
the Ans: "International relations are shaped by the
On state and keeps state at the centre. Further, tendencies of human nature" -Hans Morgenthau
r y aim of State is National Interest. As per Baylis
Realism is one of the dominant schools of thought in
and Smith, Statism, Survival and Self Help are the
Interest international relations theory, theoretically formalisin
National
re ideas of liberalism. Therefore, of the Realpolitik statesmanship of early modern
survival by using self-help is the main principle
realist view. Europe.
 188 POLITICAL SCIENCE &
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Although a highly diverse body of thought, it is Neorealism uses the system theory to exnil:
unified by the belief that world terms of the structure f
the states behavior in
politics is always and international the
necessarily
a field of conflict system. As such, structural realism
among actors pursuing is
power. The theories of realism are contrasted by the an exogenous or outside-in theory which plains
cooperative ideals of liberalism. Therefore, Realism is the states' behavior in terms outside or
of the
the
known as the 'power view' of internatiornal context/structure in which they operate. The key xt
politicss or in this process is Kenneth Waltz's. The "Theorv
power politics' model of intermational politics. Realists of
consider the 'state' as the most International Politics" in which he shifts the focus
important actor in of international political theory from state and human
international politics.
Realists often trace their intellectual roots to nature to the structure of the international system. Thic
Thucydides' classic account of the Peloponnesian War theory is based on the Self-help System where states are
in the fifth-century B.C. Many realist scholars emerged sovereign and autonomous units, they ultimately rely
after the First World War, international on their own resources to realize their interests, giving
as
politics
became an area of study, amongst them was Hans rise to the security dilemma.
Morgenthau, came to have the largest impact on the Relative gains of each other are the concern of
field. In his magnum opus "Politics States in the International System. According to Stanley
among Nations:
The Strug8le for Power and Peace", Morgenthau Hoffman, in international politics we see not only
formulated an account of political realism that conflict but also cooperation; classical realists tend
dominated the studies of international to believe otherwise. Kenneth Waltz argued that no
two generations.
politics for over
Eventually, the intellectual hegemony scientific theory can be built on human nature, and
of Morgenthau's classical realism was succeeded by the hence classical realism is not scientific.
founding father of neorealism - Kenneth Waltz - who However, neorealism is indeed an advance on
attempted to develop a systemic and scientific realism classical realism both in historical terms and by
in his 1979 book design.
"Theory of International Politics" Historically, classical realism is distinctly seen as being
divided this school of thought into two blocks: classical
realism and neorealism.
an approach that chronologically precedes neorealism,
and this difference in
Classical realist chronology
can be seen as
enough
theory adopts a
pessimistic grounds to justify neorealism being an advance on
view of human nature and argues that humans are classical realism. Basic
not inherently benevolent but instead they are self- premises of 'Classical Realism
and Neorealism' remain the
interested and act out of fear or aggression. According the International
sameas
power politics of
to Hobbes, individuals are System as based on selfish interests of
primarily motivated by States. Both theories believe in
the Security dilemma
self-interest and not higher moral or ethical aspirations. and self-help doctrines of States.
According to Machiavelli, human nature is not seen Neorealists broad their
approach from just human nature, to
to be changeable but only controllable when
placed anarchical system of
a more
acceptable
within societal boundaries. Classical realists believe that international politics to be the
base, on which State's actions
their pessimistic vision of human nature is
reflected in between Classical Realists depend. Thus, the debate
politics and international relations. Hans Morgenthau and Neorealists share the
common
in his book "Politics among Nations: The
Struggle for
principles only differs on the approach.
Power and Peace" states that "politics is
governed Q. Evaluate the nature and
by objective laws that have their roots in human distinction of
and anomic
nature". There is a lust for power which drives states associational interest
to accumulate it tends to
give rise to conflicts between pressure politics of groups in the
States developing countries.
Neorealism (Structural Realism), as a school of Ans:
Interest group, also (CSE 2012)
thought, concur that Structural realists establishment
that the structure of the international group, advocacy group, or called special interest
system doesn't association of individuals orpressure group, is any
give freedom to the actors, like states, to act, formally
rather constrain. The characteristics of organized, that, on theorganizations,
basis of
usualy
life stem from the fact that internationaltaeu
the states operate its favour.
concerns, one or
morein
attempts to influence public policy
within a domain of anarchical society, which has
All interest
formal central authority international
essentially a struE8 d politics 1s8Venment policygroups share a desire to affect
to benefit
could be a themselves or their
causes. Their
attribute this to benefits groupgoal
classical realism, they do not attribute
mem policy that exclusively
human nature. benetits group members or one
(e.g., government subsidies for segment of society
farmers) or a policy tnat
 STATE IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE 189
advances. broader public purpose
a

