UNIT-5

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS
 SWITCH-GEAR
• Switchgear is responsible to connect and
disconnect the electric power supplies and
systems.

• Switchgear is a broad term that describes a wide

variety of switching devices that all fulfill a
common need: controlling, protecting, and
isolating power systems.

• LT (Low-Tension) Switchgear is term used for

switchgear devices used upto 1kV.
 COMPONENTS OF
LT (Low-tension) SWITCHGEAR
• SWITCH FUSE UNIT
• MCB (MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER)
• MCCB (MOLDED CASE CIRCUIT BREAKER)
• ELCB (EARTH LEAKAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER)
 SFU (SWITCH FUSE UNIT)
• The Switch Fuse Units are used for
distributing power and protecting
electrical devices and cables from damage
due to fluctuations. This fuse unit is
housed in an enclosure made using
quality CR steel sheet.
Salient Features:
• Pretreated or powder coated finish
• For cable connections, knock outs are
provided at bottom, top and rear side
• High conductivity due to nickel or silver
plated contact
• Durable and rewireable
Application: Used in industrial, residential
and commercial buildings for electrical
fittings
 FUSES
Fuse is an electrical safety device that operates to provide
over current protection of an electrical circuit. Its
essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts
when too much current flows through it, thereby stopping
or interrupting the current.

Types of fuses:
• Rewireable or Kit-Kat type fuse unit
• Cartridge type fuse unit
• HRC type fuse unit
• Semiconductor type fuse unit
 Rewireable or Kit-Kat type fuse unit
• The Fuse Base is generally
made up of Porcelain.
• Fuse Element is made up of
Tinned Copper, Aluminum
etc.
• When the fuse is blown due
to over current, we can easily
remove the Fuse Carrier and
replace the fuse wire.
• They are most commonly
used in house wiring, small
industries and other small
current applications.
 Cartridge type fuse unit
• A cartridge fuse including a tubular
insulating body.

• Integrally formed ferrule terminals

secured over the respective ends of
the insulating body.

• A fusible strip extending within the

insulating body electrically
interconnecting the ferrule terminals.

• They are available up to 600A and

600V AC and widely used in
industries, commercial as well as
home distribution panels.
 HRC (High Rupturing Capacity) fuse unit
• HRC Fuse consists of highly heat resistant
material (such as ceramic) body having
metal-end caps, which is welded by silver
current carrying element.
• The fuse body internal space is completely
packed with a filling powder which may be
plaster of Paris, quartz, chalk, marble, dust
and cooling mediums etc.
• The heat produced under abnormal
condition vaporizes the silver melted
element. Chemical reaction taking place
between silver vapor and filling powder
results in high resistance substance, which
helps in quenching the arc in fuse
• HRC fuses are also available in
a capacity of 16000A to 30,000A at 400V
(Also available in range of 80kA to 120kA)
• HRC Fuses are also used for protection on
low voltage distribution systems against
overload and short circuit conditions.
 Semiconductor type fuse unit
• A semiconductor fuse is
simply a very fast-acting
conventional fuse, designed to
prevent damage to
a semiconductor device.
• It is usually used with
larger semiconductor devices
rated to switch 100 amps or
more (SCRs, IGBTs, power
transistors, etc.
• The I2t of the semiconductor
fuse is less than the I2t of the
device and thus the fuse gets
blown off before the device
fails.
 MCB
• MCB stands for Miniature Circuit
Breaker. It automatically switches
OFF electrical circuit during any
abnormal condition in the electrical
network such as overload & short
circuit conditions.

• The MCB is an electromechanical

device which guards the electric
wires &electrical load from over-
current so as to avoid any kind of
fire or electrical hazards.
 Working
• Whenever continuous over-current flows through MCB, the
bimetallic strip is heated and deflects by bending. This
deflection of bimetallic strip releases a mechanical latch.

• But during short circuit condition, the current rises suddenly,

causing electromechanical displacement of plunger associated
with a tripping coil or solenoid.

• The plunger strikes the trip lever causing immediate release of

latch mechanism consequently open the circuit
breaker contacts.

