10.

1 Water

1. Describe chemical tests for the presence of water using anhydrous cobalt(II)
chloride and anhydrous copper(II) sulfate.

When anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride is exposed to water, it changes color from

blue to pink. On the other hand when anhydrous copper(II) sulfate is exposed
to water, it changes color from white to blue.

2. Describe how to test for the purity of water using melting point and boiling
point.

Pure water has a melting point of 0°C. If the water contains impurities, the
melting point will be lower. Besides, pure water has a boiling point of 100°C
at standard atmospheric pressure. Impurities in the water can cause the boiling
point to be higher.

3. Explain that distilled water is used in practical chemistry rather than tap water
because it contains fewer chemical impurities.

Distilled water is preferred in practical chemistry because it has been purified

through distillation, removing dissolved salts, minerals, and other impurities.
This ensures that experiments are not affected by contaminants that could
interfere with chemical reactions.

4. Explain that water from natural sources may contain substances, including:

(a) Dissolved oxygen: Dissolved oxygen is essential for the survival of aquatic life. It
enters water bodies through the process of aeration from the atmosphere and as a
byproduct of photosynthesis by aquatic plants and algae.

(b) Metal compounds: Water from natural sources can contain metal compounds
such as iron, manganese, copper, and lead. These metals can come from natural
geological formations, industrial discharges, or runoff from urban areas.

(c) Plastics: Small plastic particles, known as microplastics, can be found in natural
water sources. These originate from the breakdown of larger plastic waste, industrial
processes, and the shedding of synthetic fibers from clothing.

(d) Sewage: Untreated or partially treated sewage can enter water bodies from leaking
sewage systems, agricultural runoff, or direct discharge. Sewage contains organic
matter, nutrients, and potentially harmful microorganisms.

(e) Harmful microbes: Water can be contaminated with harmful microbes, such as
bacteria, viruses, and parasites, from human and animal waste. These pathogens can
cause waterborne diseases if ingested.

(f) Nitrates from fertilisers: Nitrates used in agricultural fertilisers can leach into
groundwater and surface water through runoff. High levels of nitrates in drinking
 water can be harmful, particularly to infants, causing conditions such as
methemoglobinemia or "blue baby syndrome."

(g) Phosphates from fertilisers and detergents: Phosphates are another component
of agricultural fertilisers and some detergents. They can enter water bodies through
runoff, leading to nutrient pollution. This can cause excessive growth of algae and
aquatic plants, leading to problems like eutrophication and oxygen depletion in water
bodies.

5. State that some of these substances are beneficial, including:

(a) Dissolved oxygen for aquatic life: Dissolved oxygen is crucial for the survival of
fish, invertebrates, and other aquatic organisms. It is used in respiration to produce
energy, allowing these organisms to live, grow, and reproduce. Adequate levels of
dissolved oxygen are necessary for maintaining healthy and balanced aquatic
ecosystems.

(b) Some metal compounds provide essential minerals for life: Certain metal
compounds found in water can be beneficial as they provide essential minerals
required for various biological processes. For example:

o Iron is vital for the formation of hemoglobin in blood, which is necessary for
oxygen transport in humans and animals.
o Calcium is crucial for the development and maintenance of strong bones and
teeth in humans and animals, and is also important in cellular processes.
o Magnesium is essential for photosynthesis in plants as it is a central
component of the chlorophyll molecule.
o Zinc is important for enzyme function and protein synthesis in both plants and
animals.

These beneficial substances, when present in appropriate amounts, contribute to the

health and functioning of living organisms and ecosystems.

6. State that some of these substances are potentially harmful, including:

(a) Some metal compounds are toxic: Certain metal compounds, such as
lead, mercury, and cadmium, are toxic to humans and wildlife. They can cause
various health problems, including neurological damage, kidney failure, and
developmental issues in children. These metals can accumulate in the food
chain, leading to higher concentrations in predators and posing long-term
environmental and health risks.

(b) Some plastics harm aquatic life: Plastics, especially microplastics, can be
ingested by aquatic animals, causing physical harm and blockages in their
digestive systems. Additionally, plastics can release toxic chemicals as they
degrade, which can be absorbed by aquatic organisms, leading to health issues
such as hormonal disruptions and reproductive problems.
 (c) Sewage contains harmful microbes which cause disease: Untreated or
inadequately treated sewage can introduce harmful microorganisms, such as
bacteria (e.g., E. coli, Salmonella), viruses (e.g., hepatitis A), and parasites
(e.g., Giardia) into water bodies. These pathogens can cause waterborne
diseases in humans and animals, including gastrointestinal infections, cholera,
and dysentery.