ir quality). They attempt to achieve(e.g,

air
improving
their goals by hey are generally characterised by unconventional,
1abbying-that 1s, by attempting to bring pressure to usually
political
violent means. Such groups may influence the
hear policy
on makers to gain policy outcomes in their They aresystem in numerous unconventional ways.
favour.
occasionally found even in the western
Without being political parties, without developed nations.
olections in their own name, and withoutcontesting
seeking Comparison of Pressure Groups in Developed&
gOvernment jobs or entering the legislatures, the Developing Societies
interest and pressure groups do play a vital role in Institutional pressure groups (such as
contemporary democracies in the
decision-making organization of civil servant, military pressure,
process. etc.
They are more prominent in developing
Interest groups play a vital role in a political countries as the states in these societies are
Drocess of both developed and 'over-developed' in nature. On the contrary, in
developing countries,
for that purpose Gabriel Almond has tried to classify developed countries, they're not so powerful
interest groups according to their nature. because of 'minimal' state in these countries.
In developing countries, like India, pressure groups
Gabriel Almond's Classification of Interest Groups based on community such as caste, religion, etc.
He has classified interest groups into four are more powerful than the modern groups
types:
1. Institutional like business organisations.
2 Non-associational (Community-based) In developing countries, the main targets of
3. Associational
pressure groups for lobbying purposes are cabinet
4 Anomic and civil services contrary to the targets for
Associational Interest Groups: Association lobbying purposes in developed countries, like
denotes the organization which is purely based on the USA, are the legislatures (Congress in USA).
interest. People come together for a particular interest Anomic pressure groups (short-term association)
irrespective of caste, color, nationality, ethnicity or are more prominent in developing countries
any other ascriptive criteria; for example, Amnesty because of lack of institutionalization of democracy.
International, Green Peace, FICCI, BKU (Bharatiya
Kisan Union), SEWA, etc. Associational Interest Groups Q. "Nations and States have become virtually
are more prominent in western countries. However, in synonymous." Elucidate. (CSE 2012)
developing countries also the trend is changing since Ans: The idea of nation states emerged after the
the 1990s because of the beginning of globalization. Peace of Westphalia in 1648, where the phenomenon
There is a proliferation of these organizations in terms of emergence of modern nation states got intertwined
of numbers and there is an increase in the scope of with the concept of nationalism.
their impact. Hedley Bull in his book 'Anarchical Society' traces
Anomic Interest Groups: Anomic means the evolution of nation states in Europe, and links
normlessness. Pressure group is a collective activity. nation state with a common language. As per Bull, the
There are some sorts of collective behaviors which evolution of nation states in Europe revolved around
cannot be put under institutional, associational, or establishing a secular rule in the post-Christendom
non-associational. They are categorized as anomic period, by separating state from the Church.
used for Later, as Benedict Anderson explains in his book
pressure groups. Normally the term is
short term association; for Imagined Communities', the rolling back of religion
Crowd behaviour or some
the road accident from the state was complemented by the rise of high
example, people protesting against culture marked by distinctive language. This high
can be called as anomic pressure groups. They are
the culture was amplified through literature, theatre,
more visible in developing countries because of
lack of institutionalization of democracy; for example, pamphlets, etc. after the invention of the printing press.
Yet, another side of the reality is that modern states
Nirbhaya rape protest (2012), CAA protests (2019). are
The anomic interest groups, Almond said, in the developing countries were introduced through
colonialism. These post-colonial states are multiethnic,
more or less spontaneous penetrations into the political
virtue of it, multinational states.
system from the society." These groups often aPpear multilingual and by
Thus, in the period immediately preceding
When normal means of expressing dissatisfaction prove decolonization, nations and states were not synonymous
with religious or
neftective. They may be concerned demonstrations, in the developing world. But the reality has changed
unguistic or ethnic disturbances, or
ever since.
even assassinations and hijackings.
 190
POLITICAL SCIENCE& INTERNATIONAL RELATION
