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Steel Structures Salmon

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355 views539 pages

Steel Structures Salmon

Uploaded by

mauriciog2fcbcnp
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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D E S G l u
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( A i J D

B E H A U I O R
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CHARLES G. SALMON
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) dI EMPHASIZING L,OAD
,U( AND FESISTANCFI
1*! T t r l l B D E A I T I O H
FACTOR DESIGN
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Chaptert
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( Entroduction
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1.1 STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
(
\ Structural design ntal be definedas a ntixtureof art and science,combiningthe
experiencedengineer's irttuiticefeeling for the behatior of a stntcture v,ith a
( sound kno*'ledgeo-frhe principlesof statics.dvnantics,meclzanies^af materials,
( and structttralana!','s;s.lo producea safeeconomicalstructurewhichwill serueits
intendedpurpose.
( Until about i850. structuraldesignwas largelyan art relyingon intuition
( , to determine the size and arrangementof the structural elements.Early
man-made structures essentiailyconformed to those rvhich could also be
( obsen'edin nature. such as bearnsand arches.As the principlesgoverningthe
( behar"ior'cfstrucluresand structuralmaterialshavebecomebetterunderstood,
design procedurcshave becomemore scientific.
( Computatio::s involving scientificprinciplesshould serveas a guide to
( decisionmaking and not be follorvedbtindly. The art or intuitive ability of the
experienced.engireer is utilizedto makethe decisions,guidedby the computa-
( tional results.-
(
\
( 1.2 PRINCIPLES
OF DESIGN
(
Design is a processbl"rvhich an optimum solutionis obtained.In this text the
{ , concern is with the desi-enof structures-in particular,steelstructures.In any
design. certain criteria must be establishedto evaluatervhetheror nor an
( optii:um has bsen achieved.For a structure.trpical criteria nray be (a)
( : nrinin:um cosi: tb) nrj;rirnumrveight; (c) minimum ccnstruction time; (d)
it( r , 1
-!
I
ts*
44..
(
,INTRODUCTIO},I 1 3 ,'HISTORICALBACKGROUNDOF STEELSTFUCTURES
t-
l | "
( ,
Desigri Procedure (
er.Eb The design procedurernay be considered'tobe composedof two parts-func-
tional design and structuralframervorkdesign.Functionaldesignensuresthat ( ,
intended results are achieved,such as (a) adequateworking areasand clear' (
ances:(b) proper ventilationand/or air conditioning;(c) adequatetransporta-
tion facilities. such as elevators,stainvays,and cranesor materialshandling ( "
equipmenr: (d) adequatelighting; and (e) aesthetics. ( r
The srructural frameworkdesignis the selectidnof the arrangementand
sizes of structural elementsso that sen'iceloads may be safely carried.
The iterativedesignproceduremay be outlined as follows:
('
l. Planning,:. Establishmentof the functionsfor which the structuremust (
sene. Set criteria againstwhich to measurethe resulting design foi
being an oPtimum. ( i

2. Prelinrinan' structural configuration.Arrangement of the elements to ( - t


servethe functionsin stePl.
\. 3. Establishmentol the loads to be carried ( ,
. '- - 4. Pre[intinan'memberselection.Basedon the decisionsof steps1, 2, and
( i
3 selectionof the mem.bersizesto satisfyan objectivecriterion,suchas
least *'eight or cost. ( i
5. Anal.vsis.Structuralanalysisinvolving modeling the loads and the
(
structural framervorkto obtain internal forcesand any desireddeflec-
tions. (
6. Ecaluarion Are all strengthand serviceabilityrequirementssatisfied
and is the result optimum? Compare the result with predetermined
(
Ney York(Photoby C. G. Salmoni
1350ft WorldTr:rdeCenter. criteria. (.:
7. Redesign.Repetitionof any part of the sequenceI through 6 found
necessaryor desirableas a result of evaluation.Steps I through 6
(
represenran iterativeprocess.Usually in this text only steps3 through (
minimum labor: (e) minimum cost-of manufactureof ou'ner'sproducts;(l) 6 will be subjectto this iterationsincethe structuralconfigurationand
rnaximum efficiency'of operation to o\\'ner. Usually severalcriteria are in- externalloading will be prescribed (
volved. each of which may require u'eighting.Observingthe above possible 8,. Final decision.The determinationof whether or not an optimum (
criteria,it may be apparbntthat settingclearlymeasurable criteria(suchas designhas beenachieved.
,*'eightand cost) for establishing
an optimum frequentll'*iil be difficult,and (
perhaps impossible.In most practical situationsthe evaluationmust be
q u a l i tat iv e.
( ,
If a specificobjectivecritcion can be expressedrnathematically', then OF STEELSTRUCTURES
BACKGROUND
1.3 HTSTORICAL (
optimizationtechniques mav be emplol'edto obtain a nrrrimum or minimunr
I{etal as a structural materialbeganwith ca'stiron, used on a 100-ft (30-m) (
for thc objcctivefunciion.Optimizationprocedures and techniques comprise
an entire subject that is outside the scope of this te.ti- The criterion of arch span which was built in Englandin 1777-1779[l.ll.* A number of (
rninimumu'cishtis c'rnphasized throughout,underthe generalas.sumption that cast-iron bridgesu'erebuilt during the period 1780-1820,mostly arch-shaped
minimum matcrialrepresents minimumcost.Other subjective criteriamustbe with main girders consistingof individual cast-iron pieces forming bars or (
kcpt rn mind. eventhoughthe integrationof behavioralprincipleswith design (
cI slructural stcel elementsin this text urilizesonly simple objectivecriteria,
suchas rveightc)rcost. '.'riumbers in braclcts refer to the Selc'ctedReferencesat the cnd of thc chrptc'r. (
( i

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r
(
TI
| / INTFOOUCTTON *J t 4 ,,'LOADS
, t I

l' *f
t(
l ' trusses'Cast iron was also usedfor chain links on suspension , t{
I

if necessarv.
The dcad load of atfachments
t/
bridgesuntil is usuallykno*.n *.ith relsorrlb.l
tI (
about 1840. : accuracvprior to the design.
:
l{
I
. Wrought iron bcgan replacingcast iron soon after 1g40,
important eumple bcing the Brittania Bridge over lvlcuai
the earliest
Straits in Wales
it
*{
rvhichrvasbuilt in 18'16-1850.
k
I
This rvasa tuhulargirder bridge havilg spans
230-460-460-230ft (70-140-140-70m), rvhichwa-smade fro-m
t
1 t
;'l
Llve Load
wroujt r-iron : . I
Gravity loads actingrvhenthe structureis in sen,ice,but van'ing in magnirude
/ platesand lngles.
and location, are tcrmed liue loods.Examplesof live loads rt. hurn.n occu-
,Y
t1
The prtxr-'ssof rolling variousshapesrvasdevelopingas cast
iron and pants, furniture, ntovablecquipment.vehicles,ancl storcd
tvrought iron receivedwidcr usage.Bars were rolled on an _eoods. Somc lirc
,(
E:
industrial scale loads may be practicallypermanent,othersmay be highll' riansienr.Beclus.'
bc'ginningrtrout 1780.The rollingof railsbeganabout 1820and rvas
exicnded of the unknorvnn'ltureof the magnitude,rocation.and den.rityof lir.e lrrrJ
( to l-shrpcsbl the 1870s.
items.realisticmagnitudes and the positionsof suchloadsare \.crydifficul r.r
The dcvc-lopments of tlre Bessemer process(1855),the introductionof a
?.7
g
brsic liner in the Bcsscmerconvcrtetftgzo;, and the open-hearth determine
furnace Bccauseof the public concernfor aclequatesafety.live loads to be take;r
broughtri'idespread useof iron ore productsin buitaingmaterials.Since1g90,
$ steel has replacedwrou$ht iron as the principat metittic building as serviceloads in designare usually prescribedby state and local buildin:
i,
tl currently (1989),sreelshar{ng yield stresseruarying from 24,000to
material. codes.These loads are generallyempirical and consenative. basedon experi-
F 100,000 enceand acceptedpracticerather than accuratelycomputedvalues.Wherever
Xl poundsper squareinch,psi (165to 690megapascats] Mpa), and availabiefor
].
i' structuraluses.The varioussteels,their usesind their propertiesare
discussed
t(
t'
in Chapter2,
L TABLE 1.4.1 TYPICALMINIMUMUNIFORMLYDISTRIBUTED
LIVE LOADS
t(
I
(Adapted from Ref. 1.2)
t: (,
t' 1.4 LOADS Live load
l. Occupancy
or Use pst Pat
t\
I The accuratedeterminationof the loads to which a structureor structural
i(
I
elementrvill be subjectedis not alwayspredictable.Even if the loads
are rr,cll
l. Hotel gucstrooms 40 I Oni.t
Scbool ciassrooms
( known at one locationin a structure,thl distributionof load from
elemenrro Private apartments
elementthroughoutthe structureusuallyrequiresassumptionsand approxihra-
i.r Hospital private rooms
i\ tions. Someof the most commonkindJof loadsare discussedin thJ iollorving.
2. Offices
i( sections. 3. Assembly halls, fixed seat
50 2400
60 2900
Library reading rooms
( 4. corridors, above first floor in schools,libraries,and hospitals
Dead Load 80 3800
( 5. Assembly arcas; theaterlobbies i00 4Ec0
Dead load is a fixed position gravity serviceload, so called because Dining rooms and restaurants
( ir acts Of fice building |obbies
continuously torvard the earth when ihe rtru.ture is in service.The rveight
of Main floor, retdl stores
( the structureis considereddead load, as well as attachmentsto the
structure Assembly hall, movableseats
such as pipes. electricalconduit, air-conditioningand heating ducts,
( lighting 6. Wholesale.stores, all floors LZ5 6000
fixtures, floor covering,roof covering,and suspenledceilingr;1hut is, Manufacturing, light
ali irems
( that remain throughoutthe life of the structuie. Storagewarehouses,light
Dead loadsare usuallyknown accuratelybut not until the designhas 7. Armories and drill halls i50 7240
( been
completed.Under
ltels 3 through 6 of the designprocedurediscussedin Sec.
Stagefloors
( l'2, the weight of the structureor structural eliment must Library stack rooms
be estimated,
preliminary sectionselected,weight recomputed,and member 8. Maoufacturing. lieary 250 12000
(, selectionrevised
Sidewalks and driveways subject to trucking
Storagewarehouses,heavy
(
tMPa
megapascals.
are cquivalcnt to Ne$'tonsper squaremillimeter, N/mr#,
( in SI uais. *SI values are
approximateconversioas.l.psf (lb,z5qft) : 47.9 pa.
t.^ (
-

r/TNTRODUCTTCN {
I .4/ LOADS
(
- (
local codesdo not apply, or do not exist, the provisionsfrom one of several
regionaland nationalbuilding codesmay be used.One suchrvidelyrecognized
co<ieis the American National Stondard Minimum Design Loadsfar Buildings
and Other StructuresANSI 458.1 of the American National StandardsInsti-
|-tq'- a'--l - to:at e - o"{-{
ffi* (
(
tute (ANSI) [1.2]. from which some tlpical live loads are presentedin Table 8 3 2 ^Fto'3 o':l*to'
8 2 3 2
?t - o, (
1.4.1. The code will henceforth be referred to as the ANSI Standard.This Axle loads
(kiP5; (
Standardis updatedfrom time to time, most recentlyin l9g}.
Live load when applied to a structure should be positioned to give the H2OTruek HS2OTruck (
maximum effect, including pattial loading alternatespan loading,'or full span
loading as may be necessary.The simplified assumption of full uaiform (
/ l8k for momenrl to be po$tioned
ioading everywhereshould be used only when it agreeswith reality or is an l26k for srrear i for maximum effect (
appropriateapproximation.The probability of having the prescribedloading w = 0.64FiFs/frnear lt of lane
(
applied uniformly over an entire floor, or over all floors of a building
simultaneously,is almost nonexistent.Most codesrecognizethis by allowing (
for somepercentagereductionfrom full loading.For instance,for live loadsof H20 and HS20 Lane
l
100 psf or more ANSi Standard[1.2Jatlowsmembershavingan influencearea Figure1.4.1 AASHTO HigbwayH20 and HS20loadings
(,
t1.31.(l kip : 4.45klg.
of 400 sq ft or more to be designedfor a reduced,liveload accordingto Eq. (
1.4.1,as follon's:
'--'-loading; horvever.th. uruul ones are known as H20 and HS20, shownin
Fig.
I rs
-:
1.4.1.
L: L"L *
ol0.25 (1.1.1) In designinga given bridge, either one truck loading is apptied to the
iA, entire structure,or the lane loading is applied.When the lane loaaing is used,
the uniform portion is distributedover as much of the span or spans as will
r*'here L : reducedlive load per sq ft of areasupportedby the member cause the maximum effect. In addition, the one concentrated load (for
lo : unreducedlive load per sq ft of area supportedby the member maximum negativemomenton continuousspansa secondconcentratedload
(from Table 1.4.1) is also used) is positioned for the most severeloading effect. The load
lr : influencearea,sq ft distribution acrossthe width of a bridge to its varioussupportingmembersis
taken in accordancewith semiempiricalnrles that deplnd on-the type of
The influencearea A, rs four timeSthe tributary area for a column, two trmes bridge deck and supporringstructure.
the tnbutan' area for a beam,and is equal to the panel area for a two-u.ay The single truck loading provides the effect of a heavy concentratedload
slab-The reducedlive load L shallnot be lessthan 50%of the live load to for and usually governs on relatively short spans.The uniform lane load is to
memberssuPportingone floor, nor lessthan 40%of the live load Lo othen*ise. simulatea line of traffic, and the addedconcent'ratedload is to account for the
The live load reduction referred to above is not permitted in lreas to be possibilityof one extra heavyvehiclein the line of traffic. Theseloads have
cccupied as places of public assemblyand for one-wayslabs,when the live been useCwith no apparentdifficulty since1944.beforeu,hich time a line of
load L is 100 psf or less.Reductionsare permitted for occupancieswherelo trucks was actually usedfor the loading.On the interstaresystemof highwal's
is greaterthan 100 psf and for garagesand roofs only undei specialcircunr- a military loading is also usedthat consistsof two 24-kip (107-kN) axle loads
sLances (ANSI-4.7.2)[1.2]. spaced4 tt (1.2 m) apart.
Railroad b_ridgesare designed to carry a similar semiempirical loading
kno*n as the Cooper E72 trun, consistingof a seriesof concentratedloads i
Highway Llve Loads fixed distanceapart followed by uniform loading. This loading is prescribed
Highway vehicle loading in the Llnited Stateshas been stanclardized by the American Railway EngineeringAssociation(ARER)
by the tl.4l.
American Association of State Highrvay and Transporration Officials
(.tASflTO) t1-31into standardtruck loadsand lane loadsthat approximare lmpact
a
series of trucks. There are two systems,designatedH and i{s, thur "..
The term impact as ordinarily used in structural design,.f.r, to the dynamic
identified by the number of arles per trucL The H systemhas two arles,
effect of a suddenlyappliedload. In the building of i srructurerhe materials
whereasthe HS systemhas three axlesper truck. There are severalclasses
of are added slowly; people entering a building aie also considered a gradual
(
'( EI
-'f
r / TNTRODUCTTON i l
+ a
r 4/LOADS
(
(
(
(
T Spring lorce
tjo
r is loedcd to give tlic n:lxinrunr'effcctrrn the mcmbcr.Sincerchiclcstrl'cl
dircctly on thc supcrstructurc. all parts o[;: are subjectedto vibrationantl
must be dcsignerltt'rinclutJeimpact.The substructure,includi:':glll pt''l-titrtrs

/',i,
=kx sprinsforce=/rx
t not rigidly attachcdto the superstructure suchas abutmcnts.rctainingu'alls.
( J r;|'l Loadsuddenty and piers,are assumedto haveadequatedampingor be sufficientll'rcrttotc
L j'-i reteased
lrom here
( j Load gradualty
'fIw T from the applicationpoint of the dynamiclord so that impact is not consid-
Fil applied - cred. Again. consen'ativestatic loads may account for the smallerd1'nrrnic
7 I ffit\Or.ittation above
( , - Tw I t' I and below nere cffects.
In buildings.it is principall-vin the designof supportsfor cran3sii:)(:
\ r . rl N o v i t ' r a t ; o n : ( b ) F r e ev i b r a t i o n :
In:''.rttrtc
nux. spring force = lV max. spring torce = 2Ll heavymachinervthar inrpactis crplicitlv considcrcil.l-hc .'\::'l'.'ricen
of SteelConstruction(AISC) Allonable SiicssDcsign(ASl)i rad [-ort] rrnil
Frgure1.4.2 Comparisonof stat:cand dynamic loading.
( R esi sti nccFa ct or Design( LRFD) Spe'cif icet ions* [ 1. 5, 1. 1iJ ( ASD and
LRFD-A4.2) staterhat if not othen!'isespecified.the impact percentagc shall
( lo:l,Jing.Deaclloads:rreitatic loads;i.e.,they haveno effectother than rvcight. be:
( Livc loadsmay be eithcrstaticor they may havea dynamiceffect.Pcrsonsand
Fgr supportsof elevatorsand elevatormachinery 100%
furniture rvould be trcatedas static live load, but cranesand varioustypesof
( nrachincryalso havedynamiceffects. travelingcranesupportgirdersand their
For cab-operated
( Considcr the spring-nrass sysl,emof Fig. 1.4.2arvherethe spring may be connections 2s%
thought of as analogousto an elasticbeam. When load is graduallyapplied For pendant-operatedtravelingcranesupportgirdersand
( (i.e., static loading) the mass(rveight)deflectsan amount x and the load on
their connections ljorc
tlre spring (beam)is equalto the weight lV.ln Fig. 1.4.2bthe load is suddenly
I

applicd (dynamic loading)and the maximum deflectionis 2x; i.e., the maxi- For supportsof ligbt machinery,shaft or motor driven,not
( mum load on the spring(bcam)is 2W.ln this casethe massvibratesin simple lessthan 2A70
harmonicmotion with its neutralpositionequalto its staticdeflectedposition. machineryor power driven
For supportsof reciprocating
In real structuresthe harmonic(vibratory.)motion is dampedout (reducedto units, not lessthan )U)o
( zcro) very rapidly. Once the motion has stoppedthe force remainingin the
For hangerssupportingfloorsand balconies 33%
spring is the rveight W.To account for the increasedforce during the tinie the
(
,,r.*b., is in motion a load equal to twice the static load itz should'be ".
( In the designof crane runway beams(seeFig. 1.4.3)and their conncc-
used-add 100% of the static load to representthe dynamic effcct. This is
tions, the horizontalforcescausedby mol'ing crane trolleys nrust be consid-
calleda 1007oimpact factor. "20Voof the
( ered.Both LRFD and ASD-A4.3prescribeusing a minimum ot
Any live'load that can have a dynamic effect should be increasedby an
sum of the lifted load and the cranetroUey(but exclusiveof otherparts of the
( impact factor. While a dynamic analysisof a structurecould be made,sucha
crane).The force shailbe assumedto be applied at the top of the rails,acting
proceclureis unnecessaryin ordinary design. Thus empirical formulas and
( in either direcrion normal to the run$ay rails. and shall be distributed rvith
impact factors are usuallyused.In casesrvherethe dynamic effect is small (say
due regardfor lateralstiffnessof the structue supportingthe rails."
( rvhereimpact would be less than about20%) it is ordinarily accountedfor by
In addition, due to accelerationand decelerationof the entire crane,a
using a conservative(higher) value for the speuified live load. Tire dynamic
( longitridinaltractiveforceis transmittedto the mnway girder throughfriction
cffects of personsin buildings and of slorv-movingvehiclesin parking Barages
of the end truck u'heelswith the cranerail. LRFD and ASD-A4.3requirethis
( are examplesrvhereordinar-l'designlive load is conservativeand no explicit
specified,to be takennot lessthan 10%of the maximum
force,if not otherw'ise
impact factor is usuallyadded.
( wheelloads of the craneappliedat the top of the rail.
For highway bridge.design,however,impact is always to be considered.
( AASHTO [1.3J prescribesempirically that the impact factor expressedas a
portion of live load is
(
50
I:ffi <0.30 . (1.4.2) 'The readerwill find coatinuedreferenceto the AISC Speciflcations(ASD and LRFD) q'hich are
( contai::d. respectively.in the l/SC ASD llanztal [1.7] and AISC LRFD lt{anual [1 i7J. These
( tn Eq. 1.4.2, L (expressedin feet) is the length of the portion of the span that trvo books may be purchascdfron AISC,400 No;rb Michigan Avcnue, Chicego,IL 606114185.
t"a
- -'-
@ z \
10 1 / TNTRODUCTTON r.4/LOADS 11
(
(
Trolley movemenl
,+-f ----> oth9rsnowloadinformationhasbeenprovidedbyLew,-Sirnru,andElIing
wood in the Building Structtsal Design Handbook (Chapter 2) [.101, and in (
Trolley the works of O'Rourke and Stiefel [1.38], Templin and Schriever[.39]. (
iEF \
Crane
O'Rourke, Tobiasson,and Wood [1.401,O'Rourke, Redfield, and von Bradsky
i-- --
Crane Rail ;t s*.* [1.411,and O'Rourke, Speck,and Stiefel[.421. t^
movernenl
I 3 q -

Trolley -l- Trolley t..a


./
movement i Crane
f Wind Load
i End truck .tf (
Runway girder SectionA-A
:- E
All structuresare subject to *{nd load, but it is usually only those more than .. -. r
Crane
three or four storieshigh, other than long bridges,for which specialconsidera- \
raal .
5.
e
: . s tion of wind is required. : (
Plan View on any typical building of rectangularplan @a.rts
Runway girder :-&
pressureon the u'indward iide and suction on the leeward side, as rvell as (
: a
Section 8-8
: " t
either uplift or downward pressureon the roof. For most ordinary-situarions (
: ;
Figure'1.4.3 Cranearrangernent, that contributeimpactloading.
sho*ing movements :-€=:
vertical roof loading from utnd is neglectedon the asstrmptionthat snorv
loading will requir. u gteat.r strength ihan wind loading;This assumptionis (
' '!j:'1

''*..\. not true for southem climates where the vertical loading due to wind must be (
'i
Snow Load .:--included. Furtherrnore, the toul lateral wind load, windward an& leervard
::-* effect, is commonlv assumedto be applied to the windward face of'the (
The live loading for rvhich roofs are designedis either totally or primarily a 'j
building. (
snow load. Since snow has a variablespecificgravity, even if one knows the In accordanceu'ith Bernoulli's theorem for an ideal fluid striking an
depth of snow for which designis to be made.the load per unit areaof.roof is object, the increasein static pressureequatsthe decreasein dynami. pr..rur.. (
at best only a guess.
'=
o r (
The best procedure for establishingsnow load for design is to follow the
ANSI Standard [1.2]. This Code usqs a map of the United States gntng n : !0v.2 (1.4.3)
(
isolinesof ground sno$'correspondingto a 5O-yearmean recurrenceinten'al where g is the dynamic pressureon the object, p is the massdensitl' of air
for use in designingmost permanent structures.The ground snow is then (
(specificweight rr' : 0.07651pcf ar sea level and l5oC), and Z"is rhe u'in.J
multiplied by a coefficientthat includesthe effect of roof slope.u'ind expo' velocity.In termsof velocity I/ in milesper hour, the dynamii pressureq (psif (
sure, nonuniform accumulationon pitched or cun'ed roofs, multiple series would be
roofs. and multilevel roofs and roof areas adjacent to projections on a roof ? (
level. 1 / 0 . 0 7 6 5\ 1/ s 2 8 0 r \ 2 , (
q: o'wzdv' ( l . 4 . 4| *
It is apparent.that the steeperthe roof the lesssnow can accumulate.Also . +
,[ *, l[ ,* )':
partial snow loading should be considered,in iddition to full loading if it is (
believedsuch loading can occur and '*'ould causemaximum effects-Wind may .: In designof usual t)?es of buildings rhe dynamic pressureq is comm';nlt-
(
also act on a structure that is carry"ingsnow load. It is unlikely. however.that *', convertedinto equivalentstatic pressurep, which may be expressed[1.9J
marimum snow and *tnd loadswould act simultaneously. (
P : QCSsCp (1 . 1 . 5 i
In general.the basic snow load used in designvaries from 30 to 40 psf (
(1400 to 1900 lvtPa)in the northernand easternstatesto 20 psf (960 MPa) or I
where Q, is an exposurefactor that variesfrom 1.0 (for 0-40-ft height) to l-0
less in the southernstates.Flat roofs in normaliy warm climatesshouldbe (for 740-1200-ft height); Ct is a gust factor, such as 2.0 for srrucrura! (
designedfor 20 psf (960 l{Pa) even when such accumulationof snow may '--: membersand 2.5 for smail elementsincluding cladding; -d q is a shaie (
seemdoubtful. This loading may be thought of as due to peoplegatheredon factor for the building as a whole. Excellent details of applicaiion of *i*l
such a roof. Furtherrnore,though qind is frequently ignored as a vertical force loading to structwes are available in the ANSI Standard [1.2] and in rbe (
,E-
on a roof, nevertheless it may causesuch an effect.For thesereasonsa 20 psf National Building Code of Canadatl.9l.
(960 MPa) minimum loading, even though it may not always be snow, is - -.E. (
a a==,

reasonable.Local codes,actual weather conditions, ANSI [1.2], or the Cano- .


:1
!
dian Structural Designl{anuat [1.9], should be used when designingfor snorv. 'ln Sl units. q - 0.63y:. for g ia MPa and tz in m/scs_
=
__ {l. r . r 1
,e
-C;
(
(
' (

( 12 I /' INTnODUCTION 1.5/,'iypEsoF srRUcTuMLsTEaLMEt"tEEnS 13

(
( The comhtonlv ust'.| rvind pressuretrt 20 psf, as spccificd by nrlnl' letcral :cismic forces l'. crprcssed as follons. are assumed to act nonconcur-
huilding codcs,corresponds to a velocityof ti8 milcsper hour (mph) from Eq. rcnll_\'in tlre dircction of cach of the main axes of the structurc,
( 1.4.4.An exposurefastorC. of 1.0,a gust ff,ctor C* of 2.0.:rnda shapefactor
Cnof 1.3 for an airtight huilding,alongrvith a 30 pif cquivalcntstaticpressurc V - ZIKCSII' ( 1. 4 . 6 ,
(
p. will give froni Eq. 1.1.5a dynamicprcssureq of 1.7 psf. rvhichcorresponds, s,hcrc Z : seismiczone coefficient.varying from I for the zone of lo*'est
( using Eq. 1.4.4. to a s'ind velocity of 55 mph. For all buildings having seismicitv.to 1 for the zone of highcstseismicity
nonplanar surfaces.planesurfacesinclincd to the wind direction,or surfaces /: occupancf importance factor. varying from 1.5 for buildings
( having significantopenings.spccialdeterminationof the rvindforcesshouldbe designatedas "essentialfacilities,"1.25 for buildings rvherethe
( nradeusing suchsc'rurccs as the ANSI Standard[1.2J.or the NatiorwlBuilding, primary occupancyis for assemblyfor greaterthan 300 persons.
Codeof Canada[1.9].For moreextcnsivetreatmentof s'ind loads.the rcader to 1.0 for usualbuildings
( is refcrred to the Task Cornmitteeon Wind Forces[1.351.Le,v, Sinriu.and K - horizontal force factor. van'ing from 0.67 to 2.5. indicating
( Ellingwood in thc Buil,ltnqStntcturalDcsigltllandbook [1.10],lr{ehta[1.361, capacit;' of the structure to absorb plastic deformation (lorl
md Stathopoulos,Surrl'.and Davenport[1.37]. valuesindicatehigh ductility)
(
1
l'

( C: .';--= < 0.12 ( t . 4. 7)


Eartlrquake Load l)v /
\
the seismiccoefficient.equivalentto the maximum acceleration
An earthquakeconsistsr.,fhorizontaland vertical ground motions.rvith the
( vertical motion usuallyharingmuch the smallermagnitude.Sincethe horizon- in terms of accelerationdue to gravity
tal motion of the ground causesthe most significanteffect it is that effect in: fundamentalnatural period. i.e., time for one cycleof vibration.
(
which is usually thought of as earthquakeload. When the ground under an of the building in the direction of motion
( object (structure)having a certain mass suddenlymoves,the inertia of the S = soil profile coefficient,varying from 1.0 for rock to 1.5 for soft-
mass tends to resist the movement.as shown in Fig. 1.4.4.A shear force is to mediurn-stiffclays and sands
( ly' : total dead load of the building, includinginterior partitions
developed'betrvcenthe ground and the mass. Most building codes having
( earthquakeprortsions requirethe designerto considera lateral force Cllz that When the natural period 7ncannot be determinedby a rational rneans
( is usually cmpiricalll' prescribed.The dynamics of earthquakeaction on frtrnr rechnicaldata. it may be obtained as follorvsfor sbearrvallsor er.lerior
stnrcturesis outside the scopeof this text, and the readeris referredto Chopra c()ncreteframesutilizing deepbeamsor rvidepiers,or both:
( [1.45Jand Clough and Penzien[1.461.
. 0'03"
( In order to simplify the design process,most building codescontain an r: (1.4.8)
equivalent lateral force procedurefor designingto resist earthquakes.One of {D
( the most rvidely used design recommendationsis that of the Structural u'lrcre D is the dimension of the structure in the direction of the applied
EngineersAssociationof California (SEAOC), the latest version of which is [t,rccs.in feet.and &" is the heightof the building.
( Once the base shear I/ has been determined,the lateral force must be
1974 [.43J. Since that time, the Applied TechnologyCouncil (ATC) prepared
( a set of designprovisions[1.47].Somerecentrules for the equivalentlateral drstributeCover the height of the building.
force procedureare thosegiven by thc ANSI Standard[i.2]. In ANSI the lr'loredetails oi tne ANSI Stanciard[i.2] procedureare availablein the
(
Building StructuralDesignHandbook [1.10].Various building code formulas
( for earthquake-resistant design are compared by Chopra and Cruz [l.aaj.

