CONTENT

• Introduction
• Requirements Of A Pavement
• Types Of Pavements
1. Flexible Pavements
2. Rigid Pavement
• Difference Between Flexible And Rigid Pavements
• Effects Of Climatic Variations
• Variation In Moisture
• Frost Action
• Variation In Temperature
• Flexible Pavement Design
• Flexible Pavement Design
• Rigid Pavement Design
Pavement design

A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed materials

above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle
loads to the sub-grade. The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of
acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance, favorable light reflecting characteristics,
and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due
to wheel load are sufficiently reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing capacity of the
sub- grade. Two types of pavements are generally recognized as serving this purpose,
namely flexible pavements and rigid pavements. This chapter gives an overview of
pavement types, layers, and their functions, and pavement failures. Improper design of
pavements leads to early failure of pavements affecting the riding quality.

Requirements of a pavement

An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:

• Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the
sub- grade soil,
• Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,
• Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,
• Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,
• Produce least noise from moving vehicles,
• Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility,
• Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and
• Long design life with low maintenance cost.

Types of pavements

The pavements can be classified based on the structural performance into two, flexible
pavements and rigid pavements. In flexible pavements, wheel loads are transferred by
grain- to-grain contact of the aggregate through the granular structure. The flexible
pavement, having less flexural strength, acts like a flexible sheet (e.g. bituminous road). On
the contrary, in rigid pavements, wheel loads are transferred to sub-grade soil by flexural
strength of the pavement and the pavement acts like a rigid plate (e.g. cement concrete
roads). In addition to these, composite pavements are also available. A thin layer of flexible
pavement over rigid pavement is an ideal pavement with most desirable characteristics.
However, such pavements are rarely used in new construction because of high cost and
complex analysis required.

Flexible pavements

Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-grain
transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure (see Figure 1).
 Figure 1: Load transfer in granular structure

Deflection on flexible pavement

The wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the stress
decreases with the depth. Taking advantage of this stress distribution characteristic, flexible
pavements normally has many layers. Hence, the design of flexible pavement uses the
concept of layered system. Based on this, flexible pavement may be constructed in a
number of layers and the top layer has to be of best quality to sustain maximum
compressive stress, in addition to wear and tear. The lower layers will experience lesser
magnitude of stress and low quality material can be used. Flexible pavements are
constructed using bituminous materials. These can be either in the form of surface
treatments (such as bituminous surface treatments generally found on low volume roads) or,
asphalt concrete surface courses (generally used on high volume roads such as national
highways). Flexible pavement layers reflect the deformation of the lower layers on to the
surface layer (e.g., if there is any undulation in sub- grade then it will be transferred to the
surface layer). In the case of flexible pavement, the design is based on overall
performance of flexible pavement, and the stresses produced should be kept well below
the allowable stresses of each pavement layer.

Types of Flexible Pavements

The following types of construction have been used in flexible pavement:

• Conventional layered flexible pavement,

• Full - depth asphalt pavement, and
• Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM).
Typical layers of a flexible pavement
Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat, surface course,
tack coat, binder course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course, compacted sub-
grade, and natural sub-grade (Figure 1).

Seal Coat:
Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide skid
resistance.

Tack Coat:
Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted with water.
It provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and must be thin,
uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast.

Prime Coat:
Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent surface like
granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two
layers. Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids,
and forms a water tight surface.

Figure 1: Typical cross section of a flexible pavement

Surface course
Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally contains
superior quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt concrete
(AC). The functions and requirements of this layer are:

• It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also it will

prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying
base, sub-base and sub-grade,
• It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid-
resistant riding surface,
• It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from the weakening
effect of water.

Binder course
This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. It's chief purpose is to
distribute load to the base course The binder course generally consists of aggregates
having less asphalt
and doesn't require quality as high as the surface course, so replacing a part of the surface
course by the binder course results in more economical design.

Base course
The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder course
and it provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface drainage It
may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized
materials.

Sub-Base course
The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the primary
functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion
of fines from the sub-grade in the pavement structure If the base course is open graded, then
the sub-base course with more fines can serve as a filler between sub-grade and the base
course A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement
constructed over a high quality, stiff sub-grade may not need the additional features
offered by a sub-base course. In such situations, sub-base course may not be provided.

Sub-grade
The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from the
layers above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should be
compacted to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture content.

