11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

Architecture
Architecture is the art and technique of
designing and building, as distinguished from
the skills associated with construction.[3] It is
both the process and the product of sketching,
conceiving,[4] planning, designing, and
[5]
constructing buildings or other structures. The
term comes from Latin architectura; from
Ancient Greek ἀρχιτέκτων
(arkhitéktōn) 'architect'; from ἀρχι-
(arkhi-) 'chief' and τέκτων (téktōn) 'creator'.
Architectural works, in the material form of
In adding the dome to the Florence Cathedral (Italy)
buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols
in the early 15th century, the architect Filippo
and as works of art. Historical civilisations are Brunelleschi not only transformed the building and
often identified with their surviving architectural the city, but also the role and status of the
achievements.[6] architect.[1][2]

The practice, which began in the prehistoric era,

has been used as a way of expressing culture by civilizations on all seven continents.[7] For this
reason, architecture is considered to be a form of art. Texts on architecture have been written since
ancient times. The earliest surviving text on architectural theories is the 1st century AD treatise De
architectura by the Roman architect Vitruvius, according to whom a good building embodies
firmitas, utilitas, and venustas (durability, utility, and beauty). Centuries later, Leon Battista
Alberti developed his ideas further, seeing beauty as an objective quality of buildings to be found in
their proportions. In the 19th century, Louis Sullivan declared that "form follows function".
"Function" began to replace the classical "utility" and was understood to include not only practical
but also aesthetic, psychological, and cultural dimensions. The idea of sustainable architecture was
introduced in the late 20th century.

Architecture began as rural, oral vernacular architecture that developed from trial and error to
successful replication. Ancient urban architecture was preoccupied with building religious
structures and buildings symbolizing the political power of rulers until Greek and Roman
architecture shifted focus to civic virtues. Indian and Chinese architecture influenced forms all
over Asia and Buddhist architecture in particular took diverse local flavors. During the Middle
Ages, pan-European styles of Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals and abbeys emerged while the
Renaissance favored Classical forms implemented by architects known by name. Later, the roles of
architects and engineers became separated.

Modern architecture began after World War I as an avant-garde movement that sought to develop
a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order focused on
meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. Emphasis was put on modern techniques,
materials, and simplified geometric forms, paving the way for high-rise superstructures. Many
architects became disillusioned with modernism which they perceived as ahistorical and anti-
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 1/23
11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

aesthetic, and postmodern and contemporary architecture developed. Over the years, the field of
architectural construction has branched out to include everything from ship design to interior
decorating.

Definitions
Architecture can mean:

A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures.[8]

The art and science of designing buildings and (some) nonbuilding structures;[8] sometimes
called "architectonics"[9]
The style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures.[8]
A unifying or coherent form or structure.[10]
Knowledge of art, science, technology, and humanity.[8]
The design activity of the architect,[8] from the macro-level (urban design, landscape
architecture) to the micro-level (construction details and furniture).
The practice of the architect where architecture means offering or rendering professional
services in connection with the design and construction of buildings or built environments.[11]

Theory
The philosophy of architecture is a branch of philosophy of art,
dealing with aesthetic value of architecture, its semantics and
in relation with development of culture. Many philosophers
and theoreticians from Plato to Michel Foucault, Gilles
Deleuze,[12] Robert Venturi and Ludwig Wittgenstein have
concerned themselves with the nature of architecture and
whether or not architecture is distinguished from building.

Historic treatises
The earliest surviving written work on the subject of
architecture is De architectura by the Roman architect
Vitruvius in the early 1st century AD.[13] According to
Vitruvius, a good building should satisfy the three principles of
firmitas, utilitas, venustas,[14][15] commonly known by the Illustration of bracket arm clusters
original translation – firmness, commodity and delight. An containing cantilevers from Yingzao
equivalent in modern English would be: Fashi, a text on architecture by Li
Jue (1065–1110)
Durability – a building should stand up robustly and remain
in good condition
Utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used
Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing
According to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as
possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De re
aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, although ornament also played a
part. For Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealized human figure, the

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 2/23

11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was,

therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something
applied superficially, and was based on universal, recognizable
truths. The notion of style in the arts was not developed until
the 16th century, with the writing of Giorgio Vasari.[16] By the
18th century, his Lives of the Most Excellent Painters,
Sculptors, and Architects had been translated into Italian,
French, Spanish, and English.
Plan of the second floor (attic
In the 16th century, Italian Mannerist architect, painter and storey) of the Hôtel de Brionne in
theorist Sebastiano Serlio wrote Tutte L'Opere D'Architettura Paris – 1734.

et Prospetiva (Complete Works on Architecture and

Perspective). This treatise exerted immense influence throughout Europe, being the first handbook
that emphasized the practical rather than the theoretical aspects of architecture, and it was the first
to catalog the five orders.[17]