( l* __r \f arry stateshave adopteCthe Untfurm Building Code (UBC) [1.48].the most
rccint versionof ivhich is 1985,which containsprovisionsfor designto resist
( 't-) reacion carthquakesgenerallybasedon the ANSI Standard1I.21.

(
n <a__
1.5 TYPESOF STRUCTURAL
STEELMEMtsERS
( Earth motion

( (a) At rett (b) Under horizontal mction As discussedin Sec. 1.2 the function of a structureis the principal factor
from eanhquake
dctcrmining the structural configuration.Using the structural configuration
( Figure 1.4.4 devclopedby eartbquake. along rvith the design loads, individual componentsare selectedto properll'
o ( .Force
(
14 1/INTRODUCTION 1.5/TypES OFSTRUCTURAL
STEELMeMBERS 15
(

-t \
rw

t T r LJIJ
t
wP q?
Y1
n
n a
u h
v1 L
(

rl
t1
V u l4'-->
i- \
.-,+/:r1-^ L S
l4--^
c L !'/T or ST
(a ) Ch
Channels (b) (c) l.shaped double
chann€li (
u,,I-
flange
American
standard
Anrerican
standard
Angle Structural
,:
(
shape

ttt
tlt
(a)

v\
\/l
beam

tA

t)
(b)
U f f L u l

| |

rI
channel
(c)

W @
(d)

7f7t7rn7r-n
l e ) .

(d) Angte
L J_L J-L(e) Hat sections
(
(
(
Y\ ttt t r I t
\ -
\.n'7,l/
-/i/
t m l Figure 1.5.2 Some co-ld-formedshapes. (
Pipe Structural Ears Plate:
ssction tubing
(h) (r)
(
(l) (gt

StandardrolledshaPes. The channel(Fig. 1.5.1c)and angle(Fig. 1.5.1d)are commonly usedeither


Figure t
I '
alone or in combination with other sections. The channel is designated,for
i 'Example, (
as C12x20.7, a nominal 12-in. deep chan'relhaving a weight of 20.7
pounds per foot. Angles are designatedby their leg length (tong leg frs$ and (
support and transmit loads throughout the structure. Steel members are
thickness,such as, L6x4x*.
seiectedfrom among the standardrolled shapesadopted bi' the Arnerican (
The structural tee (Fig. 1.5.1e)is made by cutting wide-flangeor I-beams
Institute of SteelConstruction(AISC) (also given by American Society for
in half and is commonly used for chord members in trusses. Thei-tee is
Testing and Materials(ASTM) A6 Specification). Of course,welding permits
designated,for example,as WT5x44, where the 5 is the norninal deptb and 44
combining plates and/or other rolled shapes to obtain any shapethe designer (
is the weight in pounds per foot; this tee being cut from a W10x88.
may require.
Pipe sections(Fig. 1.5.10 are designated:'standard," "extra strong," and (
Typical rolled shapes,the dimensionsfor which are found in the AISC "double-extra strong" in accordancewith the thicknessand are also noninally
lv{anual*[1.?,1.17],are shownin Fig. 1.5.1.The most commonlyusedsection (
prescribedby diarneter;.thus l0-in.diam double-extrastrongitan exampleof
is the wide-flangeshape(Fig. 1.5.1a)which is formedby hot roiling in the steel
a particular pipe size. (
mill. The rvide-flangeshapeis designatedby the nominal depth and the rveight
Structural tubing (Fig. 1.5.19)is used wherepleasingarchitecturalappear-
per foot, such as a W18X97 which is nominally 18 in. deep (actual depth :
ance is desiredwith exposedsrcel.Tubing is designatedby outsidedimensions
18.59 in. accordingto AISC Manual) and weighs 97 pounds per foot. (In SI
and thickness,such as structual tubing Sx6xl. (
units the W18x9? sectioncould be designatedW460x142, meaningnominally
The sectionsshorvnin Fig 1.5.1are all hot-roded; that is, they are formed
460 mm deep and having a massof 142 kg/m.) Two sets of dirnensionsare
from hot billet steel (blocks of steel)by passingthrough rolls numerous times (
found in the AISC Manual,one s€t statedin decimalsfor the designerto use
to obtain the final shapes. ,/
in computations,and anotherset expressedin fractiont (* h. as the smallest
Many other shapesare cold-formed from plate material having a thickness
increment) for the detailer to use on plans and shop dra*ings. Rolled W
not exceedittg1 in., as shown in Fig. 1.5.2. (
shapes are also designated by ANSI/ASTM A6 [1.8] in accnrdance
Regarding size and designationof cold-formed steel members, there are
*ith web thicknessas Groups I through V, with the thinnest web setions in
no truly standard shapeseven though the properties of many conlmon shapes
Group I.
are given in the Cold-FormedSteelDesignManual [1.12].Various manufactur- (
The American Standardbeam (Fig. 1.5.1b),commonly cailed tbe l-beam,
ers produce many proprietary shapes.
has relatively narrow and sloping flangesand a thick web compared to the
*ide-flange shape. Use of most l-beams has become relatively uncommon
becauseof excessivematerial in the rveb and relative lack of lateral stiffness (
due to the narrow flanges. Tenslon Members
(
The tension member occurs commonly as-a chord mernber in a tnss, as (
diagonal bracing in many t)es of structure.s,as direct support for balconies,
'wbcn rcfc'retce is made to AISC Manrial. as cablesin suspendedroof sJrctems,
and as suspcnsionbridge main cablesand
the material is availablc in botb Refs. 1.7 and 1.17.
I
- t (
(
I

(
(
(
16 I /|NTRODUCT|ON
t STEELMEMBERS
l .s / WPESOFSTRLcTURAL

cxamplesof memberssubjcctto axial compression.Even under the most idell


17

(
(
orl JJL condition, pure axial conrpressionis not attainable: so. design for
"axial"

loading assumesthe effect of any small sinrultaneousbending may be ne-


glcctecl.Typical crosssectionsof compressionmembersare sho'*n in Fig. 1.5.4
I (l) Round and rectangular (b) Cablescomposed (c) Single and
bars. including eye
( bars and upset bars
of many snrall double
and theif behavior and designare treated in Chapter 6.
rvires angle3
(

rnm
(
Beams
/
Beams are members subjected to transverseloading and are most efficient
t when their area is distributed so as to be located at the greatestpractical
:
distance from the neutral axis. The most common beam sections are the
a (d) | Rolled W- and (c) S:ructural wide-flange (W) and l-beams (S) (Fig. 1.5.5a). as well as smaller rolled
(O Built-up box
7' "miscellaneousshapes"(M).
.. S-sectaons I lee seetions t-shapedsectionsdesignatedas
For deeper and thinner-webbed sectionsthan can economicallybe rolled,
a Figure1.5.3 Tlpical tensionnnembers.
welded l-shaped sections (Fig. 1.5.5b) are used, including stiffened plate
girders.
"joists" are often used
For moderatespanscarrying lighr loads,open-web
suspendersthat support the roadway.Typical cross-sections of tension mem- truss-typemembers usedfor the support
(Fig. 1.5.5c).Theseare parallelchord
bers are shorvn in Fig. 1.5.3, and their design (except for special factors or cold-formed. Suchjoists are
of floors and roofs. The steelmay be hot-rolled
relating to suspension-type
cablesupportedstructures)is treatedin Chapter 3. "LH-Series," and "DLH-Series." The K-Series is
designated "K-Series,"
suitable for members having the direct support of floors and roof decks in
buildings. The LH-Series and DlH-series ate known as Longspan and Deep
Compresslon Members
Longspan,respectively.LongspanSteeiJoists are shop-fabricatedtrussesused
" foi the direct support of floor or roof slabs or Cecksbetweenrvalls,beams
Since compressionmemberstrengthis a function of the cross-sectionalshape 'and "for the
(radius of gyration), the area is generallyspreadout as much as is pi3_ctical. main structuraimembers"tl.13l. Deep LongspanJoistsare used
Chord members in trusses,and many interior colunns in buildingr- q. direct support of roof slabs or decks bet*'eenwali. beamsand main structural
membersl;1t.ff1. The desiln of the chords for K-series trussesis basedon a

n
yield strength* of 50 ksi (345 MPa), while the web sectionsmay use either 36
(ZCAUnaior 50 ksi (345 MPa). For rhe LH- and DlH-series the chord and
web sectionsdesign must be based on a yield strength of at least 36 ksi (248
( MPa) but not greater than 50 ksi (345 It'{Pa).

a
(a) Rolled w- end
S-shapes
JL
(b) Doubte
Jt
(c) Structural (d) Structural
tubirg
The K-Seriesjoists have depths from 8 to 30 in. for clear spans to 60 ft.
The Longspanjoists (LH-Series)have depths from 18 to 48 in. for clear spans
to 96 ft. The Deep Longspanjoists (DlH-series) have depths from 52 to 72 in.
angle for clear spans-to144 ft.
( All of thesejoists are designedaccordingto Specificationsadoptedby the
Steel Joist Institute (SJI) [1.13],rvhich generally are in agreementwith AISC

r
L] :lr Specification [1.5] for hot-rolled steels and AISI Specification[1.11] for
l
r-.-.#

7
\
(
(
I
o
( e) Pipe =ction
L A
Frgure 1.5.4 Typicat compressionmembers.
(0 Built-upsedions
tl
-- --J l--.
cold-formed steels,

'Rcfer to Sec. 2.4 tor definition.

r
F ;
r
(-
18 1 / TNTRODUCTTON 1.6/STEELSTRUCTURES 19
(

=trT a,riai stressespredominate;and (c) susPension-type


tensionpredominatesthe principalsupport system-
structures, where axial
(
(
(

t : r t R o l l e dW .
and other
I $aped
T I
( b ) lVelded
l-shape
(plate girderl
(c) Open web ioists
t
Framed Structures
Mosr typical building constructionis in this category.The multistorybuilding
usually consists of beams and columns, either rigidly connected or having
simple end connectionsalong with diagonal bracing to provide stability. Erqr ..
(
(
(
sections
it usually is designedto be (
rhough a multistory building is three-dimensional,
much stiffer in one direcdonthaq the o-tbp$lbUs:it.lq3y-r,easonablv be ueated -- (

L I as a seriesof plane frames.However, if tlitframfig G:such that the behavior


of rhe membersin one plane substantiallyinfluencesthe bghavior in another
plane, the frame must be treatedas a three'dimensionalspaceframe.
(
t

{dt Angle (e) Channel


t f t Euilt-up
tnembers (g) Composite steel-
t
concrcte (
Figure 1.5.5 Typical beam members, (
(

For beams (known as lintels) carrying loads acrosswindorv and door (


openings.anglesare frequentlyused;and for beams(known as girts) in wall (
panels,channelsare frequentlyused.
(

Bendlng and Axial Load (


When simultaneousaction of tension or compressionalong with bending (
occurs' a combined stressproblem arisesand the type of memberusedwill be
dependent on the type of stressthat predominates.A member subjectedto (
axial compressionand bending is usually referred to as a beam-coiumn,the
beha'ior and designof rvhichis dealt with in chaprer 12.
The aforementionedillustration of types of membersto resist various (
kinds of stressis intendedonly to shorvcomrnonand representativetypesof (
members and not to be all inclusive.
(
(
(
1.6 STEELSTRUCTURES
(
Structuresmay be divided into threegeneralcategories:
(a) framedstrucrures,
where elementsmay consistof tensionmembers,colurnns.belms, and mem- (
bers under combinedbendingand adal load; (b) shell-t1pestructures,where Figur€ 1.6.1 Floor joiss (plane tt**l and steeldeckiry (Photo by C.Q: Salmon) .(
(
(
(
I

20 r , / t NI R o D U c l o N
\
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
( !
i
i
( :
I
( i
-t
-{.
(
(
(
I
*I
I
I

(
F r g u r e 1 . 6 . 3 Dome roof, Brown University aud:iorium. Courtesy Bcthlcbem Stccl
( Corporation.
Figure 1.6.2 Spaceroof truss crectcdin sections;also shorvsplate girder at loser level
( containing vcrtical stiffcner platcs and special stiffening around recrangularholes
through girdcr web. Upjohn Office Building, Kalamrzoo, l"lichigan.(Photo courtcsvof
(
Whitchcad and Kales Company)
(
(
( lndustrial buildings and special one-story buildings such as churches.
schools,and arenas,generallyare either rvholly or partly framed structures.
( Particularlythe roof systemmay be a seriesof planetrusses(seeFig. 1.6.1).a
(, spacetruss (seeFig. 1.6.2),a dome (seeFig. 1.6.3),or it may be part of a flar
or gablcd one-story rigid frame.
( Bridgcsare mostly framedstructures,suchas beamsand plate girders(see
Fig. 1.6.4),or trusses,usuallycontinuous(seeFig. 1.6.5).
(
Most of this text is devotedto behaviorand designof elementsin framed
( structurcs.
(
( Shell-Type Structures
(
In this type of structure the shell serves a use function in addition ro
( participation in carrying loads. One common type rvhere the main stressis
tensionis the containmentvesselused to storeliquids (for both high and lorv trrgure1.6.4 Continuousorthotropicplate girder acioss\lississippiRiver at St. Louis,
( \lissouri. (Photo bv C. G. Salmon)
ternperatures), of rvhich the elevatedwater tank is a notableexample.Storage
( 21
-(
22 ( t
t.6/srEE[ STRUCTURES 23
---:.a - - *
l:-:'--:-: r- --:r--:ry!rl_F.
(
' t.--

't '- (
(
1

(
(
(
(
(
Figure1.6.5 Contir
(phoro by c. c. s"H::ltruss
bridge' outerbridge crossing, Staten
Island. New york. (
(
(
(
Figure1.6.7 Suspensior California(Photo
bridge.GoldenGateBridge,SanFrancisco, (
by C. G, Saimon)
(
'-'---'-- (

bins, tanks, and the hulls of ships are other examples.On many shell-type (
structures,a framedstructuremay be usedin conjunctionwith the shell. (
On rvallsand flat roofs the "skin" elementsmay be in compressionwhile
they act together with a framework. The aircraft body is another such (
example. (
Shell-type structuresare usually designedby u ,O..r"rst and ar€ nr)t
within the scopeof this text. (
t (
r$$"f$g
i :t i{ tt ilF{*
(
i,' S,FF5 Suspension-Type Structures
iJ-S S & *trr
g (J{-1\

(
,a rr

s-!r9!*
F g ii t;Jr; -!'! In the suspension-type strucluretensioncablesare major supportingelements.
l; f.F f l"'-:
A roof may be cable-supported, as shown in Fig. 1.6.6.Probably the rnt"'st (
--'d.
t:'::F
:\-:- ! cornmonstnrctureof this type is the suspension bridge,as shonn in Fig. 1.6.7. (
.t' 'li{.s,
Usually a subsystemof the structureconsistsof a framed structure,as in tirc
F i g u r e1 . 6 . 6 cable-suspended stiffening truss for the suspensionbridge.Sincethe tensionelementis the most (
roof for M.adisonSquareGarden
ment Center,New York. Courresy sports and Entertain- efficient way of carrying load, structuresutilizing this conceptare increasingly
BethlehemSi.ii E"rporation. (
being used.
Many unusual structuresutilizing various combinations of framed, shcll- (
t.vpe, and suspension-typestructurcshave been built. t{owever, the typicll
(
designer must principally understand the design and behavior of framcd
structures. (

,,

(
f

( 24 I /NTRODUCTION 1. 8 / P H T L O S O P H I E
OSF D E S I G N 25

( 1.7 SPECIFICATIONS
ANDBUILDINGCODES rion. Ruildingcodcs:tlsoorclinarilvprcscrihcstrndrrd loads for n'hich the
( srructureis to be dcsigned. as discussed
in Sec.1.4.
Structuralstccldcsignof buildingsin the United Statesis principallvbasedon The re'sdcrsht-'uldnr.-'lbc disturbedby thc intcrchrngcablcuseof building
( the specifications of the AmcricanInstituteof StcelConstruction(AISC)[.5, code and spccific:rtion.but should clearll' understandthat u'hich is lcgalll'
( l.l5l. AISC is conrpriscr.l of steelfabricetorand manufacturingcomprnies.as rcquircd for dcsign and that rvhich could bc thought of as reconrnrendcd
rvell as indiriduals intcrestedin stccldesignand research. The AISC Specifica- practice.
( tions [.5, l.l5l are the resultof the combinedjudgmentof rescarchcrs and
( practicingcngineers.The researchefforts have beensynthesized into practical
design proccdurcsto providea safe,economicalstructure.The adventof the 1 . 8 P H I L O S O P H I E SO F D E S I G N
( digital conrputer in dcsignpracticehas made feasiblemore elaboiaiedesign
( rulcs.Tlte currcnt spccifications which are refcrredto throughoutthis book are Trro philosophiesof dcsign are in current use. the v'orking,strerJ design
the 19E9Spc.'ry'catio,t for StructuralSt;el Buildings--Allov'ableS;rcss Desig,rt r rcferrcd to b1' AISC as Allowable Srress Design) and limit states design
( and Plustic Design[1.5] and the 1986 Load and Resistance Fauor Dgsign (rctcrredto byrAISC as Load and Resistance Fuctor Design).Working stress
( Specificutionfor Stntiltrol SteelBuildings [i.15]. dcsign has been the principal philosophy used during the past 100 years.
A specificationct': .lining a set of rules is intended to insure safety; During the past 20 ycars or so, structural design has been moving toward a
( however.the designermust understandthe behavior for which the nrle applies, more rational and probability-baseddesign procedure referred to as "limit
othenvisean absurd, a grosslyconservative,and sometimesunsafedesignmay sralcs" design. Haaijer U.261 and Kennedy 11.27. 1.28J have presented
{ result. The authors contendthat it is vinually impossibleto urire rulesthat ihc current status of the limit statesconcept and its use in design. Limit
( fully apply to everv situation. Behavioral understanding musr conre first; .rt3tcsdcsignincludcsthe methodscommonlyreferredto as " ultimatestrength
applicationof rules then"follows.No matter *'bat set of rulesis applicable,r/re ,.lesign,""strength design," "plastic design," "load factor design," "limit
(
designerhastlrc ultimute responsibility for a safe strucrure. design."and the recent"load and resistancefactor design" (LRFD).
( A specification when adopted by AISC is actudly a set of recommenda. Structuresand structural membersmust have adequatestrength, as rveil
tions put forth by a highly respectedgroup of experts in the field of steel adcquate stiffness and toughnessto permit proper functioning during the
( researchand dcsign. Only re'hengovernmentalbodies, such as city, state,and scn'icelife of the structure.The designmust provide for somercseryestrength
( federal agencies,rvho have legal responsibiliry for public safer;-,adopt or :rhr)v€that which is neededto carry the serviceloads; that is, the structure
incorporate a specificationsuch as the 1986 Load and ResistanceFactor n'rustprovide for the possibility of overload.Overloadscan arise from chang-
( Design Specification[.15] into their building codes does it becomb]egally rng the use for which a particular structure rvas designed,from underestima-
( official. .\ tion of the effectsof loads by oversimpiificationsin structuralanalysis,and
The design of steel bridgesis generally in arcordancewith specifications' from variations in construction procedures. In addition, there must be a
( of the American Associationof State Highway and Transportation Officials provisionfor the possibilityof understrenglh.Deviationsin the dimensionsof
( (AASHTO) tl.3l.This becomesa legalset of rules sinceit hasbeenadoptedby nrembers,even though rvithin accepted tolerances,can result in a member
the states(usually the state highway departmentshave this responsibility). having less than its computedstrength.The materials(steel for members,
( Railroad bridges are designed in accerdance with the specifications holts. and rvelds)may havelessstrengththan usedin the designcalculations.
( adopted by the American Railway Engineering Association (AREA) [l.aJ. In .{ steel section may occasionallyhave a field stress belorv the minimum
this casethe railroads have the responsibility for safety and through their own .pecified value, but stiil within the statisticallyacceptablelimits.
( organization adopt the rules to insure safe designs. Structuraldesignmust providefor adequatesafetyno matter what philos-
( The term building code is sometimesused synonomouslyrvirh specifica- r',phy of design .is used. Provision must be made for both ouerload and
tions. More correctly a building code is a broadly based document, eiiher a nnderstrength. The study of rvhat constitutesthe proper formulation of struc-
( legal document such as a state or local building code, or a documentwidely .{ tural safetyhas beencontinuingduring the past 30 years[1.19.1.20].The main
-$
recognizedeven though not legal which covers the sanrewide range of topics = thrust has been to examineby various probabiijsticmethodsthe chancesof
( "failure"
as the state or local building code. Building codes generally treat all facets +:. occurringin a member,connection,or system.
( relating to safety, such as structural design, architectural details. fre protec- -:* Rather than refer to "failurC' the term "limit state" is preferred. Limit
ttotes means " those conditions of a structure at rvhich it ceasesto fulfill its
,x
tion, heating and air conditioning,plumbing and sanitation, and lighting. On
( : l

the other hand, specificationsfrequently refer to rules set forth by tlre architect:ti
intended function'l [1.27].Limit statesare generallydivided into two cate-
( or engineerthat pertain to only one particular building while under construc- gories, strength and seruiceability.Strength (i.e., safety) limit states are such

. (
(
f,*+ -
...'.
"F ""

1 .B// PHILOSOPHIESOF OESIGN \


1 /INTRODUCTION
J'
\
(
Frequency probability-based assessment of structural safety uses/irst-order second"moment
: reliabitity merhodst1.321.Such methods assumethe load Q and the resistance (
R are random variables. Typical frequency distributions of such random
(
variables are shown in Fig. i.S.f. Wherr the resistanceR exceedsthe load Q
there will be a margin of safety. Unless R exceedsQ by a large amount" there /
wi[ be some probaUitity that R may be less than 0, sho*tr by the shaded
portion where the R and g curyes overlap. (
Structural "failure" (achievementof a limit state)may then be defined by (
comparing R with Q, or in logarithmic forn comparing ln(R/Q), as shown in
"failure" is the cross.hatchedregion. The distance a
. Fig. 1.8.2. On both figures
between the failure line and the mean value of the function [n(R/Q)l is /
\
defined as a multiple B of the standard deviation o of the function. The
multiplier B is called the retiability index. The larger is,B the g-reateris the (
0 o - R n margin of safety. (
ResistanceF
As summarized by Pinkham [.20[ the reliability index F is useful in
Load
o several ways: t:
Figurei.8J Frequenrydistributionsof load Q ndresistance
R. 1. It can give an indication of tbe consistencyof safety for various (
-
. cornponenb and systemsusing traditional designmethods.
2. It can be used to establish new methods which wil! have consistent
behavioral phenomenaas achiel'ingductile maximum streng:h(i.e., plastic ',
strength), buckling, fatigue,fracture, overturning.and sliding. Serviceability t. IITffT*:tli varyin u o,ion'"rmanner
themargins ror
of safety
limit states are those concerned with occupancy of the building, such as those componentsand systemshaving a greateror lesserneedfor safety \
deflection, vibration, perrnarent deformation,and cracking. than used in ordinary situatioos. (
Both the loads acting and the resistance(strength)of the structureto loads
In general, the expressionfor the stnrctural safety requirementmay be (
are variables that must be considered.In general,a thorough analysisof all
"limit state" is not practical,or written as
uncertaintiesthat might influenceachievinga (
perhaps even possible.The current approachto a simplified method using a oR" > El,Q, (1.8.1)
(
where the left side of Eq. 1.8.1 representsthe resutance,or strength, of the ,,
component or system,and the right side representsthe load expectedto be (
Frequ6lcy
carried. On the strength side, the nominal resistaoceRo is multiptied by a (
resistance (strength reduction) factor 0 to obtaih the desr'gnsrrenStft (also
called usablestreingthor usableresistance\. On the load side of the equation. (
drnlr?.or: standard deviation ol ln(R/ O) effects (such as dead load, live load, and snow loadt are
tbe various load Q, (',
multiplied by overload factors y, to obtain the sum Et,Q, of factoredloa!.s.