Rigid pavements

Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses to
a wider area below. A typical cross section of the rigid pavement is shown in Figure
1. Compared to flexible pavement, rigid pavements are placed either directly on the
prepared sub-grade or on a single layer of granular or stabilized material. Since there is
only one layer of material between the concrete and the sub-grade, this layer can be
called as base or sub- base course.

Figure 1: Typical Cross section of Rigid pavement

In rigid pavement, load is distributed by the slab action, and the pavement behaves like an
elastic plate resting on a viscous medium (Figure 2). Rigid pavements are constructed by
Portland cement concrete (PCC) and should be analyzed by plate theory instead of
layer theory, assuming an elastic plate resting on viscous foundation. Plate theory is a
simplified version of layer theory that assumes the concrete slab as a medium thick plate
which is plane before loading and to remain plane after loading. Bending of the slab due to
wheel load and temperature variation and the resulting tensile and flexural stress.

Types of Rigid Pavements

Rigid pavements can be classified into four types:
 • Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP),
• Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP),
• Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP), and
• Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).

Factors affecting pavement design

In the previous chapter we had discussed about the types of pavements and their
failure criteria. There are many factors that affect pavement design which can be classified
into four categories as traffic and loading, structural models, material characterization,
environment.

Traffic and loading

Traffic is the most important factor in the pavement design. The key factors include contact
pressure, wheel load, axle configuration, moving loads, load, and load repetitions.

Contact pressure:
The tyre pressure is an important factor, as it determine the contact area and the contact
pressure between the wheel and the pavement surface. Even though the shape of the contact
area is elliptical, for sake of simplicity in analysis, a circular area is often considered.

Wheel load:
The next important factor is the wheel load which determines the depth of the pavement
required to ensure that the subgrade soil is not failed. Wheel configuration affect the stress
distribution and deflection within a pavemnet. Many commercial vehicles have dual rear
wheels which ensure that the contact pressure is within the limits. The normal practice is to
convert dual wheel into an equivalent single wheel load so that the analysis is made
simpler.

Axle configuration:
The load carrying capacity of the commercial vehicle is further enhanced by the
introduction of multiple axles.

Moving loads:
The damage to the pavement is much higher if the vehicle is moving at creep speed. Many
studies show that when the speed is increased from 2 km/hr to 24 km/hr, the stresses and
deflection reduced by 40 per cent.

Repetition of Loads:
The influence of traffic on pavement not only depend on the magnitude of the wheel load,
but also on the frequency of the load applications. Each load application causes some
deformation and the total deformation is the summation of all these. Although the pavement
deformation due to single axle load is very small, the cumulative effect of number of load
repetition is significant. Therefore, modern design is based on total number of standard axle
load (usually 80 kN single axle).
Material characterization

The following material properties are important for both flexible and rigid pavements.

• When pavements are considered as linear elastic, the elastic moduli and poisson
ratio of subgrade and each component layer must be specified.
• If the elastic modulus of a material varies with the time of loading, then the resilient
modulus, which is elastic modulus under repeated loads, must be selected in
accordance with a load duration corresponding to the vehicle speed.
• When a material is considered non-linear elastic, the constitutive equation relating
the resilient modulus to the state of the stress must be provided.
• However, many of these material properties are used in visco-elastic models
which are very complex and in the development stage. This book covers the layered
elastic model which require the modulus of elasticity and poisson ratio only.

Environmental factors

• Environmental factors affect the performance of the pavement materials and cause
various damages. Environmental factors that affect pavement are of two types,
temperature and precipitation and they are discussed below:

Temperature
• The effect of temperature on asphalt pavements is different from that of concrete
pavements. Temperature affects the resilient modulus of asphalt layers, while it
induces curling of concrete slab. In rigid pavements, due to difference in
temperatures of top and bottom of slab, temperature stresses or frictional stresses
are developed. While in flexible pavement, dynamic modulus of asphaltic concrete
varies with temperature. Frost heave causes differential settlements and pavement
roughness. Most detrimental effect of frost penetration occurs during the spring
break up period when the ice melts and subgrade is a saturated condition.

Precipitation
• The precipitation from rain and snow affects the quantity of surface water
infiltrating into the subgrade and the depth of ground water table. Poor drainage
may bring lack of shear strength, pumping, loss of support, etc.