Nation is involve individuals, organizatinn
imagined community and this
an action and may
of these kinds of So
imagination has been shaped heavily through nation- or both. Recent examples cial
building exercises in the developing world. Nations and Movements are Black
Lives Movement, Yellow Ve
states are made Movement, LGBT Right Movements across the obe,
synonymous. Movements, etc.
Although there is debate surrounding whether Women Rights
India is Although social movements differ in size, thev are
a Nation or not between Moderates and
Extremists, the argument surrounding nation and all essentially collective. That is, they result from the
state can be more or less spontaneous coming together of peopla
easily understood by taking the example whose relationships are not detined by rules and
of Pakistan. Although Pakistan came into
being 1947 share a common outlook
and the term was coined in 1930's still the procedures but who merely
of
imagination
Pakistan as a nation for the homeland of Muslims on society.
to tavor advanced,
have been shaped through school textbook, media, Study of social movements tends
propaganda, etc. Thus, Pakistan as a state came into industrialized nations with little attention paid to the
picture in 1947, but its idea as a nation is still being struggles occurring in the developing world. This
shaped. is a major barrier to the development of a global
Nations and states as argued earlier were virtually understanding of social movements and civil society.
synonymous in Europe. But in other parts of the world However, with limited understanding of New
such as Japan, South East Asia, etc. the idea of a nation Social Movements in developing nations, scholars are
has been consolidated with the state as a backlash in agreement with some basic ideas about the NSM
against cultural imperialism due to globalization. Thus, and its challenges.
globalization has also prompted regimes across the Social Movements in developing countries
world to assert national
identity. continues to be focused upon primary issues like basic
To conclude, the idea of nation is an
but it seems that nation as idea is
evolving idea amenities like food, shelter, health and employment.
inseparable from the And these movements are governed by the feudal
idea of state, especially in present times of cultural structures and often have violent tendencies as well as
nationalism. Therefore, nation and state are becoming divisions like castes, religion, race and
virtually synonymous. gender. Example:
Farmers Movement in 2021.
Strategies of articulating their demands remain
Q. What is 'New Social Movement (NSM)? traditional such as strikes, bandhs, hartaals, etc. unlike
Explain the main challenges of the NSM in developed countries where the strategies include use
the developing countries. (CSE 2011 of mediums like Research, Conferences and Seminars
and Discussion, and Social Media.
Ans: New Social Movements is a
phenomena Apart from limits of New Social Movements
started in the 1960's and 70's, basically
society. They were based on postinaustriadlisSt to miniscule minority in
developing countries,
Environment,
Rights, or Black Rights. Newer Social ender participation in these
movements are mainly from
Movements
the 21st century includes which are based on
n
those who are
directly affected by them; for
Lonsumer Narmada Bachao Andolan.
Rights Movements and not on issues materialistic example-
qualities such as economic well-being. Whereas Global issues such
as GHG emissions,
There are two central claims of the NSM wildlife protection and
theory. conservation of art and culture
First, that the rise of the post-industrial economy is are issues of NSM in
developed
responsible for a new wave of social movement and much larger than in the third nations. Their scope is
second, that those movements are significantly different Thus, we can say the world.
from previous social movements of the industrial developing nations are challenges of NSM in
due to the fact concerned with the basic needs,
economy. that economic
Examples of classical social movements are based reached the level of
surplus development has nor
on nationalism such as Indian
national movement, have resources and time to production where citizens
where they are not invest in other
based on left ideology, socialism in various
countries, directly affected. movements
directly affecting poor and based on unequal economic
structure of society. Q.
A social movement is a
loosely organized effort "Structural-functional approach to
analysis focusses more on
by large group of people to achieve a particular
a
goal, less on
politica
status quoism, ana
typically a social or political one. This may be to carry change." Elucidate
ando asocial change. It is a
type of
Ans:
Structural-functional (CSE 2011)
group systemic analysis which looks approach
at a
is a form or