In the early 19th century, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin wrote Contrasts (1836) that, as the
title suggested, contrasted the modern, industrial world, which he disparaged, with an idealized
image of neo-medieval world. Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only "true Christian
form of architecture."[18] The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of
Architecture, published 1849, was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture.
Architecture was the "art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men ... that the sight
of them" contributes "to his mental health, power, and pleasure".[19] For Ruskin, the aesthetic was
of overriding significance. His work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of
architecture unless it is in some way "adorned". For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned,
functional building needed string courses or rustication, at the very least.[19]

On the difference between the ideals of architecture and mere construction, the renowned 20th-
century architect Le Corbusier wrote: "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these
materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly
you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is
Architecture".[20] Le Corbusier's contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe is said to have stated in
a 1959 interview that "architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. There it
begins."[21]

Modern concepts
The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis
Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural
design: "Form follows function". While the notion that
structural and aesthetic considerations should be entirely
subject to functionality was met with both popularity and
skepticism, it had the effect of introducing the concept of The National Congress of Brazil,
"function" in place of Vitruvius' "utility". "Function" came to be designed by Oscar Niemeyer
seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and
enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic,
psychological and cultural.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 3/23

11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

Nunzia Rondanini stated, "Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the
functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences. Through its own particular
way of expressing values, architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming
that, in and of itself, it will promote social development.... To restrict the meaning of
(architectural) formalism to art for art's sake is not only reactionary; it can also be a purposeless
quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into a mere instrumentality".[22]

Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building
design are Rationalism, Empiricism, Structuralism, Poststructuralism, Deconstruction and
Phenomenology.

In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both
structure and function, the consideration of sustainability, hence sustainable architecture. To
satisfy the contemporary ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is
environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the natural
and built environment of its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon the natural
environment for heating, ventilation and cooling, water use, waste products and lighting.

History

Origins and vernacular architecture

In Norway: wood and In Lesotho: rondavel In Ireland: Yola hut

elevated-level stones

In Romania: peasant
houses in the Dimitrie
Gusti National Village
Museum (Bucharest)

Building first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (e.g. shelter, security, and worship) and
means (available building materials and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and
knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, building became a craft,
and architecture became the term used to describe the highly formalized and respected aspects of

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 4/23

11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

the craft. It is widely assumed that architectural success was achieved through trial and error, with
progressively less trial and more replication as results became satisfactory over time. Vernacular
architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world.

Prehistoric architecture

Göbekli Tepe from Turkey, founded Goseck circle, Germany 4900

in 10th millennium BC and BC
abandoned in 8th millennium BC

Miniature of a regular Cucuteni- Excavated dwellings at Skara Brae

Trypillian house, full of ceramic (Orkney, Scotland)
vessels

Early human settlements were mostly rural. Expanding economies resulted in the creation of
proto-cities or urban areas, which in some cases grew and evolved very rapidly, such as Çatalhöyük
in modern-day Turkey and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 5/23

11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

Neolithic archaeological sites include Göbekli Tepe and Çatalhöyük in Turkey, Jericho in the
Levant, Mehrgarh in Pakistan, Skara Brae in Orkney, and Cucuteni-Trypillian culture settlements
in Romania, Moldova and Ukraine.

Classical era

Mesopotamian architecture: Ancient Egyptian architecture: The

Reconstruction of the Ishtar Great Pyramid of Giza (Giza, Egypt),
Gate in the Pergamon Museum c. 2589–2566 BC, by Hemiunu
(Berlin, Germany), c. 575 BC

Ancient Greek architecture: The Ancient Roman architecture: The Armenian architecture: The
Parthenon on the Acropolis of Maison Carrée from Nîmes Garni Temple from Garni
Athens, made of marble and (France), one of the best- (Armenia), c. 1st century AD
limestone, c. 460–406 BC preserved Roman temples,
c. 2 AD

In many ancient civilizations, such as those of Egypt and Mesopotamia, architecture and urbanism
reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, and many ancient cultures
resorted to monumentality in their architecture to symbolically represent the political power of the
ruler or the state itself.

The architecture and urbanism of classical civilizations such as the Greek and Roman civilizations
evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones. New building types emerged and
architectural style developed in the form of the classical orders. Roman architecture was influenced
by Greek architecture as they incorporated many Greek elements into their building practices.[23]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 6/23

11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

Texts on architecture have been written since ancient times—these texts provided both general
advice and specific formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples of canons are found in the
writings of Vitruvius in the 1st century BC. Some of the most important early examples of canonic
architecture are religious.

Asian architecture

Indian architecture: The Chinese architecture: The Japanese architecture:

Kandariya Mahadeva Hall of Prayer for Good The Himeji Castle
Temple (Khajuraho, Harvests, the main building (Himeji, Hyōgo
Madhya Pradesh, of the Temple of Heaven Prefecture, Japan),
India), c. 1030 (Beijing, China), 1703– 1609
1790

Khmer architecture: The

Bakong (near Siem
Reap, Cambodia),
completed in 881

Asian architecture developed differently compared to Europe, and the Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh
architectural styles have different characteristics. Unlike Indian and Chinese architecture, which
had great influence on the surrounding regions, Japanese architecture did not. Some Asian
architecture showed great regional diversity, in particular Buddhist architecture. Moreover, other
architectural achievements in Asia is the Hindu temple architecture, which developed from around
the 5th century CE, is in theory governed by concepts laid down in the Shastras, and is concerned
with expressing the macrocosm and the microcosm.