AISC - Load and R$lstance Factor Deslgn (LBFD) (


"limit states design" approach has gainat (
During the 1980s the general
acc€ptance,culminating for steeldesigl in the United Stateswith the adoption (
of the 1986 AISC Load and Resistane Factor Design Spccification F.f5L
referred ro throughout this book as AISC LRFD Specification. In Canadr, (
limrt states design for stee-lhas been uscd since 19?4and since 1978 it bns been - (
0| tn(R/C)
[ln(R,,O)l-
tbe only fr-thd used; the latestedition i!.D& tl.l8l. -,. -'- --'
Ba^.^.ct (
The AISC LRFD Specification $'as developcd under the leadership ef
Figure 1.8.2 Reliabiliry indcx B. T. V. Galarnbos at Washington Universir-v.Su t ouis [.21; f.23L The adapta- ' (
7
\
,(
28 | /|NTRODUCT|ON 1.B/'PHILOSOPHIES
OFDESIGN 29
(
(
tion of probabilistic methodsto steel design and the developmentof the Nr)tc thet D. L. lr'. S. etc. are lo'adsin a gencralscnsc.rvhich includes
( LRFD Specificationare explainedby Galambos[1.22,1.24]and by Galambos bcndingnloment,shcer.axial force,and torsionalmomcnt.Scrnr.times these
and Ravindra[.23, 1.25J. internal forcesare called load cffects.Thus, the symbol D nrcansdcad load.
( The generalformat of the LRFD Specificationis given by Eq. 1.8.1.In dead load moment,dcad load shear,dead losd axial force,ctc. Thc c.xplana-
( general,F4. 1.8.1meansthar the srrength(+R") provided in designmust at tion of the statisticsrelating to snorv and n'ind load factors is givcn by
Ieast equal the factoredloads(Iv,g,) acting. The subscript i indicaresrhat Ravindra,Cornell,and Galarnbos[1.34].
( there rvill be termsforeach typeof load Q, acring.sucha:.dead load (D). lir.e
( load ( L). w'indload (w), snowload (s), and earrhquakeload (E). The factors
y, may be different for each tlpe of load. AISC - Allowable Stress Deslgn (ASD)
( The AISC LRFD Specification is basedon rhe follou'ing: The traditional method of the AISC Specificationhas bcen c//orwb,lestrerr
( Jesignlalso calle'J v'orkingstres.rdesjgn).In Allowable StressDcsign (ASD)
l. A probability-based model[1.23,1.25.1.32,1.331.
rhc focus is on sen'iceload conditions(i.e.. unit stressesassumingan eiastic
( 2. Calibrationwith the 1978AISC ASD Specification.
structure)s'hen satisfyingthe safety requirement(adequales-lrength)for the
3. Evaluation using judgment and past experience,along rvith design
( structure.The AISC i989 Specificationfor Allowable StressDesignis referred
offices studiesof representative
structures
ro in lhis book as the ASD Specification.
( The developmentof probability-basedload criteria by Galambos, Eiling- For Allowable StressDesign,Eq. 1.8.1may be reformulatedas follows:
wood, Ir{acGregor,and Cornell[1.32;1.33]led ro fte factoredload combina-
(
(.
tions of the 1982 ANSI Standard[.2J. The ANSI Standard [.2J rvasdevel- & =rr, (1.8.8)
oped for use in designrvitir a// structuralmaterials.It is reasonablethar rhe
( probability of various loads acting in combination, as well as rhe probability
In this philosophy all loadsare assumedto have the same averagevariability.
of overload rvith certain t)?es of loads,should be unrelated to the materialof
The entire variability of the loads and the strengthsis placed on the strength
( which a structure is built. With this conceprin mind, the 1986 AISC LRFD
side of the equation. To examine the equatiou in terms of Allorvable Stress
Specification adopted the ANSI factored load combinations. LRFD-A4.I
( Design for beams, the left side would representnominal beam strength M,,
specifiesthat the followingcombinarionsshall be investigated: ,Cividedby a factor of safety FS (equal to t/+), and the right side rvould
(
t.4D representthe senice load bendingmomenl M acting resultingfrom all types
(1.s.2)
( of loads.Thus, Eq. 1.8.8would become
l.2D + l.6L + 0.5(L, or S or R) (1.8.3)
(
( 1.2D+ 1.6(L, or S or R) + (0.5f or 0.8ltz) (1.8.4) k=* (i.s.e)

( l.zD + l.3lV+ 0.5L+ 0.5(L, or.Sor R) The term Allov,ableStressDesignimplies an elastic stresscalculation. Equa-
(1.8.5)
tion 1.8.9may be dir.idedby I/c (i.e.,the moment of inertia I divided by the
( r.2D + 1.5E+ (0.5Lor 0.2S) (1.8.6) distancec from the neutralaxis to the extremefiber) to obtain stressunits.
Thus, if one assumesthe nominal strength Mn is reachedwhen the extreme
( 0.9D- (t.lw or 1.5E) (1.8.7) fiber stressis the yield stressd (i.e., Mn: F,I/c), Eq. 1.8.9will become
(
The nominal seruiceloads indicatedby Eqs. 1.8.2through 1.8.? are ' -:. Fv'!, Y
( - (1.8.10)
r+
' FS I/c I/c
( D : dead load (gravity load from the weight of structural elementsand *
perrnanentattachments)
(
(
L = live load (gravity occupancyand movable equipmenr load)
L,: toof.liveload
s*
*=[r,:+] (l.s.1i)

( I4z: wind load In ASD the drzFS would be the allowable stress 4 and /r would be the
S : snow load computedelasiic stressunder full serviceload. If the nominal strength M, had
( E : earthquakeload been based on achievementof a stress .f, less than Fy becauseof, say,
R : rainwater or ice load buckling, then the allowable stress F, would be .Q,/FS. Thus, the safety
(
I,
(
..-/..'-'-
1 / tNTRclucTlcl-l
(
30
cos{PIRED
SAFEw - ASD AND LRFD (
1.9 FACTORSFOR - (
written
criterion in ASD rnaYbe
( (ASD)
F" 'tr':L ( 1. 8 . 1 2 ) Allowable StressDeslgn (
f a < l r u : u t o r 1 6I F s
T h e . . s a f e t y f a c t o r , , F S u s e d i n . E a s .The u g hin
g t h r outtd
l . S .uurutt l.Sthe w a sAsD
. l 2AISC n o t d e t e r m i n e (d
by using prob.abilisf und "tt the result of
consciously TJfts-
use for many yt;
-saJetv
beenin required must be a t
Theallorr.ablestressesoftheAS?specificati::tl.5larederivedfromthe specification[1.5]iau. 1t-:; ln"i the
overloaded'when the economically
srrengrhcapable;'b.*; acbievedif the r,*.,':,]s " experience."" ;'J;;{' -"L'
"na ,,uii*i.,'-ouuio"'ly"it
is no-t (
;J b;k1ing does not occur, strains greaterthan the first combinationor L.oiorni., of failure is zero' Prior to
scction is ductile of (,
r: Fr/!,:an
vielding" srrain e-iu.ul.
t*i" on the section(E' is the'modulus feasibleto A.rigli-. r*.iur.-r? !:iil;froUuUiUty ioriii.utioo t].r s1theArScSpecifica-
inlbstic behavior may permit higher-loads to be
thedeverop*.n,' J,,il. nisc _!*ro' for the allowable
elasticityl. Such In such G?8 dil not giue u 'uiion"le (
if the st*ctuit ttua remained entireiy elastic' tions from 1924';n;rn
carried than possible is limited by
casesthe allo*'aUl,estrtss is adju'teJ
upward' lvhen the strength
yield "*'ff;.T:;n'0.'^1;'n"theminim-T
j"I't::::"T:::ffi
(
Supposetf'" actual i"i:"I**u*
,u.h that the stressdoes not reach load exceedsthe
buckling o, **r-other behauio, "*"ttt' than the
(
stre ss , t heallowable s u e s s i s a d j u s te d d o w n w a rd. applied fouOUVlott'p""'iUta
";;;;;nr
;;;-,t. uriuut "'i't"n"t is |ess
* deflection limits are alwa'*-sinvesti- senrice load by
a0. (
Serviceability requiremeots,uch
whether the LRFD or the ASD design
s,arcclut ,.r"i"e loai condidons, computedresistancebyanamountAR.AStnrcturethatis.justadequate (
been used to satisfy safety requirements'
i?"..a"*-has 'wouldhave Q+LQ (
Rn-AR":
(1'9'1)
: + LQ/Q) (
R"(1 - AR"//R") 0(1
AISC - Plastlc Deslgn \
Tra d it ionall; *' P ar t2 o fth e A l s c s p e cguildings
i fi c a ti o n :l l ccontains
a l l edP l Plastic
asti cDDesign
esi gn.The T h e m a r g i n o f s a f e t y , o r . . s aload
f e t . v f aor
ctor,,,wouldbetheratioofthenominal (
in service Q;
lggg specilicarion for struuwat steh [1.5] strength Rn to nomi-nal
wherein the
,*t of li-it ttuttt design' | + LQ/Q (
chaprer N" Plastic Desigg is a spe"ia R,, (1.e.2)
is the ..hi.ut*tnt of plasticmcment slrength M p' F S = T : 1 - a8"/R"
limir state for strength (
P l a . s t i c m o r n e n t s u e u g t h i s t h e m o m e n t s t r e n g".:,113:s.in
t h w h e n a l l f itension
bersofthe
sid.eof,the
cross-sccrionare ar rhe yield stresrt too. not permit using other the effectof overload (tQ/q and understrength (
and the orher side in compressioij.
d*tic design-does
The design pfuloso' Equation1.9.2illustrates not iaeniifythe facto* JoittiUutingto either"lf (
limrt states.,u.h as instaUiiity,fuUgue,
or brittli fracture' (AR"/R"l; t*.J.r'i'J*, 40%greaterthan tts
members,including beam-columns, occasional 6gtOl may be be 15%
phy a5 used uy AISC applil to fl"exural
Eq. 1'8'1' Then letting Rn: Mp
one assumes that :''td:,;e
an occasio;l;:ffirrogttt ian""n-") may (
by and that
and for sucb membersmay be e*pr.ssed nominal value,
(
value'then !
and t,/Q : 1-7,Eq' 1'8'1 becomes l.esstt un its nominal
(1'8'13) 1 + 0 . 4 - t'o :1.65 (
L{, ,- r.1 LQ t
F S : 1 - 0 . 1 5 0.85
(
are combinedinto a single
The provisions for overloadand for undersfength
The nominil strengthnusr be the plastic in
p obasic-value
s athe
factor 1.? used for all gravity loads- t i o n -b u1'6?
T h e a b o v e i s a n o v e r s i m p l i f i c a;iii h o r vas
t i t sused ssiblescenariofrrr
design is a specialcaseof limit states obtainingthe traditi""ti
dric :t:J ioditutedin Eq' 1'8'12
give: a (
momenr ,,r.rigii- :tlr."Sin.. plastic
in itre.ntSC LRFD Specification'it is Srress ilil';F"*;y"i.;;"'
design anr3 is iou.r.i more ,utio*uUy Atlowable
no ionger treated as a special,opi. "t1u
prelious editionsof this book' Plastic anditis
;;i'sff::fffJ"l,:;rty:'1-r,:'-'::":'-T;[oii',liro,:'ffi
(
LRFD' is used for long (
designlecornes a comPonentof A valueof 1'92
in LRFD provides the must
Horvever'it"reel"
Tire limit states design philosophy as codified the lowerUounA-flir.i*r.ng,t^*fir*I1r.
3 ar" used for connections' (
to.desigRthan has been availablein uoo our*-' f;;t't;o the
leaves
designcr *trtr, a *or. ratiinai oppto.tfi columns, r'e'r;-tt*
ASD or Piastic Design, *t os" philosophies
are outlined in the following u'ing thesevalut;,rl' ;;;t"
bc noted,tut "failure" ('
exiellent summaryof'the advantages of :-. unknawnr
paragraphs.g;Ol. ff .igl providesan =::' ;;; against (
using LRFD. t
t'
I
(
t
I
t -
(
\(

(
(
| /INTRODUCT|ON q
:f
| .9/ FACTORS _ ASDANDLRFDCOMPARED
FORSAFETY

Load ahd Resistance Factor Destgn (LRFD) * rcprcscnting the margin of safety may be approximated Il.16l as
(
As discussedin Sec.1.8,the factorsfor overloadare variabledependingupon
{ the type of load, and the factoredload combinationsrhat musr be considered (1.e.4)
( are thosc givcn by the ANSI Standard[1.2Jand LRFD-A4.l, and presentedas Thus. the larger the distancethe smallerrhe probability of reachingthe
Eqs. 1.8.2through 1.8.7.The othcr part of the safety-related
provisionsis the p limit state.The multiplierp is callcd thereliabilityindex.The expressionfor B
( frctor, knou'n as the resistancefactor. The resistancefactor f varies with the from Eq. 1.9.4becomes
( type of member and with the limit statebeing considered.Somerepresentative
resistancefactors { are as follows: r, ln(RJe^)
( r .'---=----'--= (1.e.5)
Tcnsion lrtembers(LRFD-DI) ivi + t/6
(
\lore discussionof the developmenrof Eq. 1.9.5 is given in the LRFD
( 9, : 0.90 for y"ieldinglimit state
I
commentary[1.16].by Ravindraand Galanrbos[1.251,and in NBS Special
Q, = 0.75 f,orfracture limit state Publication577[1.32].The treatmentof the theoryof probability is outsidethe
( I scopeof this book.
( Members(LRFD-E2)
Compression using the factoredload combinarionsgiven by the ANSI standard [1.2],
the AISC Task Force and SpecificationCommittee calibrated the LRFD
( 0": 0.85
Specification[1.15] to generallyagreeuith past experience. Thus, the resis-
( Beams(LRFD-FI.2) t:rncefactors+ \r'eresetin LRFD rvith the objectiveof obtaining the following
valuesof B:
( Qa: 0.90

( Welds (LRFD-Table J2.3)


Objective
( 0 - sameas for type of action; i.e., tension,bending,etc. Load Cornbinations Reliability lndex B

( Fasteners(A325 bolts) (LRFD-Table J3.2) Dcadload + live load (or snorvload) 3.0 for members
( 0 : 0.75 for tensilestrength 4.5 for connections
Deadload + live load + wind load 2.5 for members
( 0 - 0.65 for shearsuength Dead load + live load * earthquakeload 1.75 for members
( In order to establisb adequatesafety usilg probabilistic methoas ihe..
natural logarithm of the resistanceR divided by the load Q, that is, ln(R/Q)
Becauseof a lower probability of rvind or earthquakeoccurring with full
( as shown in Fig. 1.8.2,may be treated as a random variable and is simpler
gravity load, the reliability index B rvasmade lower for those cases.The F
than working with two groups(R and Q) of random variablesas in Fig. 1.8.1.
( valuesfor connectionswere made higher than for membersin order to make
When ln(R/Q) < 0, the limit statehas been exceeded,and the shadedarea in
connectionsstronger than membersas has been traditionally done.
( Fig. 1.8.2 is the probability of this event.The method used to develop LRFD
uses the mean ualuesR- and Q^ and the standarddeuiatiorc oR and on of the The LRFD Specificaticndevelopmenrcombinedthe following:
(
resistance and load, respectively.Frequently, the mean values and standard l. Probability model
( deviations can be estimatedwhile the actual distributions cannot be obtained. 2. CalibratiOnto the 1978AISC ASD Specification
Thus, using the quantities that may be estimatedthe standard deviation o of 3. Judgmentand past experience
( the ln( R/Q) may be approximatedas 4. Design office studiesof represenrative
structures
( The LRFD Specification(LRFD-A4.) uses six'factored load combina-
ou(a/et={v; + vi (1.e.3)
( tions, given as Eqs. 1.8.2through 1.8.7.This was necessaryto accountfor each
of the separateloads(dead,live, rooi wind additive to gravity, wind opposite
( where Vn: oa/R^
to gravity, and earthquake)acting at its maximum lifetime value. The loads
Ve: oq/e^
( other than dead load will act at the "arbitrary point-in-time" value. The
The margin of safety is the distance from the orign to the meai, as shown "arbitrary
point-in-time" value is that value which can be expectedto be on
,fi in Fig. 1.8.2, and is expressedas a multiple F of o^rp7ot. The distance the structure at any rime. The arbitrary point-in-time value of live load (t)
(
- ASD AND LRFD GUM|.Af1tr'u -
t.9 / FACToRS FoR SAFETY
F ( ;
34 1 / INTROEX-tgrloN

its mean maximum lifetime load but its --t I (


mieht be as low as onequarter of wind(lY) is themaxi-
point-in-time (
lir"*dffi"ia.rittti*tlrtt."lif.time -uittuty is mken as the 5o-yearreculrence
maximudt"
mum daily wrnd. Th. (
value.
and its correspondingload occur-
Thus, each factoredload ccmbination
follows:
ring at its 50-year maximum are as (

Load at its'LiJetime (
(50 year)Maximum (
LRFD Eq. L.oadCombination

Dead load D during


(
(A+1) t.4D
construction;other (
loadsnot Present
Live load L (
(A4-2) l.zD+1.6t+0.5s
l.2D+ 1.65+ $.swor0'5L) Roof.load;i.e.,snow (
(A4-3)
load S or rain R other
'than (
pondingeffect
'0.12
Wind load W additiue
(A+4) l.zD + L.3W+ 0.5L+0.5s (
to deadload Lile,lg'ad, 1611e
Earthquakeload E (
(A4-5) + (0.5Lor0'2S)
r.2D+ 1..5E stress
additiueto deadload Design witb Allowable
of L'oad a'od ResistaoceFactor (
"Wind load IT or 'oiiig" 1.9.1 comparison
Figure
(A4-6) 0.9D- (I.3Wor 1.58) for teosioo members' (
earthquakeload E
oppositeto dead load (
ASD
1 . 6 1 D+ 1 . 6 7 L : R n
the meaningis snorvs oR (
\ ote:where snows is usedin the aboveequations, Eq' 1'8'8gives
Next,dividingEq' 1'E'3by
ponding'
,*i tiu. load L,OR rain R other than
LRFD r-33D+ 1'?8L 0'8 + 1'0](
L/D)
\
11'e'6)
./
Members
x*#=ffi:-1;6ff tEq' 1'8'21mustalso
Comparlson ol LRFD wlth ASD lor Tenslon LRFD (
sincethisis a gravityloadcomparison, P9J(14-1)
membersin designby the two zero'Thus'Eq' 1'8'2gives
The comparison of safety s6lained for tension be usedas L/D #t;;; 1'3'21
(
design result expected.Direct '
Atsc merhods i, ioJ..itive of rhe general 1-4D: 0'90R (
of other t)?es of members
comparisons will be more difficult L at ig;1 1.56D: R,, LRFD
necessarilythe same in the two
because the nominal strengtbs Rn are not
gives
methds. Dividing LRFD bY ASD (
Fortensionmembersacteduponbygravitydeadandliveloads'the 1.s6D 0.93 , (1.9.?)
LRFD _
givesfor LRFD
resistancefactor J: 0.90,and using Eq' 1'S'3 r+(L/D\ (
Aso-:m:
l.zD + l.6L: 0.90Rn Ir.r.r] (
E q u a t i o n s 1 . 9 . 6 a n d 1 . 9 . ? a r e;;#
s h ot"a aboth
p l o tlfSO - T i *ASD
t e d i o and . 1 . T hthe
. 1 . 9 when edesignof
t . 3 3 D+ 1 . ? 8 L : R n LRFD U, "Uout ,h.
tension,n.mb.rrlJ[ the L/D ratio becomes (
''safety (t/;;;-tuo"t l'f rn
FS : 1'67 for axial live load to atudi;J"'io pi.Ogmit^*,1 there will be elonomy
In Allowable stress DEign (AsD) the factor of tower(that is, deadloadqr"*^i;re slightlv more
(
tension. which givesfromiq. f .g.8 where T/+ is the factor of safety
Wittr the L/D rati;-lal;* qT '' ASD will be
using LRFD- 3%' (
R J l . 6 7= L Q * D + ' L [1.8.81 bconomical, bui;;tly by morethan about
(
. =,
-..--.--.**##='
(
(
'(
I / TNTRODUCTTON
't
' t 1 1 I ,/ ANALYSISoF THE STRUCTURE 37
( ti
( i 13. Designpracticcis still at thc heginningn'ith regardro scrviccahilrrl'
1.10 WHYSHOULDLRFDBE USED? I
I limit statcs:however.at lcastLRFD providcsrhe approlch.
(
'l'ltc
nulnv:rdvrntagesirf LRFD are rvell-expressed
by Beedle[.:91. rrhosc The rationalitl'trf LRFD and its manvadvantrgcsas outlincdby Rccdlc
{ listing is the hirsis.'rf the fr.rlltrrr'ing:
li.l9l over ASD are indicativethat the designphilosophl'*'illrelc'gate ASD ttr
( rhc backgroundin the ncxt fc$' years.lt is important.hos'ever.that tlre
l. LRFI) is another"tcrol" for structuralengineersto usein stceldcsign.
( ticsignerunderstandboth philosophies of dcsignbccsusemrnv structurc's s'ill
\\'hr not have thc-sametools(variableoverloadfactorsand resistancc
errntinueto be designedby ASD and the Jcsigncrnral' frequcntlynccd to
( iuctrrt's)
availablcfor steeldesignas are availabiefor concretedcsign?
t * .al uatestructures of t hc pr st .Lindsey[ 1. 31]pr or idcsan int er est ing
iir t icleon
,\{lrption of L-RFD is not mandarory but prorides a flexibiliry' of
( thc-rcc€tttadvancesin steeldc'sign. and Hes.'rtl.30i providr'ssL)mc intcrcsting
t'rptitrnSttr the dr-'sig.ncr. The marketplace s.ill dicrate rvhethcr or nr)t
rl r.rughtson the di fficult ics
of br idgingt hc'g: r p
bct s'een t he t heor rof st at ist icr
( l - R F l ) s ' i l l b c c . r r n cr h e s o l e n r e t h o . l -
.rnd probabilityand the rcal u'orld of actull structures.
l . ..\Sl) i: rln appro\i:lrte \\'av to account for n'hlr LI(FD docs in a
( nrorc rltit'rnal s'a_v.The use of plastic dcsign conceprs in ASD has
ntadc ..\SD such. that it no longer may be called an "elastic dcsign"
(
rncthtrd. 1.11 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE
( J. Tire rationalitvof LRFD has alwaysbeenattractive.and becomcsan
inccnlivc'permittingthe betterand more economical useof materirl In eeneral.ihe structuralanalvsistt'robtain the serviceloads(or load cffects
( frrr sofircload combinations and structuralconfigurations. hcndingmonlent.shL-ar. arial force.and torsionalmoment)on thc membersis
It rvill also
( lik c ly ' l c rd to h a v i n gs a fe rs tru c tu re s 'i vi
n e* ' of the arbi trar)' practi ce i'crformed the same for LRFD as for ASD. Elasticmcthodsof structurai
rurrdcrASD of combrningdead and live loadsand treatingthem rhc .rnalvsisare used exceptrvhenthe linrit stateis the plasticcollapsenzechanisnt
(
sltntc. a' describedin Chapter10. A first-orderanalvsis [i.14. p. 211is sufficientin
( 5. Using nrultipleload factorcombinationsshouldleadro econom)'. urual framed structuresthat are bracedagainsts\\'ay.In a first-ordcranal;-sis
6. LRFD rvill facilitatethe input of nervinformationon loadsand load tquilibrium equationsarebasedon the originalgeometryoi the struct,ure. This
(, vlrietions as such information becomesavailable.Considerablc ir-li'rnSthat the designeris assumingthe internalforccs(momcnts.shears.etc.;
( knou'lcdgeof the reslstance of steel structuresis aveilable.On the ,rrc nol sufficientlyaffcctedby the changein shapcof thc strucrureto justiil'
rrthc'rhand our knos'ledgeof loads and their variarionis much less, inore complicatedanall'sis.When the elasticdisplacements are sniall com-
( Separatingthe loading from the resistanceallowsone to be changcd p.rredto the dimensionsthis approximation rr'iilbe sarisfacrorl'.
( rvithout the other if rhat should be desired The most common situationrvherea second-order ef,fect must be consid-
7. Changesin overloadfactorsand resistancefactorsd are much easier cred is in the multistorystructurethat must rely on the stiffnesses of thc
( to make than to changethe allorvablestressin ASD. rnteractingbeams and columnsto resistsn'avunder lateral loading (rvind
( 8. LRFD makesdesignin all materialsmorecompatible. The variability .tnd,,'or earthquake).This is the so-calledwthracedfrante. Iir this case the
of loads is actualll' unrelatedto the marerialused in rhe design. l.rtcral displacementJ (also called .iu'a.r' or Crift) causesadditional bending
( Future specificationsnot in the limit statesformat for any material inomentsdue to the gravityloadstlf I actingat the displacedpositionA. The
( *'ill put that materialat a disadvantage in design. :utalrsis musl include this PA secondar-v effect.There are varying degreesof
9. LRFD providesthe frameworkto handleunusualloads that may not .,'phisticationthat are usedin analysisto includerhe PA effects.In borh ASD
( be covered by the Specification.The desig.ilma)- have uncertainty .rnd LRFD the second-order effcctsma-v- be computedas a part of the anal.u-sis
relatingto the resistance of the structure,in uhich casethe resistance ' r thel may beaccount ed f or usingf or m ulasin t heSpecif icat ions
[ 1. 5.l. l5i or
(
factors ma1'be modified.On the other hand. the uncertaintymay ( r:lTrrn€r'ltarics
[1.6,f .i6].
( rclate to the loads and differentoverloadfactorsma1'be used.. The emphasisin this book is on designingthe membersto haveadequate
10. Future adjustmentsin the calibration of the method can be made .trength and proper sen'iceability. rather than on structuralanalysis.The
( reader is referred to Wang and Salmon[i.14] for basic structuralanall'sis
*'ithout much complication.Caiibration for LRFD rvasdone for an
( oL,erage situation but might be adjustedin the furure. topics.Other references specificallyrelatedto analysisfor unbracedframesare
It. Economy is likely [o result for lorv live load to dead load ratios.For qiven in Chapter 14.
(
high live load,todeadload ratiostherewill be diseconomy'.but a torv Most examplesin this book usegivensen'iceloads.or sen'iceload effects.
( am oun t. acting on the structural member to be designed.These values are to be
12. Safer structuresmas result uncierLRFD becausethe method should t.sumed the result of structuralanalysis.The sen'iceloads are to be factored
( lead to a better a\\'areness of structuralbehar.ior. tu:ingEqs. i.8.2 through1.8.7for designin LRFD bur usedas givenin ASD.
(
-;
Fi SELECTEDREFERENCES39
n? 1 7'INTRODUCTION

Load& ResistanceFactor Daign' chicago' (


gELECTED 1.1?. AISC; Manua! of steel constructiot
RElEnErysEs IL: Ainerican Institute of SteelConstructioo'
1986'
. ?^ ry' cr 4 1
Butldings-Limit states Desigtt' CAN3-S16'1-M84' ( ,
1.1g. csA. steel structwes for
I l. Hans Siraub. A History of Ciuil Engineering.Cambridge,MA:.
M,I.T. Press'1964
Rexdale, On,-i",'d-ui", Canariit StandardsAssociation, 1984' ( :
(pp l?3-it0).
Buildings and 1.19'AscETaskCommitteeoostructrrralsaietyofthgAdminiqu'ativeCommitteeon
; 2. ANS1. Ameican National Standard Hinimum DesignLoads for AnalysisandDesignoftbestructuraDivision...Stnrcturalsafety-ALiterature
Other Structwes,A58.1-1982. Nen'York: Asrerican National Standards Insti- ASCE,98, ST4 (April 1972)' 845-884'
Review,,, Journal of theStrucr*ai,iiion,
..Design pbilosophies," Chapter 3, Buitding strttctural (
rutc. Inc, (i430 Broadway,New Yortq NY 10018),1982' . pinl<han.
l.zo.Clarkson w. cha4es 6l' Salmon' Ed' New York:
i j. AASHTO. Snndard Specifications for Highwoy Bridges, 14th ed. Washington, Designuonaioo*, xi.nrra N.
wil't il (.
DC: The Agrerican Association of State Higbway and Transportation Officials 4+54)'
lotrn-WiteY & Sons,f98? (PP'
laa4 Nortb Capitol Street,N.W., Suite 225, Washington,DC 20001)'1989. ( :
Steel l . 2 l . c . W . P i n k h a m a n d w . c . n a n s e u . . . A n l n t r o d u Journal,
c t i o n t o LAISS,
oadan d R1e (First
15, sistaace.'"
1.4. AREA . lvlcnul lor Railway Engineeing, Chapter 15 (Specifications for Factor Desifr rr-st.a Buildi;j' Engineering
Railway Bridges). C'hicago,IL: Angic"n Railway Engineering Association, 1980.
Quarter 1978),2-7' "Load Factor Desigl of SteelBuildings"' EngineeringJournal'
I. j. AISC. Specificationfor Structll":alSteel Buildings-Allowable Stress Design and t.22. T.V. Galambos. l
plasticDesign (June I, I9S9).Chicago: American Institute of SteelConstruction
'1400 AISC,9, 3 (July, 1972),108-113' "Pro1:rosedCriteriulfo, LoaJ and
North t{ichigan Aveoue,Cticago' IL 606f 1-4185)'1989. 1.23. Theodore V' Galambos and
1"L K' Ravindr&
1.6. AISC. Commentaryon theSpeciliearionfcr Structwal SteelBuildings-Allotvable ResistanceFactorDesign,'Engineertngrowwl,AISC'15'1(FirstQuarter
SrressDesign and Plastic Design(tune t, IgSg).Chicago,IL: Asrerican Institute
of Steel Construction, 1989.
I
Galambos. FactorDesigo,,,Engineertns
-Lgd and Resistance
i.rr. #*:r-Ji;
'''=' ';;;;.
I 7. AISC. Manual ol SteelConstruction,Ailowoble Stress Desiglt,9th ed' Chicago,
74-82'
etsc, 18,3 (ThirdQuarter1981)' "Load' and- Resista$ce
IL: America-oInstitute of SteelCo:rstruction,1989- Theodore V' Galasrbos'
1.25. MayasaoAru i. R.uinara and
I H. ASTM. Stcndard Specificationfar General Rcquirementsfor Rolled Steel Plotes, FactorDesignforSteel,,,Jounulaf|!eStructuralDiuision,ASCE,l04,sT9 i

Shapes,Sheet Piling, and Ban far Srntct'"tralLise, A6-88c. Pbiladelphia, PA: (September1978),1337-1353' . a 6 ^, r Reducing the complexity
American Society for Testing alrd ltfuterids, 1988. "Limit StatesDesign--A-Tool.for
1.26. Geerhard Haaijer.
1.9. Narionai Researcb Council of Caaada- Canadian Structwal Design lv{onual, u't nfSC National Engineering Conferecce'
of Steel Structures," paper pt.**J
SupplernentNo. 4 ro the National Building Code of Canada, Ottaw4 Canada. Marcb 4, 1983. - ;.- a^ ^-_ rr^^i^_ ^r I Canada,"
l 985. |'21.D.J.LaurieKennedy.*LimiistatesDesignofsteelStnrcturesrn
"Loads," Chapter 2, Building
Ll0. H. S. Leq', Emil Simiu, and Bruce EIt;n**'*. JournalofstructuratEngineering'eSCf"1ry'-' (February1984)'275-290'
White and CbarlesG. Salmon,Ed. New "Nortb Leric"n Limit StatesDesig!"' Proceedings'The
StructuralDesignHandbook,Richard N. 1.28. D. J. Laurie Kennedy.
York: John Wiley & Sons,1987tBp- 9-43)' IgS5InternationalEngineeang_Slntgosrwt.on^Structura|Sreel.Cbicago,IL:
May 22-24'1985'
i I I AISI. Specilicationfor the Design o! Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members. American i"t'itutt of iteel Construction' (4tb
Washington, DC: American Iron acd SreelInstitute, S€Ptember,1980. "Why LRF;|" Modern Sieel Cot'strucrion' AISC 25' 4
1.29. Lynn S. Beedle.
1.12. AISI. Cold-Farmed SteelDesign t{qztal, Part I, Specifcation; Pan II, Contmen' Quarter,1986),30-31' the slnrc-
nr.ry.;Part III, SupplementaryInfonnatiors Part IY, Illustratiue Examples; ond ..proposed LRFD Design criteria"' Jownal of
!.1s. s.1ankJ. Heger. {sc Disc' 106' ST12 (Decem'
Part V, Charu and Tables.New York: American Iron and Steel Institute, 1982. ST3 (Mu"l fSAO;' iZg-na'
tural Diuision, ASCB 106'
I 13. SJI. Standcrd Specificationskxtd Tabia & Weight Tabla tor Steel f oists& Joist ber 1980), 2576-2577'
"Advalces ia Steel Design and constnrction"' Proceedings'
Girtlers. )',{yrrle Beach, sC: Steel Joisr Institute (Suite A,, 1205 48tb Avenue 1.31. stanley D. Lindsey.
North, \I1'rtle Beach,SC 29577),1988. Chicago, trL: Americas
solutiors in steel, rne watronatinginerrrngb^o_nferrnrr-
12-14' 1986'
: 14. Chu-Kia Wang and CbarlesG. Se-iriroc^. Intrductory Structural Analysis.Engle- Institute of Steel Construction' June
.r'oodClfis, NJ: Prentice-Hall,[tr-, 19E4. Flliagrpgod, Theo,dore V. Galambos, James G. MacGregor, and c. Allin
1'32. Bruce
n*ti Load Criterion for American National
Cornell. Deuelopmentof a Probafitity
5?7. Washington, DC: US Departmeot
StandardlSS, NBs SpecialPublication
N"tioott Bureau of Standards' June 1980'
of Cogl-tilt,
Load and Resistance Factor Deslgn ... Bruce Fllingwood, James G. Maccregor, 1qd c' Alry
1.33. Theodore v. Galambos,
I t.q. ,{iSC Incd ond Resistance Factor D*ign SpecilicationforStructura! SteelBuild' Cornell...ProbabilityBascdLoadCriteria:AssessmEntofCurrentDesigoPrac.
rncs.Chlcago, IL: American Insdrute of Steel Construction,September1, 1986.' ice,,,Journa!o!theSrrrtawalDiaision,Ascql0S,sT5(May1982)'959-9?7. "lilind
c. Alli! Cornell' and Theodore V' Galambos'
I 16. i.lSC, Comrr.entaryon the Load ond Resistance Factor Design Speci{ication
for 1.34. Mayas;r;i:Ravindra Divislon'
LRFD," Journal of the Sttttnttral
Structura!Steel Buildinp.(SeptemfurI, /'986).Chicago,IL: American Institute of anO snoJ Load Facton for Use in
' (September 1978)' 1443-1457'
SreclConstruction. 1986. ASCE, 104, ST9
(
'(
(
(
40

$filrd
I /lir- ' !'lTiO!'!

