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06 Gravity

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06 Gravity

Uploaded by

Bose Moswela
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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Physical geodesy

• Physical geodesy – definition


• Gravity and geodesy
• Figure of the earth
• Gravity
• Gravity potential
• Equipotential surfaces
Definition
• Gravimetric or physical geodesy is the science
that studies geophysical and geodynamic
properties of earth, and includes earth gravity
field and attractions of sun, moon and planets
• A study of earth’s gravity field is a study of
– Earth’s mass and its influence on near objects
– It is also a geodetic study of the physical shape of
the earth.
Geodesy
➢involves measurements of the earth’s gravity
field
➢Uses complicated mathematical techniques to
take into account earth’s curvature and
especially the gravity field
➢Uses more accurate observing instruments
• Physical geodesy – definition
• Gravity and geodesy
• Figure of the earth
• Gravity
• Gravity potential
• Equipotential surfaces
Gravity and geodesy
(Geomatics Engineering)
• Many geodetic instruments use gravity as
reference
– After levelling a theodolite or total station, its vertical
axis is automatically aligned with the local gravity
vector. Thus all measurements with these instruments
are referenced to the gravity field.
– Plumb line (local vertical) is defined by gravity
• Plumb bob and prism pole
– Observations are in the local astronomic frame to
convert them to geodetic frame deflection of the
vertical must be known.
Gravity and geodesy
(Geomatics Engineering)
• Gravity serves as an important reference surface.
– The line of sight of a level is tangent to the local
equipotential surface. So levelled height differences
are really physical differences.
– To obtain precise height differences one should also
use a gravimeter. ∆𝑊 – geopotential
𝐵 𝐵 difference
∆𝑊 = න 𝒈 ∙ 𝑑𝒙 = න 𝑔𝑑𝑥 = ෍ 𝑔𝑖 ∆ℎ𝑖 ∆ℎ𝑖 - Height increments
𝐴 𝐴 𝑖 𝑔𝑖 - Measured gravity

– The above is used to get a geopotential difference


which can be used to calculate physical height
differences
Gravity and geodesy
(Geomatics Engineering)
• Used in calculation of geoid undulations
– GPS positioning is a geometric technique. The
geometric GPS heights are related to physically
meaningful heights through the geoid.

ℎ ≈𝐻+𝑁

𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ≈ 𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 + 𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑖𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡


– Geoid height is vertical separation between geoid
and ellipsoid
H - orthometric height
h - geometric height
Water always flows downhill
with orthometric heights but it
does not always flow downhill
in the geometric height system
Gravity and geodesy
(Other applications)
• Geophysical prospecting
– Gravity contains information about the subsurface
density structure, hence gravimetry is used in
mineral prospecting.
• Geotechnical engineering
– Gravimetry is used to gain knowledge about the
subsurface structure in civil engineering projects.
Gravity and geodesy
• Used to find the shape
of the earth, geoid. The
geoid is found by
measuring gravity first.
– Main function of the
geoid is to serve as a
reference for levelling
• Newton used his law of attraction to predict
the shape of the earth.
– Gravity decreases as one moves from the poles to
the equator.
– Thus the equator is far from the centre of mass of
the earth as compared to the poles
– Hence, he postulated that the earth is an oblate
spheroid rather than a prolate spheroid.
• Physical geodesy – definition
• Gravity and geodesy
• Figure of the earth
• Gravity
• Gravity potential
• Equipotential surfaces
Figure of the earth
• In geometric geodesy the earth’s shape was considered
to be an ellipsoid ( a mathematically defined regular
surface). This shape is mostly used for horizontal
coordinates.
– The ellipsoid approximates the shape of the earth locally
or globally.
• Another surface used in geodetic measurements is the
geoid. Used in vertical coordinate.
– Over the oceans the geoid coincides with the surface of
the ocean (if there were no currents or waves).
– Unlike the ellipsoid the geoid is not a regular surface due
to uneven distribution of the earth’s mass.
Figure of the earth