Difference between flexible and rigid pavements

Flexible pavement Rigid pavement

Deformation in the sub grade is transferred to Deformation in the sub grade is not
the upper layers transferred to subsequent layers
Design is based on load distributing Design is based on flexural strength or slab
characteristics of the component layers action
Have low flexural strength Have high flexural strength
Load is transferred by grain to grain contact No such phenomenon of grain to grain load
transfer exists
Have low completion cost but repairing cost Have low repairing cost but completion cost
is high is high

Have low life span Life span is more as compare to flexible

Surfacing cannot be laid directly on the sub Surfacing can be directly laid on the sub
grade but a sub base is needed grade

No thermal stresses are induced as the Thermal stresses are more vulnerable to be
pavement have the ability to contract and induced as the ability to contract and expand
expand freely is very less in concrete
Strength the road is dependent on the Strength of the road is less dependent on the
strength of subgrade strength of the sub grade
Road can be used for traffic within 24 hours Road cannot be used until 14 days of curing

Effects of climatic variations

The climatic variations causes following effects

1. Variation in moisture condition

2. Frost action
3. Variation in temperature

The pavement performance is very much affected by the variation in moisture and the frost.
This is mainly because of the variation in stability and the volume of the subgrade soil due
to these two effects. Variation in temperature generally affects the pavement materials like
bituminous mixes and cement concrete.

Variation in moisture

Considerable variations in moisture condition of subgrade soil are likely during the year,
depending on climatic conditions, soil type ground water level and its variations, drainage
conditions, type of pavement and shoulders. The surface water during rains may enter the
subgrade either through the pavement edges or through the pavement itself, if it is
porous. The subgrade moisture variations depend on fluctuations of ground water table. The
moisture movement in subgrade is also caused by capillary action and vapour
movement. However, high moisture variations could be controlled by providing suitable
surface and sub surface drainage system.

The stability of most of the subgrade soils are decreased under adverse moisture conditions,
presence of soil fraction with high plasticity will result in variations in volume with
variation in water content. As the moisture content of subgrade below the centre is often
different from that at the pavement edges, there can be differential rise or fall of the
pavement edges with respect to the centre, due to swelling and shrinkage of the subgrade
soil. These effects are likely to cause considerable damages to the pavement and will
be progressive and cumulative.
Frost action

Frost action refers to the adverse effect due to frost heave, frost melting or thaw and the
alternate cycles of freezing and thawing. The frost action in general includes all effects
associated with freezing temperature on pavement performance.

The held water in subgrade soil forms ice crystals at some spots if the freezing temperatures
continue for certain period. These ice crystals grow further in size if there is a continuous
supply of water due to capillary action and the depressed temperature continues. This
results in raising of portion of the pavement structure know as frost heave. If the frost heave
causes uniform rising of pavement structure, the subgrade support is not adversely affected
at this stage. However no uniform heaving may cause damages.

Subsequent increase in temperature would result in melting or thawing of the frozen ice
crystals and soften the road bed. The load carrying capacity of the subgrade is considerably
decreased at this stage due to the voids created by the melted ice crystals and the excessive
water trapped in the thawed soil below pavement. Under heavy traffic, the pavement would
deflect excessively causing progressive failure due to decreased load carrying capacity of
the subgrade

The freezing and thawing which occur alternatively due to the variation in weather causes
undulations and considerable damages to the pavement. Hence the overall effects due to
frost heave, frost melting and alternate freeze- thaw cycles is called frost action.

The various factors on which frost action depends may be broadly classified as:

1. Frost susceptibility
2. Depressed temperature below freezing point
3. Supply of water
4. Cover

The soil type, grain size distribution, permeability and capillarity of soil influence frost
action. The temperature below freezing point and duration of the freezing temperature
determines the depth up to which frost action exceeds. Unless there is a continuous supply
of water, the small ice crystals formed can not grow in size. The supply of water may
be from the ground water due to capillary action or soil section. The rate of heat transfer
depends on soil density and texture, moisture content and the proportion of frozen
moisture in the soil mass under consideration. The type and colour of the cover affects the
heat transfer from the atmosphere to the soil beneath the cover.

One of the most effective and practical methods of decreasing the damaging effects due to
water and frost action is to install proper surface and sub surface drainage systems.
Construction of base, sub base and top layer of subgrade, up to desired depth, by granular
and non frost susceptible material with good drainage characteristics would go a long way
in withstanding the adverse climatic conditions. Yet another effective method is to provide a
capillary cut-off.

Variation in temperature
Wide variation in temperature due to climatic changes may cause damaging effects in some
pavements. Temperature stresses of high magnitude are induced in cement concrete
pavements due to daily variation in temperature and consequent wraping of the pavement.
Bituminous pavements become soft in hot weather and brittle in very cold.