• To restart the flow of current the MCB must be manually

turned ON.
 MCCB
• The MCCB stands for Moulded
Case Circuit Breaker.
• It is a protecting device which
protects the circuit from
overloading.
• It is mainly used in a place where
adjustable tripping requires.
• The current rating of MCCB is up
to 2500 amps.
• It is mainly used for high current
applications.
• The MCCB has a manually
operated switch for tripping the
circuit.
• The wide current ratings and high breaking capacity in MCCB
find their use in industrial applications.

• MCCB can be used for protection of capacitor bank, generator

protection and main electric feeder distribution.
 ELCB (Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker)
• ELCB stands for Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker.

• ELCB is basically an electrical wiring device that disconnects the circuit whenever
there is leakage of current flow through the Human body or the current is not
balanced between the phase conductor. It is the safest device to detect and trip
against electrical leakage currents, thus ensure protection against electric shock
caused by direct contacts.

• Application:-

• ELCBs are commonly used in residential and commercial electrical systems,

particularly in areas where electrical equipment may come into contact with
moisture, such as bathrooms and kitchens. They are also used in industrial
applications where electrical safety is critical, such as in mining , manufacturing
facilities and medical applications.
Types of ELCB
 Working:-

• If any insulation failure occurs or live phase wire touches the metal body, of the
equipment, there must be a voltage difference appears across the terminal of the
coil connected to the equipment body and earth. This voltage difference produces
a current to flow the relay coil for tripping the associated circuit breaker to
disconnect the power supply to the equipment.

• Specifications of ELCB

• Rated Voltage: Typically 120V or 240V for residential applications and higher
voltages for industrial applications.

• Sensitivity: The ELCB should be able to detect a small difference in current

between the live and neutral wires, typically 30 milliamps (mA) or less.
 Types of ELCB
• Current ELCB or RCCB (Residual Current Circuit
Breaker)
 ACB (AIR CIRCUIT BREAKER)
• Air Circuit Breaker is an automatically operated
electrical switch that uses air to protect an
electrical circuit from damage caused by excess
current from an overload or short circuit.
• Its primary function is to interrupt current flow
after a fault is detected. An arc will appear
between the contacts that have broken the circuit.
Air circuit breakers are used to blow out the arc.
 Types of AIR CIRCUIT BREAKER

Air Circuit Breakers are of two types:

• Plain air circuit breaker
• Air blast circuit breaker
Plain Air Circuit Breaker
 Air Blast Circuit breaker
a) Axial blast ACB
b) Cross blast ACB
TYPES OF WIRES AND CABLES
 DIFFERENCE
• Wire and cable are two terms that are used in electrical and
communication fields. They are often confused, but in fact,
they are quite different.
• A wire is a single conductor strand or a group of conductor
strands(material most commonly being copper or
aluminum) while cable is two or more insulated wires
wrapped in one jacket.
• Multiple conductors that have no insulation around would
be classified as a single conductor.
 WIRES

• Single Strand Wires

• Multi Strand Wires
• ACSR
• AAAC
 1. Single Strand Wires

• Single strand wire also uses

THHN (Thermoplastic High
Heat-resistant Nylon coated)
wire, though there are other
variants. Each wire is separate
and multiple wires can be
drawn together through a pipe
easily.

• Single strand wires are the

most popular choice for layouts
that use pipes to contain wires.
 2. Multi Strand Wires
• Multi-strand wiring is more
flexible and less susceptible to
cracking and metal fatigue than
single stranded conductors. This
makes it the preferable solution
for wiring that will need to
maneuver and bend without
experiencing metal fatigue.