• Three reference surfaces


• Topography
• Ellipsoid – used for horizontal coordinates
• Geoid – used for vertical coordinates
Figure of the earth
• The two surfaces, ellipsoid and geoid, do not
coincide because one is regular and the other is
irregular.
• The separation between the two is called a geoid
undulation, geoid height, geoid separation.
• The geoid is a surface along which
– gravity potential is everywhere equal and
– To which the direction of gravity is always
perpendicular
Figure of the earth
Ellipsoid of revolution Geoid
Homogenous and rotational body Non homogenous and rotational body

Actual shape of geoid is complex because:


• Heterogeneous mass distribution in the Earth
• Time-depence of mass distribution
The Geoid
• Geoid height varies (globally) within +- 100 m
• Physical geodesy – definition
• Figure of the earth
• Gravity and geodesy
• Gravity
• Gravity potential
• Equipotential surfaces
Gravity
• Total force acting on a body on rest at earth’s surface
• It is the vector sum of the gravitational acceleration
and centrifugal acceleration
Gravity = gravitational acceleration + centrifugal acceleration

• Creates a gravity field


• Acts in direction of plumb line
• Units
– Gal
– 1 Gal = 0.01m/s2=1 cm/s2
– Normal gravity around 981 Gal Usually measured in mG
SI 9.81 ms-2 because of the small
1 gravity unit, g.u.= 0.1 mGal variations in gravity
Gravitation is the force of attraction
Gravitation between any two bodies
Gravitation
Gravitational acceleration is a result of gravitational
force and can be explained by newton’s laws
• Universal Law of Gravitation
– The force between two bodies is proportional to the individual
masses (M, m)
– The force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
(r)
– The force is directed along the line connecting the two bodies
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑭𝑵 = − 2
𝑟
– G is the gravitational constant (6.67259 x 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2)
Gravitation
• Second law of motion
– Force equals to mass (m) times acceleration(g)

𝑭𝑵 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔
From the above we get 𝐺𝑀
𝒈𝒈 = − 2
𝑟
• gg is the gravitational attraction of mass m due to mass M.
It is independent of the attracted mass, m
• varies from place to place depending on latitude, altitude
and local geology
• Generally increases from equator to poles
• Units ms-2
Gravitational force field
• Compute the height H at which the gravitation
of the earth decreases to half its value at the
surface of the earth

– Use R = 6371km
Gravitational attraction
• The magnitude of attraction decreases as the
distance from the centre of mass increases
• The direction is towards the centre of the earth
– Find attraction at the equator
– Find attraction at the poles
– Find the attraction of a point mass in space (20000 m
above earth)
• 𝐺 = 6.67259 ∗ 10−11 𝑚3 𝑠 −2 𝑘𝑔−1
• 𝑀 = 59737 ∗ 1024 𝑘𝑔
∴ 𝐺𝑀 = 398600441.5 ± 0.8 ∗ 106 𝑚3 𝑠 −2

Geocentric constant
Centrifugal accelaration
Centrifugal accelaration
Centrifugal acceleration results from centrifugal
force due to earth rotation
Centrifugal force
– Force equals to mass times acceleration
𝑭𝑪 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑝
Using newton’s second law of motion
𝒈𝒄 = 𝜔 2 𝑝
Which gives the centrifugal acceleration. Magnitude
varies from equator to poles.
𝜔 - angular velocity of earth (7 292 115 x10-11 rad s-1)
p – distance of mass m to rotational axis
Centrifugal force
• Centrifugal force acts
on a body within or
bound by the earth
• A mass on the
rotational axis will
have a centrifugal
force of 0 kgm/s2
• Calculate centrifugal acceleration at the
equator and the poles
• What is the percentage of centrifugal
acceleration to gravitational acceleration at
the equator
Centrifugal acceleration
• Centrifugal acceleration 𝒈𝒄 = 0
and variation of gravity 𝒈𝒈 𝑚𝑎𝑥
∴ 𝒈 𝑚𝑎𝑥
with latitude (after
Reynolds, 1997)