(d) Nitrates and phosphates lead to deoxygenation of water and damage to

aquatic life: Excessive amounts of nitrates and phosphates from agricultural
runoff, sewage, and detergents can cause nutrient pollution in water bodies.
This can lead to algal blooms, which, when they die and decompose, consume
large amounts of dissolved oxygen in the water. The resulting deoxygenation,
or hypoxia, creates "dead zones" where aquatic life cannot survive. This
process harms fish, invertebrates, and other aquatic organisms, leading to a
decline in biodiversity and disruption of aquatic ecosystems.

7. Describe the treatment of the domestic water supply in terms of:

(a) Sedimentation and filtration to remove solids: Sedimentation allows heavier

particles to settle at the bottom of a treatment tank, while filtration involves passing
the water through layers of sand, gravel, and other materials to remove smaller
particles and impurities.

(b) Use of carbon to remove tastes and odours: Activated carbon filters are used to
adsorb and remove organic compounds and other substances that cause bad tastes and
odours in the water.

(c) Chlorination to kill microbes: Chlorination involves adding chlorine or chlorine

compounds to the water to disinfect it by killing harmful bacteria, viruses, and other
microbes.

10.2 Fertilisers

1. State that ammonium salts and nitrates are used as fertilisers.

o Ammonium salts and nitrates are commonly used as fertilisers because they
provide essential nutrients that plants need for growth. Nitrogen, a key
component of these compounds, is vital for the production of amino acids,
proteins, and chlorophyll in plants. Ammonium salts (such as ammonium
sulfate) and nitrates (such as ammonium nitrate or calcium nitrate) dissolve in
water and are readily absorbed by plant roots. This enhances plant growth,
increases crop yields, and improves the overall health and productivity of
plants by supplying them with the nitrogen required for their development.

2. Describe the use of NPK fertilisers to provide the elements nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium for improved plant growth.
 o NPK fertilisers contain the essential elements nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P),
and potassium (K) which are crucial for plant growth. Nitrogen promotes leaf
and stem growth, phosphorus aids in root and flower development, and
potassium enhances overall plant health and disease resistance.

10.3 Air quality and climate

1. State the composition of clean, dry air as approximately 78% nitrogen, N2N_2N2
, 21% oxygen, O2O_2O2, and the remainder as a mixture of noble gases and
carbon dioxide, CO2CO_2CO2.

Clean, dry air is composed of several key gases, each contributing to its overall
composition. Here’s a breakdown:

Nitrogen (N₂):

Approximate Percentage: 78%

Role: Nitrogen is the most abundant gas in Earth's atmosphere. It is relatively

inert and doesn’t react easily with other substances. Its primary role in the
atmosphere is to provide stability and act as a buffer for other gases.

Oxygen (O₂):

Approximate Percentage: 21%

Role: Oxygen is essential for respiration in most living organisms and is

involved in combustion processes. It is highly reactive and supports life by
enabling cellular respiration.

Noble Gases:

Approximate Percentage: Around 1% (combined total of noble gases)

Components: Includes argon (Ar), neon (Ne), helium (He), krypton (Kr), and
xenon (Xe).

Role: Noble gases are chemically inert and do not readily react with other
substances. They are present in very small amounts but contribute to the
overall composition of the atmosphere.

Carbon Dioxide (CO₂):

Approximate Percentage: Less than 0.04%

Role: Carbon dioxide is a trace gas in the atmosphere but plays a significant
role in the greenhouse effect, trapping heat and contributing to climate change.
It is also essential for photosynthesis in plants.
 2. State the source of each of these air pollutants:

(a) carbon dioxide: from the complete combustion of carbon-containing fuels

(b) carbon monoxide and particulates: from the incomplete combustion of carbon-
containing fuels
(c) methane: from the decomposition of vegetation and waste gases from digestion in
animals
(d) oxides of nitrogen: from car engines
(e) sulfur dioxide: from the combustion of fossil fuels which contain sulfur
compounds