• The increased surface area of

multi-stranded conductors
decreases the amount of
resistance that currents or signal
passing through the wire will
encounter.
 3. ACSR
• ALUMINIUM CONDUCTOR
STEEL-REINFORCED CABLE.
• ACSR is a type of high-capacity,
high-strength stranded conductor
typically used in overhead power
lines.
• The outer strands are high-
purity aluminium, chosen for its
good conductivity, low weight and
low cost.
• The center strand is steel for
additional strength to help support
the weight of the conductor.
 4. AAAC
• ALL ALUMINIUM ALLOY
CONDUCTORS

• Concentric lay stranded Aluminium

Alloy Conductors (AAAC) are made
out of high strength Aluminium-
Magnesium-Silicon Alloy

• These conductors are designed to

get better strength to weight ratio
and offer improved electrical
properties, when compared with
ACSR
 TYPES OF CABLES

According to type of insulation, cables are classified

as:-
• Vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR) insulated cables
• Tough Rubber Sheathed Cable
• Lead Sheathed Cables
• PVC Cables
• XLPE Cables
• Weatherproof Cable
• Multi-Strand Cable
 Vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR) cables
• A VIR (Vulcanized India
Rubber) wire mainly consists of
a tinned conductor having rubber
coating.
• Tinning of conductor prevents
the sticking of rubber to the
conductor.
• Thickness of rubber mainly
depends on the operating voltage
to which wire is designed.
• Over the rubber insulation cotton
tape sheathed covering is
provided with moisture resistant
compound Bitumen wax.
 Tough Rubber Sheathed Cable
• In tough rubber sheathed
cable, the conductor is
insulated with vulcanized
rubber insulation.
• It has a outer protective
covering of tough rubber
which provides protection
against wear and tear.
• These cables are weather
proof
• These are available in
250/440 V and 650/1100 V
grades.
 Lead Sheathed Cables
• These cables have VIR
insulation.

• The insulation is covered

with the continuous sheath of
lead.

• The lead sheath provides very

good protection against
moisture and sufficient
protection against mechanical
injury.

• These are available in

240/415 V grade.
 PVC Cables
• These cables have insulation of
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
• Since PVC is harder than
rubber, it does not required
cotton taping and braiding over
it for moisture and mechanical
protection.
• These are available in 250/440
V and 650/1100 V grades.
• These have better insulating
properties, flexibility, no
chemical effect on conductor
and gives smaller diameter of
cables.
 XLPE Cables
• Cross linked polyethylene
insulated conductor.
• The insulation is made up of
polymers
• The insulation is further screened
with layer of nonmetallic
semiconducting material.
• Over this screening XLPE is used
as insulation.
• Over this layer a non magnetic
metallic screen in the form of
copper or aluminum tape is
applied.
• Over the metallic screen PVC
sheath is used.
• Used up to 132 kV
 Weatherproof Cable
• These have PVC or VIR insulated
conductors.

• Then conductors are suitably tapped

and braided.

• A layer of weather resisting material

is compounded over it.

• These cables are not affected by heat,

sun or rain.

• These are available in 250/440 V and

650/1100 V grades.
 Multi-Strand Cable
• No of strands must be 3, 7, 19,
37, 61, 91 and so on in order to
obtain a circular contour.

• These are flexible and durable.

• Surface area is more so heat

radiating capacity is more.

• Skin effect is better as the

conductors are tubular, especially
in case of high frequency.
 EARTHING

• The process of transferring the immediate discharge of the

electrical energy directly to the earth by the help of the low
resistance wire is known as the electrical earthing Thus,
protects the system and equipment from damage.
 Importance of Earthing
• The earthing protects the personnel from the
short circuit current. The earthing provides
the easiest path to the flow of short circuit
current even after the failure of the insulation.
• The earthing protects the apparatus and
personnel from the high voltage surges and
lightning discharge.
 Need of earthing
• Let go current:- The maximum value of
electric current through the body of a
person at which that person can release
himself or herself. This ranges between 10-
20 mA.
• Under dry conditions, the resistance offered
by the human body may be as high as
100,000 Ohms. Wet or broken skin may
drop the body's resistance to 1000 ohms.
 Types of Electrical Earthing