1t Chapter2
(
(
s.ff ,ASCE, Task Committee on lVind Forrreq Comrnittee on Loads and Stresses.
Stnrctural Division. "Wind Forces on Structurcsi' Journal of the Structural
:ln
II
Diuision, ASCE, 84, sr4 (July 1958) lpreliminary' Repon); and Final Reporr,
(
(
Transactious, ASCE, 126,pt. II (1961),ll24-1198.
186. Kishor C. Mehta "Wind Load provisions ANSI =A5g.l-19g2," Jouma! ol
t
I
I
, !
t

s
Steelsand Properties
StructuralEngineering, 110,4 (April 1984),769-794.
(
(
Ee. Theodore Stathopoulos,David Surrv. and Alan G. Davenport. "Effecrive \['incl
:.oads on Flat Roofs." Journal i1 ,n,
, Februar_r'
I 981), 281-298.
srructurar Ditision. AscE. l0?. sr2 II
T
(
( Aqow Loads

( l..rt. Michael J. O'Rourke,and Ulrich Stiefel. "Roof Snow Loads for Strrctural
Design," Journalof structuralEngineering,
ASCE. 109.7 (July 1983),152?-153?.
( 1.39. J. T. Tcmplin and W. R. Schriever."Loads due to Drifred Snos,,"Joumal of the
SrructuralI)irision,ASCE, 108.STB(Augustl9B2).l916-1925.
( 1.40. Michael O'Rourke. Wayne Tobiasson.and Evelln lvood. "Proposed Code Provi-
{ sions for Drifted Snon'Loads,"Jcurnalof StructuralEngineerhrg.
112,9 (Seprem-
ber 1986).2080-2092.
( 1l:41.Michael J. O'Rourkc. Robert Rcdfield, and Peter von Bradsky. "Uniform Snow
Loads on Structures," Journal of the Structural Diaisiorr,ASCE, 108, ST12 2.1 STRUCTURAL
STEELS
(. (DecemberI 982), 2781-2798.
( I.42. Michael J. O'Rourke.RobertS. Speck.Jr., and Ulricb Sticfel."Drifr Snow Loads l)uring most of the periodfrom the introductionof structuralsteelas a major
on Multilcvel Roofs," Journalof srructuralEngineering,
ASCE. llr, 2 (February i''uildinBmaterialuntil about i960, the steelused was classifiedas a carbon
( r985).290-306. 'tcsl with the .{STM (AmericanSocietyfor Testingand Materials)designation
( 't7. and had a minimumspecifiedyield stressof 33 ksi. Most designersmerely
''
EarthquakeLoad rrfcrred to "steel" rvithoutfurther identification,and the AISC specification
( .,
prescribedallowablestressesand proceduresonly for the A7 type of steel.
1.43. SEAOC. Reconzntended l-ateral Force Requirementsand Contmentan'.San Fran- ()ther structuralsteels.such as a specialcorrosionresistantlow alloy steel
(
cisco. CA: SeismologyCommittee, Structural EngineersAssociation of Califor- r .\242)and a more readily'u'eldable steel(A373),wereavailablebut they were
( nia, 1974. r.rrelyused in buildings.Bridge designmade occasionaluse of theseother
1.44. Anil K. Chopra and ErnestoF. Cruz."Evaluation of Buitding Code Formulasfor
:teBIS.
( Earthquake Forces." Jounrul of structural Engineering,ASCE, l12, 8 (August
1986).1881- 1899.
Today (1989) the many steelsavailableto the designerpermit use of
( rncreasedstrength material in highly stressedregions rather than greatly
1.45. Anil K. Chopra. Dynanics of Structures,A Printer. Berkeley, CA: Earthquale
Engineering ResearchInstirute, 198C. rncreasethe size of members.The designercan decide rvhethermaximum
(
1.46. R. W. Clough and JosephPenzien. Dt'namicsof Structures.Nerv York: McGraw- ;'ieidityor least rveightis the more desirableattribute. Corrosionresistance,
( Hill. 1975. irr:rceelimination of frequentpainting, may be a highly important factor.
1.47. Applied TechnologyCouncil (ATC). Associated'*itb the Srructural Enginccrs \t,s1s steelsoxidize to form a denseprotectivecoating that preventsfurther
(
Association of California. Tenlatiue Prouisionsfor the Deuelopntentof Seisntic ,'xrdation (corrosion).acquiring a pleasingeven-textureddark red-brorvn
( Regulationsfor Buildings(ATC -t-06l (NBS Publication 510). Washingron" DC: rppearance.Sincepaintingis not required,it may be economicalto use these
Center for Building Technology,National Bureau of Standards.June l9?8. "rveathering
steels".eventhough the initial cost is somewhathigher than
( 1.48. UBC. Unifornt Building Code.Whittier, CA: International Conferenceof Build- traditionalcarhonsteels.
ing Officials, 1985.
( Certain steelsprovide better weldabiliry than others; some are more
'urtabl€than othersfor pressurevessels, eitherat temperatures well aboveor
( '.r'ellbelorvroom temperatures.
(
r"
( 41
2 / STEELS AND trffOPERTIES USEDFOR BUILDINGSAND BR1DGES
OF STEETJS
(
TABLE 2.1.1 PROPERTIES
'\ Fy (
i
I Minimum Fo Maximum
yield Tensile thrckness ASTM A6 (
stress strenglh for plates groups'
in. for
(
ASTMI ksl ks!
(MPa)r (mm) shapes
designal'on iMPa)l

32 58-80 Over8
\2201 (400-550) (200)
36 58-80 To 8
(2s0) (4oo-550) (2oo)

A53 Grade B 3s(240) 60(4r5)


.+! 63 Overlf to 4
(290) (435) 140to 200)
46 67 OvcrI to 1|
(315) (460) (20 to ztO)
50 70 Toi
(345) 1180) 120)
A44l Discontinued 1989:repiacedby A572
A500 Grade A 33(228) 45(3r0) Rouod
"- Grade B 42(290) s8(400) Round
Grade C 45(317) 62(427) Rould

Grade A 19(269) 45(310) Sbaped


Grade B 46(317) 58(400) Shaped
=====EEEIE Grade C s0(345) 62(427) Shaped

A50l 36(250) 58(400)

A514 90 100-I 30 Oser2| to 6


(620) (690-895) t65to 150)
r00 110-130 To 2|
-E -*' 'L/ ' (690) 1760-895) t65)
--f I
--'ba _ . : :'l I
a
A529
T1 60-85 Tol
tor-8tA (2e0) (414-586) rl 3 )
John Hancock Csnter, Chicago, sbo*tng exterior diagonal bracing, lPhoto by C. G. 4'570 Grade 40 40(275) 55(380)
Salmon) Grade 45 45(3i0) 60(415)
Grade 50 50(345) 65(450)
A1 60 To6 All
A572 Grade 42
(2e0) (4ls) (Is0)
50 65 To4 .A.il
Structura!steelsare referredto by AST\{ designations. and alsoby many Grade 50
(345) (4s0) (100)
proprietary narnes.For design purposesthe field stressin tension is the
Grade 60 60 75 To ll
referencequantity that specifications.such as AISC, use as the material (32)
(415) (s20)
property variable to establishstrengthor allowable stress.The term j,ield To r|
Grade65 65 80
rtres.sis used to includeeither "field point," the u'ell-defineddeviationfrom (450) (s50) (32)
perfectelasticit;'erhibitedby most of the commonstructuralsteels:or "yield
A588 42 63 Oler 5 to 8
strength." the unit stiess at a certain offset strain for steelshaving no (2m) (43s) (125 to 200)
u'cli-dcfinecif ield pcint. Today (1990)steelsare readilyavailableharing 46 67 Oter 4 to 5
I'ield
strcsscsfrom 24 ro 100 ksi (lT0 to 690 lr{pa). (315) (460) (100 to 125)
50 70 To4 All
Steelsfor structural use in hot-rollcd applicationsmay be classifiedas
(345) (485) (100)
carhon srcc/s. high-xrength lou,-alloy,steels,and allav steels.The general
rcqtrirentents for suchsierls are coveredunder ANSI/ASTIU A6 Specification 45(310) 65(4s0)
50(31s) 70(480)

/
(
t \

44 27 STEELSANDPROPERTIES 2 I /STRUCTURALSTEELS 45
\
, (
l TABLE 2-1.1 Continued i A B L E 2 . 1 . 2 U S E SO F V A R I O U S T E E L S
, (
Fy ASIM' desrgnatton Ccrnmonusage
( Minimurn Fu Maximum
yielcl Tensile thickness ASTMA6 -\-t6 ('erbon steel
( slless strenglh lor plates groupso
..\il Carbon Stecl
ASTM! ksi ksi in. lor
( (MPa)t (mm) rl{1 High-strcngth Wc'ldcd and boltcJ trn.13.-ct'rn:lructir.rntlhcrc cortoslon
desrgnalron lMPa)r $hapes
i(t$-allo! slecl rcsistance'ir dr'rrrt-d: r'-s:rnttdlv superscdt'd b1' A?09. (ir:dc 5i.)\\'
( .\ ii x) Cold-forntcd ucldcd lnJ searnlcssround. squarc. rcctangular. r-rrspt'c:& shJlc
A60- Grade -35 45(310) 60(410)
i ( ('rrbon slecl structural tubina for bolt.'d and ucldcd gcncral structural PulTosc!
Crade 50 50(340) 6s (450)
I G r a d e5 5 55(380) ?0t480t \i,Il Hot-fornrc'd uclJcd .r:.j sr'amlcssiquarc. rcctangulrr. rounr!. rti siJj..l: '!'l::is
{
t 60(410) 75(520) ( .rrbon stecl slructuirl lubrni f,rr h..ir!'J 3nd $cidcd gcncral structural purfl' r{'
Grade €'0 'cri;ic:
(lraCe 6 i 65(450) 80(s50) i. i r rrffjr .*c..l.qu.n.fr.J-_pl"i.; i; ,h,Jn..... ..f " '" it -.u*rniona un,l.t. p;trtrlr for ,.ci;-'.:
( ?0(480) 85(590) largell'sup('r)cdcJ br. {-19 f.rr bndgc's
Grade l0 .rnd tcmpercd
( il:'r G*d-"c 33(230) 48(330) \ile Platcsand har: i :n. i l-1 mm) and lcss in thickncsr
Grade D 40(275) 52(360) ( arbon stcel or diamr'tcr and (i;..u; i :hepc'sIl 8] for u:c in boltc'd
( Grade E 80(550) 82(565) and wcldcd ms.taibu:lc:na \\stem frarncs and lrusscr

r\ri3GradesI&II 50(345) 70(485) To I in. walls \i-'l Hot-rolL'd shtct rnJ riil du! :n lcn3ths or cotls: frrr
( cold-form,-'d)cdl:olt: irnan.imumthrckncss0.:19 ln. (6 mml'l
G r a d eI I I s0(345) 65(450) ( .rrbr-rnlteCl
{ Frs Gr",i.36 36 58-80 To4 All r.-: rri!n-'ii*!rn-. Structural shanc.. ri.its':. shcl-tp:itnz. and heri for
(250) (400-550) (100) i'u-allol. columbium boltcd anri ucldcd hu:ic:ng.: sclded bridgt's in (iratlcs 4l
( 50 65 To4 All , 'r ranadium stccl and 50 onlr: .'ss!'nlialir .,;pcr*-ciedb;..4709. (iradc 50
Grade 50
(345) (450) (100) \i\l{ Structural shapc'. platcs. and bais for *cldcd buildings and bndi.'. ii h.:: l c:ihi
( 70 To4 All . savings6r addcd dura|':i:tr are ncedcd: atmosphcric corrotlon iL-\r\i::r!c '\
Grade 50W 50 I lrah-rtrength
1345) (485) (100) i ,' u . a l l o v s t e c l about four timcs th;i of {j6 rir.'el:csscnlialll supcrscdcdbr A-'.;'i.
( (iradc 5(l for bnde.cr
Grade i00 90 100-I 30 Over2| to 4 -
( & i00w (610) (690-895) (64-102) \' ',() nn,. and cold-rolL.a .r.,.'.i*Jrrnp in lcngrh.;r,.-i;, for col.!-ic;:.jj .r-i .'i..

100 110-130 To 2| I liah-strcngth wherc cnhanccd durahii:tr is desircd: atmosph!.nc corrosion rc.r.:::i.i :ni
GraCe 1r.t0
( & l00w (6e0) (760-895) (64) l{"*-allo,vstecl Type 2 at lcast t'*icr'thai of carbon steel: and forTvpc'4al lt'a't
four tintcs that of carbon stcel
( -
5 l
i

t{l
steels lisred arc approved under the AISC Spccificationst1.5, 1.151cxcept A6ll and A70i'.
r : l

I I rgh-strengthlos -allor for cold-formed scctioni.'.rhr're 3rcaier strcngth and ucight \31rn;.. r:. ::l:ii'i':rnl
( '1gi-i
.ASTM A6 atnrOsphcriccorrrr\iot ii.stsij1llC{r,rithoUtcoPpcrl i: tht'slttllc a..;;h,r1
il.8lplaccs structural rolled shapcs(W.I{. S. HP, C. MC, and L) in Groups I through i r r i u m h i u r no r
a:

r , r n a d i u n rs l c c l rvith coppcr. corro:.:on r.::st3ncc is tuicc that of carbon slccl


( 5 according ro size for tensile property classification. All rollcd flanged sections having at least i - 'i
one cross-s€criondimension 3 in. (75 mm) or greater are included. The size ba-sisfor groups is :.i \r il cnio--it..r 'hcct ,n .u, :.ln.,i'l .lclil-tior making
( approximatety the wcb thicknesscorrcspondingto the matimum thickness for platcs. with thc ( arl-ronslccl cold-fornrcd ){( i;(1n\
rhicnest web sections in Group l. The specific sectionsincluded in each group ate given in ASTM '* \/,ix Hor-i.*u..f rvr-irlstjan.t s'amiers-tq*".. ;;;;gul"r. r,'un.l. .'r ';':.:':l 'it':p':
( 4,6 tl.8l and in the AISC Manuals[1.7.l.l7l. ' s I ireh.srrcngth structural tubing i,rr l-,olrli and trcldcd gcnr'ral structural purpo'!":
:t
r
telt SI values are those given in the particular ASTNI Specification. i, ru -nll6Y 51ggl Gradc Il has ctrrrrrsirr!:iat:s!3nceabout t$'ice that of carbon slccl:
( * (iradc t has corio\:on rc\::l3nl'e about four timcs that o[ carbon 'ir'c!
T
(ira<lc III for cnh:rnc.-.1!\\rro\ron relistancl'mar harc eoppcr.p':.:i:r*.1
( a
- t -iiiu.:iurat
i ,,i (-"rh..:
htgil shafc.. pi",... .nJ;.r. i" d;&-. 16 -iil. tna Sr,u f1r:g.1';i1n-:gi:
( t1.Sl. Table 2.1.1 lists the conimon steels,their minimum yield stresses,and .3
,ircn3th. lou-111e... plrtcs in (ir;rcjc: !ixr 3nd, iil\\' for use in bridgcs: thcn supplcrrrc:.i:i:-'
rensilestrengths.Their commonusesare given in Table 2.1.2. .,nrl qucnchcd and rc-quircmcnt:rrc urtd. rcqu:tr'mentsof Ai6. A5?1. Asltl{. and Ajii a:.'
( rcmpercd allol- cxcccdcd: (iradc'. li)\\' .ild lfrr\\' arc r.cathering stccls

( Carbon Steels " \ l l r r e c l sl i s r e d a r e a p p r o r c . du n d c r r h c A i S C S p c u , i : s r i : ( a nisi . 5 . i . l 5 l c x c e p t 4 6 l l and A:i'e

( Carbon seels are divided into four categories based on the percentage
( of carbon: low carbon (less than 0.157o); mild carbon (0.15-0.297o);
medium carbon (0.30-0.59%);and high carbon (0.60-1.70?a\. Structural car-
( bon steelsare in the mild carboricategory:a steelsuch as 436 has maximum
,.(
,u--
2'2 / FASTENE"i * ''':.cib
qT
x(
46 2 z'STEELS AND FROPEFIfIES (&"
(
,g
remper*roobtainvierdstrengrhs of
Tensile strength, F,
*:;:TlL* mayb,e-T..::h:g.and defined asrhesrre$$ (
yiJJ ,tteoltnir usualiv
Heat-treated @nstructional .
allov steels;A514 quenched
80to 110ksi(55d;;loo vrp"l. aJnot exhibit a well'definedyielrd
thesr ri.tit ('
and ternPeredalloY steei at o.z% offset ,*"in, since i
!!'iinimum Yield {r€ngth
D o i n t . A t y p i c a l s t r e s s . s t r ap'o"taotts'
i . n c u r v e -and
i s s hordinarily
o w n i n F requite
i g . z . l . Lng
, caddi'
urve(c)'These (
Fy = looksi proper
steelsare weldablewith been welded' For special $se'' stress (' ,
ihey'haue
tional n.u, ,r.ui*-.;;;t
s
High-strength.low' t
t
alloy carbon steels;
relieving*uvo,..,ionallyu,,.qui'.d.Somecalbonsteels,sueha$ceilain ( 1
A572 temperedto giveyield stre'gLtsiS
pressurevesselsteels,maibe qu.n.ttJand
4
steelsbt tttir strengrhare low'dr€y , a
t ' 1

rhe g0 tsi (550 Mp'ai ;-e!,'uut-r*i


( l t

geDerally. a matdsrumcatbon f9$tertt Sf


have f
steels.Theselo*-;u;i st€;ts ( '
tne taranessof any coa$e'gain rnicrostflrct*r€
abouro.zy%i" ;r;;;io 1imir the i
(martensit"ltt ui iu,io* d"ti";;;a treatingbr welding'thus,redueing (
\
i*T;."il:l.,[:-;enr orquenchgf.*g coorins wirhwateror oil (
consists tenpering by
-. iOb-aOO'B; then /.
from at r"urti?lO;f pO"Cl io=.Uout ro cool.Tempering'even (
rdheatingto arl; trs'o.r tozo.c)andalrowing (
lardness somewhatfrom the quenched-
and
thiiugh ,.au.inff.-rtr.ngtn Reduction in streagth
,oulrtn*t t"a ductility' (
marerial,greatlyimproves,rr. is somewhat counteracted by the
increasing temierature
and hardness;irh resultingfrom precipitatignof fine (
Strain, inchesPer inch occurrenc"of u ,.condary h;;G, beginsat ibout
columbium,dt;;;, or vanadit* t"t"uiaes.Thdprecipitation (
curves'
Figure2.1.i Tlpical stress-su'ein up:::!f:13:,iT (680'c)' Temperinsat or
e50oF (510'c) and accelerates
fromprecipirating carbidesmayresultiq ( !
near1250oFto getmaximumbeoefit
on thickness'structural carbon enteringthetra-nsformationzone,thusproducingtheweakermicrostrueture (
carbon varying from 0.25 toO.2g%depending h;;;;;; obtained *ithout q*"tPg and tempering'
as shown on curve (a) of Fig'2'i'1' that would
sreelsexhibit definite yield points (
raisesthe Stress but reducesductility' making lnsummary,thequenchingproducesmartensite.averyhard,ttrong,and
strengthand hardnesssomewhat
lncreasedcarbon percent field reductt
brittle *i.roril'tiu";'"f'*ting lltt
u'eidingmore difficult. anJ aucdlity. Foi more deniled information
^ ^. "A A5312'21,4500
[2'9]' while increasingthe toughnes and temperingproces$'the reader
The carbon steelsgivenin Table 2.1.1are 436 [2.1], tn. qu.o.trin_g (
and A709 12.201'Grade 36- concerningd;il;"u;; { and te$Peredalloy
.,\i01 [2.101,A529 [2.1i], nsro [2.13],A611 t2.181
is referredto rhe weldingu*au-o,- LL.ni.Thcqulnched Grades100and 10S1V'
(
of Tabte-i.1.1 are-ASra lZ.irt La nZOg1i'ZO1'
steets (
Hi gh-Strength Low'AlloY Steels
'l-'iris 40 to 70 ksi (275 to 4E0
categoryinciudessteelshaving yield stressesfrom STEELS
2.2 FASTENER
point-t-!?t* in curve(b) of Fig' 2'1'1'
\iPa), exlubiting the well'definedi'ieta (
Tie
steels. addition to carbon steelsof small of threadedfastenersappearsin cbaptcr
rhe same as sho$'n by carbon The deta*edtreatmeutof thedesign
as chromium, €olumbium, copper' manganese' usedfor bolts appear$in the folloving (
4. A brief descriptionof the materials
amounts of ailoy elements such
improves someof
molybdeaunr, nickel, phosphorus,vanadiufn,or zirconium, paragraphs. (
steels gain their strength by
the mechanical properties. Whereas calbon
cr:at: increased sFength from a (
increasingcarbon content, the alloy elements and Sbds' 60'000psl
fine rrther than marse mrcrostruiture obtained during cooling of the steel' A307 [2.4J,Carbon SteelBolts
condi- Tenslle Strength (
I Iigii-strength lo*:-Jioy .t..it are used in the as-roiledor nonnalized "ttr&shinsbolts"'
areeommonlyreferredto a$ (
tron. i.e..no heat treatmentis used. This materialis usedfor what ins1{adons IncludedareGradeA
The high-strengr,hlow-ailoy steelsof Table 2.1.1are A242[2.3],A44i [2'61' TheseareusuattfuJ oorvfo' 191nor""y ksi
.-\572 [2.1.11,A5Stt2.15l, 4606 [2.i6J, A60? I2.l7l, 4618 [2.19J,and
A709 whichbavea minimumtensilestren8thof 50
bolts for generalapPlical.ions"
[].201,Grades50 and 50W. ( ,
(
(
(

48 2/STEELS AND PROPERTTES ANDFILLER


z.3/WELD ELECTROOE MATERIAL 49

(
(415 N{Pa); and Grade B bolts for flangedjoints in piping sysremsrvhereone llter bc checkecl.Whenevergalvanizedbolts are used."double the nuts nlust bc
( or both flanges are cast iron. The Grade B bolts have a maxinun tensile ..oversizc,J." oversized."
If the nuts are also galvanized,they must be
( strength limitation of 100 ksi (700 MPa). No well-defined yield point is Steelshaving tcnsilestrength in the rilnge of 100 ksi or higher are subject
(
exhibited by these bolts, and no minimum 1"ieldstrength (for instance,A.2% ro hydrogenembritrtementwhen hydrogenis pcrmitted to remain in the steel
\ offset strength)is specified. and high rensilestressis applied. Th. introduction of h-vdrogenoccurs during
"sealing-
r
\ the pickling operation of the galvanizingprocess and the subsequent
in" bf rhe hydrogenand zinc coating t2.23].The minimum tcnsilesucngth of
( A325 [2.5], Htgh-Strength Bolts lor Structural Steel Jolnts A325 bolts is well below the critical 200 ksi range.On the other hand, A490
( This quenchedand temperedmedium carbon steelis used for bolts commonly bolts have a minimum tensilestrengthof 170 ksi, a valueconsideredtoo close
known as " high-strengthstructural bolts," or high-strengthbolts. This mate- ro the critical range.Thus, galuanizingof A490 boltsis not perrnitted.
(
rial has maximum carbon of 0.30%.It is beat-treatedby quenchingand then
( by reheating(tempering)to a temperatureof at least 800"F. This steelbehaves
in a tension tcst more similarly to the heat-treatedlow-alloy steelsthan to AND FILLERMATERIAL
2.3 WELDELECTRODE
( carbon steel. It has an dltimate tensilesrrengrhof 105 ksi (733 Mpa) (1| to
( 1f in.-diam bolts) to 120 ksi (838 MPa) (1 ro t-in.-diam bolts). Its yield The detailedtreatmentof welding and welded connectionsappearsin Chapter
strength, measuredar0.2% offset, is prescribed at 8l ksi (566 Mpa) minimum 5. The electrodesused in shielded metal arc welding,(SMAW) (seeSec.5.2)
tcr I * to 1*-in.-diam bolts, and'92ksi (643 MPa) for bolts ! to I in. diam (see also serve as the filler material and are covered by AWS A5.1 and A5.5
( Table4. 1. 1) . Specifications 12.241.Such consumable electrodes ate classified E60XX,
"E'denotes electrode.
E?0XX, E80XX; E90XX, E100XX, and Ell0XX. The
(
A449 t2.7!,Quenched and Tempered Steel Bolls and Studs
(
USEDFOR\I,IELDING'
TABLE2.3.1 ELECTRODES
These bolts have tensile strengths and yield stresses(strength at 0.2% offset)
( the same as ,{325 for bolts 1| in. diam sld smatler; however,they have the
( regular hexagon head and longer thread length of 4,307 bolts. They are also shielded submergecl Gas Metal FluxCored
available in diameters up to 3 in. The AISC Specifications[1.5, I.15] permit l.'ieialArc Arc Arc Arc
( V/elding Welding Welding Welding
use of A449 bolts only for ceilain stnrctural joints requiring diametersexceed-
isMAW) (SAW) (GMAW) (FCAW) Minimum Minimum
( rng 1l in. and for high-strength anchor bolts and threaded rods. .\ yield .tensile
AWSA5.1 AWSA5.17 AWSA5.18 AWSA5.20
or A5.5 or 45.23 - or 45.28 or A5.29 stress slrength
(
(k") (MP.) (ksi) (MPa)
A490 [2.8I, Heat Treated, Steel Structural Bolts, 150 ksl
(
(1035 MPa) Tensile Strength
E6OXX E6XT-X 50 345 62 min 425
(
This material has carbon content that may range up to 0.s3onfor I I in.-diam F6X-E)fiX 50 345 62-80 425-550
( bolts, and has alloying elementsin amounts similar to the A5l4 [2lll steels. L.?OXX ER?O$X ETXT-X 60 415 72s1ilg- 495
F7X-D(XX 60 415 70-90 485-655
After quenching in oil the material is tempered by reheating ro at least 900oF. 80!ilin 550
( E80XX 67 60
The minimum yield strength, obtained by 0.2% offset, ranges from ll5 ksi FSX-EfiX EsXT 68 470 80-100 550-690
( (803 MPa) (over 2| in. to 4 in. diam) to 130 ksi (908 Mpa) (for 2| in. diam - 65 450 80min 550
ER80S
and under). El00xx 87 600 100min 690
( F1oX-E)fiX 88 605 100-130 690-895
ERlOOS 90 620 100min 690
( ElOXT 88 605 100-120 690-830
Galvanlzed High-Strength Bolts
En0x 97 670 110mio 760
( 110-130 760-895
In order to provide corrosion protection, ,4,325 bolts may be galvanized. Fllx-E)(xx 98 675
( ERllos 98 675 110mia 760
Hot-dip galvanizing requires the molten zinc temperature to be in the rangeof
HTXT 98 675 110-125 760-860
the heat treatment temperature; thus, tbe mecbanical properties obtained by
(
heat treatment may be diminished. Iq general, only Type 1 A325 botts should 'Filler
( be hot'dip galvanized. If Type 2 are galvanized the mechanical propertiesmust metat requirementsgiven by AWS Dl.l [2.24],Table 4.1.1 to match lbe various structural
stcelS.
l' -
(
,>- TEST)
(TENSION
BEHAVTOR 51 (
2.4/ STRESS.STRAIN
50 Al.rD
2 / STEELS PnOpERTtES
(
(
The first two digits indicatethe tensilestrengthin ksi; thus the tensilestrength .5% Extensionunder load yield strength.F, = 100 ksi ( l
rangesfrom 60 to 110 ksi (414 to 760 MPa). The "X's" representnumbers
0.2% Offset yield strength. F" = 100 ksi
indicatingthe usageof the elecrrode. (
For submetged.r. welding(SAW) (seeSec.5.2),the electrodeswhich also For F"' = 1O0 ksi; tyPical for steels
scn'e as filler material are covered by AwS A5.17 and '45.23, and are with F" ) 65 ksi
( ,
designatedF6X-EXXX, F7X-EXXX, F8X-EXXX, F9X-EXXX, FI0X-EXXX, ( ,
and FllX-EXXX. The "F'designatesa granularfiux materialthat shieldsthe
weld as it is made.The first of the two digits following the-"fl iodicaterhe ( :
,
tensile strength (6 means 60 ksi), while the second digit gives the Chatpy (
V-notch impact strength.The "E'and the other X's represent,numbers
relating to the use.For gasmetal arc welding (CMAW) (seeSec.5.2) and flux 0.2%Of{set(0.0O2in'/in.} c
o (
E
coredarc welding(FCAW) (seeSec.5.2)the electrodesare designated ER70S-X (b)
For F.' = 50 ksi; typical far most structural
I t-- -^-. -r',,Flr,"r
(
and ETXT-X, respectively. The number70 (or 7) is the rensilestrengthin ksi. steelswith F" ( 65 ksi
o

v,
The yield stressesand tensilestrengthsof the commonly used electrodesare ( "
{i 9 e nin T able2. 3. 1. (
(