Flexible pavement design

Flexible pavements are so named because the total pavement structure deflects, or
flexes, under loading. A flexible pavement structure is typically composed of several layers
of materials. Each layer receives loads from the above layer, spreads them out, and passes
on these loads to the next layer below. Thus the stresses will be reduced, which are
maximum at the top layer and minimum on the top of subgrade. In order to take
maximum advantage of this property, layers are usually arranged in the order of
descending load bearing capacity with the highest load bearing capacity material (and
most expensive) on the top and the lowest load bearing capacity material (and least
expensive) on the bottom.

Equivalent single wheel load

To maintain the maximum wheel load within the specified limit and to carry greater load it
is necessary to provide dual wheel assembly to the rear axles of the road vehicle. In doing so
the effect on the pavement through a dual wheel assembly is obviously not equal to two
times the load on any one wheel. In other words, the pressure at a certain depth below the
pavement surface cannot be obtained by numerically adding the pressure caused by one
wheel. The effect is in between the single wheel and two time load carried by any one
wheel. In order to simplify the analysis, The load dispersion is assumed to be at an
angle of 45. In the dual wheel assembly, let d be the clear gap between the two wheels, s
be the spacing between the centres of the wheels and a is the radius if contact area of the
wheel. Then S=d+2a.

Upto the depth of d/2 each wheel load P acts independently and after this point the stresses
induced due to each load begins to overlap. At depth 2S and above, the stresses induced
are due to the dual wheels at any depth greater than 2S is considered to be a single wheel of
magnitude 2P.
 Figure 1: ESWL-Equal stress concept

Calculate ESWL of a dual wheel assembly carrying 2044 kg each for pavement thickness
of 15, 20 and 25cms. Centre to centre tyre spacing=27cm and distance between the walls of
the tyres=11cm.
Here p=2004: 2P=4088:d=11:S=27
X and Y points are plotted on the log-log graph between ESWL and pavement thickness

X has a
coordinates(P,d/2)=(2044,5.5) Y
has a coordinates (2P,2S)=
(4088,54)
Pavement thickness ESWL
15 2760
20 3000
25 3230

4500
4000 54, 4088

3500
3000
2500
2000 5.5, 2044 Series1

1500
1000
500

0
1 10 100

(IRC 37:2001) Design of flexible pavements

The Pavement designs given in the previous edition IRC:37-1984 were applicable to design
traffic upto only 30 million standard axles (msa). The earlier code is empirical in
nature which has limitations regarding applicability and extrapolation. This guidelines
follows analytical designs and developed new set of designs up to 150 msa.

Scope
These guidelines will apply to design of flexible pavements for Expressway, National
Highways, State Highways, Major District Roads, and other categories of roads. Flexible
pavements are considered to include the pavements which have bituminous surfacing and
granular base and sub-base courses conforming to IRC/ MOST standards. These guidelines
apply to new pavements.

Design criteria
The flexible pavements has been modeled as a three layer structure and stresses and strains
at critical locations have been computed using the linear elastic model. To give proper
consideration to the aspects of performance, the following three types of pavement distress
resulting from repeated (cyclic) application of traffic loads are considered:

1. vertical compressive strain at the top of the sub-grade which can cause sub-
grade deformation resulting in permanent deformation at the pavement surface.
2. horizontal tensile strain or stress at the bottom of the bituminous layer which
can cause fracture of the bituminous layer.
3. pavement deformation within the bituminous layer.

Design procedure
Based on the performance of existing designs and using analytical approach, simple design
charts and a catalogue of pavement designs are added in the code. The pavement designs are
given for subgrade CBR values ranging from 2% to 10% and design traffic ranging
from 1 msa to 150 msa for an average annual pavement temperature of 35 C. The later
thicknesses obtained from the analysis have been slightly modified to adapt the designs to
stage construction. Using the following simple input parameters, appropriate designs
could be chosen for the given traffic and soil strength:

• Design traffic in terms of cumulative number of standard axles; and

• CBR value of subgrade.

Design traffic
The method considers traffic in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles (8160
kg) to be carried by the pavement during the design life. This requires the following
information:

1. Initial traffic in terms of CVPD

2. Traffic growth rate during the design life
3. Design life in number of years
4. Vehicle damage factor (VDF)
5. Distribution of commercial traffic over the carriage way.
Initial traffic
Initial traffic is determined in terms of commercial vehicles per day (CVPD). For the
structural design of the pavement only commercial vehicles are considered assuming
laden weight of three tonnes or more and their axle loading will be considered. Estimate
of the initial daily average traffic flow for any road should normally be based on 7-day
24-hour classified traffic counts (ADT). In case of new roads, traffic estimates can be
made on the basis of potential land use and traffic on existing routes in the area.