On the basis of type of installation earthing can be

classified into following types
• Plate earthing
• Pipe earthing
• Rod earthing
• Strip earthing
 Plate earthing
• In this type of earthing plate either
of copper or of G.I. is buried into
the ground at a depth of not less
than 3 meter from the ground
level.
• The earth plate is embedded in
alternative layer of coke and salts
for a minimum thickness of about
15cm.
• The earth wire (copper wire for
copper plate earthing and G.I.
wire for G.I. plate earthing) is
securely bolted to an earth plate
with the help of bolt nut and
washer made of copper, in case of
copper plate earthing and of G.I.
in case of G.I. plate earthing.
 Pipe earthing
• Pipe earthing is best form of
earthing and it is cheap also in this
system of earthing a GI pipe of 38
mm diameter and 2meters length
is embedded vertically in ground
to work as earth electrode.
• But the wire is embedded up to the
wet soil.
• The earth wire are fastened to the
top section of the pipe with nut
and bolts.
• The pit area around the GI pipe
filled with salt and coal mixture
for improving the soil conditions
and efficiency of the earthing
system.
• It can take heavy leakage current
for the same electrode size in
comparison to plate earthing.
 Rod Earthing

• In this system of earthing 12.5mm

diameter solid rods of copper 16mm
diameter solid rod of GI or steel or
hollow section of 25mm GI pipe of
length not less than 3 meters are driven
vertically into the earth
• In order to increase the embedded
length of electrode under the ground,
which is some time necessary to reduce
the earth resistance to desired value
more than one rod section are
hammered one above the other.
• This system of earthing is suitable for
area which are sandy in character .
• This system of earthing is very cheap.
 Strip Earthing
• In this system of earthing strip
electrode of cross section not less
than 25mm into 1.6mm of copper or
25mm * 4mm of GI or steel are
buried in horizontal trenches of
minimum depth of 0.5m
• The length of buried conductor shall
be sufficient to give the required
earth resistance (about 0.5Ωto 1.5Ω)
• It shall however be not less than 15
m
• The electrode shall be as widely
distributed as possible in a single
straight or circular trenches
radiating from a point
• This type of earthing is used in
rocky soil earth bed because at such
places excavation work for plate
earthing is difficult.
 Busbar
• A busbar is a metallic strip or bar in a switchgear, used to
carry electric power from incoming lines and distributes
to the outgoing lines. In simple terms, busbar is a
electrical junction where incoming and outgoing
currents exchange.
• They are generally uninsulated, and have sufficient
stiffness to be supported in air by insulated pillars. These
features allow sufficient cooling of the conductors, and
the ability to tap in at various points without creating a
new joint.
Busbar
 Types of busbar
• Single Bus-Bar Arrangement
• Single Bus-Bar Arrangement with Bus
Sectionalized
• Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement
• Double Bus Arrangement
• Sectionalized Double Bus Bar Arrangement.
• Ring Arrangement
• Mesh Arrangement
Single Bus-Bar Arrangement
Single Bus-Bar Arrangement with Bus
Sectionalized
Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement
Double Bus Arrangement
Sectionalized Double Bus Bar
Arrangement
Ring Arrangement
Mesh Arrangement
Types of Batteries

Department of Electrical Engineering, UCER, Prayagraj

 Cells

Battery

Primary Secondary
Cell/Battery Cell/Battery

Daniell Cell Lead Acid

Galvanic Cell Nickel Cadmium
Leclanche Cell Lithium Ion
Weston Cell Nickel Metal Hydride
 Secondary Cell/Batteries

1. Lead Acid Battery

HISTORY
The lead–acid battery was invented in 1859 by
French physicist Gaston Planté and is the earliest
type of rechargeable battery.

Discharge:
In the discharged state both the positive and negative
plates become Lead(II) sulfate (PbSO4), and
the electrolyte loses much of its dissolved sulfuric acid and
becomes primarily water. The discharge process is driven
by the pronounced reduction in energy when 2 H+(aq)
(hydrated protons) of the acid react with O2− ions
of PbO2 to form the strong O-H bonds in H2O
Negative plate reaction

Pb(s) + HSO−4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + H+(aq) + 2e−

The release of two conducting electrons gives the

lead electrode a negative charge.
As electrons accumulate they create an electric
field which attracts hydrogen ions and repels
sulfate ions, leading to a double-layer near the
surface. The hydrogen ions screen the charged
electrode from the solution which limits further
reaction unless charge is allowed to flow out of
electrode.
 Positive plate reaction

PbO2(s) + HSO−4(aq) + 3H+(aq) + 2e− → PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)

taking advantage of the metallic conductivity of PbO2.