2.4 STRESS-STRAIN (
(TENS|ONTEST)
BEHAVIOR Elasticrange
AT ATMOSPHERIC I
TEMPERATURES Plaslrcrange t Strainhardeningrange (

Typical stress-strain cun'es for tensionare shown in Fig. 2.1.1 for the three
I
( ,
I
I
catesoriesof steel already discussed:carbon, higlr-strengthlow-alloy, and .' 3 1 l ( i
|
hcat-treatedhigh-strength low-alloy.The surmebehavioroccursin compression
lr'hensupport is pror ided so as to precludebuckling. The portion of eachof o'ocs o'oto o'o2o 0'025 ( i

the stress-strain cun'esof Fig. 2.1.1that is utilized in ordinary designis shorvn ,,,..'n.::):"'
(':
cn l a rg edin F ig, 2. 4. 1 . curvesfor differentyield str€sses'
Figure2.4.1 Enlarggdtypicalstress'strain
The stress-strain cun'esof Fig. 2.1.1are determinedusing a unit srress (
,'btained by dividins the ioad by the originai cross-sectional area of &e (
specimen,and the strain(inchesper inch) is obtainedas the elongationdivided
the unit stressat a lield
bv tire original length. Such curves are knorvn as engineeringstress-strain Fig.2.4.1. Yietdsrressis the generalterm to inclqde (
curvesand rise to a inaximumstresslevel(knorlraas the tensilrsirength)and po-ittt,when such.exists,or the yield strength'
is known as (
then fall off n'ith incrcasingstrainuntil they terminateas the specimenbreak^s. The ratio of srressto strarnrn the initial straight line region
Young's modulus, E, which for structural stBels
insofrr as the materic!itseliis concerned the unit stresscontinuesto riseuntil the modulus of elasticity,or (
'fhe as 29,000 ksi (200,000 MPa). In the straight-line
:.rrlureoccurs. sc-calledtrue-.stress/true-strain cuwe is obtainedby using may be raken approximately
henceit is (
thc actualcross-seciicn cvenniterneckingdorvnbeginsand usingthe instanta- ,.gio. loading and unloadingresultsin no pennanentdeformation;
is always intended
neous incremental slrain. The engineeringstress-straincurve permits the the elasticrunge.The service,loadunit stressin steeldesign (
though in order to ascertain
nracticaluseof the original(beforeneckingdo*n) cross-section. to be safely wittrin the proportional limit, even
knowledgeis requlred (
stre-ss-straincun''es(as per Fig. 2.a.1)show a straight line relationshipup safety factors against failure or excessivedeformation,
up to a strain about 15 to 20 times the maximum
: ' ;r point kno*'n as the proportionallimit, which essentiallycoincideswith'the of the stress-strainbehavior (
.'rcld point for most structuralsteelswith yield points not exceeding65 ksi elastic strain-
t450 \{Pa). For the qucnchedand temperedlow-alloy steelsthe deriatitn from For steelse-'.hibitingyield points, as curves(a) and (b) of Fig.
2.4'1. the (
exists is known as the plastic
a straiglit line occursgraduallv.as in cun'e (c), Fig. 2.4.7.Sincethe term yielJ large strain for which eisentially constant stress i
factor design method consciously uses this
point is not appropriateto curve(cl, y'ieldstrengthis used for the stressar an ioig, The load and resistanc;
steels typified by curve (c) of Fig. 2.4.1 also have a (
offset strain of 0.2S: or atternatively, a 0.5%extJnsionunder toad,as shownin ,;;; The higher strength
(
(
(
r
1

'(.
i (
j
2 5 / t :ATER|ALTOUGHNESS 53
I \..

r
r l
'C
t '
(
. -t$ortithat might be calledthe plasricrange;horvever.in this zone rhe srressis Tt.ri. erature.

continuously increasingas strain increasesinstead of remaining constant. -30 -20 - lC 0 + lO

(
i
Th,us,this region is not permitted by AISC to be used for steeisrvhosevield D u c r i l i t i -t r J n s i i ; u nL c , n p c r a t u r e
i
gtr€ssexcesds65 ksi. a t t 5 t t . l b . ,s a v l f F i
( I
For strains greater than 15 to 20 times the maximum elastic strain'the 60 i80
( ssiEssagain increasesbut rvith a much flatter slope than the original elastic 50 i E
T:'arsit:oniemierature i60 z
t *$fuS"-
This increasein strength is called $rain haidening, which c-onrinuesup 40 at ic€p€i: slope, sav +30'F
t &r &nsile strength. The slope of the sress-strain cune is knoun as the i =
30 l.roEi
(' s$ein-hlrdening modulus, f,,. Averagevaluesfor this modulusand the strain - ] . J|

esrts niiich it bcginshavebeendeterminedl2.25lfortrvo steclsas: A36 sreel,


tl 20 |^^
(I
1ln
r0 -1I
a
E *: 900 k s i ( 6 1 0 0M Pa ) a t € r,:0 .0 1 4 i n . p e r i n.; anclfor A 4.l l . E ,:700 I

7
( k* (.1800l\{Pa) ar (r, : 0.021in. per in. The strain-hardening,rng. is not -20 0 +20 +40 +$Q
@ciousl)' used in desigrn. oF
l o but certain of the buckling limitations ur. conr.r- Ten,perature,
r f*rdiuelyderived to precludebuckling even at srrains rvell beyond onset of
l Figure 2.5.1 Transition tempcrature cun'e for carbon steel obtained from Chatp.v
r sgfl#trhardening.
V-notch impact tests.(Adapted from Ref. 2j5)
i The stress-straincurve also indicatesthe ductility. Ductility is defined as
7
I
t" tfEamount of permanentstrain (i.e.,strain exceed"ing proportio;al umig up ro
r
( tfte point of fracture. N'leasurement of ductiliry is oUiained from rhe rension pendulum. The amount of energy absorbedis calculatedfrom the height the
I @ by determining the percent elongation (comparing final and original pcndulum raisesafter breaking the spechen. The amount of energyabsorbed
( Kss'sectional areas) of the specimen. Ductility is important becauseit
i rvill increaservith increasingtemperatue at which tbe test is conducted.
fermits yielding locally due to high stressesand thuJ allorvs the srress Though the Charpy V-notch test has been a corunon meansof determin-
t; distnibutionto change.Designproceduresbasedon inelastic behaviorrequire
r ing notch toughness.other fracture criteria and more recentl_v fracturemecharr
i large inherent ductility, particularly for treatment of stressesnear holes or ics have been used 12.26).Barsom and RoUe [2.28] and Barsom[2.29, 2.30j
V
i abrupt changein membershape,as well as for clesignof connections. haveexcellentlypresentedthe imponanr factorsrelatingto fractureof steel.
I
l
Figure 2.5.1 shorvsthe typical relaiioaship betweentenperature and ihe
/
L
transition from ductile to brittle bebarior. such as one may obtain from the
i
2.5 MATERIAL
TOUGHNESS Charpy V-notch test.The temperatureai tbe point where the slopeis steepest
i(
(point A of Fig. 2.5.1) is' the transitioo.temperature.Sincebrittlenessand
( The use of steeishaving higher strengththan 4,36 without heat reatment has ductility are qualitative terms, the various structural steelshave different
resultedin problemsrelating to lack of ductility and material fracture requirementsfor ductility at various tenperatures dependingon their senice
lZ.Z7l;
at least the use of such steelsrequires the structural eogineer to be more environment (loading, temperature,slressald strain levels,loading rate, and
( eonsciousof material behavio.r. cyclic loading).
In structural steeldesign,toughnessis a measureof the ability of steelto For example.a moderateamouni of ductilir-t*may be requiredfor ordi-
{ resist fracture; i.e., to absorb energy. According to Rolfe lz.i6l, material nary structureswhere very low temperaturesare oot expected;in such cases,
( toughnessis defined as " the resistanceto unstable crack propagation in the l5 ft-lb has commonly been the energy absorption required.The temperature
presenceof a notch." Unstablecrack propagationproducesbrittle fracture,'as obtained frqm the test results cun'e of Fi-e.2.5.1 at 15 ft-lb rvould be about
( opposedto stable crack growrh of a subcritical crack from fatigue. l7oF, known is the ductility transition ternperature.This would indicate that
1.
For uniaxial tension,toughnesscan be expressedas the total area under rire material may be expected to be brittle rvhen service temperaturesare
the stress-straincurve out to the fracture point where the diagram terminates. below 17oF.
( Since uniaxial tension rarely exists in real structures, a more useful index of
( toughnessis based on the more complex stress condition at the root of a
notch. 2.6 YIELDSTRENGTH
FOR MULTIAXIALSTATESOF STRESS
( " Notch toughnessis the measureof the resistanceof a metal to the start and
( propagationof a crack at the baseof a standard notch, comrnonly using the Only rvhen the load-carryingraember is subject to uniaxial tensilestresscan
Charpy V-notch test.This testusesa small rectangularsimply supportedbeam the properties from the tension test be expectedto be idertical with thoseof
E ( .
having a V-notch at midlength.The bar is fractured by a blow from a srvinging the structural member.it is easy to forget that yielding in a real structureis
,(
SlHtr>)
FOR MULTIAXIALSTATESOF
-:t

2.6 /YELASTRENGTI-r /' :.


54 ANDPROPERTTES
2 / STEELS J
/ 1
a2=ot \ i
t=ai I

usuall;r not the well-definedbehaviorobservedin the tension test. Yielding is


a2=or
o: t / t

commonlv assumedto be achievedwhen any one componentof stressreaches


t -ot
.< >; ay or --. f]
* o, r !
g

-ar+[-'l e =
the unia-rialvaiue {u.
I

,\-/ t i:
*-' / a
For ail statesof stressother than uniaxia!. a definition of yielding is I o2 at ( .'1
1,,;

needed.Thesedefinitior^s,and thereare frequentlyseveralfor a givenstateof


a7=ot / J*
I
stress,are called yield conditions(or theoriesof failure) and are equationsof Pure shear stress t
interacrionbetweenthe stresses acting.
condition I (
I (
I
(
Energy-of-Dlstortlon (Huber -von Mlses - Hencky) Yleld Crlterion
(
This most commonly acceptedtheory givesthe uniaxial yield stressin termsof
the three principal stresses.
The yield criterionf may be stated (

- or)'+ (o, - or)t + (o, - o,)t]


(
o|: i[{o, (2.6.1)
-o2'-ot
(
where oy o2t 03 arc the tensileor compressivestressesthat act in the three I (
that act in the threemutuallyperpendicu-
principal directions;i.e.,the stresses i,'=[-l +--or
(
lar planesof zero shear,and o, is the "yield stress"that may be compared
u,ith the uniaxial value{..
t
-Q? = -at (
For most structuraldesignsituadons,one of the principalstresses is either
zero or small enoughto be neglected;hence84.2.6.1reduces to the following
(
Hvdrostatic stress
condition
for the caseof plane stress(all stressesconsideredare acting in a plane)
yield criterion for plane stress'
Figure 2.6.1 Energy'of-distortioo
't (
o; : or2+ ol - oro, (2.6.2)
(
\\'hen stresses o 2 : _o,,andtheshearstress,|:O|.Substitutionofo,--o|intoEq.2.6.7 (
on thin platesare involved,the principalstressactingtransverse
gives
to the plane of the plate is usuallyzero(at leastto first-orderapproximation). (2.5.3)
- :, (
Flexural stresseson beamsassumezero principal stressperpendicularto the ol : ol + oi - or( or) 3ot2
plane of bending.Furthermore,structuralshapes(Fig. 1.5.1)are comprisedof (2.6.4) (
thin plate elements,so that eachis subjectto Eq. 2.6.2.The plane stressyield oL: t - or/rli - shearYield
(
criterion, 4. 2.6.2,is the one used throughoutthe remainingchaprerswhere
needed,and is illustratedin Fig. 2.6.1. (
w hi chi ndi catestha t t heyieldcondit ionf or shear sEessact ingaloneis
(2.6.5) (
,rr: or/,lT : 0.58oy
Shear Yleld Stress (
The f ield point for pure shear can be determinedfrom a sttess-straincurve
with shearloading,or if the multiaxialyield citerion is knorvn,that relation- Polsson's Ratlo' p
not only in the
ship can be used.Pureshearoccurson 45o planesto the principal planeswhen direcdon'strainsare inducec
When stressis appliedin one perpendicular
but alsoin t'heother rwo mutuatly (
direction of apptiedstress from the uniaxial suess
directions.The t'; valueof p 4 it-ti't"t "11i:* suain
the tiansversestrain to longitudinal (
'Scc Frcd B. Scely and JarnesO.
Smith, A&anctrc Methoila ol llaterials,lnd cd. lNcrv York: condition, *f,.r" it i, ,1" radt of
John \\ iley.& Sons. Inc.. 1952),pp. 75-91. (
(
(
(
(
t ( -
56 2/STEELS ;rNu pROpERTTES 2.7/HtGH TEMPEMTURE
BEI-|AVIOR 57
a
:
( uurier;load. For .;trusturalsteets,'ptlisson's
I ratio is approximatell.0.3 in the
(
L

elastic:range rvhere the material is compressibleana approaches0.5 when in


r.2
tFne
pla;tic ralrgr wherethe materialis essentiallyincompressible
(i.e.,constirnt
r(i esistance no matrer what the strain). 1.0
L - = '
( iE= 08
Sear Modulus ol Elastlcity = 9,n
{ ?V=" 0.6
Ler+Tingin pure shear produces a stress.straincurye with a straight line 7:>
\ :- -zj Zo 0.4
; Fi.'lttt}n rvhoseslope rcpresentsthe shear modulus of elasticity. If Poisson's
( r&tier1.rand thc tension-compression modulus of elasticityE ire knos.n, the
. 0 =
2=? o.2
,r she*r.r.ttodulusG is defined by the rheory of elasticityas = > a
.i00 800 1200 1600 2000

, s-#u,
( o
Temperature, F
(2.6.6)
( (a) AverageEffect ol Temperature on Yield StrenEh

( qlhkh for structuralsteelis just over 11,000ksi (75.800Mpa).


': ,? l.o
(

r
'i, j c.JJ
2.7 HIGHTEMPERATURE
BEHAVTOR 1E '. 0.8
= = 2
Ja.'
( Ilie design of structures to sen/e under atmospherictemperaturerarely in- 7==i. 0.6
r
= ' ! -

'lolvesconcernabout high
=

temperaturebehavior.Ikowledge of such behivior *'


ljt
-^(' s 0.4
is desirable rvhen specifying welding procedures,and is nec€ssarywhen
-l
:: a
( € = - 1 -

concernedwith the effectsof fire.


.lFi
:tF 0.2
( When temperaturesexceedabout 200"F (93"C) the stress-straincurve
treginsto becomenonlin€ar,gadually eliminating rhe well-definedyield point: 400 800 1200 1600 2000
( The modulus of elasticity, yield strength, and lensile strength ail redgcc'as o{ "F
Tempei'ature.
'ln

( temperatureincreases.The rangefrom 800 to 1000oF(430 to 540'C) is rvherb. (b) Average


Effect,ofTemperature
on TensileStrength
,ii
the rate of decreaseis maximum. While each steel, becauseof its different
( chemistry and microstructure,behavessomewhatdifferently, the generalrela- .-E
1.0
( tionshipsare'shownin Fig. 2.7.1.Steelshaving relativeiyhigh percentages of
carbon,such hs 436, exhibir"strain agrng"in the range300 to 700oF(150 to 'i
=
J a Z
= 0.8
( 370'C). This is evidencedby a relative rise in yield strengrh and tensile
i*-
-i;
; - h

-!
e 0.6
( strength in that range. Tensilestrength may rise to about 10% above r,hatat 3
]a
e':.'r
t- 2t-
room temPeratureand yield strengthmay recoverto about its room tempera- s. =-; F 0.4
( ture value when the temperaturereaches500 to 600oF(260 to 320.C). Strain s 3-.

: :;
=E,F
0.2
( a$ng resultsin decreased ductitity. '* ? X: :€
-

The modulus of elasticitydccrcaseis moderareup to 1000oF(540"c); -g


;;a
200 400 600 800 1000
( thereafterit decreasesrapidly. More importantly, at temperaturesaboveabout E
. 4S oF
Temperature,
500 to 600oF (260 to 320"C), steelsexhibit deformationwhicb increaseswith -iF
.'t
( (c) Typical Effect of Temperature
increasin$ time uhder load, a phenomenon known as creep. Creep is well
on Modulus of Elasticity
( known in concretestructures;and its effect in steel,which doet ooi occur at
Figure 2.7.1 Tipical effccts of high temperatureon stress-straincur.i'eproperties of
atmospherictemperatures,increaseswith increasingtemperature.
( structural steels.(Adapted from Ref.2.25)
Other high temperatureeffects are (a) improved notch impact rEsistance
( up to about 150 to 200"F (65 to 95oC),as discussed in Sec.2.5; (b) increased
(
( <
|lF*

58 2 ,.'STqELSAND PROPERTIES
2 g / COLDWOFK AND
STRATNHARDENING
c(,r
(',
dis-
changes,such^as-carbideprecipitation
brirrlcncssclue to metallurgical (510'C): and (c) corrosion (
occuruf iUout 950"F
cusscdin Scc.2.I. beginsto 1000"F
of sructurll steelsincreasesfor temperaturesup to about ' agtng
resistance and some heat yie'd l:ll increase t

(540'C). lvlost steelsare used in apftitution-sltl9:^.tOO0'F'


(430"c)-
*-----
{ r
about 800"F
trearerjsteels,t,ouid be kept belorv

2.8colo wonx nNosrnatnffi


yietd has_T:iexceeded appreciablyand
Afrer the strain e,: Fr/8, at-first
nruy gry.. a stress-strainrelationship
the specimenis irntoa'd.d,reloading Elastic loading and
differing from that observedaurinfine,titrl l"ill"t. the
sdain; however'initial loading bevond
unloading resultsin no residual to a strain at
Fig. 2.8.1resultsin unloading and
y,ieldpoint such,;'r;;"i", { gf has been (
iccuned. The ductilitl.capacit;-
poinr B. A permun.niser oB has Figure2.B.2Eftectofstrainagingafterstrainiogigl65rein-bardeningrange
a strain oF to tr,e strain BF. Reloading exhibits behavi"t:t^,tj (
reduced from unloading'
point B; the plastic zone prior to stratn
the stress-strainorigin were at (
hardeningis also reduced'
point C is'reached'unloadingfollows
When loading has occurreduntii reduced from (
ot gin for a nervloaciingis no*' point
D' i ncreased.Thei ncreasedyield.
i:fll* noilt isr ef er r edt oa:
r,"oi", lsterelv
ser r ainhar deningef f ect ;
the dashedline to Point D; i'e" th. has theductili,v"*'inin;
-h;; i$f-:'
The length of the line CD is
gt*oi indicating that the yield point
ueil l,"" ;-;U liT*:#: lm:'l i:* ff"!'liX*T
itsoriginarvar
I

i'"'1fr
:$::.'t#;T:iJ;ff I'liJ-;il"::"$:i:$:.1"no the cold work effect
is much more
(
(
loadedin unra-xrar tension-co*pr.rrion scopeof the text'
J;65r t€
unO "nnl,t...ri,i.^f ,ruay oi"ii is orttide the from platesat armo- (
Strenglh complex u'" -iit'uv t"ia-t"rmine bendi' Co'ldworking
When strucruralshaBes occurat ;he (
i"J;ii. deformations increasesthe yield
spheric,.,o'.r",ir'rl, range .i',rr. u.no ro"uti..,n-r
hardening (
into the srrarn
I
t
Bt 'ipr,riliro'ion v'Lv' - n}f,'ffi
,i,.ngth,whi9h't'"-:;I*lt];::,n"ll",ltmt"f ::f it:1: (
(,l the DesignoJ LoIa ru""cu
for-
I (
I has such Prov'lslons
I S t r ai n
U p o n u n t o a d i n g a n d a f t e r,5;;;"i.4
- a - p e r i o d ouv m e ' t h eb's t ec'e l und
f t iP"i;; a vof
w i l l hE
Fis'
eacquired
I ,I iarcenlt:l
thos. ('
I differentprop.rii.r-from tgtng'as*o* in Fig'
I
I 2.8.1by a phenomenon know" *:;,,],"n^'iirt'.Slin a plasticzoneof (
I i".;.;;;i; ,t.{ p"ini'tiilrls
uoaitionur
I z.8.7.produ..r'ln u o'*'li'ii"'FJ*f*l..,$ (
constant andgives
stress' ;l'1[:i::'i[;'T
I (
i:";:f *.*f ;lf :il,T'^d:'h"'i:t'".J'."'*.;it;..'"theorigin
if :; (
Strain roranarvzi'g?'ia-r"*'4,:T.":"??Jr:lH*:l{S':ry
;t:ffi;il"* it. ..i' ortt'.bend (
;;l*:"*rft:J;il'lJ'fl:ff (
i',-,1-J-a^I
(
'g!
'RcfcrreC to hen''tforth as the AISI Specifrcation'
&e clastic rangc' (
;rgure 2 E i I:ffrrts t'f strairunt txloo'l
(
(.
(

60 z,
q 29/BRiTTtEFRACruil 61
-t t
.i
( :'l
a , ' rrrgby &rr.--. - .-.- 'i'€ dfbatsof cold '*'ork should I
I I
( .abtUe desircd..{nncaling invJvcs hcating to a tengeratureabove transfor-
-=:::1
Eseina &ongeand allowing slorvcooling: a recrlstdlization occurs to restore *:.,1
f.: :-'l

r(
t F,nn*gro"l properties.Bittencet2.3ll prorides an excellentsummaryof the .:l -7
(, hsics of heat treating. . " i't
\ i l
/ 3 :r,:l
f i \--
3
t.rf l t \ i-:::'.e'se
t''r-c'' ' - ^
(, \ ,/ F loid,1.-1

$
I i,t' dorvn
T I
r &! BRITTLEFRACTURE
I
/ \
I
nea!'
fracru:e
neckrngdortn
! | | toad
r$s\*s bcen discussed in severalsections,steelthat is ordinarill' ductile can a=+
l_:-:] I

r beri--r'r
e bri t ti r' un.ler various conditions. -::---1
i ij:rrsom [].:9. 2.30], Barsom and Rolfe [2.281,and Rolie [2.26] have :
( I
prorided an exccilentsummaryof fracture and fatiguecontrol for structural t
( e{tslneers.Rolfe L2.26ldefinesbrittlefracture as "a type of catastrophicfailure r.rr Threadedtest bat ( t ' , ) T h . e 3 C e dt e s t b 3 r
thg;6gqu15 nithout prior plasticdeformationand ai extremelyhigh speeds." near'frecture near fraclure
( u n i a x i al o a d r n g ) ( t r i a x i a ll o a d i n g l
Fran:urebehavior is aifccted bv temperature.loading ,ate, sir.s leu.l, fl"tu
gizu. i::te thicknessor constraint,joinr geom.try,"ndr*orkmanship. Frgure2.9.1 Uniu:al and u:a{al loading.

Ef,fectof Temperature theoreticaltriaxial loadingof Fig. 2.9.1b,in rhar it restrainsplasticflon rvhich


Notch toughness.as determinedby the Charpy impact transition temperature othenvisewould clccurand thus at some higher stressmay likely fail in a
curves (seeSec. 2.5), is an indication of the susceptibilityto britrle fracture. hrittle manner. Figure 2.9.2 shorvsthe effect of a notch in a tensile rest
Ternperatureis a vital factor in severalways: (a) the value belorv which notch spccimen.The cross-seclicnal area al the baseof the notch correspondsto the
toughnessis inadequate:(b) in the 6c0 to 800oF(320to 430"C) range causes area of the original specimenof Fig. 2.9.1b.The reduccd section iries to
formation of brittle microstructure;and (c) over l000oF (540oC) causes bccomen3rrolveras the anial tensionincreases. but is resistcdby rhe dirgonal
precipitationof carbidesof alloy'ingelementsto give more'brirtlc microstruc: pull that developsin the corners.as shorvnin Fig.2.9:2.The test bar s'ill fail
ture. The other temperaturefactors have already been discussedin earlier at high stressby' britrle fiacrure.
secl,lons. Notchescan occur in real structuresby useoi unfilletedcornersin design
or from improperl,vmade rveldsthat may crack.Suchoccurrenccs cae lead to
brittleness.Notches and cracked*'elds can. ho*'ever,be minimizedb1.good
Etfect of Multiaxial Stress designand rveldingprocedures.
The comptexstressconditionfound in usual structures,particularly at joints,
is another major factor affecting brittleness.The Primer on Brittle Fracture
12.32)has provided an excellentrational preseotationof this and forms the II
basis for what follows. The engine€ringstress-straincurve is for uniaxial =
:
stress: prior to fracture a necking down occurs. as shorvn in Fig. Z.9.la. lf + Axial tension
biaxial lateralloadingas shoun in Fig. 2.9.1bcould be applied,plasticnecking
Samecross
dorvn could be suppressedto the point where the bar would break in a brittle
manner rvithout elongationand without reduction in area.The fracture stress
s e c l r o n eal r e a
a s b a r o f F i g . 2 . 9 .1" ^--TLI l t t
'r-----t-
l
t-'1
based on the unreducedcross-sectional area would be the sarnehigh value as I I
Lateral tt l
that basedon the necked-do$ncrosssection i:r tbe uniaxial tension case.The restraint l

unit stressrvould be far above the.nominal maximum tensile strength of the


_D
J_l
engineering stress-straincurve, which is ahvays computed on the basis of l-:{

original crosssection.
Also the effectsof notcheshavebeen alluded to in the d.iscussionbfnotch I i I t
toughnessin Sec. 2.5. The notch servessomewhat the same pulpose as the Figure2.9.2 Effect of notcb oi: ,:aiadal tensiontest.
.-T!
FRACTURE
2.9/ BRITTLE 63
>-
62 2 I STEELSA.r.lO
FROPERTIES !;a
t
I

due to three-dimensionalstressing-The .
Unusual configurationsand changesin section should be made graduall-v" consider the possibilitiesof brittreness
in Sec'2'10'
so the stressflow lines are not required to make abrupt changes.Wheneverthe subject of lamellar rcaring is treated ( * d

complexity is such as to give rise to three-dimensionalstresses,the tendency ( i

for britrlenessincreases.Castings,for instance,have the reputation for brittle-


,i

Ettect ol Thickness
ness.primarily this is becauseof the built-in three-dimensionalcontinuity. exists.such as with thin plates where (
As discussedin Sec.2.6, if plane stress
plane of the,p.latemay be disregarded'
stressin the directiorrtransverseto the (
For thick plates' becauseof the
MulUaxlat Stresg Induced by Weldlng the third dimensional effect is etiminaied.
i for brittleness increases'Frorn the (
three-dim.nrionui-.ffects, the tendency '
restraint that gives rise to biaxial and plates afio tend to be more brittle than" thin-
ln general, welding createsa built-in manufacturing process,thick (b) (
To coarsermicrostructure and
triaiial stress and strain conditions, whicb result in brittle behavior- cnes; (a) the slo*e, cooling raie givesrise to a
illustrate,consider the loaded simply supported beam of Fig. 2.9.3, which in content that is necessary to obtain the sameyield strength (
the higher carbon
turn supports a plate in tension.Due to flexute, the bottom flangeof the beam working in thin sections'also
for thick sectionsas obtainedby additional hot ,(
is in tension:therefore,the stressat point ,{ is uniaxial tension(neglectingthe producesa more brittle material' . . ^-t , ^ . ?ao, ,
4 and 5); i'e" the
small effecrsof beam*'idth and attachmentof flange to web).Application of The very thick rolledw shapes(ASTM A6 [1.81,Groups (
rhe tension plate usinganglesand bolts puts the flange bolts and the angles ..jumbo Japes," exnibit low fracture toughnessat the core of the
so-called
essenliallyin uniaxial teusionand the bolt which passesthrough the suspender thick flange ,o *rU:uitii"t tlg the centerof the web adjacen:to it' according
plate in shear,so that tbereis no appreciableeffecton'the stressat point A- ln may cause brittle
to.Fisher und p-#e t2.331.Tbis low fracture toughness (
in the connectionof Fig. 2.9.3aare approx!- are used as tension members' For this '
other *'orCs,the stressconditions i;iil; *hen these t ea*ryW shapes
members[2'34]' (
mately uniaxial in nature. reasontheir use is intendedonly for compression
Next. considerthe tensilesuspenderplate w'eldedto the tensionflangeof (
the beam.as in Fig. 2.9.3b.The stressat point ,{ is now biaxial becauseof the
Etfect ol DYnamlc Loadlng {.
direct attachment to the flange at that point. The weld region, therefore.is
been for static loading
subject to triaxial stress;biaxial from the directly applied loads, plus the The stress-strainpropertiesreferred to so far have (
such as of forge drop -hammers'
resistanceto deformation along the axis of the welds resuiting from continu- slowty applied. f,,iot. rapid load,ing, that
the stress-strainproperties' Ordinarill" (
ous atrachment (Poisson'sratio effect). The design of welded joints should earthquake,or nuclear biasr changJs
\
TO ANALYZEI}'IESTII\IATING
TABLE 2.9.1 THE ELEMENTOF RISK:FACTORS (
OF BRITTLEFRACTURE (FROMREF.2.32)
SERIOUSNESS
(
The loq'er the temperatur-e'
l. Wbat is the minimum anticipated servicetemperature? (
tbe greater the susceptibility to blttle fracture'
can occur onlv under condition of
2. Are tension stressesinvolved? Brittle fracture (
to
, li:tJt#iti; *. material? The thicker the steel, the greater the susceptibilitv (
brittle fracture'
continuity tends to re- (
4. Is there three-d.imensioualcontinuity? Tbree-dime11i.onal
to britde fracture'
srrain the steel from yielding and increasessusceptibility (
presence of sharp oot.h., increases susceptibility to briule
5. Are notches present?The
fracture. (
lvlultiaxial strssseswill teod tp
I 6. Are multiaxial stress conditions likely to occur? (
I
restrain yieldiog and increase susccptibility to brittle fracture'
t -
higher the rate of loading' the greater
t T. I; toading "ppii.J at a high rate? The
I
I
i --

susceptibility to brittle fracture' of


(
a - -
I
!
g. Is there u .U-gin; iate of stressl Brittle fracture occurli only under conditioas (
: ^ -
tt,l WelOeOioinr :- lncreasing rate o[ stress' (
9. Is weldirig,involved? Weld cracks can act hs severcnotcbes.
Figure 2 9.3 Comparisonof stressconditions in bolted and weldedjoints. (
i

i -
l .
l:-i,*
(
t _

(
1

,( ',ND n?^^:RTrr
2 1 0 / L A M E L L A RT E A R T N G 65
(
( -
lltv
t f\
tr.- _v ,..