3. State the adverse effects of these air pollutants:

(a) carbon dioxide: higher levels of carbon dioxide leading to increased global
warming, which leads to climate change
(b) carbon monoxide: toxic gas
(c) particulates: increased risk of respiratory problems and cancer
(d) methane: higher levels of methane leading to increased global warming, which
leads to climate change
(e) oxides of nitrogen: acid rain, photochemical smog, and respiratory problems
(f) sulfur dioxide: acid rain

4. Describe how the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane cause global
warming, limited to:

(a) The absorption, reflection, and emission of thermal energy: Carbon dioxide
(CO₂) and methane (CH₄) are greenhouse gases that absorb infrared radiation
(thermal energy) emitted by the Earth's surface. After absorbing this energy, these
gases re-emit it in all directions, including back towards the Earth's surface. This
process traps heat in the atmosphere, leading to an overall warming effect known as
the greenhouse effect.

(b) Reducing thermal energy loss to space: By trapping heat in the atmosphere,
carbon dioxide and methane reduce the amount of thermal energy that escapes into
space. This decreased heat loss contributes to the warming of the Earth's surface and
lower atmosphere, resulting in higher global temperatures and changes in climate
patterns.

5. State and explain strategies to reduce the effects of these environmental issues,
limited to:

(a) Climate change:

 Planting trees: Trees absorb carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere during
photosynthesis, reducing the amount of this greenhouse gas and mitigating global
warming. Reforestation and afforestation projects can help sequester significant
amounts of CO₂.
  Reduction in livestock farming: Livestock farming, particularly cattle, produces
large quantities of methane (CH₄), a potent greenhouse gas. Reducing livestock
farming can lower methane emissions. Additionally, promoting plant-based diets can
reduce the demand for livestock products.
 Decreasing use of fossil fuels: Burning fossil fuels for energy releases large amounts
of CO₂. Transitioning to cleaner energy sources and improving energy efficiency can
significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
 Increasing use of hydrogen and renewable energy (e.g., wind, solar): Hydrogen
can be used as a clean fuel, and renewable energy sources like wind and solar
generate electricity without emitting greenhouse gases. Expanding the use of these
technologies can reduce dependence on fossil fuels and lower greenhouse gas
emissions.

(b) Acid rain:

 Use of catalytic converters in vehicles: Catalytic converters are devices installed in

vehicles' exhaust systems to reduce the emission of harmful gases, including nitrogen
oxides (NOₓ), which contribute to acid rain. They convert NOₓ into harmless nitrogen
(N₂) and oxygen (O₂).
 Reducing emissions of sulfur dioxide by using low-sulfur fuels: Burning fossil
fuels that contain sulfur releases sulfur dioxide (SO₂), which can form acid rain.
Using low-sulfur fuels reduces the amount of SO₂ emitted into the atmosphere.
 Flue gas desulfurization with calcium oxide: This process involves removing sulfur
dioxide from the exhaust gases of fossil fuel power plants before they are released
into the atmosphere. Calcium oxide (CaO) reacts with sulfur dioxide to form calcium
sulfate (CaSO₄), a solid that can be removed and disposed of safely. This technology
significantly reduces SO₂ emissions and helps prevent acid rain formation.

6. Explain how oxides of nitrogen form in car engines and describe their removal
by catalytic converters, e.g.:

Formation of Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

1. High Temperatures:
o In a car engine, especially in the combustion chamber, temperatures
can reach up to 2,500°C (4,500°F). At these high temperatures,
nitrogen (N₂) and oxygen (O₂) in the air react to form oxides of
nitrogen.
o The reaction is: N2+O2→2NO
o This reaction occurs because the high temperatures provide the energy
needed to break the strong bonds between nitrogen atoms and allow
them to react with oxygen.
2. Combustion Process:
o During combustion, fuel (typically gasoline or diesel) is burned with
air. The fuel-air mixture undergoes a high-temperature reaction,
creating conditions that favor the formation of NOx gases.

Removal of NOx by Catalytic Converters

1. Function of Catalytic Converters:

 o A catalytic converter is an exhaust system component designed to
reduce harmful emissions from the engine. It contains a catalyst,
usually made of platinum, palladium, and rhodium, which facilitates
chemical reactions to convert NOx into less harmful substances.
2. Reduction Process:
o In the catalytic converter, NOx is reduced to nitrogen (N₂) and oxygen
(O₂). The reduction reaction can be summarized as: 2NO→N2+O2
o The catalyst provides a surface for the NOx molecules to react,
allowing them to break apart and reform into nitrogen and oxygen.
3. Additional Reactions:
o Catalytic converters also handle other pollutants. For instance, carbon
monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC) are oxidized into
carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O): 2CO+O2→2CO2
HC+O2→CO2+H2O

7. Describe photosynthesis as the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to

produce glucose and oxygen in the presence of chlorophyll and using energy
from light.