In many Asian countries, pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed
specifically to enhance the natural landscape. Also, the grandest houses were relatively lightweight
structures mainly using wood until recent times, and there are few survivals of great age.
Buddhism was associated with a move to stone and brick religious structures, probably beginning
as rock-cut architecture, which has often survived very well.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 7/23

11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

Early Asian writings on architecture include the Kao Gong Ji of China from the 7th–5th centuries
BC; the Shilpa Shastras of ancient India; Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra of Sri Lanka and Araniko of
Nepal .

Islamic architecture

Moorish architecture: Grand Persian architecture: The Jameh

arches of the Mosque–Cathedral Mosque in Isfahan (Iran)
of Córdoba (Córdoba, Spain)

Mughal architecture: The Taj Ottoman architecture: The interior

Mahal in Agra (India) side view of the main dome of the
Selimiye Mosque in Edirne
(Turkey)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 8/23

11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

Islamic architecture began in the 7th century, incorporating architectural forms from the ancient
Middle East and Byzantium, but also developing features to suit the religious and social needs of
the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, Turkey, North Africa, the Indian
Sub-continent and in parts of Europe, such as Spain, Albania, and the Balkan States, as the result
of the expansion of the Ottoman Empire.[24][25]

European medieval architecture

Armenian Architecture: Interior Byzantine Carolingian

of Etchmiadzin Cathedral, the architecture: Apse architecture:
first cathedral in the world, of Santa Maria Interior of the
founded 303 year AD. Maggiore (Rome), Aachen
decorated in the Cathedral
5th century with (Aachen,
this glamorous Germany), 796–
mosaic 805

Romanesque architecture: Interior Gothic architecture: Stained glass

of the Durham Cathedral windows of the Sainte-Chapelle in
(Durham, UK), 1093–1133 Paris, completed in 1248, mostly
constructed between 1194 and
1220

In Europe during the Medieval period, guilds were formed by craftsmen to organize their trades
and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of
architect was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum as they are
sometimes described in contemporary documents.

The major architectural undertakings were the buildings of abbeys and cathedrals. From about
900 onward, the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried architectural knowledge across
Europe, resulting in the pan-European styles Romanesque and Gothic.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 9/23

11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

Also, a significant part of the Middle Ages architectural heritage is numerous fortifications across
the continent. From the Balkans to Spain, and from Malta to Estonia, these buildings represent an
important part of European heritage.

Renaissance architecture

The Florence Cathedral The Tempietto The Hall of Perspective from

(Florence, Italy), 1294– (Rome), by Villa Farnesina (Rome), by
1436, by Arnolfo di Donato Baldassare Peruzzi, 1505–
Cambio, Filippo Bramante, 1510
Brunelleschi and Emilio 1444–1514
De Fabris

The Villa La Rotonda The Château de

(Vicenza, Italy), 1567 – Chenonceau (France), by
c. 1592, by Andrea Palladio Philibert de l'Orme, 1576

In Renaissance Europe, from about 1400 onwards, there was a revival of Classical learning
accompanied by the development of Renaissance humanism, which placed greater emphasis on the
role of the individual in society than had been the case during the Medieval period. Buildings were
ascribed to specific architects – Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio – and the cult of the
individual had begun. There was still no dividing line between artist, architect and engineer, or any
of the related vocations, and the appellation was often one of regional preference.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 10/23

11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

A revival of the Classical style in architecture was accompanied by a burgeoning of science and
engineering, which affected the proportions and structure of buildings. At this stage, it was still
possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within
the scope of the generalist.

Early modern and the industrial age

Baroque architecture: The Rococo architecture: The Neoclassical architecture:

Château de Maisons pièce de la vaisselle d'or The west facade of the
(France), by François (Palace of Versailles, Petit Trianon (Versailles),
Mansart, 1630–1651 Versailles, France) 1764, by Ange-Jacques
Gabriel

Historicist 19th century Eclectic 19th century industrial Orientalist architecture:

architecture (in this Classicist architecture: architecture: Les Halles The Éden-Théâtre
case Gothic The Museum of Ages (Paris), 1850s-destroyed in (Paris), early 1880s –
Revival): Interior of on Victory Avenue 1971, by Victor Baltard demolished in 1895, by
the All Saints (Bucharest, Romania), William Klein and Albert
(London), 1850– late 19th century, Duclos
1859, by William unknown architect
Butterfield

Revivalist architecture of Beaux-Arts architecture: The Ernst Ludwig House in

a national style (in this CEC Palace on Victory Avenue Darmstadt Artists' Colony,
case Romanian Revival): (Bucharest), 8 June 1897 – Darmstadt, Germany, 1900,
The C.N. Câmpeanu 1900, by Paul Gottereau[27] by Joseph Maria Olbrich
House on Bulevardul
Dacia (Bucharest),
c. 1923, by Constantin
Nănescu[26]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 11/23

11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

The emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology,
architecture and engineering began to separate, and the architect began to concentrate on
aesthetics and the humanist aspects, often at the expense of technical aspects of building design.
There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and
concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typified
by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the Neo Gothic or Scottish
baronial styles. Formal architectural training in the 19th century, for example at École des Beaux-
Arts in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context
and feasibility.

Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass production and consumption.
Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the
province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production.

Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. Housebuilders could use current

architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural
journals.

Modernism

Early Modern Expressionist Art Deco architecture: The

architecture: The Fagus architecture: The Einstein Théâtre des Champs-
Factory (Alfeld, Tower (Potsdam, near Élysées (Paris), 1910–1913,
Germany), 1911, by Berlin, Germany), 1919– by Auguste Perret
Walter Gropius 1922, by Erich
Mendelsohn

International Style:
The Glaspaleis
(Heerlen, the
Netherlands),
1934–1935, by
Frits Peutz and
Philip Johnson

Around the beginning of the 20th century, general dissatisfaction with the emphasis on revivalist
architecture and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as
precursors to Modern architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 12/23
11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

1907 to produce better quality machine-made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial
design is usually placed here. Following this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Weimar,
Germany in 1919, redefined the architectural bounds prior set throughout history, viewing the
creation of a building as the ultimate synthesis – the apex – of art, craft, and technology.

When modern architecture was first practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with moral,
philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after World War I, pioneering modernist
architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and
economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the
architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly
declining aristocratic order. The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to
pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functional details. Buildings
displayed their functional and structural elements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces
instead of hiding them behind decorative forms. Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright developed
organic architecture, in which the form was defined by its environment and purpose, with an aim
to promote harmony between human habitation and the natural world with prime examples being
Robie House and Fallingwater.

Architects such as Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson and Marcel Breuer worked to create beauty
based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading
traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods
made possible by the Industrial Revolution, including steel-frame construction, which gave birth to
high-rise superstructures. Fazlur Rahman Khan's development of the tube structure was a

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 13/23

11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

technological break-through in building ever higher. By mid-century, Modernism had morphed

into the International Style, an aesthetic epitomized in many ways by the Twin Towers of New
York's World Trade Center designed by Minoru Yamasaki.

Postmodernism

Piazza d'Italia (New Orleans, Team Disney Building (Los Angeles, Multicolour
US), 1978, by Charles Moore US), 1990, by Michael Graves interior of the
Cambridge
Judge
Business
School
(Cambridge,
the UK),
1995, by
John Outram

The Dancing
House
(Prague,
Czech
Republic),
1996, by
Vlado Milunić
and Frank
Gehry

Many architects resisted modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of historical
styles. As the first generation of modernists began to die after World War II, the second generation
of architects including Paul Rudolph, Marcel Breuer, and Eero Saarinen tried to expand the
aesthetics of modernism with Brutalism, buildings with expressive sculpture façades made of
unfinished concrete. But an even younger postwar generation critiqued modernism and Brutalism
for being too austere, standardized, monotone, and not taking into account the richness of human
experience offered in historical buildings across time and in different places and cultures.

One such reaction to the cold aesthetic of modernism and Brutalism is the school of metaphoric
architecture, which includes such things as bio morphism and zoomorphic architecture, both using
nature as the primary source of inspiration and design. While it is considered by some to be merely

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 14/23

11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

an aspect of postmodernism, others consider it to be a school in its own right and a later
development of expressionist architecture.[28]

Beginning in the late 1950s and 1960s, architectural phenomenology emerged as an important
movement in the early reaction against modernism, with architects like Charles Moore in the
United States, Christian Norberg-Schulz in Norway, and Ernesto Nathan Rogers and Vittorio
Gregotti, Michele Valori, Bruno Zevi in Italy, who collectively popularized an interest in a new
contemporary architecture aimed at expanding human experience using historical buildings as
models and precedents.[29] Postmodernism produced a style that combined contemporary building
technology and cheap materials, with the aesthetics of older pre-modern and non-modern styles,
from high classical architecture to popular or vernacular regional building styles. Robert Venturi
famously defined postmodern architecture as a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is
functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) and upheld it against modernist and
brutalist "ducks" (buildings with unnecessarily expressive tectonic forms).[30]

Architecture today

The Meadows Museum The Beijing National Stadium

(Dallas, Texas, US), 2001, (Beijing, China), 2003–2007, by
by HBRA architects Herzog & de Meuron

The Library and Learning Center of The Isbjerget housing

the University of Vienna (Vienna, project (Aarhus, Denmark),
Austria), 2008, by Zaha Hadid inspired by form and color
of icebergs, 2013, by
CEBRA, JDS Architects,
Louis Paillard, and
SeARCH

Since the 1980s, as the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of structural systems,
services, energy and technologies), the field of architecture became multi-disciplinary with
specializations for each project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods.
Moreover, there has been an increased separation of the 'design' architect[Notes 1] from the 'project'
architect who ensures that the project meets the required standards and deals with matters of
liability.[Notes 2] The preparatory processes for the design of any large building have become
increasingly complicated,[31] and require preliminary studies of such matters as durability,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 15/23
11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

sustainability, quality, money, and compliance with local laws. A large structure can no longer be
the design of one person but must be the work of many. Modernism and Postmodernism have been
criticized by some members of the architectural profession who feel that successful architecture is
not a personal, philosophical, or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it has to consider
everyday needs of people and use technology to create livable environments, with the design
process being informed by studies of behavioral, environmental, and social sciences.