( tensile
strcngth'
andtluctility'.
At timperatures
ab-our
6#+tlzd"il r#."i|:
nxd.hratc decrcasein strength.Someincreased
( brittlenesslras beennonrcd w:ith
Iti#r's'train rate. but it seemsprincipally associated
u.ith other f^.tors axready
( dimussed,such as notchesrvherestiessconcentrations
exist and th! tempera-
zur"eeffect on toughness.The more important factor
( relating to Oynamictoa,a
applibation is not that a rapid increasingstrain
rate occurs, but that it is
( conrhined $'ith a rapid decreasing strain rite. The effect of stressuariationis Figure 2.10.1 Dcf:aition of riircct:on
disca$sedin rhe serrionon fatigui. Z Z = Thru.thicknesrdireclron
terminolcgy.(From Ref. 2.36)
( Table 2'9.1-froy Ref.2.32,providesa list of facrors"ro
'tetlner help determine
( or not the risk of brittle iro.tur. is seriousand requiresspecial
c "ialerations." design
( ncss"strainnravcxcecdthe f ield point strain,causingdccoltcsitln tnd leaiing
ro a lamellartear.
( Figure 2.10.2illustratesthe relationshipof a lamellar tear to r *'elded
( 2.10 LAMELLAR
TEARING .yoint.The condition of connectionrestraint is not related to continuitl' as
rcfcrredto by' structuralengineersin the anall'sisof a staticailyindeterminate
( rigid frame.The restraintpotentiallygiving rise to lamellartearingis internal
Lanellar tearing is a form of brittle fractureoccurring"in
planesessentially .iointrestraintthat inhibits the large unit strainsresultingfrom weld shrinkage.
msallel to the rolled surfaceof a piareunderhigh throughthickness
loading.,, Refcrringto Fig. 2.10.3.rvhen the rveld shrinliageoccursin the " thru-thick-
( "F$].In
a highll'restrained weldedjoinr "thru-thickness" strainsareinduced tF

by weld metal shrinkage.The localizid strainsdue ro rveld


metal shrinkagecan
( be'severaltimes larger than yield point strains.Sincethe
stressesdue to service t$

Ioads are rvell berorvthe yierd ,ir.rr, the strains due :Y


( to such toads are not e

believedto initiare or propegatelamellartears.


( - The subject of lamellarteadnghas receivedconsidcrableartcntionsince
(' . the early 1970s' resultingin a tendencyfor structural enginecrsto blame
'lamellar
tearing for many brittle fractures.The AISC has piortd.a
an exoel-
( lent summaryof the phenomenon. Thornton\z.lr1has provide.ddesign
t2.361. 5ri
.rs
and supervision proceduresto minimize lamellar iaring. i3:
( For more detailed
treatment, the reader is referredto Kaufman, pense, -f::
-d stout [2.35Jand _!
( Holby and Smith t2.3Sl.
As a resdlt of the hot rolling operationin manufacture,
steelsectionshave
dit:furentproperriesin the direciionparalrerto rolring (see
Fig. 2.10.1),in rhe s:l*

( tiansversedirection, and in the " thru-thickness'direciion. .t.;|E


In the elasticrange,
bcth. the rolling and transversedirections exhibit similar
( behavior, with the .:ii

elastic limit for the transversedirection being only slightly


"howeuer.below thar for the
rolling direction- The ductility (srraincapabiiltyy,
( in rhe .. thru-thick- .,-it
ri€ss" direction may be well below that ior the-iolling
direction.
(
. Generally, I-shapedsteel sectionsare adequar-ly ducrile when loaded
either parallel or transverseto the roliing direction.They
( will deform locally to
strains grearer than the yield srrain (F;/E,), carrying
load with some of the
( rnaterial acting at the yield stressand--bring,ing uajacentmaterial into partici-
padon if added strengthis needed.when,Ioi.u.r,
( the strain is localizedfor
instance in the "thru-thickness" direction at one trri.[n;;;;
' restrained situation o'r'l'iJ.uon, u
( exists becauserhe strain cannot redistribute from
the Figure 2.10.2 Joints showing typical lamellar tears resulting from shrinkage of large
flange through the rvebto the oppositeflange.ft,. iutg.
localized..thru-thick- welds in thick material under higb resuaiat. (Fron Ref. 2.36)
,(.
(
;f--j.;-,.. r
A ,+a:..
vvA 2,/ STEELS AND PROFEFTIES t+t'i-
F>-
2.12/ CORROSTON
RESTSTANCE
ANDWEATHERING
STLELS 67

-:-
poorly made rvelds.rough edgesresulting from shearing,punching, or flame (
cutting, or smatl holes. Such flaws may be of no concern; however, under
many cycles of loading the flaw (notch effect) may give rise to a crack that
increasesin length with eachcycle of load and reducesthe secrioncarrying the
load, consequentlyincreasingthe stressintensity on the uncrackedpart. The (
fatigue strength is more dependent on the localized state of stress than is
the static strength. Fatigue is always a serviceload corrsideration;the actual (
serviceload state of stressis what determinescrack propagation. (
The minimum stressantl the gradeof steelhave no apparent affect on the
number of cycles to failure. On the other hand, the specimen geometry, ((
including the surfacecondition and internal soundnessof the weld, have a
significant effect. These factors are reflected in the Srnrcrural Welding Code
Susceptiblederail lmgrcy.ted, Ce.-eil 12.241rulesfor rveldedstructuredesign.
Recent w'ork by Zurraskiand Johnsont2.401evaluatingthe remaining life
in steelbridges has shown that under certain conditions repeatedstressingin
-;:
-1
'.-6teelsectionscan actually increasetheir fatigue life. This phenomenon,known (,'-
as.coaxing, \*'as first studied by Sinclair [2.41] and results from repeatedly
stressingnear but below the fatigue limit and gradually increasingthe stress.
The AISC Specifications [.5, 1.15]in Appendix K4 prescribeno fatigue (
effect for fewer than 20,000cycles,which is approdmately two applications a
day for 25 -v-ears.Sincemost loadingsin buildings are in that category,fatigue
(c)
is generally not considered.The exceptionsare crane nrnway girders and (.
structuressupporting machinery.Fatigueis alwaysconsideredin the design of
Figure 2'10'3 Susceptibilityto lamellar tearing
can be reduced by careful detailing of highway bridges. which are expectedto have in excessof 100,000cycles of
(
nelded connecrions.(From Ref. 2.36)
loading. {
Volume 1 of the Welding Handbook 12-22,p. a02l shows several good
examplesof the fatiguerelationshipsfor weldedplate girdersand cover-plated (
ness"direction,the materialbeineconnectedbecomes beams.Extendeddiscussionof fatigueis givenby Barsomand Rolfe [2.28].
susceptibleto lanrellar (
tearing.The u'eld detailshouldbJ made so that weld
shrinkageoccursin the
rolling direction. Reference
s 2.36 and 2.39 suggesrways of avoiding rhe (
p ro b l e m .
(
2.12 CORROSION
RESISTANCE
AND
WEATHERINGSTEELS (
2.11 FATIGUESTRENGTH (.
Since the earliest uses of steel, one of the important drawbacks was that
painting was required to prevent the deteriorationof the metal by corrosion (
Repeatedloading and.unloading,primarily ia tension,may
eventuallyresultin (rusting).The lower-strengthcarbon steelswere inexpensivebut very vulnera-
:;ilure e'en if the yield rtr.* is never exceeded. (
The ierm failgue means ble to corrosion. Corrosion resistancemay be improved by the addition of
:;:iu:'e under cyclii loading..ltis a progressive
failure, the final stageof which coPper as an alloy element. Horvever, copper-beatingcarbon steel is too (.
:s unstcble crack propagarion.The iatigue
strength is govern.i uy three expensivefor generaluse.
'.::rbics; (1) the number of cycles (
of loiding, (2)"the ,oig, of serviceload
\:;.ss {ihe differencebetrveenthe maximum High-strength low-alloy steels have several times 12.431the corrosion
*a'"ri"i*um stress),and (3) the resistanceof structuralcarbon steel,with or without the addition of copper, as (
size of a.flaw. A frarv is a d,isconti"uitv,-*.rt
as an.*ir.r.ty small sho*n in Fig. 2.12.1.The high-strength low-alloy steelsdo not pit as severely
:?;:il (
In '*'elded assembries, as carbon steels and the rust that forms beromes a protective coating to
a flaw courd be the ..notch', intersectionof trvo
cl':inentsor a "discontinuity" such prevent funher deterioration. With certain alloy elements the high-strength (
as a bolt hole. Flaws may be the resultof low-alloy steel uill develop an oxide protective coating that is pleasing in
(
(
(

68 2/srEELS AND pRopERTtEs SEtECTEDNEFEtr'NCES 69


(
(
to0 The practiceof usingrvcathering stecls.includingthc rcsultsof 30 vcars
(' Structural carbon steel
J.U
crpei'ience,hasbecnsuntnrarizecl bv Coburn[2.a3j.\\h() prescntslhc follos'itrg
( 8.0 " rulcs":
; n
( 60 l . For opti l uum pcr f or m r nccin t hc unplint cd conclit iont he st r uct ur c
i.
5o Structural carbon s:eel should be boldl-vexpo:;cdto the elcments.
( .o with copper
2. The developmcntof thc protectivc' oxidc film is bcst achievedunder
!
i
normal exposureu'hereinthe surfacesare \\'ct at night b1 derv forma-
r- 2.0 Cr-Si-Cu-P steel tion and dry duringdaylighthours.
(high.streng:h,lorv-alio/)
( 1.0 3. Becausethis tvet-drycyclecannotoccurs'hen the stcclis buriedin thc
: : I | | _ t r ! i

r, 1 : 3 4 5 r i l B 9 t 0 soil or imnrersedin rr'ater,regardlcss of its t\pe. the proicctiveoricie


I rme, ycarS
will not form and the pcrformances'ili rcsci:tblethat of miid carbon
( steelexposedto the sameconditions.
Figure212.'l Comparativc corrosionof stcelsin an industrialatmosphcrc.
Shrdcd
( ercasindicarcrangefor individualspccimcns.
(Adaptcdfrom Rcf. z.4j)
a REFERENCES
SELECTED
I

l.l. ASTM. Specificationfor StructuralStecl (436-88c). Philadclphia,PA: Anrencan


:rppcaranccanti is describcdas follows*: "lt is a very densecorrosion-actu- Society for Testing and N{aterials,1988.
.rllYa dce'plvcolored brorr'n,rcd, purple. . . . It has i te*tup and color rvhich : l 1.2. ASTM. Specificationfor Pipe, Steel,Black ond Hot-Dipped, Zinc-Coatedlltelded
.'.l
'r
cannot be reproducedartificially-a characteronly nature can give, as rvith I and Seamless(A53-88a). Philadelphia,PA: American Society fcr Testing and
stone.marble.and granite."When steelsare to be unpaintedand left exposed
they are called \r'eathcringsteels. al
=l
Materials, 1988.
2.3. ASTM. Spec{ication for High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel (,{242-88).
Philadelphia"PA: American Societyfor Tcsting and Matcrials, 1958.
( As might be expected.the corrosionproperdesof any steel,including rhe -rl
weatheringsteels.are dcpendenton the chemicalcomposition,the degreeof '-,1
| 2.4. ASTM. Specificationfor CarbonSteelBolts ond Studs.60000psi Tensile Strength
( pollution in the arnrosphcre. .:i (A307-88a).Philadelphia,PA: American Socicty for Testing and )'latcrials. 19.!ii.
and the frequr-ncyof wetiing and drying of the ':=-l 2.5. ASTM. Specificationfor IIigh-StrengthBolrs-!or StructuralSteelJcints (A325-86).
( stccl. "ii:
i: I
I
Pbiladelphia"PA: American Societyfor Testing and Materials, 1936.
Sinceits first major use in 1958,for the AdministrativeCenter for Deere .".:.
,-.t i
i
2.6. ASTM. Specilicationfor High-Strengthla*Alloy Structural I{angenese Vatta'
& Company in Moline, Illinois, the use of weatheringsteel has received ;;.; dium Stee/ (A441-85). Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and
considerableatiention. At first such steelswere specifiedunder ASTlvt A24Z .it I
Materials, 1985.
(
which as previously discussedis very general, ailorving a wide variation in :s, 2.7. ASTM . Specificationfor Quenchedand TemperedSteelBolts and Sluds (4449-86).
( chemistry.
:€ Philadelphia. PA: Amcrican Societyfor Tcsting and Materials, 1986.
With the adoption of 4588 steelin 1969.and A,709in 1975. AZ4Zis norv 2.8. ASTM. Specilicationlor Heat-TreatedStee/ Srnrctural Bohs, i,50 Isi Mininnutt
essentiallyobsolete.A588 is generallyused for weatheringsteel in buildings = Tensile Strength (Aa90-S5); also Specrfcatianlor High-Sreng:h Steel Bolts.
( and A709 Grades 50W and 100W for weatheringsreelin bridges (seeTable Classesi,0.9 and !0.9.3, for Structural Steel Joints ll[etricl (A190M-85).
2.r.2). :$. Philadelphia. PA: Amcrican Societyfor Testing and Materials, 1985-
( 'A
2.9. ASTM. Specificationfor Cold-Formedllteldedand SeamlessCarbon Steel Struc'
Fabrication and erection of weathering steel requires care. Unsightly :-3:
tural T4bing in Roundsand Shapes(A500-84). Pbiladelphia, PA: Amcrican
( Souges.scratches.and dents should be avoided.Painting,even for identifica- ..{ . ::i

Society for"Testing and Materials, 1984.


tion' should be minimized.sinceall marks must be removedafter the erection :'=
( 3.10. ASTM. Specificationfor Hot-Fornted lltelded antl SeantlessCarbon Stee[ Stntc'
is completed-Scaleancldiscolorationfrom rveldingalso must be removea-ifrt *,' *_
-*i_t
.' !EE
tural Tubing (A501-S8).Philadelphia, PA: Amcrican Society for Tcsting and
extra expenseresulting from fabrication and erection is offset by the elimina- Materials. 1988.
tion of painting ar inrervalsduring the life of the structure. s 2.11. ASTM. Specilicationfor lIigh-Yield-Stength, Quenchedand TentperedAlloy Steel
( Plate, Suitable for Welding (A5iA88). Philadelphia" PA: American Society for
Testing and Materials, 1988.
2.12. ASTM. Specilicationfar StructuralSteellVith 42 ki [290 lrtPal Mininunt Yield
( ' A rchitccturcl Record Point (I /2 in. p3 mmJ Maximum Thickness)(4529-88). Pbiladelphia, PA:
. Aueust 1962.
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1988.
(
71
SELECTEDREFERENCES (
tr,
70 Ar'13PRCFaRTiIS
2 / STEELS (

- .--t 3 ' A S T M . S p e t i f t c a t i a n l o r S r c e l , S h e e t a n d S t r i p , C a r b o n , H o t . R
2 o!|ed,Strut.turu!
*ffi ff i!ll:,n:-;'TIJJ;:?
231rohnr:,Jil.$::,,s:.i?fi
,;:3:ilfi t

phlladelphia PA: American Socierv for Testing and Materi- ' Steei
(
euu1rv tas;ileg). lg74,lr1-Lll' 1960"A'SteetDeisignFile, Bethlebem
al:. 1988' Fracture'Booklet (
Steelsoi 2.12. A Primer.onE'ntle
Ll4. ASTM. Specfrcarion for High-grmgth Low-AlloyCo{umbium'Vanadium
Srrucrura! grntity (A572-Sic). Philidelphia' PA: A'rirericanSociety for Testing
,,'n:"1,"ift 3:$i?"fil'n';;TT:i::;hY.T,"r*i::lxshanesin
1987)'63-17'
Jownal'nfiC'Zf' 2 (2ndQuarter Engrne
(
and Materials, 1988' T€nsios,"Engineenng
"l'Jmlo-ilup., eringJourna[,
nppri.atioos," (
. r" N^""i"r,r*'
].]5,ASTM.SpecilicationfarHigh.strmgthl.ow.Attoy'Struc|uralstee|with50ki{34'\ 2.34. The u seor
Thick (A588-88a)'Philadelphia' or-Factors
,rlpuJ Minimum Yield Point to 4 ii [100 mmJ R D Stout Evaruadon (
::T:';::g't*.
,rl ti1:',?";?"1'"li ,"An 1981' Researcb
PA:AmericansocieryforTestiagagdMaterials,l9SS..I
law'Alloy' Hot' trulu]ef iriaing Journal,60, Matcb
2.16. ASTM . Specilication for steel, Sheetand Strip, High'strength, (A606-
,ii"r.ur
Significant \l

R\lled and cold-Rolled, with Improued Atmospheric corrosion Resistance


tions,"
conoec eerinsr ownat'
Engin (
851' Philadelphia" PA: Americansociety for Testing and Materials, 1985.
,,, :pgf;,S':;-ff rot,
l;;l',,Ti:rTerded
and Strip, High'strength' I'ow-AIIoy' (,
2l? ASTM. spicifrc:ationfor Steel, Sheet
(-Ilumhiwn or vansdium, or Both, Hot'Rolled and cold-Rolled (A607-85)'
il?tl*;l?i"f ?ffiiJi,:":liLFit?LilL'#',fi
:lffiEngineeringi*ii,-xtsc,lo3 ;ff,?*"'
112-116'
19?3)'
(ath'Quarter
Philadelphia, PA: Americao Sociery for Testing and Matdrials, 1985' Tearing,,,
Larnelrar Problem
..L"rJrri."riog-The Nobodv seemsto (
structural Qualitv
2.1s. ASTM. Specificaiion for Steel, sheet, carbon, Cold-Rolled, . 2.38.E. Holby *'d;}.;Jiu. Weldin-gi-*ot'Sl' February1980'37-44' (
Materials' 1985' Want to Talk About"' C;il- fngineenng'April' 1982'
(A6Il-85): Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testiag aod

2.19. ASTM . Specificatiinfcr Hor'Formed Welded


and Seamless High'Strength Low'
";; ..Caur., J pr.r,.",io" "f t J;-i."ring,"
2.i9.
inSteer
(
Alloy structwal Tubiig (A61&88). Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Test' L'ire
ing and Materials' 1988. ,:i;J' -o ' E l:T':-":
'ii),ioti,l,
,^l::r^':,.::"::l;#ni:rs
on
Con|ere.nce
Mechanics
Probabilistic (
Bridges,'';;,;.i,,,, /lC| Amen-
2.2tr"ASTM. Specificationfor Strucruralsteelfor
Bridges(A?09-88a)' Fhiladelphia' 1984'NewYork: (
ft'ftitt1" il'iT:311-13'
andStructuralReliabilil''
PA:AmeicansocieryforTestingandMaterials'1988'
2.21. ASTM . Specification for Steel Sheetand strip, High'strensth,
Lotv'lllo" Hot' orMetars"'
inFatisue
Errect (
Rolled,and Steel Sheet,Cold-Rolled, High-Strength, Low-Alloy, with Improued ,.,. H;1*i'rjxtm;:,':rt"'ff::Lng
for Testing and Steers"' Proceed' (
Formabititl. (A715-88). Philadelphia PA: American Society
y":l weathering Personnet'
Materials,1988. 'I' k*';";# &';:':;':': ol oferailns' (
Technolog"-Miami' FL: inss,t'*il^'r i'gin'"aig c;;i;;;:; ! !"''f:'^u
2.22. Aws. tvetding Handbook. Stb ed., Vol. l, welding
P'O' Box 351040'lvtiami' Ctricago,IL:Americ"oto,titut.ofsteelCon,t*.tion,April29-May2.1987'
American Wefriog Socieq (550 N.W. LeJeuneRoad. ;
steelsa-s
F L 3 3 1 3 5 )1. 9 8 7 . Resisrance or Hieh-Stren*rhLoq-Allov (
mentatl' Splliiilations for ,.43. t1-1p.T",:*o:11?aorror,oo -i'iltiro*.ir,-- c'oiosion'9' August 1953'
2.23. RescauchCouncil on Stnrctural Connections.Cozr .on
Chicago' lL: American Influencedby compoo,ioo
Strucrural Joints L:sing ASTII A375 or A490 Bolts' (
259-27I'
Institute o[ SteelConstmction'November13' 1985' ,
ed', Effective January 1' 1988 (
2.24. AIVS. Structura! lVelding Code-Steel, lltb
(ANSI/AWS D1.1.88). \fi3ll'i, FL: American Weldbg Society,1988.
l{anual- Pittsburgb' PA:
(
2.15. R. L. Brockenbrougb a:d B. G. Johnston. steel Design
United StetesSteelCcryoratlon"1968,Cbap' 1' (
"Fract,Je and Fatigue Control in SteetrStructures," Engineeing
2.26. S. T. Rolfe. (
Journal,AISC, 14, 1 (lst Quarter L977),2-15'
Engineering, MaY
1 . 2 ? . K . A . G o d , i r e y , J r . " H i g b S t r e n g t h S t e e l : C r i s i s o r N o ?Ciuil
"' (
1 9 s 5 ,5 0 - 5 3 .
I 13. Jtrhn lvt. Barsom and StanleyT. Rolfe. Fractureand FatigueControlin-Structures ('
-.lpplicutions of FractweiVechania,2nd ed. EaglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice-
(
H e l l ,l n r . . 1 9 3 7 .
'.Material Consrderationsin Structural SteelDesign," Proceed' (
l.le. J,rhn l\l llarsom.
lrrtr, ,\,rrronal Engineering Conference& confermce of operating-Personnel-
(-hr..rg,r,IL: American lostitute of SteclConstruction,April 39-May 2, 198?,1-1 {
t h r o t r p .ll-t1 5 . (
l.lt). j. tr{. lt*rsom.'I{:rsrial Considcrationsin Structural SteelDesign," Engineering
Journul, AISC. ?"1,3 (3rd auartcr 1987),121-139. (
(
*
(
a
( ;=T
.:l 3 2 / NOI.,IINALSTREi.:GTH 73
( rt
a t
(
Chapter3 F{
b-.
t-. '"{

(
TensionMembers
(
I

(
(

( 3.1 INTRODUCTION Structural steel framework at intermediatefloor level. This level suspcndedfrom roof
:pacc truss systemrvith tensionrods. (Photo by C. G- Salmon)

Tensicrnmembersare cncounteredin most steel structures.They occur as


( principal structural mcmbersin bridge and rcof trusses,in truss structures : l
.'.
such ls transmissiontowersand wind bracing systemsin mulristoricd build- ' . -. t1e
(
ings.They'frcquentlyappcaras secondarymembers,being usedas tie.rods to -T o L JL
( stiffcn a trussedfloor systcmor to provideintermediatesupport for a wall girt + l
; l

"':Sl
systcrtl.Tensio:rmcmbersmay consistof a single structural shapeor they rniiy . = lI
Round
izt
Flat bar Angle
Double
r
Starred
( angle
bc built up from a number of structuralshapei. The cross-secl,ions of sorne +;=l
.4 i
I
angle

( typical tcnsionmembersare shownin Fig. 3.1.1. .Gl


- l
In general,the useof singlestructuralshapesis more economicalthan the - ! : j l

t It
:-:

t t rl
i

built-up sections.Horvever,built-up membersmay be required rvhen (a) the ++.* i


tensilccapacityof a singlerolled sectionis not sufficient, (b) the slenderncss
'.grl

I
ratio (the ratio of the unbracedlength I, to the minimum radius of gyration r) € t
i?l
J L
( docs not provide sufficientrigidity, (c) the effect of bending combined rvith .* i ra nnel Double
S-section
Latticed I'J section (Ame.can
( the tcnsilebehaviorrequircsa largerlateral siiffness,(d) unusual connection rChSilr|el channels (r'ridef lange! Srandard)
detailsrcquirea particularcross-section. or (e) estheticscontrol. :":
(
.*
3.2 NOMINALSTRENGTH
(
( The strengthof a tensionmembermay be describedin terms of the "limit
states"that govern.The controllingstrengthlimit state for a tension member
.,i'
,tf,
1*

