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CS2020A Discrete Mathematics (Chap1)

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CS2020A Discrete Mathematics (Chap1)

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kdurgakalyani
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© © All Rights Reserved
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CS2020A Discrete Mathematics: Propositional Logic

Well-formed Boolean expressions or well-formed propositional formulas


are defined inductively as follows.
1. Every propositional constant is a well-formed Boolean expression.
2. Every propositional variable is a well-formed Boolean expression.
3. If X is a well-formed Boolean expression, then so is ¬X.
4. If X and Y are well-formed Boolean expressions then so are (X ∧ Y), (X ∨
Y), (X → Y), (X ↔ Y).
5. Nothing else is a well-formed Boolean expression.

Semantics: Truth Table


The semantics of a logic is a way to assign some sort of meaning to the well-
formed expressions of the language.

Logical Equivalence:
1. Identity Laws: X ∧ T ≡ X and X ∨ F ≡ X
2. Domination Laws: X ∧ F ≡ F and X ∨ T ≡ T
3. Idempotent Laws: X ∧ X ≡ X and X ∨ X ≡ X
4. Commutative Laws: X ∧ Y ≡ Y ∧ X and X ∨ Y ≡ Y ∨ X
5. Associative Laws: (X ∧ Y) ∧ Z ≡ X ∧ (Y ∧ Z) and (X ∨ Y) ∨ Z ≡ X ∨ (Y ∨ Z)
6. Distributive Laws: X ∨ (Y ∧ Z) ≡ (X ∨ Y) ∧ (X ∨ Z) and X ∧ (Y ∨ Z) ≡ (X ∧
Y) ∨ (X ∧ Z)
7. De Morgan’s Laws: ¬ (X ∧ Y) ≡ ¬X ∨ ¬Y and ¬ (X ∨ Y) ≡ ¬X ∧ ¬Y
8. Law of Excluded Middle: X ∨ ¬X ≡ T
9. Law of Contradiction: X ∧ ¬X ≡ F
10. Double Negation Law: ¬(¬X) ≡ X
11. Biconditional Law: X ↔ Y ≡ (X → Y) ∧ (Y → X)
12. Implication Laws: X → X ≡ T, X → Y ≡ ¬X ∨ Y
13. Contraposition Law: X → Y ≡ ¬Y → ¬X
14. Modus Ponens: X ∧ (X → Y) ≡ X ∧ Y
15. Modus Tollens: ¬Y ∧ (X → Y) ≡ ¬X ∧ ¬Y

Show that the following expressions are tautologies.


1. Simplification: (X ∧ Y) → X
2. Addition: X → (X ∨ Y)
3. Disjunctive Syllogism: (¬X ∧ (X ∨ Y)) → Y
4. Modus Ponens: (X ∧ (X → Y)) → Y
5. Modus Tollens: (¬Y ∧ (X → Y)) → ¬X
6. Resolution: (X ∨ Y) ∧ (¬X ∨ Z) → (Y ∨ Z)
7. Double Negation: ¬¬X → X and X → ¬¬X
8. Hypothetical Syllogism: ((X → Y) ∧ (Y → Z)) → (X → Z)

Natural Language Translation:


Let us express each of the following declarative sentences in propositional
logic.
1. Today it will be rainy or sunny.
2. If it is sunny today, then it won’t be sunny tomorrow.
3. If you pay Rs.20 you can either have a coffee and a cake or a tea and a
cake.
4. Give me your wallet or I will kill you.
5. Happiness is necessary for good health.
6. Money cannot make you happy.
7. Money makes you unhappy.
8. Peace is necessary and sufficient for one to be happy
ANSWERS:
1. R∨S
2. ST→¬ST+1
3. P→((C∧K) ∨(T∧K))
4. W∨K
5. G→H
6. M→¬H
7. M→U
8. H↔P

Normal Forms:
A Boolean expression is said to be in conjunctive normal form (CNF) if it is
a conjunction of clauses.
A Boolean expression is said to be in disjunctive normal form (DNF) if it is
a disjunction of implicants.

Satisfiability and Validity:


Satisfiable: statement is a tautology.
Unsatisfiable: Statement is a fallacy.
Valid: Every statement is true and whole is Tautology.
Invalid: At least One statement is False.

Semantic Entailment:
A set Σ of sentences is said to semantically entail a sentence X (denoted as Σ
|= X and stands for “X follows from Σ”) if every truth assignment that
satisfies every sentence in Σ also satisfies X
CS2020A Discrete Mathematics: First-Order Logic

Express each of the following statements in first-order logic assuming the


domain to be the set of all propositions.
1. Some propositions are tautologies.
2. The negation of a contradiction is a tautology.
3. The disjunction of two contingencies can be a tautology.
4. The conjunction of two tautologies is a tautology.

A field is a set F with two operations (binary functions) + (called addition)


and ⇥ (called multiplication) which satisfies the following properties.
Write a first-order formula for each of these properties assuming that F is
the domain of discourse.
1. Addition is commutative and associative.
2. There exists an additive identity.
3. Every member has an additive inverse.
4. Multiplication is commutative and associative.
5. There exists a multiplicative identity which is different from the additive
identity.
6. Every member which is not the additive identity has a multiplicative
inverse.
7. Multiplication distributes over addition

Logical Equivalence, Satisfiability, Validity and Semantic


Entailment
Answers:
CS2020A Discrete Mathematics: Introduction to Proofs

The Well-Ordering Property (WOP) is an axiom in the theory of numbers


that states that every non-empty subset of N has a least element. We will
now prove several results in number theory using WOP and other standard
axioms. En route, we will also discuss certain key proof techniques.
1. Every rational number can be expressed as an irreducible fraction.
2. (Division Theorem) For any two integers n, d with d ≥ 1, there exists
unique integers q, r such that n = qd + r and 0 ≤ r < d.
3. Every integer is even or odd but not both.
4. An integer is even if and only if its square is even.
5. √2 is irrational.
6. There are irrational numbers x and y such that x^y is rational.
7. There is a positive integer that can be expressed as the sum of two cubes
in two different ways.
8. (B´ezout’s Lemma) For integers a, b, d, if d = gcd (a, b) then there exists
α, β ∈ Z such that d = αa + βb.
9. (Converse of B´ezout’s Lemma) For integers a, b, d, if d is a common
divisor of a and b and there exists α, β ∈ Z such that d = αa + βb, then
d = gcd (a, b).
10. (Prime Factorization Theorem or Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic)
Every positive integer greater than 1 has a unique (up to the order in which
the prime factors appear) expression as a product of primes.

PROOFS:

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