Environmental sustainability has become a mainstream issue, with a profound effect on the
architectural profession. Many developers, those who support the financing of buildings, have
become educated to encourage the facilitation of environmentally sustainable design, rather than
solutions based primarily on immediate cost. Major examples of this can be found in passive solar
building design, greener roof designs, biodegradable materials, and more attention to a structure's
energy usage. This major shift in architecture has also changed architecture schools to focus more
on the environment. There has been an acceleration in the number of buildings that seek to meet
green building sustainable design principles. Sustainable practices that were at the core of
vernacular architecture increasingly provide inspiration for environmentally and socially
sustainable contemporary techniques.[32] The U.S. Green Building Council's LEED (Leadership in
Energy and Environmental Design) rating system has been instrumental in this.[33]

Concurrently, the recent movements of New Urbanism, Metaphoric architecture, Complementary

architecture and New Classical architecture promote a sustainable approach towards construction
that appreciates and develops smart growth, architectural tradition and classical design.[34][35]
This in contrast to modernist and globally uniform architecture, as well as leaning against solitary
housing estates and suburban sprawl.[36] Glass curtain walls, which were the hallmark of the ultra
modern urban life in many countries surfaced even in developing countries like Nigeria where
international styles had been represented since the mid 20th Century mostly because of the
leanings of foreign-trained architects.[37]

Types

Residential architecture
Residential architecture is the design of functional fits the
user's lifestyle while adhering to the building codes and zoning
laws.

Commercial architecture Stourhead in Wiltshire, England,

Commercial architecture is the design of commercial buildings designed by Henry Hoare (1705–
that serves the needs of businesses, the government and 1785)

religious institutions.[38]

Industrial architecture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 16/23

11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

Industrial architecture is the design of specialized industrial buildings, whose primary focus is
designing buildings that can fulfil their function while ensuring the safe movement of labor and
goods in the facility.

Landscape architecture
Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor public areas, landmarks, and structures to achieve
environmental, social-behavioral, or aesthetic outcomes.[39] It involves the systematic
investigation of existing social, ecological, and soil conditions and processes in the landscape, and
the design of interventions that will produce the desired outcome. The scope of the profession
includes landscape design; site planning; stormwater management; environmental restoration;
parks and recreation planning; visual resource management; green infrastructure planning and
provision; and private estate and residence landscape master planning and design; all at varying
scales of design, planning and management. A practitioner in the profession of landscape
architecture is called a landscape architect.

Interior architecture
Interior architecture is the design of a space which has been
created by structural boundaries and the human interaction
within these boundaries. It can also be the initial design and
plan for use, then later redesigned to accommodate a changed
purpose, or a significantly revised design for adaptive reuse of
the building shell.[40] The latter is often part of sustainable
architecture practices, conserving resources through
"recycling" a structure by adaptive redesign. Generally referred
Charles Rennie Mackintosh – Music
Room 1901 to as the spatial art of environmental design, form and practice,
interior architecture is the process through which the interiors
of buildings are designed, concerned with all aspects of the
human uses of structural spaces.

Urban design
Urban design is the process of designing and shaping the physical features of cities, towns, and
villages. In contrast to architecture, which focuses on the design of individual buildings, urban
design deals with the larger scale of groups of buildings, streets and public spaces, whole
neighborhoods and districts, and entire cities, with the goal of making urban areas functional,
attractive, and sustainable.[41]

Urban design is an interdisciplinary field that uses elements of many built environment
professions, including landscape architecture, urban planning, architecture, civil engineering and
municipal engineering.[42] It is common for professionals in all these disciplines to practice urban

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 17/23

11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

design. In more recent times different sub-subfields of urban design have emerged such as
strategic urban design, landscape urbanism, water-sensitive urban design, and sustainable
urbanism.

Other types of architecture

Naval architecture
Naval architecture, also known as naval engineering, is an
engineering discipline dealing with the engineering design
process, shipbuilding, maintenance, and operation of marine
vessels and structures.[43][44] Naval architecture involves basic
and applied research, design, development, design evaluation and
calculations during all stages of the life of a marine vehicle.
Preliminary design of the vessel, its detailed design, construction,
Body plan of a ship showing the trials, operation and maintenance, launching and dry-docking are
hull form the main activities involved. Ship design calculations are also
required for ships being modified (by means of conversion,
rebuilding, modernization, or repair). Naval architecture also
involves the formulation of safety regulations and damage control rules and the approval and
certification of ship designs to meet statutory and non-statutory requirements.