5L1
tl t=l
( will bc cither (a) yieldingof the grosscross-section
of the member al'ay from --ji
3u:!t.uc bcx sections

the connection.or (b) fractureof the effectivenet area(i.e., through'theholes) Frgure3.1.1 Cross-section
of twicai tensionmembers.
at the connection[3.1J.
t'(
72 1
@.*....-'
.49+-,=
p- -**- (
74 3/TENS|ON MEMBERS *r; 3.3/ NETAREA 75
--i,,ir- (
t:..
^
(
safety has bden used in design rvhen consideringthe fracture limit state than (
for the yieldinglimit state.
(

l-r,-l (
3.3 NETAREA (
l.rl Elasticnrcses (bt Ultimateconditioo (
Frgure3.2.1 Stressdistribution wrtb boles present. (
.,-l:.,, holes must be provided at the connection. As a result, the member cross-sec-
"i: donal area at the connectionis reduced and the strengthof the member rnay
'::. ' also be reduceddependingon the size and locationof the holes. (
\t/hen the limit state is general yielding of the gross secrion over rhe
Several methods are used to cut holes. The most common and least (
mcmber length, as for a tension member without holes (i.e., with q,elded
:: expensivemethod is to punch standard holes * in. (1.6 mm) larger than the
connections),the nominal strengthTn may be expressed (
diarneterof the rivet or bolt. In general,the plate thicknessis less than the
T, : F,A, (3.2.1) punch diameter. During the ptrnching operation the metal at the edge of (
'-._"'the hole is damaged.This is accountedfor in designby assumingthat the
(
r , r h c r ep : y i e i d s t r e s s : extent of the damageis limited to a radial distanceof + in. (0.8 mm) around
Ar: grosscross-sectional area the hate.Thereforethe total u'idth to be deducted(LRFD and ASD-82) is to (
be taken as the nominal dimension of the hole narmal to the.dirrction of
For tensionmembershav'ingholes,suchas for rivetsor bolts, the reduced (
cross-section is referredto as the net orea. Holes in a member causestress
conccntrations(nonuniformstresses); (
for example,a hole in a plate will gir.e A secondmethodof cutting holesconsistsof subpunchingthem * in. (4.8
risc to a stressdistributionat serviceload as shown in Fig. j.2'.1a.Theory of (
mm) diameter undersizeand then reaming the holesto the finished size after
elasticityshowsthat tensilestressadjacentto a hole wi[ b; about threetimes
thc averagestresson the oet &r€3:Itio*.u.r, as each fiber reachesyield strain (
that of punching standard holes but does offer the advantageof accurate
c.,: F,/E,. its stressthenbecomesa constant
{, *'ith deformationconrinu- alignment.This method and the next method producebetter strength.both (
tng with increasingload until finally all fibers have achievedor exceededthe
staticand fatigue,but this is ignored in designprocedures. (
s t r a r iel , ( F i g .3 . 2 . 1 b ) .
A third methodconsistsof drilling holesto a diameterof the bolt or rivet
When the limit stateis a localizedyielding resultingin a fracture tlirough * plus { in. (0.8 mm). This method is used to join thick pieces.and is the most (
thc effectiu€net areaof a teosionmemberhaving holes,the nominal srreneth
expensiveof the common methds (.'
il, may be expressed
, When greaterlatitude is neededin meetingdimenSionaltolerancesduring
T o : F u A, (3.2.2) :. erection,larger than standardholescan be usedwith high-strengthbolts larger (
than i in. diameterw.ithoutadverselyaffecting the performance.In Chapter 4,
.'"ltcrc (
{ : tensilestrength(seeFig. 2.1.1) - high-strengthbolted connectionsare treated involving the use of oversized,
l.: effectivehet ara?: UA^ (*e Secs.3.4and 3.5) *,: short-slotted,and long-slottedholes.The maximum hole size for such holes is (
1,, : net area . given in Table 4.9.3.
L' : efficiencyfacror(Table3.5.1).
(

Ilccauseof the rise in resistancewhen the rensile srain becomeslarge, (


I EXAMPLE 33.I
ktl,rrvn as srrzin lwrdening (see sec. 2.4), the actual suength of a ductile t,,,. What is the net area An far the tension membershown in Fig. 3.3.1? (
lcttsionmembermay exceedthat indicatedby Eq.3-zl
t3.ll. However,atsuch ('
largc elongationdue to generalyielding along rhe entiri length of the member.
the cnCs of the member rnav move apart too far and cause distress (
to the
strricture: thus, the memberno longer servesis intenrJedpurpose. Standard hole lor a -in.-OiamOolt
Either etat+-|x 4 f
ttttrc.strainr'dyielding or fracturethrough the reducedsection at holes may (
lirrlit the structuralusefulness Figure 3.3.1 Tensiou member for
of the menrber.Traditionalll'.a highermarginof <>T F-xample3.3.f. (
(
(
' (
, (
3/TENSIONMEMBERS 3 4 / EFFECT I{OLESON rlrr AnEn
CF STAGGEREO 77
(
(
SOLUTION -' J i r c c t i o n ( s e e F i g . 3 . 4 . 1 ) .a n d g i s t h e g a r e d i s t a n c c t r r n s l c r s e t o t h e l o r d i ; : 3
( ' : ..iirr,'ciion. Thus thc nct l:ngths of paths ,1-B and l-C s'ould be'
. ' { s : 4 ( 0 . 2 5:) 1 . 0s qi n . i
( i N c t l e n g t l ro f . . { - B - l e n g t ho f ( . , 1_ B ) - ( i i i d t h o f h o l c + f in.)
Widthrobededucred
for hole: i + * : I in.
( i
.sl
( An: Ar- (wiclthfor hole)(thickness
of plare) N et l cngthof A -C : lengt hof ( ; - S ) - l( uidt h of hole+ , f in. ) + ;1+g
. .i$
( : 1.0- 0.375(0.25)
: 0.?8sqin. I
( I The minimum net arearvould then be determinedfrom the minimum net
i lcngth multiplied by the thicknessof the plate.
( ' .tI In the yearssinceCochraneproposedthe simple s2/1g erpressionnitn\.'
( 3,4 EFFECTOF STAGGERED
HOLESON NET AREA have proposedothci rules [3.3-3.6] but none of lhcni gii'e..'
in.,'csligators
':I
i betterresultsand all are morecomplicated.
ri3nificantl-v"
( whenever there is mord than one hore and the holes are not lined up Consistentu'ith the generaltrend tou'ard using strength-related desi_en
transverseto the loadingdirection,more than one pgtential failure line may l i .rpproaches, the work of Bijlaard [3.7] and others[3.8-3.10]hasprovidedlimit
( ' - *
cxist. The controlling failure line is that rvhich gives the minimuin ner area. .r:ralysistheoriesto obtain net area in tension.Thesetheoriesdo nct deviate
:
( In Fig. 3.4.1athe failureline is arong the section A-8. In Fig. 3.4.1b irom the s2/4g methodby more than i0 to 15 pcrcent.
showingtwolinesofstag*s.eredholes.thefailurelinemightbethroughone The readeris rcferredto McGuire [3.ii] for a morecor^rplete coverage cf
(
hole(sectionA_B)oritmightbealongadiagonalpath,a-c.Atfirstglance this subjectof net sectionthroughstagered lines of fasteners.
( one might think section l-B is critical siace the parh A-B is obviously
il:
shorter than path A-c. However,from path A-8, only one hole rvould be .,., E EXAMPLE 3.4.I
( deductedwhile two holeswould have to be deductedfrom path l-C. In order Dcterminethe minimum net area of the plate shown in Fig. 3.1.2,assuming
:,
( to determine the controllingsection, both paths A-B and l-C must be
: ii-in.-diam holesare locatedas shown.
investigated. Accurate checking of strengrh along path A-c is complex.
( :
However, a simplified empiricalrelationship prgposed by cochrane .'OLUTION
t3.2i has .;
( been adopted by LRFD and ASD-82 to u.ount for the differencebetrrlegn -: According to LRFD and ASD-B2, the widrh usedin deductingfor holesis
--
the path A-c and the path l-B expressedas a length correcrion. rlrelrole diameterplus fr in., and the staggeredlength correctionis s214g.
( . -i r ! q
+
r'=
"\..-
( r
J t-.

( 4' o" F
;

t
( 1:
where s is the stagger,or spacing of.adjacent boles parallel to the loading
;
( -t
.:.
( .:
( A
r r
A r r
' -
i 1
,-

(
( '*t ' a a *l-*t
-.t F
-

* T

T f-j-*r + t i i
i T l
(
( -
6

(ar
w 3 T-r---f-'-l

rbl
' i *

*
r
I
I T L -
l--T--

( Figure 3.4.1 Paths of failure on net section.


.tf*
* Frgure3.4.2 Exanple 3.4.1.
i ( H
-,€-
tg
:*
L;-: (
HoLEs oN NETAir€A
3.4/ EFFECTOF STAGGERED
3 / rENstoNMEMBEFS ( t
-(
ANGLES. INCHES (FROM AISC iJANUAL)
Path ABD: TAELE3,4.1 USU* GAGESFOR
(
[ _trs I \ (z.tz5)2 Q.:ns\21 :
* 2.43 sq in. !-'1
cKl-L- (
L t r - r* l* G J . * ( x l 4(4) lo'2s
+-+ (
Path ABC: )* -?- (
U
I
L
rts r\ (z.rzilz
I t z - 3 1 -* G , | * 4 ( 2 , *
tto
!fflo,,: 2.42sq in.
(controls) I ::'..'.
-l l-' (
(
I 7 6 5 4 3"1 3 2, 2 rl rl r8 1l 1
Leg (
3 2\ 2 1: ll ll I 1 z I 2 (
Angles 8 4l 4 3| 8 8 4 8
3 2\ )L 2
8r (
When holesare staggeredon two legsof an angle, the gagelength g for usein 8z J J 2\ ll
the s274g expressionis obtainedby usinga length betweenthe centersof the (
holes measuredalong the centerlineof the angle thickness,i.e., the distance
(
A*B in Fig. 3.a.3.Thus the gagedistanceg is soL{JIION
visualized as being flattened
For iret area calculation the angle may be (
t t into a plate as shownin Fig' 3'4'5:
+su- t (3.4.1) ' (
L: 8"* 8r-
o : o
O 6 0
i s2
A n : A t- - D4t + 7gt (
Every rolled anglehas a standardvalue for the location of boles (i.e.. gage (
distancesg" and gu) dependingon the length of the leg. Table 3.4.1 shows
where D is the width to be deductedfor the hole' (
u,;uulgug,esfor anglesas listed in the AISC Manualt. Unless special require-
Path .4C:
menrs dictate using other than usual gages,the higher fabrication costs (
resultingfrom usingspecialgagevaluescannot be justified. - \ 1 6 *' Llo.,:
" - z(y
4.7s 3.75sqin.
(
L6l.
I EXAMPLE 3.4,2 (
Determine the net areaAn for the anglegiven in Fig. 3.4.4lf {f -ini:-diamholes
PathIBC:
('
are used.
4.7s- r\G *
/15
*).'.[#. #lt'5:3'e6sqin
r
(
(
Q of angfe Sincethe smallestln is 3.?5sq in', that value goven$' (
(
- f n . o r c ^ | t r - 1 5 2x 1 o zx 1 2 . 7 ) '
(
Q of angle
(
(
Figure 3.4.3 Gage distancesfor an
ange. (
'legl and thicknegc in mm
(
'LRFf) Manual
ll.l7l, p. 5-t66. Figure 3.4.4 ExamPle 3.42 (
(
(
.**
3/TENSION hlEtvlBEnS ::F*
3.5/ EFFECTTVE
NETAREA 61
iJ
- ,:."t
.:'t
-',*S
\\'hcncvcrtlie tciisilelrrcdis transnlittr'd b-vbolts.riur:ts. or s'cltjs" thrrrush
.-"
- I* s(rinr:but not lli oi th; cr.rss-scctionll ck-nlent.i r'rfthe r;icmbcr."thc.li.re.j-
,' 1-r1|t cl rn' i ng cfi i ci cnct 'isr cduccuanr lt l: c et r ef i: cicnt
L- r iill bc lcsst henunit r '.
-i----- !r..
p'.'tt5l1t'rrtlCltsitrn::'lr-nrbcrs (crinnr.'cii:i:elemcnts).such ls splice en.1
, ".r x
E

I
.a; .,.' .t Sussct plates. *hcre the clc;rcnts of tire cross-scction lie esscntialli'ine
_t ,',* commonplane.thc r.'ffcctive net areais tekcn cqualto r{,,,but mav not e\ceed
_ ,"f
- t 55? of thc grossi.rrcrrlo (LRFD-J5.2.band .{SD-83).Tests[3.1]hale shorvn
I
l /
t(
t\
i
-f
,'{ I
rhat rvhenany holcsarc presentin suchshoit elementsrvheregeneralf ielding
on the gross scctioncsnnot occur. there u'ill be at least 15% reductionin
t( Figure 3.4.5 Angle for E:cample3.4.2 rirr:n3thfront tlilt obl:iiled brsedon riclding on the grosssection.
i '

lg ' o. e :- ' . , 2 a- t . l- i = o o ! *'ith lc'gs shou.n ..flallcncd" into one Tablc 3.5.1sui:rni:riz.'-s the ,{lSC rcquircnrenis f<'rreffcctivenr-taret.
prilne. Thc basic trc.ttincntoi the rcilucti.rncoefficicntassumcsthat ivcldcd
i( connections*'ill consistof longitudinaluelds (i.e..parallelto the loadine
( tlirection).When tr.]nsverseu'elds are used alcne there is a seriousloss of
3.5 EFFECTIVENET AREA cfficiency.Welded connectionsfor ten-sionmembersare treatedin Chapter.5
( .rn s'elding..
The net 3rc3 ls contputedin Secs.3.3 and 3.4 givesthe reduced
sectionthat SinceLRFD and .{SD-B3 indicatethat [.i valuesas givenin Table 3.5.1
rcsiststension but still may not correctlyreflect"thestrength.
This is particu- rre to be used " Unlessa largercoefficientcan be justified b_v- testsor other
larly true $'hen the tc'nsionmemberhas a profile consistin!
of elementsnot in rationalcriteria."thc'LRFD and ASD Commentaries [1.6. 1.16] indicaterhat
a common plane and whcre the tensileload is transmitted
at the enciof the thc followingequationbasedon the u'ork of Munseand Chesson[3.9]may be
member by connectionto somebut not all of the elements.
An angle section uscd:
having connection one leg only is an exampleof such
-to a situation.For such J
cases the tensile force is not uniformly disiributed over U : 7 - - -( (3.s
.r)
the net area. To
account for rhe nonuniformity,LRFD and ASD-B3 provide
for an effectiue
ne-tarea l" equal to UAn. rvhereU is a reductioncoefficient.
By using the rvhere x : distancefrom centroidof elementbeing conncctedeccentricalll'
effective net area the nonuniformity of stressis accounted
for in a simole
---.-t to planeof load transfer(seeFig. 3.5.1t
manner.
when a tensile.loadis applied eccentricallyto a wide plate / - lengthof connection
( the srrei!
distribution acrossthe rvidth of the plate is nonuniform. Equation 3.5.2 is an- empirical relationshipthat correlatesrvell with tests
The mechanismby
( wJrichstressgets transmittedfrom thl location of the
apptied load to sections r'r'ithin +107a [3.ij. Equation3.5.2 indicatesthat longer connectionshave
distant from'the load is by shearstressesacting in the increasedeffectiveness of the cross-sectionalarea;horvever.iong connections
( ifun. of the plate. The
fact that the stressis lorver the farther is the location from reducethe effectiveness of the connectors.as is discussed
in Chapters4 and 5
ttre apfued load
( means that the sheartransfer"lags" or is inefficient-.Thus, on fastenersand *'elds.
the nonuniformity
of stre-ssin rvide p-latesor plate eliments of rolled sectionswhen
( a tensile load
is applied nonuniformly, is referredto as ..shearlag,,. E EXAMPLE 3.5.I
( Thus, LRFD and ASD-83 provide that the efflctive net Determinethe reductionfactor U to be appliedin computingthe effectivenet
areaA, is to be
computedas arca for a Wi+xA2 sectionconnectedUy piatesat its trvo fliges, as shorvnin
(
A": Fig. 3.5.2.There are threebolts along eachconnecrionline.
UAn (3.s.1)
(
SOLUTION
( In this case,t$'o elements(the flanges)of the cross-sectionare connected
where U: reductioncoefficient
( Ar: n e ta r e a but one (the web) is nor connected.Check the profile ntio b7/d,

( The above equationlogically applies for borh fastenerconnections nalee u;iotl


holes and for rveldedconnections.For welded connections,
having Id : secriondepth : l? l: : 0.71
> 0.67 oK
( the net area equals 14.31
the gross area A, sincethereare no holes. Thus the connectionis in category(c) of Table 3.5.1and the facror U is 0.90.
(
r (
V' 3.5 / EFFECTIVENETAREA 83 (',
82 3/TENSIONMEMBERS
( t
- (
Pt31g i
NFr AREAA6 FORBOLTEDANDWELDEDCONNECTTONS. g1,r'zGuseet
TAELE3.5.1 EFFECTTVE
r l lY
r l (
Minimum
number of
Effec!ive
net iltf;1
tiill
til
r I
(

ii iil-E-."""1'"
fypes of fastenerst Special area. t l
per lrne
(
rr€rnbers requiremenls He l t
t l C.G. angles
t l + plate
(a). irlembers having a// cross- 1
(or
F-rcluding flat
welded plates [see -
^ot iL.ti LJ
6 (

( ,
scctionalelements ,
connected to transmit welds) (g), (h), and (i) (b,

tensile fore belowl


(
(b) Short connectingmembers, I None .'l - (
'but n fI q---
such as splice plates, not (
gussetplatcs, or beam-to- exceeding lr sym
column fittingp 0.851s ll (
(c) W, M, or S rolled 3 b/d > a.67- 0.901, (
shapesmnaected at the (or b - flangewidtb
flanges only welds) d : sectiondepth (
(d) Structural teescut from 5 0.90r- (
sections meeting requirements (or
of (c) above *'elds) (
(e) W, M, or S shapesnot meeting 3 None 0.951" (
the conditioas of (c), and (or
other shapes,including r*'elds) (
built-up sections,having
(cl (
unconnectedsegnents
., Kulak' Fisher, and struik t3'11)' r
(D All sbapes None o.75A, Figure 3.5.1 Eccenuicit-vin joints. (From
(g) Flat plates baving loads Welds /> 2w ,1
a
g
(
transmitted by longitudinal /: weld length
welds along botb edges p - plate widrh ('
parallel to load (
(h) Flat plates oot satisfying Welds 7w > l> L.5w 0.8ils (
//w requseaent of (g) above
(i) Flat plates not satisfy'ing Welds lv{usthave 0.75.{e
(
//w reqvtrementsof either f,/w > r ( ,
(g) or (h) above
(
'From LRFD and ASD-B3.
lActual oet area computed according (
to LRFD and ASD.B2. For longirudinal
s'elded connections, the net area equals the gross area (
i For welded
connections ILRFD aoa eSp-n3), welds must be parallel to the w14 x 82
direction of loading; Le., longitudinal welds. For load uansmitted by transversewelds (
to some but not all elements of tbe cross-sectionof W, M, or S shapes,or structural
(
tees cut from such sbapes,the effcctite area A, is to be taken as tbe area of the directlv
connectedelements(LRFD and ASIB3). I Figure3.5.2 ExamPle3'5'1' ,.(
i
.-:
"-=-- (

5,5:
-{e4*.
- :. . ,,-,(-'.
(
(
'( 84 3/TENSION MEttBERS 3.6 7 TEARINGFAILUREAT BOLT IJOLES 85
(
( Alternativel-v, rhe designermay compute the factor by using Eq. 3.5.r.
( since each flange connectionroadsthe tributary po*ion of the w shape,the
section may be treated as two structural t..t, ., in Fig. 3.5.1c.The half w
( shapecorrespondsto a structuraltee WT7x41, whosecentroidaldistancef is
( given by the AISC Manual as 1.39in. The length / of the connecrionis 6 in.
Thus, Eq. 3.5.1grves
(
.r- 1.39
( U=l--:l - :0'17
t 6^0
(
This shorvsa much
( -lowerefficiencyrvhencomputedthan just.using 0.90.In
general.three bolts in a line is not a good connectionfor this se;tion. If four
( bolts were used in eachline, / becomes9 in. and u increasesto 0.g5. I (a! Failirre by teerlng out

(
( 3,6 TEARINGFAILURE
AT BOLTHOLES
I
1,
( When the material being attacbedby bolts is thin, a tearing failure limit srare, lr I

( known as block shear, may control the strength of a tension member, or the
o
,/,
tension region of a bending member,such is a connectionat the end of a ----YlrT
/ -
(
Y-
...$
(see Chapter 13 for treatmentof such connections).Referring to Fig. Tension
!"*
!l sr,..'
tlt-
3.6.1a,the angle tensionmemberattachedto a gussetplate may have"atearing o / c
( _1:ii
--Qr ^ f a
.' i
failure along section a-b-c.The sbearstrength;n s..iion a-Lplus the tensili rlLr-T
( strength on section D-c will give the strength to resist this failure mode. The /ir- shear/ ol l o
rI
.:. l l
( four holes in the plate of Fig. 3.6.1band c may contribute to a tear-out failure
a c t
if the sum of the shearstrengthsalong a-b and-c-d and the tensilestrength
( along 6-c is less thaa either of the strengthsin general yielding alon!*the (b) Large tension. srnall shear {c) Large shear.small tension
- : : l

member (Eq. 3.2.1)or fracturealong e-t_i_f (F4.-3.2.2). \


. -j--

Figure 3.6.1 Tearing failure limit state.


(
Combination shear and tension tearing failuris are uncommon in tension 'g
( members; however, this failure mode commonly controls the design of bolted *i'i*

end connections ro rhe thin webs of beams.The AISC commJnrary


(' [1.161 -E;g

LRFD'J4 indibates that the foilowing two equationsmay be used to ,.pr.r.nt :--3t The tearingout failure is not really a fracture failure on both the tension
( the nominal strength ?o:
*In: resistingand shearresistingsections.The failure mode will be a fracture on
( l. Shear yielding-rension fracrure -an
eirherof the resistingsectionsfollowed by yielding on the sectionperpendicu-
fi+ lar to the fractureplaneor planes[3.12,3.13J.
{ T,:0.6FrAoe*
'€:
,,5i;
Consistentwith the limit statesdiscussedin Sec.3.2, the grossareais used
FuAn, (3.6.1) "s-

(
.;#:i*
for the yielding limit state and the net area is used for the fracrurelimit state.
or =jf
Equation 3.6.1 indicates fracture on tbe net area in :ension follorved by
( 2. Shearfracture-tensionyielding yielding on the grosssectionin shear; Eq. 3.6.2 indicates fracture on the net
Tr= 0.6FrAn,* FrAr, section in shear followed by yielding on the gross section in tension. ln
( (3.6.2)
accordancewith Eq. 2.6.5,the shearyield stressz" is taken as 0.6.{,. Similarly,
\ the shear tensile strengthr,, is taken as 0.6d.
where Ao, gross area subjectedto shear yielding Since the block shear failure mode is essentiallya fracture phenomenon
(' - gtoss area subjectedto tensile yielding
4,, - : the proper equation to use to obtain the strength is the one in which the
'
( * A-r: net areasubjectedto shearfracture fracture term is the larger of the two. The simplest procedureis to make the
Ao,: net areasubjectedto tensilefracture compuhtion both rvaysand use the larger result.
(
t'
(
- r- :
86 3/TENSIONl"rEi.rBERS AT CONNECTIONS 87
3.8/ LOADTRANSFER
(
- (
3.7 STIFFNESS
AS A DESIGNCRITERION ,.r2
I (
-J-
Even though stabiliry is not a criterion in the design of tension members,ir is
(
still necessaryto limit their length in order to prevenr a member from
becoming too flexible both during erection and final use of the structure.
Tension members that are too long may sag excessivelydue to their orvn
'f:,
?l o I
tr -; in. thick,

f
"
o,"r @nnectors
in standard holes
(
(
weight. In addition, they may also librate when subjectedto wind forcesas in
an open truss or rvhen supponing vibrating equipment. such as fans or
compressors.
i,t'
,ql
a T
(

In order to reducethe problems associatedrvith excessivedeflectionsand $


| \ l
(
vibrations a stiffnesscriterion was established.This criterion is based on the | \ l
(
slendernessratio, L/r, of a member where t is the length and r the least
radius of gyration (r : ,/7/7y. T-ttepreferable maximum slendernessratio is
LRFO.J3.lO
and
ASDJ3.9
1y,
-]_-
f€_-+ (
I
300 for memberswhosedesignis basedon rensile force (LRFD and ASD-87). (
This limitation doesnot apply to rods in tension. 3 @?'= 6"-1
In applying the stiffnesscriterion to tension members,rhe higher slender- (
ness ratio based on the two principal axes musr, be used. A lymmetricat --Figure 3.8.1 SingJelap connectionfor Exaople 3.8.1' (
member may have trvo different radii of gy'ration, and for nonsymmetrical ..."-. - (
members one must consider the weakest principal axis. When a tension
mernberis built up from a numberof sections.the radius of gyration must be force acting on the end of plate ,{ a short distanceto the left of section4-4, (
computedusing the momentof inertia / and rhe cross-sectionalareaA. The the force f must have been entirel,vtransferredto plate .B over the distance
value for r will be with respectto the sarne axis as that of the moment of from sections1-1 to 4-4. The free bodies of the various segmentsare shown (
inertia used- in Fig. 3.8.2. (
Deduction for t hole :'Dianr of hole + fi in. (
3.8 LOADTRANSFER
AT CONNECTIONS Diam of fastener+ t in- for standardhole
{
Normally the holesthat are to be dealt with in tensionrnembersare thosefor
:i+t:lin. (
rivetsor bolts to transferload from the tensionmemberinto anothermember. Net area(section1-l) - i(tS -'3) : ?.50sq in. ('
- Although the detailed treatment of fasteners and their behavior is in
Chapter 4, the basicassumptionis that each equal size fastener transfers
an on which 7OA%of T acts (Fig. 3-8-2d)- (
equal shareof the load wheneverthe fastenersatt arrangedsymmetricallywith
respectto the centroidalaxis of a tensionmember.The iollowing example (.
is to
illustrate the idea and its relationshipro net area calculations. (
I E)(AMPLE 3.&I
calculate the governingner areafor plate A of tbesingle
f'lo. frlo
l-l (

'lt I'l
lap joint in Fig. 3.g.1 O.- (
'rnd show free'body diagrams of portions T1q 5 t
of plate I rvith sections taken
through each line of holJs. Assume 10' (
that plate
I - .B has adequatenet area and
.!$ssn61control the capacity
?- f:lg f;10
(

u
\OLL'TTON O-- - | . \
t. l0 (
The full tensileforce r
!,- in ptate '{ acts on secr.ion1-l of Fig.3.g.l. O-- O- (
,:;:ru::tl*:f ".s: secrionsi" pr"" z{ to thereftof section tIlC tno
r-r wlr invorve r.--'- _ 1____ (
,r*r,r"T-,1T_nof acting,
since pan of that forcer+'illhaveatready been { t l . - i
-':rrrleo trom .I
*:-ttn3in plate g olate,{ to plate g. At section 4-4,lao% of r must now be
(a) ftl (c) . . ( d )
(
,*hiteonly 20%of r actsin plate r. since theremust be zcro
Figure3.8.2 Load distributiooi" n"rc L (
(
(
'(
88 3/TENSTON
MEMBERS FACTOR
3.9/LOADANDRESISTANCE -TENSION ME|u{BERS 89
DESIGN
(
(
Net area (staggeredparh l-2-3-2-l): are the santefor all mernbersin the structure.Horvever,the resistancefacior c'
( accountsfor the possibilitythat the act.ualstrengthof the membern'r3i'bt' :ir:'
(2)' .|
( : ;s [lls - 5(l)* o;fu : z.oa
sqin.
rlan thc theoreticallycomputed strengthbecauseof veriations in nlcicri.ri
"L properriesand dimensionaltolcranccs.These variations n'hile individuelll'
(
| s.itltin acceptedtolerancelimits mry combinein the actual structureto givea
\
(, \'-t'/ag srrcngthlessthan the computedvalue.Neither the 9 factor nor the overload
frclors y are intendedto accountfor careless errorsin designor construction.
( on rvhich100%of ?nalso acts. The reliability of designs of bolted steel tcnsion membersusing LRFD has
Net area (staggeredpath l-2-2-l): bcen reportedby Bennett and Najem-Clarke [3.14].
( The design strength fr?, according to LRFD-DI is the smaller of that
(. :i[" -4+t#] :,.zesqin. hasedon yielding in tlrc Srosssection,

( Q,Tn: Q,FyAs- 0.904,1s (3.e.2)