Traffic growth rate

Traffic growth rates can be estimated (i) by studying the past trends of traffic growth, and
(ii) by establishing econometric models. If adequate data is not available, it is
recommended that an average annual growth rate of 7.5 percent may be adopted.

Design life
For the purpose of the pavement design, the design life is defined in terms of the
cumulative number of standard axles that can be carried before strengthening of the
pavement is necessary. It is recommended that pavements for arterial roads like NH, SH
should be designed for a life of 15 years, EH and urban roads for 20 years and other
categories of roads for 10 to 15 years.

Vehicle Damage Factor

The vehicle damage factor (VDF) is a multiplier for converting the number of commercial
vehicles of different axle loads and axle configurations to the number of standard axle-load
repetitions. It is defined as equivalent number of standard axles per commercial vehicle. The
VDF varies with the axle configuration, axle loading, terrain, type of road, and from region
to region. The axle load equivalency factors are used to convert different axle load
repetitions into equivalent standard axle load repetitions. For these equivalency factors
refer IRC:37 2001. The exact VDF values are arrived after extensive
field surveys.

Vehicle distribution

A realistic assessment of distribution of commercial traffic by direction and by lane is

necessary as it directly affects the total equivalent standard axle load application used in the
design. Until reliable data is available, the following distribution may be assumed.

• Single lane roads: Traffic tends to be more channelized on single roads than two
lane roads and to allow for this concentration of wheel load repetitions, the
design should be based on total number of commercial vehicles in both directions.
• Two-lane single carriageway roads: The design should be based on 75 % of the
commercial vehicles in both directions.
• Four-lane single carriageway roads: The design should be based on 40 % of
the total number of commercial vehicles in both directions.
 • Dual carriageway roads: For the design of dual two-lane carriageway roads
should be based on 75 % of the number of commercial vehicles in each direction.
For dual three-lane carriageway and dual four-lane carriageway the distribution
factor will be 60 % and 45 % respectively.

Pavement thickness design charts

For the design of pavements to carry traffic in the range of 1 to 10 msa, use chart 1 and for
traffic in the range 10 to 150 msa, use chart 2 of IRC:37 2001. The design curves relate
pavement thickness to the cumulative number of standard axles to be carried over the design
life for different sub-grade CBR values ranging from 2 % to 10 %. The design charts
will give the total thickness of the pavement for the above inputs. The total thickness
consists of granular sub-base, granular base and bituminous surfacing. The individual
layers are designed based on the the recommendations given below and the subsequent
tables.

Numerical example

Design the pavement for construction of a new bypass with the following data:

1. Two lane carriage way

2. Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction = 400 CVPD (sum of
both directions)
3. Traffic growth rate = 7.5 %
4. Design life = 15 years
5. Vehicle damage factor based on axle load survey = 2.5 standard axle per
commercial vehicle
6. Design CBR of subgrade soil = 4%.

Solution

1. Distribution factor = 0.75

2.

3. Total pavement thickness for CBR 4% and traffic 7.2 msa from IRC:37 2001 chart1
= 660 mm
4. Pavement composition can be obtained by interpolation from Pavement
Design Catalogue (IRC:37 2001).
1. Bituminous surfacing = 25 mm SDBC + 70 mm DBM
2. Road-base = 250 mm WBM
3. sub-base = 315 mm granular material of CBR not less than 30 %

Numerical example
Design the pavement for construction of a new bypass with the following data:

1. Two lane carriage way

2. Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction = 400 CVPD (sum of
both directions)
3. Traffic growth rate = 7.5 %
4. Design life = 15 years
5. Vehicle damage factor based on axle load survey = 2.5 standard axle per
commercial vehicle
6. Design CBR of subgrade soil = 4%.

Solution

1. Distribution factor = 0.75

2.