The total reaction can be written as

Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) → 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) Ecell = 2.05 V

Fully discharged: two identical lead sulfate plates and diluted sulfuric acid solution
Charging

In the fully charged state, the negative plate consists of lead,

and the positive plate is lead dioxide. The electrolyte solution
has a higher concentration of aqueous sulfuric acid, which
stores most of the chemical energy.

Fully recharged: Lead dioxide positive plate, Lead negative plate, and concentrated,
aqueous sulfuric acid solution
Nominal Voltage

The Nominal voltage for a Lead-Acid single cell is 2V.

For a single cell, the voltage can range from 1.8 V loaded at
full discharge, to 2.10 V in an open circuit at full charge.
 2. Nickel-Cadmium Battery
History
The first Ni–Cd battery was created by Waldemar
Jungner of Sweden in 1899. At that time, the only direct
competitor was the lead–acid battery, which was less
physically and chemically robust.
NiCd batteries usually have a metal case with a sealing

plate equipped with a self-sealing safety valve. The

positive and negative electrode plates, isolated from each

other by the separator, are rolled in a spiral shape inside

the case. This is known as the jelly-roll design and allows

a Ni–Cd cell to deliver a much higher maximum current

than an equivalent size alkaline cell.

 A fully charged NiCd cell contains:
• a nickel(III) oxide-hydroxide positive electrode
plate
• a cadmium negative electrode plate
• a separator, and
• an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide)
The chemical reactions at the cadmium electrode during discharge
are:

The reactions at the nickel oxide electrode are:

The net reaction during discharge is

Nominal Voltage

The Nominal voltage for a Nickel Cadmium single cell is

1.2V.

For a single cell, the voltage can range from 0.9 V loaded at
full discharge, to 1.3 V in an open circuit at full charge.
 3. Lithium Ion Battery

History
A prototype Li-ion battery was developed by Akira
Yoshino in 1985, based on earlier research by John
Goodenough, Stanley Whittingham, Rachid
Yazami and Koichi Mizushima during the 1970s–
1980s and then a commercial Li-ion battery was
developed by a Sony and Asahi Kasei team led by
Yoshio Nishi in 1991.
In the batteries, lithium ions move from the

negative electrode through an electrolyte to the positive electrode

during discharge, and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use

an intercalated lithium compound as the material at the positive

electrode and typically graphite at the negative electrode. The

batteries have a high energy density and low self-discharge.

The positive electrode (cathode) half-reaction in the lithium-doped cobalt
oxide substrate is

The negative electrode (anode) half-reaction for the graphite is

The full reaction (left to right: discharging, right to left: charging) :

Nominal Voltage

The Nominal voltage for a Lithium Ion single cell varies

between 3.6V to 3.85V for different Lithium-substrates used
for the ion reaction.
 4. Nickel Metal Hydride Battery
History

Many companies and researchers have developed prototypes for

the NiMH battery but the patent lies with ‘Daimler-Benz’ joint
venture team.

The latest research in NiMH battery was done by German

chemical company BASF in 2015 in which it produced a
modified microstructure that helped make NiMH batteries more
durable and light weight.
The chemical reaction at the positive electrode is
similar to that of the nickel–cadmium cell (NiCd),
with both using nickel oxide hydroxide (NiOOH).
However, the negative electrodes use a hydrogen-
absorbing alloy instead of cadmium.