political system
 STATE IN cOMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE 1 9 1
c a Coherent whole which influences and is in turn
a6 onced by their environments. about the political system. They inculcate the values,
in his Structural-functional
improvement upon systems approach
an beliefs, norms of their community towards the system.
aalitical analysis. Systems approach was too
Interest Articulation: Demands are placed by
general
Oid not elaborate on the functions of structures. various structures such as peer groups,
pressure
an Gabriel Almond gave his groups, interest groups, associations etc. to preserve
ach in the 1950s. His structural-functional
approach

conceptual framework
and further their interest.
olved through three Interest Aggregation: It is the process by which
phases. He wrote an article in demands are translated into policies and decisions
56 in which he said that the
system is an "inclusive which could be acted upon.
Ppt which
co.
covers all of the
patterned actions
oleyant to the making decisions." For him, system was Political Communication: It is a process by
nore important
m
than process because system implied
which the components of a political system such as
totality, interactions among units within the totality individuals, groups and institutions transmit and
and stability in these interactions, which he described receive information regarding the functions of the
political system. Mass media and lately social media
as "changing equilibrium". Almond relied upon Max
are most suited to perform this action.
Weber and Talcott Parsons in conceptualising the
These input variables are translated into three
nalitical system's actions and turned to concepts like
output variables:
structure and roles replacing the legal vocabulary of i) Rule-making is done primarily by legislature
institution, group or organisation. Almond and his (ii) Rule application is done by the
collaborators introduced new concepts of comparative executive.
Executives function is to implement the laws and
politics rules.
The concept of the political system replaced
(ii) Rule adjudication is performed by the judiciary.
the state and its legal apparatus. Structure replaced However, a critical examination of the structural
institution, role took the place of office and function functional approach shows that it is an attemnpt to justify
substituted for power. & defend the status-quoist. Critics have found that this
Almond suggested that all political systems have
approach is based on deterministic, conservative and
four characteristics: restricted ideology. Critics argue that this approach
() All political systems have structures. tends to focus primarily on static relationships
i) The same political functions in all political systems. rather than dynamics. This approach is concerned
ii) All political structures are multifunctional. with the systematic survival, the requirements of
iv) All Political systems are mixed in the cultural sense. stability & various fortiori and structures oriented
towards maintenance of the system therefore, this
Almond then outlined his own categories inputs and approach is assessed of being anti-change or having
outputs: conservative-bias. Structural-Functional approach is
Input Functions Output Functions also criticised on the ground that it is teleological.
Political socialisation :Rulemaking "Functiorn seems only another word for purpose, and it
and recruitment is often argued thata person can have purpose but that
Interest aggregation :Ruleapplication a collectivity cannot". It doesn't talk about the rights
Political communication: Rule Adjudication the of people as long as it is fulfilling the objective
of
and correspond to the
Ihe outputs are functions and stability in society.
raditional legislative, executive judicial functions. The theory, therefore, tends to produce an
and European
hey show a bias towards American traditional impression that everything which exists in a society at
onceptions of government showing time is easily assumed to be there because
any given
Oientation of comparative politics. functions
it is 'functional'.
Almond, however, argued that input of Worse still, the theory produces
an apprehension

E Crucial in characterising the political systems that no social institution,

because it is considered to

developing countries. be changed or abolished without

It is the be 'functional', can
Recruitment:
Folitical Socialisation and endangering the system.
information
are provided
ESs
by which members