3. Total pavement thickness for CBR 4% and traffic 7.2 msa from IRC:37 2001 chart1
= 660 mm
4. Pavement composition can be obtained by interpolation from Pavement
Design Catalogue (IRC:37 2001).
1. Bituminous surfacing = 25 mm SDBC + 70 mm DBM
2. Road-base = 250 mm WBM
3. sub-base = 315 mm granular material of CBR not less than 30 %
Rigid pavement design

As the name implies, rigid pavements are rigid i.e, they do not flex much under loading like
flexible pavements. They are constructed using cement concrete. In this case, the load
carrying capacity is mainly due to the rigidity ad high modulus of elasticity of the slab (slab
action). H. M. Westergaard is considered the pioneer in providing the rational
treatment of the rigid pavement analysis.

Modulus of sub-grade reaction

Westergaard considered the rigid pavement slab as a thin elastic plate resting on soil sub-
grade, which is assumed as a dense liquid. The upward reaction is assumed to be
proportional to the deflection. Base on this assumption, Westergaard defined a
modulus of sub-grade

reaction in kg/cm given by where is the displacement level taken as

0.125

cm and is the pressure sustained by the rigid plate of 75 cm diameter at a deflection

of
0.125 cm.

Relative stiffness of slab to sub-grade

A certain degree of resistance to slab deflection is offered by the sub-grade. The sub-grade
deformation is same as the slab deflection. Hence the slab deflection is direct measurement
of the magnitude of the sub-grade pressure. This pressure deformation characteristics of
rigid pavement lead Westergaard to the define the term radius of relative stiffness in cm
is given by the equation 1.

(1)

where E is the modulus of elasticity of cement concrete in kg/cm (3.0 * 10 ), is the

Poisson's ratio of concrete (0.15), is the slab thickness in cm and is the modulus
of sub-grade reaction.

Critical load positions

Since the pavement slab has finite length and width, either the character or the intensity of
maximum stress induced by the application of a given traffic load is dependent on the
location of the load on the pavement surface. There are three typical locations
namely the interior, edge and corner, where differing conditions of slab continuity exist.
These locations are termed as critical load positions.

Equivalent radius of resisting section

When the interior point is loaded, only a small area of the pavement is resisting the bending
moment of the plate. Westergaard's gives a relation for equivalent radius of the
resisting section in cm in the equation 1.
 (1)

Where is the radius of the wheel load distribution in cm and is the slab thickness in cm.

Wheel load stresses - Westergaard's stress equation

The cement concrete slab is assumed to be homogeneous and to have uniform elastic
properties with vertical sub-grade reaction being proportional to the deflection. Westergaard
developed relationships for the stress at interior, edge and corner regions,
denoted

as in kg/cm respectively and given by the equation 1-3.

(1)

(2)

(3)

where is the slab thickness in cm, is the wheel load in kg, is the radius of the wheel
load distribution in cm, the radius of the relative stiffness in cm and is the radius of the
resisting section in cm

Figure 1: Critical stress locations

Temperature stresses
Temperature stresses are developed in cement concrete pavement due to variation in slab
temperature. This is caused by (i) daily variation resulting in a temperature gradient
across the thickness of the slab and (ii)seasonal variation resulting in overall change in the
slab temperature. The former results in warping stresses and the later in frictional stresses.

Warping stress

The warping stress at the interior, edge and corner regions, denoted as in
kg/cm respectively and given by the equation 2-3.

(1)

(2)

(3)

where is the modulus of elasticity of concrete in kg/cm (3 10 ), is the thermal

coefficient of concrete per C (1 10 ) is the temperature difference between the top

and bottom of the slab, and are the coefficient based on in the desired direction

and right angle to the desired direction, is the Poisson's ration (0.15), is the radius
of the contact area and is the radius of the relative stiffness.

Frictional stresses

The frictional stress in kg/cm is given by the equation

(1)

where is the unit weight of concrete in kg/cm (2400), is the coefficient of sub
grade friction (1.5) and is the length of the slab in meters.

Combination of stresses

The cumulative effect of the different stress give rise to the following thee critical cases
• Summer, mid-day: The critical stress is for edge region
given

by
• Winter, mid-day: The critical combination of stress is for the edge region given
by

• Mid-nights: The critical combination of stress is for the corner region

given by
Conclusion

pavement design is a critical component of civil engineering that significantly impacts

road safety, durability, and environmental sustainability. Through a thorough
understanding of materials, structural analysis, and traffic demands, we can create
pavements that not only meet current needs but also adapt to future challenges. By
integrating innovative technologies and sustainable practices, we can enhance the
performance and lifespan of our roadways. As we strive for continuous improvement in
pavement design, collaboration among engineers, policymakers, and communities will
be essential in creating efficient transportation systems that benefit all.