NiMH cells have an alkaline electrolyte,

usually potassium hydroxide. The positive electrode
is nickel hydroxide, and the negative electrode is
hydrogen in the form of an interstitial metal hydride.
 The negative electrode reaction occurring in a NiMH cell is

On the positive electrode, nickel oxyhydroxide, NiO(OH), is

formed:

The metal M in the negative electrode of a NiMH cell is

an intermetallic compound. Many different compounds have been developed for
this application, but those in current use fall into two classes. The most common
is AB5, where A is a rare-earth mixture
of lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, praseodymium, and B
is nickel, cobalt, manganese, or aluminium. Some cells use higher-capacity
negative electrode materials based on AB2 compounds, where A is titanium
or vanadium, and B is zirconium or nickel, modified with chromium,
cobalt, iron, or manganese.
Nominal Voltage

The Nominal voltage for a NiMH single cell is 2V.

 Summary of Batteries
Anode Cathode Electrolyte Nominal
Voltage (V)
Lead Acid Pb Pb/PbO2 H2SO4 2V
Ni-Cd Cd NiO(OH) KOH 1.2 V
Li-ion LiO LiO Variety 3.6-3.85 V
NiMH M H2NiO Ni(OH)2 2V
 Battery Characteristics

1. Charging Characteristics

2. Discharging Characteristics
 1. Charging Characteristics

Voltage 100 %

Battery Voltage

Charging current

Voltage 10 %

Time (Hrs)
 2. Discharging Characteristics

Voltage 100 %

Voltage 90 %
Knee of Discharge curve
Nominal
Voltage

100 % 0% Battery
Capacity
(Ah)
 Battery Ratings
• Primary Rating (Ampere-Hour Rating)
• Secondary Ratings (for 12V batteries)
– Reserve Capacity
– Cold Rating
– Cold Cranking Ampere Rating
 Ampere-Hour Rating
• Ability to deliver current continuously for
20hours at 27° C. A battery that can deliver 5A
steadily for 20 hours then it’s rating will be
100A-h.
 Reserve Capacity
• Reserve Capacity (RC) is the number of
minutes a fully charged battery at 27°C will
discharge 25 amps until the battery drops
below 10.5 volts
 Cold Rating
• The no. of minutes that a 12 V battery can
deliver 300A at -18°C
 Cold Cranking Ampere Rating
• CCA is a rating used in the battery industry to
define a battery's ability to start an engine
in cold temperatures.
• The rating refers to the number of amps a 12-
volt battery can deliver at -18°C for 30 seconds
while maintaining a voltage of at least 7.2
volts.
 Battery Efficiency
In general 2 types of Efficiencies of a battery/cell
are defined, namely:

1. Quantity/Charge/A-h Efficiency
2. Energy/Watt-Hour Efficiency
 Quantity/Charge/A-h Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of total charge supplied
by battery to the total charge stored in the
battery during charging.
 Energy/Watt-Hour Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of total energy supplied
by battery during discharge to the total energy
stored in battery during charging.
Relation between A-h and W-h
efficiencies
 Numerical Example 1
Q. A battery has taken a charging current of 5.2A for 24 hrs at a voltage of 2.25 V,
while discharging it gave a current of 4.5A for 24 hrs at an average voltage of 1.85V.
Calculate the quantity efficiency and the energy efficiency of the battery.
 Numerical Example 2
Q. An Alkaline cell is discharged at a steady current of 4 A for 12 hours , the average
terminal voltage being 1.2 V. To restore it to original state of voltage, a steady
current of 3 A for 20 hours is required , average terminal voltage being 1.44 V.
Calculate the ampere-hour and watt hour efficiencies in this particular case.
 Numerical Example 3
Q. Thirty five lead acid secondary cells each of discharge capacity 120 Ah at 12
hours rate are to be fully charged at constant current for 10 hours. The DC supply
voltage is 125V . The ampere-hour efficiency is 80% and emf of each cell at the
start and at the end of the charging is 1.9V and 2.6V respectively. Calculate the
maximum and the minimum values of external resistance necessary. Neglect the
internal resistance of the cells.
 Numerical Example 4
Q. A discharged battery is put on charge at 5A for 3.5 hr at a mean charging
voltage of 13.5V. It is then discharged in 6 hours at a constant terminal voltage of
12V through a resistance of R ohms. Determine

(i) The value of ‘R’ for an ampere-hour efficiency of 85%

(ii) Watt-hour efficiency of the battery
Thank You !!!