Metaphorical "architectures"
"Architecture" is used as a metaphor for many modern techniques or fields for structuring
abstractions. These include:

Computer architecture, a set of rules and methods that describe the functionality, organization,
and implementation of computer systems, with software architecture, hardware architecture
and network architecture covering more specific aspects.
Business architecture, defined as "a blueprint of the enterprise that provides a common
understanding of the organization and is used to align strategic objectives and tactical
demands",[45] Enterprise architecture is another term.
Cognitive architecture theories about the structure of the human mind
System architecture a conceptual model that defines the structure, behavior, and more views of
any type of system.[46]

Seismic architecture
The term 'seismic architecture' or 'earthquake architecture' was first introduced in 1985 by Robert
Reitherman.[47] The phrase "earthquake architecture" is used to describe a degree of architectural
expression of earthquake resistance or implication of architectural configuration, form or style in
earthquake resistance. It is also used to describe buildings in which seismic design considerations
impacted its architecture. It may be considered a new aesthetic approach in designing structures in
seismic prone areas.[48] The wide breadth of expressive possibilities ranges from metaphorical
uses of seismic issues, to the more straightforward exposure of seismic technology. While

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 18/23

11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

outcomes of an earthquake architecture can be very diverse in their physical manifestations,

architectural expression of seismic principles can also take many forms and levels of
sophistication.[49]

See also

Architecture portal

Architectural engineering
Architectural technology
Ephemeral architecture
Index of architecture articles
List of BIM software
Outline of architecture
Philosophy of architecture
Reverse architecture
Timeline of architecture
Zoning
Building code
Civil Engineering

Notes
1. A design architect is one who is responsible for the design.
2. A project architect is one who is responsible for ensuring the design is built correctly and who
administers building contracts – in non-specialist architectural practices the project architect is
also the design architect and the term refers to the differing roles the architect plays at differing
stages of the process.

References
1. Museo Galileo, Museum and Institute of History and Science, The Dome of Santa Maria del
Fiore (http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/itineraries/place/TheDomeOfSantaMariaFiore.html) Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20130401072804/http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/itineraries/place/The
DomeOfSantaMariaFiore.html) 1 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine, (accessed 30 January
2013)
2. Giovanni Fanelli, Brunelleschi, Becocci, Florence (1980), Chapter: The Dome, pp. 10–41.
3. "architecture – Expression of technique" (https://www.britannica.com/topic/architecture/Express
ion-of-technique). Britannica. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
4. Pierre, Leclercq; Safin, Stéphane; Delfosse, Vincent (October 2010). "Phases of an
architectural project" (https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Phases-of-an-architectural-project_fi
g2_225940863). Mixed-Reality Prototypes to Support Early Creative Design. doi:10.1007/978-
1-84882-733-2_21 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-84882-733-2_21). Archived (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20230418153621/https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Phases-of-an-architectur
al-project_fig2_225940863) from the original on 18 April 2023 – via ResearchGate.
5. "architecture" (https://www.britannica.com/topic/architecture). Encyclopedia Britannica.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171116140643/https://www.britannica.com/topic/archit
ecture) from the original on 16 November 2017. Retrieved 27 October 2017.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 19/23