Photosynthesis is a vital biological process in plants, algae, and some bacteria, where
light energy is converted into chemical energy. It involves the production of glucose
and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water. Here’s a detailed description of the
process:

Photosynthesis Overview

Chemical Reaction: The general equation for photosynthesis is: 6CO2+6H2

O+light energy→C6H12O6+6O2

Components:

1. Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Absorbed from the atmosphere through tiny pores
called stomata on the leaves.
2. Water (H₂O): Absorbed from the soil through the plant’s root system.
3. Chlorophyll: A green pigment located in the chloroplasts of plant cells. It
captures light energy from the sun.
4. Light Energy: Comes from sunlight and provides the energy needed for the
photosynthesis process.

Process of Photosynthesis

1. Light Absorption:
o Chlorophyll absorbs light energy, primarily in the blue and red
wavelengths, and uses this energy to drive the photosynthesis reaction.
2. Water Splitting (Photolysis):
o Light energy splits water molecules into oxygen, protons, and
electrons: 2H2O→4H++4e−+2O2
o The oxygen is released into the atmosphere as a byproduct.
3. Formation of ATP and NADPH:
 o The light energy is used to produce energy-rich molecules ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) and NADPH (nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate), which are essential for the next stage of
photosynthesis.
4. Carbon Fixation (Calvin Cycle):
o In the stroma of the chloroplast, ATP and NADPH are used to convert
carbon dioxide into glucose through a series of reactions known as the
Calvin cycle.
o The process includes the fixation of CO₂ into a stable intermediate,
followed by reduction to form sugars and regeneration of the starting
molecule to continue the cycle.
5. Glucose Formation:
o The Calvin cycle produces glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) from the fixed carbon
dioxide and other intermediates. This glucose serves as an energy
source for the plant and is used to build other organic molecules like
starch and cellulose.

8. State the word equation and symbol equation for photosynthesis.

Word Equation

Photosynthesis can be described by the following word equation:

Carbon dioxide+Water+Light energy→Glucose+Oxygen

Symbol Equation

The symbol equation for photosynthesis is:

6CO2+6H2O+light energy→C6H12O6+6O2

In this equation:

 CO₂ represents carbon dioxide.

 H₂O represents water.
 C₆H₁₂O₆ represents glucose.
 O₂ represents oxygen.

1. Covert the following word equatios into CHEMICAL EQUATIONS.

i) Magnesium Carbonate + hydrochloric acid -> Magnesium chloride + carbondioxide

+water
MgCO3+2HCl→MgCl2+CO2+H2O

ii) Sodium + sulfuric acid sodium sulfate +hydrogen

2Na+H2SO4→Na2SO4+H2
 iii) Copper(ii)oxide + nitric acid  copper(ii)nitrate + water

CuO+2HNO3→Cu(NO3)2+H2O

iv) Ammonium chloride + sodium hydroxide  sodium chloride + water + ammonia

NH4Cl+NaOH→NaCl+H2O+NH3

v) Calcium hydroxide + carbondioxide  calcium carbonate + water

Ca(OH)2+CO2→CaCO3+H2O

Balancing Equations:

1. 2 Ag + Na₂S → Ag₂S + 2 Na
2. Na₃PO₄ + 3 HCl → 3 NaCl + H₃PO₄
3. Ba₃N₂ + 6 H₂O → 3 Ba(OH)₂ + 2 NH₃
4. TiCl₄ + 2 H₂O → TiO₂ + 4 HCl
5. 3 CaCl₂ + 2 Na₃PO₄ → Ca₃(PO₄)₂ + 6 NaCl
6. 2 NaBr + Cl₂ → 2 NaCl + Br₂
7. Mg(OH)₂ + 2 HCl → MgCl₂ + 2 H₂O
8. 4 FeS + 7 O₂ → 2 Fe₂O₃ + 4 SO₂
9. PCl₅ + 4 H₂O → H₃PO₄ + 5 HCl
10. C₂H₄O + 3 O₂ → 2 CO₂ + 2 H₂O