Gravity = gravitational acceleration


+ centrifugal acceleration
𝒈 = 𝒈 𝒈 + 𝒈𝒄

𝒈𝒄 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝒈𝒈 𝑚𝑖𝑛
∴ 𝒈 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Gravity
Magnitude of gravity
• Gravity vector consists of magnitude and
direction. The magnitude is referred to as gravity,
which is a scalar quantity.
• It changes from place to place on the surface of
the earth in response to
– Latitude (largest due to oblateness of earth and
change in centrifugal acceleration with latitude)
– Height
– Underground mass densities
• Varies from 978 000 mGal to 983 200 mGal from
equator to pole respectively
• Physical geodesy – definition
• Figure of the earth
• Gravity and geodesy
• Gravity
• Gravity potential
• Equipotential surfaces
Gravity potential
• Work done by gravity per unit mass to bring a
body from infinity to P.
• It is dependent on position within the gravity
field.
• Can be used derive gravity.
• Units J/kg or m2/s2
Gravity potential
• Potential due to gravity
Gravity potential= gravitational potential + centrifugal potential

W=V+φ
• Magnitude of the potential is the work that must be
done by gravity to move a unit mass from infinity to
the point of interest
• gravity is the gradient of the potential ( 𝒈 = 𝛻𝑊 )
• Potential field is a scalar value from which vector
gravity can be found. This simplifies computations as
gravity is a vector (which is difficult to calculate)
Gravity potential
• Gravitational potential
– Potential due to gravitational acceleration
𝑑𝑉
𝑔𝑐 = 𝛻𝑉 =
𝑑ℎ
ℎ Work done to
∴ 𝑉 = න 𝑔𝑔 𝑑ℎ move unit mass
∞
Indicates the ℎ from infinity to h
𝐺𝑀
potential that 𝑉 = − න 2 𝑑ℎ
∞ 𝑟
must be done
by gravitation in
order to move Potential increases
the mass from 𝐺𝑀 in the direction that
infinity (V = 0) 𝑉= gravity force vectors
𝑟 point
𝑟 ≥ 𝑅𝑒
Gravity potential
• Centrifugal potential

1 2 2
Φ= 𝜔 𝑝
2
• Calculate centrifugal potential at the equator
Gravity potential
• potential

𝑊=𝑉+ Φ

𝐺𝑀 1 2 2
𝑊= + 𝜔 𝑝
𝑟 2
• Physical geodesy – definition
• Figure of the earth
• Gravity and geodesy
• Gravity
• Gravity potential
• Equipotential surfaces
Equipotential surfaces
• A surface with constant gravity potential
– Also known as level surfaces or geo potential
surfaces
𝑊 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
• There are infinitely many equipotential
surfaces
• Equipotential surfaces are convex everywhere
above the earth and never cross one another.
• NB: IT is not a surface of constant gravity.
Equipotential surfaces
• Plumb line (gravity vector)is perpendicular to
the direction of the surface at every point on
the surface
• Equipotential surfaces converge towards the
poles because of systematic increase in gravity
and, therefore, plumb lines are curved
• Equipotential surfaces are undulated as a
result of local variations in gravity and
therefore plumb lines change direction
• The geoid is an equipotential surface chosen
to coincide approximately with the mean
ocean surface.
𝑊 = 𝑊0

• Still water in a bowl, lake or ocean will have an


equipotential surface.
• What is the gravity potential at the geoid (W0)
Plumb lines are not straight

Level surfaces are not parallel to each other


• Relationship between height and potential
𝜕𝑊
𝑔=−
𝜕𝐻
• H is the height measured along the curved
plumb line starting from the geoid
(orthometric height).

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