11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

6. Pace, Anthony (2004). "Tarxien". In Daniel Cilia (ed.). Malta before History – The World's
Oldest Free Standing Stone Architecture. Miranda Publishers. ISBN 978-9990985085.
7. "7 Things I Learned About "Home" from Talking to Architects on Every Continent" (https://www.
apartmenttherapy.com/cultural-architecture-homes-36642082). Apartment Therapy. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20201108002048/https://www.apartmenttherapy.com/cultural-arch
itecture-homes-36642082) from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 5 December
2020.
8. Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (1993), Oxford, ISBN 0198605757.
9. The dictionary definition of architectonics at Wiktionary
10. Merriam–Webster's Dictionary of English Usage, ISBN 978-0-87779-132-4.
11. "Gov.ns.ca" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110721200353/http://www.gov.ns.ca/legislature/leg
c/bills/60th_1st/3rd_read/b115.htm). Gov.ns.ca. Archived from the original (http://www.gov.ns.c
a/legislature/legc/bills/60th_1st/3rd_read/b115.htm) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
12. Deleuze, Gilles (1990). Pourparlers. Paris: Minuit. p. 219. "It is not the line that is between two
points, but the point that is at the intersection of several lines."
13. D. Rowland – T.N. Howe: Vitruvius. Ten Books on Architecture. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge 1999, ISBN 0-521-00292-3.
14. "Vitruvius Ten Books on Architecture, with regard to landscape and garden design" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20071012035458/http://gardenvisit.com/landscape/LIH/history/vitruvius.htm#
ch1-3). gardenvisit.com. Archived from the original (http://www.gardenvisit.com/landscape/LIH/
history/vitruvius.htm#ch1-3) on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 14 November 2005.
15. "Vitruvius" (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/home.html).
Penelope.uchicago.edu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220730065630/https://penelo
pe.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/home.html) from the original on 30 July
2022. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
16. Françoise Choay, Alberti and Vitruvius, editor, Joseph Rykwert, Profile 21, Architectural
Design, Vol. 49, No. 5–6.
17. Sebastiano Serlio – On domestic architecture (https://dlc.library.columbia.edu/serlio). Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20210416091747/https://dlc.library.columbia.edu/serlio) 16 April
2021 at the Wayback Machine, Columbia University Libraries, accessed February 5, 2021.
18. D'Anjou, Philippe (2011). "An Ethics of Freedom for Architectural Design Practice". Journal of
Architectural Education. 64 (2): 141–147. doi:10.1111/j.1531-314X.2010.01137.x (https://doi.or
g/10.1111%2Fj.1531-314X.2010.01137.x). JSTOR 41318789 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4131
8789). S2CID 110313708 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:110313708).
19. John Ruskin, The Seven Lamps of Architecture, G. Allen (1880), reprinted Dover, (1989),
ISBN 0-486-26145-X.
20. Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture, Dover Publications(1985). ISBN 0-486-25023-7.
21. Verney, Harriet (25 July 2017). "9 innovative contemporary buildings that test the limits of
humble brick" (https://www.cnn.com/style/article/best-brick-buildings-architecture/index.html).
CNN. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230529231129/https://www.cnn.com/style/articl
e/best-brick-buildings-architecture/index.html) from the original on 29 May 2023. Retrieved
29 May 2023.
22. Rondanini, Nunzia. Architecture and Social Change Heresies II, Vol. 3, No. 3, New York,
Neresies Collective Incorporated, 1981.
23. "Introduction to Greek architecture" (https://web.archive.org/web/20141014123040/http://www.k
hanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/greek-art/beginners-guide-greece/a/introd
uction-to-greek-architecture). Khan Academy. Archived from the original (https://www.khanacad
emy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/greek-art/beginners-guide-greece/a/introduction-to-
greek-architecture) on 14 October 2014. Retrieved 23 June 2017.
24. Sardar, Marika (October 2004). "Essay: The Later Ottomans and the Impact of Europe" (https://
www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/otto3/hd_otto3.htm). www.metmuseum.org. The Met. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20190213145924/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/otto3/hd_o
tto3.htm) from the original on 13 February 2019. Retrieved 12 February 2019.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 20/23

11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

25. Lory, Bernard (2015). "The Ottoman Legacy in the Balkans" (https://brill.com/configurable/cont
entpage/book$002fedcoll$002f9789004290365$002fB9789004290365_006.xml) (html / pdf).
Entangled Histories of the Balkans – Volume Three. pp. 355–405.
doi:10.1163/9789004290365_006 (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004290365_006).
ISBN 978-9004290365. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190213064155/https://brill.co
m/configurable/contentpage/book$002fedcoll$002f9789004290365$002fB9789004290365_00
6.xml) from the original on 13 February 2019. Retrieved 12 February 2019. {{cite book}}:
|website= ignored (help)
26. Woinaroski, Cristina (2013). Istorie urbană, Lotizarea și Parcul Ioanid din București în context
european (in Romanian). SIMETRIA. ISBN 978-973-1872-30-8.
27. Marinache, Oana (2017). Paul Gottereau – Un Regal în Arhitectură (in Romanian). Editura
Istoria Artei. p. 184. ISBN 978-606-8839-09-7.
28. Fez-Barringten, Barie (2012). Architecture: The Making of Metaphors. Newcastle upon Tyne:
Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4438-3517-6.
29. Otero-Pailos, Jorge (2010). Architecture's Historical Turn: Phenomenology and the Rise of the
Postmodern (https://books.google.com/books?id=3WDOQgAACAAJ&q=architecture's%20histo
rical%20turn). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0816666041. Archived (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20220319184501/https://books.google.com/books?id=3WDOQgAA
CAAJ&q=architecture%27s%20historical%20turn) from the original on 19 March 2022.
Retrieved 30 July 2022.
30. Venturi, Robert (1966). Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (https://archive.org/detail
s/complexitycontra00vent). New York: Museum of Modern Art. "complexity and contradiction in
architecture."
31. "Imaginaries on Matter: Tools, Materials, Origins" (https://aadr.info/product/imaginaries-on-matt
er-tools-materials-origins/). aadr.info. Retrieved 23 June 2024.
32. OneWorld.net (31 March 2004). "Vernacular Architecture in India" (http://el.doccentre.info/eldo
c/0411/dwvernacular_architecture.html). El.doccentre.info. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20210303000426/https://el.doccentre.info/eldoc/0411/dwvernacular_architecture.html) from
the original on 3 March 2021. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
33. Other energy efficiency and green building rating systems include Energy Star, Green Globes,
and CHPS (Collaborative for High Performance Schools).
34. "The Charter of the New Urbanism" (http://www.cnu.org/charter). cnu.org. 20 April 2015.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150629164755/http://www.cnu.org/charter) from the
original on 29 June 2015. Retrieved 23 March 2014.
35. "Beauty, Humanism, Continuity between Past and Future" (https://web.archive.org/web/201803
05215635/http://www.traditionalarchitecture.co.uk/aims.html). Traditional Architecture Group.
Archived from the original (http://www.traditionalarchitecture.co.uk/aims.html) on 5 March 2018.
Retrieved 23 March 2014.
36. Issue Brief: Smart-Growth: Building Livable Communities (http://www.aia.org/SiteObjects/files/s
martgrowth05.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20181119170943/https://www.aia.org/
SiteObjects/files/smartgrowth05.pdf) 19 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine. American
Institute of Architects. Retrieved on 23 March 2014.
37. "Architecture" (https://litcaf.com/architecture/). Litcaf. 10 February 2016. Archived (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20181119170946/https://litcaf.com/architecture/) from the original on 19
November 2018. Retrieved 4 June 2017.
38. Scott Zurn. (May 16, 2023). Types of commercial architecture & how to find success. Level
Engineering & Inspection. https://www.levelengineering.com/architecture/commercial-
architecture/.
39. Sir Geoffrey Jellicoe, Susan Jellicoe, The Landscape of Man: Shaping the Environment from
Prehistory to the Present Day. ISBN 978-0500274316.
40. "Interior Architecture" (http://intar.risd.edu/). RISD Interior Architecture Graduate Department.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220730065634/https://interiorarchitecture.risd.edu/)
from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 28 February 2017.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 21/23

11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

41. Boeing; et al. (2014). "LEED-ND and Livability Revisited" (https://escholarship.org/uc/item/49f2

34rd). Berkeley Planning Journal. 27: 31–55. doi:10.5070/BP327120808 (https://doi.org/10.507
0%2FBP327120808). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190704184041/https://escholars
hip.org/uc/item/49f234rd) from the original on 4 July 2019. Retrieved 15 April 2015.
42. Van Assche, K., Beunen, R., Duineveld, M., & de Jong, H. (2013). "Co-evolutions of planning
and design: Risks and benefits of design perspectives in planning systems" (http://plt.sagepub.
com/content/12/2/177.short) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130628061608/http://plt.s
agepub.com/content/12/2/177.short) 28 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Planning Theory,
12(2), 177–198.
43. RINA. "Careers in Naval Architecture" (http://www.rina.org.uk/careers_in_naval_architecture.ht
ml). www.rina.org.uk. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171020170147/https://www.rina.
org.uk/careers_in_naval_architecture.html) from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved
26 February 2017.
44. Biran, Adrian; (2003). Ship hydrostatics and stability, Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-
4988-7.
45. OMG Business Architecture Special Interest Group "What Is Business Architecture? (http://ww
w.omg.org/bawg/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170713063349/http://www.omg.org/
bawg/) 13 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine" at bawg.omg.org, 2008 (archive.org (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20080429224109/http://bawg.omg.org/)). Accessed 2015-04-03; Cited in:
William M. Ulrich, Philip Newcomb Information Systems Transformation: Architecture-Driven
Modernization Case Studies. (2010), p. 4.
46. Hannu Jaakkola and Bernhard Thalheim. (2011) "Architecture-driven modelling
methodologies." In: Proceedings of the 2011 conference on Information Modelling and
Knowledge Bases XXII. Anneli Heimbürger et al. (eds). IOS Press. p. 98.
47. Reitherman, Robert (1985). Earthquake Engineering and Earthquake Architecture. Part of the
AIA Workshop for Architects and Related Building Professionals on Designing for Earthquakes
in the Western Mountain States.
48. Llunji, Mentor (2016). Seismic Architecture – The architecture of earthquake resistant
structures. Msproject. ISBN 978-9940979409.
49. Charleson, Andrew (2000). Towards An Earthquake Architecture. 12th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering.

External links
World Architecture Community (http://www.worldarchitecture.org)
Architecture.com (http://www.architecture.com), published by Royal Institute of British
Architects
Architectural centers and museums in the world (https://web.archive.org/web/2009100909501
8/http://www.uia-architectes.org/texte/england/Menu-7/1-musees.html), list of links from the
UIA
American Institute of Architects (https://www.aia.org/)
Glossary of Architectural Terms (https://architecturaltrust.org/outreach/education/glossary-of-ar
chitectural-terms/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210828183015/https://architecturalt
rust.org/outreach/education/glossary-of-architectural-terms/) 28 August 2021 at the Wayback
Machine
Cities and Buildings Database (http://content.lib.washington.edu/buildingsweb/index.html) –
Collection of digitized images of buildings and cities drawn from across time and throughout
the world from the University of Washington Library
"Architecture and Power" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00548k0), BBC Radio 4
discussion with Adrian Tinniswood, Gillian Darley and Gavin Stamp (In Our Time, Oct. 31,
2002)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 22/23

11/20/24, 8:59 PM Architecture - Wikipedia

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Architecture&oldid=1254461643"

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture#:~:text=8 External links-,Definitions,buildings and other physical structures. 23/23