( on rvhich 0.9 of I is presqmedto act. One connectorhas alreadytransferred
ot fracture in the nel section,
its slrare(0.10)of the load prior to reachingsecrionl-z-z-l.The7.z9 sq in.
( ri'ith 0.9I acting would comparevith7.29/0.9 - 8.10sq in. with T acting.A Q,Tr: Q,F,Ar:0-75FuA, (3.e.i)
comparison of 7.50, 7.08, and 8.10 shows thar section l-2-3-z-l governs;
( Nore rhat the resistance factor Q, is 0.90for the yieldinglimit stateand is 0.75
tltcn .4n: 7.08sq in.
( for the fracture limit state.
In addition, the designermust considerthe shearrupture strength along a
( potential tear-out path (seeSec.3.6), which is, according to LRFD-J4,
FACTORDESIGN-
3.9 LOADAND RESISTANCE
( TENSIONMEMBERS = O,(0.64)1",
Q,Tn (3.e.4)
( The generalphilosophy of Load and ResisranceFactor Design (LRFD) was rvhere 0, : 0.75 for fracture
( described in Secs. 1.8 and 1.9. Equation 1.8.1 gives the structural safety Anr: net areasubjectto shearfracture
requirement,as follows:
( Equation 3.9.4is a conservativesimplificationto Eqs. 3.6.1and 3.6.2.rvhich
(
0R,.) Ey,e, Ir.s.t]--;_ are acceptablealternativesto Eq. 3.9.4accordingto the Commentary LRFD-J4.
"net "recommendation" (as
Note that for ,area" in Eq. 3.9.4, the AISC
( where f : resistancefactor (strengthreduction factor) evidenced,for exampie,by Tablest-G.l and I-G.2 of AISC Manual [1.17J)is
Rn : nominal resistance(strength)
( . .ti - overload facrors (LRFD-A4.l)
( . Q,: loads (such as dead load, live load, wind load, earthquakeload) - AISCSPECIFICATIONS
MEMBERS
TABLE3.9.1 TENSIO.N REFERENCES
or load effects (such as bending moment, shear, axial force, and
( Specificationsection
torsional moment resulting from the various loads)
Topic L R F D[ 1 . 1 5 1 A S D[ 1 . s ]
Equation 1.8.1 requires that the design strength gR,, equal or exceed the
( summation of factored loads, or specifically for tension members,Eq. 1.8.1 Net area' 82 B2
becomes - n Effective net area B3 B3
( Limiting slendernessratio 87 B7
Q,To2 Tu (3.9.1)
D1 D1
Tensile strengtb
( D2 D2
Built-up mesibers
( where 9, : resistun.e factor relating to tensile strength Eyebars-pic-connected members D3 D3
4, : nominal strength of a tension member Tbreaded rods J3 J3
( 'f - factored load on a tension member Block shear J4 ,14
' Connecting elements J5 J5
( Since the loading is not related to the type of member, such as iension
Fatigue K4 K4
( member or column, the variousload factor combinationsgiven in LRFD-A4.I

t^(
'?
'i; - TENSION 91 (
aa- FACTORDESTGN
3.9/ LoAD ANDRESTSTANCE MEMBERS
90 3 / IENS|OI{ MEMEERS
I
(
-(
are
to dcduct the actualhole; i.e.,the bolt diameterplus fr in. for standardholes. The two design strengthsto be used in accordancewith LRFD-DI
-l-he yielding along the member length.
net areausedin Eq. 3.9.3accordingto LRFD-B2 deducrs* in. from the giu.n;t iqb 1.g."2basedoe generat (
diameterof rhe hole:i.e.,the bolt diameterplus f in. for starldaidholes. [3.e.21
'fhe Q,Tn: Q,F,A, (
Specification[1.15] sectionsused in Load and ResistanceFacror
: 0.90(50X4.75): 214 kiPs
l)csign qf Tensionlr{embersare surlmanzedin Table 3.9.1. (
andbyEq.3.g.3basedonfractureattheconnection'
(
r ITXAIIPLE 3.9.1 e, To: $, FuA" [3.e.31
Dcterminethe serviceload capacityin tensionfor an L6x4xf of A57! Grade (
50 steel connectedwith f-in.-diam bolts in standard holes is shown in Fig. The effective net area -d. is
3.9.1.Use AISC Load and ResistanceFactor Design,and assumethe live load A": UAn (
to dead load ratio is 3.0. in Table 3'5'1 [case (e)]' (
where, according to LRFD-B3, as summarized
U may be computed from
U: 0.85. etternatiuety, the reduction coefficient (
SOI-IJTION Eq. 3.5.2:
The angle tensionmemberis connectedto a gwsetplate, typical of truss x (
;oints. The gussetplate is the plate at the intersectionof membersto which U:1--, [3.5.21
they are connected
I
..lelJl:ully to
t
The maximumstrengthwili be basedon either section 1-1 with one hole where the distancei frorn centroid of elementbeing connected (
angle 0'987 in' The
deducted.or on the staggeredsection 1-2 through two holes. The governing plane of load transfer (seeFig. 3.5.1)is for the case.of the
scction*'ill have 100%of load I acting on it. iengtf,./ af thejoint is 14 in. Equation 3'5'2 then gives (
For s ec t ion1- 1. , 0.987 (
IJ:l-=f:t- :0.93
* (
A n : A , - t h o l e: 4 7 s- ( ; . : 4.2ssq
in. the value specified in
|)o.ro The larger of the theoreticallycornputedvalue or (
U = 0.93,the effectivearea is
LRFD-B3 is acceptable.Using
For section1-2. A ,: I JAn- 0. 93( 3'95): 3: 61sq in' (
A,: Ar*2holes + (s27ag)l Thus, Fq. 3.9.3give5 (
: (
e,Tn: e, FuA": 0. 75( 65) ( 3. 67) 1?9kips
3'9'2 (214
: 4.7s-
t(* . |)o.ro
. : 3.e5
sqin. Thus, the controlling 4,f is the smaller of the values frorn Eqs' (
ffi(0.s0) kips) and 3.9.3(179 kiPs)' (
Q,II, : 179 kips
Sincethe angle doesno"thaveboth legsconnectedto transfer the tensileforce. or load
the effective net area is less then the computed net area, accounting for the The overload factors relarethe designstrengthto the serviceloads {
eccentricityat the connection. effect!. using the gravity load combination Eq. r.8.3 [LRFD-Eq(Aa-2)1,the (
factoredload ?" is
(
Tu:LviQi: l 2 D + l ' 6 L + 0 ' 5 (L , o t s o r R ) [1's'3]
R (tuig are not (
7 s p a@2 " = l ' - 2 ' where in this example the roof loading L,, ,s (snow), and
load (t) is given is three times dead load (D)' Thus' (
involved. The tive
equal factored
applying the safety requiremenl Eq. 3.9.1; that is, letting f,?"
F l l t

N (
(\ load ?, gives
:6-0D (
e , T n : l . 2 D + l . 6 L = 1 . 2 D+ 1 . 6 ( 3 D )
.'Gusset 179= 6.0D (
ptare
Oerait 4
D : 29.8kiPs (
Figure3.9.1 Tensionmemberfor Erample 3.9.1. L : 3D: 3(29.8): 89.5kips
(
(
(
(
( g2 3/TENS|ON MEMBERS
FACTOR
3.9/ LOADANDRESISTANCE OESGN- TENSTON
MEMBERS
(
( The total safe service load I is
( Thus, block sheargivesa lower des.ignstrengththan generalyield or fracture.
T : D * L : 2 9 . 8 + 8 9 . 5- 1 1 9 k i p s following the Commentary LRFD-J4, the larger of Eqs. 3.6.1and
[.lo\!,'ever,
( 3.6.2 may be used to compule the nominal strength,as follou's:
- If this angle connection consistedof a very few large fastenersor if either
( the gussetplate or the anglewere thin elements,tbe shear rupture limit state of r'shear''''o;:;]ffi
LRFD-J4, represenredby Eq. 3.9.4or Eqs. 3.6.r and 3.6.2,inignr grve a lower
(
strength than the lesserof Eqs.3.9.2and 3.9.3. I
;j: ","*,un.,1
( + 58(l.s - 0.47)0.2s]
: o.z5[21.6(7.s)0.25
I EXAMPLE 3.9.2
( 1nt's5tigatethe shearrupture failure mode on the angle L4x4xI attachedwith
: 0.75(55.4): 41.6kips
( rhree f -in.-diam bo]ts ro a |-in. gusserplare, .s iho*o in Fig. 3.9.2. The
material is A36 steel. or
( 2. Shear fracture-Tension yielding:
( SOLWION I Q,Tn= 0.?5[0.6^q.
A o, * FrA,rl
Tbe usual general yrelding and fracture limig 51s1s5
governed by the lesser
( of Eqs. 3.9.2and 3.9.3give : 0.75[34.8(7.5- 2.34)0.2s+ 36(1.5)0.25J
( +,Tn: e,FrAr- 0.90(36xl.9zi): 62.9kips : 0.75(58.4) = 43.8 kips (controls)
( Even when the more correct equationsare used,the strengthis controlled by
Q,Tr: Q,FuAr: SrFrlJAn
( block shear; Q,Tn:43.8 kips which is lessthan tbe fracture strengthof 62.5
: 0.75(58X0.85Xi.94- O.2S)- 62.5 kips (controls)
kips across the net section. This general result is expectedwhen minimum
( The block shcar failure along path a-b-c number of connectorsare used along witb thirr elements,suchas I in. or less.
of Fig. 3.9.2 investigated
( according to LMD-J4 using Eq. 3.9.4 grves E

( e,Tn- +(0.64)1,"
( : 0.75(0.6X58)1,,
= 26.14o" E EXAMPLE 3.9.3
( An,: (length a-b-c lessthree holes) thickness Selecta tension diagonalmemberfor a roof trussof A572Grade50 steelusing
AISC Load and ResistancdFactor Design.The axial tensionis'60 kips dead
( A*:'" .*; - 155
sqin load and 6 kips live load and the member is 12 ft long. Assume {-in.-diam
( - *il ;n:::: bolts will be located on a single gage line in standard holes. Assume the
preferablelimit on slendernessratio L/r is240 (not an LRFD limit;.
(
(a) Select the lightest single angle member.
( O) Selectthe lightest double angle memberhavinglegsseparatedby I in.
back-to-back.
(
L-4x4x
( SOLTJTION . -
For tension members,the design strengthrequirementis
(
e,Tn 2 Tu
(
where the factored load Tu may be governed by Eq. 1.S.3in general, or Eq.
(
1.8.2 when the proportion of dead load is large, as in this case;thus,
(
T,: 1. 2D + l. 6L: 1. 2( 60)+ 1. 6( 6): 82 kips
( or
( Tu: l.4D : 1.4(60) =. 84 kips (controls)
Figure3.9.2 Tensionmemberof Exa^mple
3.9.2.
( In this case, the factored load to be dasignedfor is 84 kips.
;:i
-+-.--:
:.tr'i,
3.1O/TENSlCtlBODS 95
(
94 3/TEl'l$Ct{ }JEil8EFtS sz

_ . (
('
. L4x4Xft single3lglemembel
The strength of the membersmly be controlled by either -:- IJse two holes.must
@le anglemember'For this type of section (
be madefrom the double angle ProPeruesrn
Q,1 : Q ,F .A , = 0 .9 0 (5 0 )lg U. d#u.ted. Selectionshould
AISC Manual'
t
or
I
Q,Tr: Q,FrAr: 0.75(65)1" Required Choicesfrom
Standard Reduction (
Gross AISC Manual
Thickness for Two
The design suesgth Q7" must equal the factored load 7,. Th..area require- Area Double Angle ProPerties (,
t Holes
ments become
:0.94 (
84 I 0f* 2.53 L 3 x 3 x t , A : 2.88,r
: 1'87sqin' : 2 . 6 3 ,r = 0.95
Required Ar:
0ro@-
a
L3x2ix\, A (
: :
t
0.625 2.65 L 2 | x 2 x * , A 7.62,r 0.78 ( ,
84 l6
0.750 2.18
RequiredA,: :: IL't/
?1 csqrn'
tl ( ,
Omt
(
A, l -72 back-to-back'
Required
A,: : : 2.03sqin. Use 2_L3x2\x! with longlegs (
i dF
ffilightlyund.,,.,,ngth.Blockshear(tearingout)canonlybe r (
beendetermined'
The net :uea requirementobviously coutrols since it exceedsthe gross area checkedafterthenui''Ut' of fastene'Jn"t
(
requirement.
Also, the minimum r to satisfythe problem limitation of L/r :240 may IgDs (
be established,
3.10TENSIoN
member i: th:^:T:aded rod' Such
rods arc i
L t2(12) A common and simple tension as (a) sag
minr:m: : 0.6in. the design'stressis small' such (
240 usually secondarymemberswhere (b)-verticatr
inausiriatUiitdings (Fig' 3'10'ia);
rods ro help supportpurlins in ( .
giits in industrial building walls (Fig' 3'10'1b);(c)bangers"
(a) Select single angle member. The required gross area in each case ries ro help support rods to r€si${
balcony 1nig. 3.r0.1c); and (d) de (
depends on the area deducted for one hole, which in turn depenCson the such as rie rods ,;'#;ilta
thickness.The following tabular proceduremay be found useful in making the the thrust of an arch' r*'ind (
with an initial tension as diagonal
selection: Tie rods are frequently used
braci ngi nw ai l s,roo f s, *dt o*. r r . r t '"init ialt ensionef f ect ivelyaddst or b (
to car'le
and vibrational motion which tends
Choicesfrom stiffness una ,eauc.s ieflection can be obuincd bry (
Standard Reduction Required Such initial tension
fatigue failures in ttre connecdons.
Thickness for One Gross AISC Manual (
designingtt,.membersomethingontu'o'4.'offtin..shortfor-a2&1'"o*
t Hole Area SingleAngle Properties can be tightenedafter constnrcuon'
;; bih; use of tu*uu.U.s which (
ir, 0.313' 234t L4x4 x*, A:2.4A,r:0.79t (
L3| x 3 1x 3 , A : 2 . 4 8 ,r : 0 . 6 9 N EXAIUPLE 3.10.1 a;f61
0.375 2.& round rod of A36 steel to carry as
Selectthe diameter for a threaded Load ad (
L4x3x*, A:2.48,r:0.64 deaO load. Use AISC
;;i;. of 6 kiPs live load and 3 kiPs
t6
0.438 2.46 L3| x 2 r x* , A:2.43,r:0.54 i
t
-
ResistanceFactor Design'
(
t -
I 0.500 2.53 !
(
! -
i *_ -..
soluroj'gn (
'(i +
tp.3125: 0.3125
sqin. f :
t _
:
rod is givenby LRFD-J3(TabbrSJgss
of a threaded
strength
sNole:Min r : r, for single angles.
t *-_-
(a) (
'Required Ar:2.03 + ..,*
; 0.?5la(0.75F,)
0.31: 2.3asq in. _ _Q,Tn:
(
t : "
t-:-" (.
,,
rf'
96 3,/TENSIONMEMBERS 3jO / TENSTON
RODS 97
(
(
( roof trusses,which are spaccd 24 ft apart. Use 20 psf snow load, A36 stccl,
:1rdAISC l-oad and ResistanceFactor Design.
(
SOLLTION
( (a) Loads. Assumecorrugatedsteel roofing is used, weigNng 3 psf. and
E
).t
rhat the purlins have already been designed.Their weight may be approxi-
E
'!.
!

i matedas a 3.5 psf roof load.


t( Snow load customarily is prescribed as having an intensity given in
( Top vierv
pounds per squarefoot (psf) of horizontal projection. Generally,a value not
iess than 20 psf is used,with 30 to 40 psf (1.a to 1.9 kN/m2) being used in
ta) Roof trus
i( northern areas(seeSec.1.4).
( The givsn value of 20 psf on a borizontal projection is converted to psf of
roof area"
( . , rA ( ^ ^ ^ r c o \ -: i o r - - r ^ c - ^ ^ c
20(cos 25") l8.l Psf of roof
(
(b) Compute factored loads per square foot of roof. Using Eq. 1.8.3,
( *'hich will qrntrol when there is no live load other than snow,
( r.zD+ 1.6(L, orS or R) t1.8.31
( Col.
1,2(3+ 3.5)+ 1.6(18.1)- 36.8psf
( Section 4-A (c) Compute factored load to be carried by one rod. The factored gravity
( (b) Wall s!6tem load tributary to one rod is
Figure3.10.1 Usesof tensionrods. 36.8 times tributary area (in sq ft)
(
( : 7.4kips
36.8(2sx8)/tOoo
ilre factored load \ to be carried is
( The rod carries only the component parallel to the roof. Tbus, one rod must
\: t . Z D + L . 6 L : _ 1 . 2 ( 3 )+ 1 . 6 ( 6 ).= 13.2kips havestrengthto carry
(
Using the minimumtensilestrengb d for 4.36steelas58 ksi from Table2.1.1 25o): 7.a(0.a?3)
T,: 7.A(sin : 3.1kips
(
(or LRFD 'NUMEzucAL vALUEs" TABLE 2), and equaringrhe facrored of LRFD-J3is
(d) Selectthe diameterof rod. The strengrhrequirement
( load f to the designstrengthgr[, grvesthe requiredarea;o fiom Eq. (a) as
Q,7,2 7,
(
Required- i?="I11? - =::t;t=- : 0'40sqin'
At:
"b Q,To: o-75(0.75F,)As
( o?5(om 0j5(0J5)(SI
( Obtaining.Q f.rymTable2.1.1(or LRFD "NUMEzuCAL VALUES" TABLE
Information on threadedrods is available in the AISC Manual 2), and equatingthe factoredload I, to the designstrength0r4, grvesthe
[1.7 or
( 1.171section "THREADED FASTENERS" (LRFD, p. s-l7z). Sinceth! gross requiredarcaA, as
area is the basis for design,the area Ao refened to in LRFD-Table J3.2 is the
( grosl atea A p based on the major diameter measuredto the outer extremity of j=t=.,=-, : 0.10sqin.
the threads.
A-:
":
Required = ==:"=t =, : ^ ==
( 0.75(0.7s.q,) 0.7s(0.7s)(su;
Use f-in.-4i* rod (9 threadsper inch)(lo - 0.M2 sq in.).
( - From AISC Manual[1.7or 1.17]section"THREADED FASTENERS"
lr E}GIITPLE 3.10.2 (LRFD, p.5-172),selecta f-in.-diamthreadedrod havinEAo:0.110 sq in.
( a
Design sag rods to support purlins similar to Fig. 3.10.1(a),on a 25o roof Usef -in.-diam
rod ( Ar:0.110 sqin.). I
( slope with a slope length of ?S ft. Sag rods are spaced at j points between
"(
SELECTED HErErtc'r\vLe
-.x
ts, ( "
3 / TENSTCNIJEIJBERS
\ (
.rofnetarealn ^ ins d i s c u s s e d i n S e c . 3 . 5 a n d t h e e f f e c t i v e n e t
The comPu(atton:1-":':'"4 ( .
3.11 ALLOWABLESTRESSDESIGN- TENSIONMEMBERS or tension
Design
Stress
;;;i:';il:ltl}::: Arlowabre
ir.ur,*o,"i, :.^.gin (
T6e generalphilosophyof Allowable StressDesign (ASD) was describedin in Table 3'9'1'
oembers u" 'u**arized (
Secs.1.8 and 1.9. Equaticn1.8.8givesthe structuralsafety requirement.as
[ollows: as a single (',
r E)(AMPLE3.I1.I in Example3'9'3 to serve
rhe ;J. 4x4xi6 selecred kips deadtoadand6
*r-yq, Investigate
Ir.r.sJ tension-n';ilr;i lsi"z crui" i0 steetto iu"vlo asingre gage tinein ("
Y angle
strength +R" divided by a-iadtor y for
Assu'"'3-:I!11*':*1J'1nili3:"
kipsriveioad' plate'
toasusset I

*. xliJJi'f,3i;;* .,,u.r,ttremember
which expresses that the design
overload must excecdthe sum of tbe service loads. In the allowable stress ( "
F;-
designmethod,the safetyprovision is't/Q-
For tensionmembers,Uking the factor of safety FS : 7/E, the nominal t",litc'"Iputethe *' " ( '
errective
strength Rn as f,, for tensionmembers,and I8r equal to the serviceload f in *= T:i:j':: T:::1;li :2'09'sq
+ 0'125)0'3125 i :;*' in'
tension,Eq. 1.8.8becornes
,+n' ,t - A - t hole : 2.40- (0.875
A n - t a g " ' -
: . -
of its two ; ,
T- :
tix':ll'r-o
. ^.,^^*-^ rn rhe sussetplate . (i.e-,one
along one leg
n'ieduces the
at=r
(3.11.r)
f*.'.ffi*l3i1;;: ::IflJ""*:ffi'* n"logit *ssASD'83' thesectio net
(
theeffective
The nominal strengthT^ f,ortensionmembersmay be controlled by either tt e member
oi t riliJ"| of the (
.:j efficiency a summary
i"tr. l's'f provides
t;';;
of Eqs.3.2.1or 3.2.2, €. areais 0,8;;;in. u.tuut (
Tn: FrA, : [3.2.1] t reduction factors'
area '/'r is
ic rf
' --- Thus, the effectivenet
Tn: FuA' 13.2.21 ( ,
: : ' ' A ' = l J A n : o ' 8 5 ( 2 ' 0 9 ) : 1 ' 7 8 s q i n '
'*,here z{, : B5osscross-sectional area :-
(
l. : ef f ec ti vnee t a re a : U A ^ (s e eSe c .3 .5 ) ;:(b)Checktheserviceloadstresses.ForA5lzGrade50steel,{,:50ksi
I n= net area(seeSec.3.4) and{:utltt' (
LI : efficiencyfactor(Table3.5.1) ; uu oK
' : ok s i l
: m : ^/ 1, '(5, -k^s<:i- lrFt 'r:_ oo: ' 6 0 $ 3 (
Usinga factorof safetyFS of 1.67,substitutingEq. 3.2.1into Eq. 3.11.1, tf uu- : T
As 2.40
(
:rnd dividing b)'y's to obtain a slressformat gives
T uu 32'5ksil NG (
F rA" T , - : = ' 1 . l k s i> l F o : 0 ' 5 0 4 :
-J-:- -
> - (3.11.2) to- A" 1.78 t
1.67A8 As (

Using a iar3crfactorof safetyFS : 2.0 as typicallyusedfor connections, Thus,thesecti onisnot adequat ebyAllowableSt r essDesignandalar ger (
substitutingEq. 3.2.2into Eq. 3.11.1,and dividing by A, to obtain a .ttress sectionwould be required' (
jorn\at grves
(
FuA, '
,- ( 3 . 1 .13 )
2 .A0 A , A, i.
BEFERENCEg
SELECTED
Then. def-rningfo as computedserviceload stress,T/Ae or T/A,. Eqs. (
3.11.2and 3.11.3becomethe requirementsof ASD-DI, 3 . 1 . G e o f f r e y L ' K u l a k ' J o h n Wnini,?"a.a o h nYort:
' . F i f e r ' a n d JN.* t r u i kwiley
H ' A ' SJobn 'Guid&eson-c'
toDesiga
p, no;r;;J-nu*ra (
criteria

1,":;l
"tl
=0604, (3.11.4) 198?-
3.2. V.' H. Cochrane'
"Rules j:t^ylo Hole Dedurctioosin Tcnsion
84?-848'
Members'" (
L 89 (N1' 16' 1922)' Ttansae- (
Engrneeringlu*t-n"tta' il; of Large RivEt roints"'
t rl (3.11.5) "'-' w. M. wilson'-ili**Jt
3.3.
oi't*Jio
(
1268'
;i;;'AscE" to5 (1e42)'P'
|./'=,..|=o'5or;

(
I

l 1 -

10o 3/TENS|ON MEMBERS PROBLEMS 1C1


(
(
3.4. W. M. Wilson, W. H. Munse, and M. A Cayci. ..A Study of the practical
( 3.3. Compute the marimum acceptablesen'iccload on an 436 steel plate
Efficiency under Static Loading of Rivcted Joints Coonectiag plates," U. of
Illinois Engg. Experimcnt Station Bulletin 402. f952. tensionmembcr I in. x l2 in. haringa singleline of holcsperallelto thc
t-
\ 3-5- F- W- Schuu. "Effective Net Scction of Rirrcted foinls," L-oc. Second Illinois direction of loading.The load is 25t dead lord and 75%lire load. ur,d
L Structural Engg,.Conf., November 1952. l-in.-diam boits are used.
I 3-6. "Here's a Bciter Way to Design Spliccs," Engineeing Ne*^s-Recard, 150,part I 3.4. Compute the net area A,, f.orthe plate (a connectingelenrcntaccording
, (Jan.8, 1953),41.
to LRFD and ASD-J5)shorvnin the accompanyingfigure.Thcn com-
I
i
r, 3,7. P. P. Bijlaard. Discussion of "Investigation 3ad I imil Asal)srs of Net Area in
Tension," Tronsactiors,ASCE t2O (1955), U56-1163.
pute the maximurnvaluefor serviceload I when .{36 steelis used,rhe
I live load is four times the dead load, and the holesare li in. diameier.
3.8. G. W. Brady and D. C. Drucker. "Investigation and Limit Aaalysis of Net Area
t

(v
in Tension," Transactioru,ASCE' 12I)(1955), ff33-1154.
(' 3.9. W. H. Munse and E. Cbcsson,Jr. "Riveted and Bolted Joints: Ncr Section
Desig!," Journal ol the structural Diabion, ASCE" g9, sr2 (February 1963),
( 107-126.
( 3 i0. E Cbessonand W. H. Munse. "Behavior of Riveted Conoections in Truss-T1pe
Members," Journal ol the structural Diuision, ASCE, g3, sr1 (January 1957) T
( 1150-1-1150-61;also Transactioru, ASCE, l2.3 (1958),l08Z-112g.
3.i1. William McGuire. Srcel Structures.Flgle*'ood Oiffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
( 1e68(pp. 310-328).
( 3.12. James M. Ricles and JosephA. Yura "strcngth of"Double-Row Bolted-Wcb
connections," Jountal of structural Engineering, ASCE, 109, I (January l9g3),
( L26-t42.
3.13. SteveG. Hardasb and Reidar Bjorhovde."New Design Criteria for GussetPlates
( in Tensiou," EngineeringJournal, AISC, ?2, 2 (2nd euarter 1985), 77-94. ,EEi

3.14.'Richard M. Bennett and p. $hima Najem-Clarke. "Reliabiliry of Bolted Steel


( 'i+.

Probs.3.4and3.5
Tension Members," Journal of structural Engineering, AscE, lr3, g (August
( 1987),1865-1872. --jj

3.5. RepeatProb. 3.4 using A572Grade60 steeland ff-in.-diam holes.


( "-=
3.6. Selecta pair of anglesto supporta tensilelive load (LL) and dead load
(DL) for the case assignedby the instructor. Assume the angles are
:j=

( _ I * . .

PROBLEMS : ,;E;
separatedback-to'bait<| in. by a connectedgussetplate, and that the
( Y*-.ir_.
connection is w'elded.Assume the slendernessratio is desired to not
( All problerls r8r€ to be done according to the AISC Load and Resistance exceed300.
Factor Design or Allowable Stress Design, as indicated by the instructor.
( Assume fastener strength is adequate and does not control. All hoies are DL LL Length
standard for the bolt diameter indicated. Values of yield stress and tensile Case (kips) (kips) Steel (fr)
( {,
strength,F, are available in Table 2.1.1. For checking shear nrpture strength,
( assumeall distancesfrom centerof bole to end of piece are 1| in. 1 70 z0 A36 20
( 2 65 22 A36 30
3.1. Compute the maximum acceptabletensile seryiceload that may act on a J 70 2A A572Gr 60 z0
( singleangle L6x4xi that is welded along one leg to a gussetplate; thus, .tA 48 30 A36 ))
there are no holes. The sirvice live load is three times tbe dead load. 5 50 30 A572Gr 50 22
(
Solve for (a) A36 steel and (b) A572 Grade 50 steel. 6 80 30 A36 2A
( 3.2. Compute the maximum acceptabletensile serviceload the angle in Prob. 7 80 100 A572Gr 50 28
( 3.1 may carry when connected on both l.gr. Thr 4-in. leg contains a
single gage lile of l-in.-diam bolts, and the 6-in. leg conrains i double 3.7. Selecta singleangle (for the caseassignedby the instructor) to supPort a
( gage line of'{-in.-diam bolts. Assume no staggerof bolts, an&rhat all tensile load. A single gage line of at least three bolts is to be used.
bolts participate in carrying load. Assume shearrupture strengthdoesnot control.
{
l.-
,.
t
I> (
1O2 3/TENSIONMEMB€RS : PFCBLEMS 103
(
(
DL LL Bolt Diameter accortrpanyingfigure. Use A36 steeland assumeholesare for ]-in.-diam
Length - (
Case (kips) (kips) Steel (in.) botts. Base answer on tension strength of the channel, including shear
(fr)
rupture strength- (
I 15 40 A36 1
4 l5 3.12. Repear Prob. 3.11 using a C10x25. Assumethe 12 bolts are in 3 lines (
2 l5 & A572Gr 50 2 t5 parallel to the direction of loading, with the same3 in. spacing.
4 (
3 15 40 A36 I
20
4
Determine the tensile load (85%live load; 15%dead load) permitted by (
4 15 4 A572Gr 60 z 25
8 AISC for a pair of anglesL6X4x* attachedto a gussetplate as shown in
5 10 30 A36 7
8 20 the accompanying-figure.Use A36 steel and ]-in.-diam bolts on stan: (
l0 .=::.-
;*j-,-"".

6 30 A572Gr 50 1_
8 20 dard gage lines whose distancesaregiven inTable 3.4.1-The force T is
I t2 35 A36 L
8 18
t.*=
*:...
-*-.
transmitted to the gusset plate by fastenerson lines .'{ and 8; assume
8 L2 3s A572Gr 60 18 -- only open holes in the 4-in. (outstanding)legs-
E

{ ,
3.8. Selecta standardthreadedrod to carry a tensile force T of 4 kips dead
load and 6 kips live load. Use 4572 Grade 50 steel.'
l'

3.9. Selecta standardthreadedrod to carry a tensiie force T of 2 kips dead


load and 4 kips live load. Use A36 steel. f e?+?i (
( ;
3.10' Design sag rods to support the purlins oi an industrial building rooi (
whose span and slope are shown in the accompanyingfigure. sag
rods (
are placed at I poinrs betweenroof trusses,which *r rpur.O 30 ft apart. Prob.3.13
Assumeroofing and purlia weight is 9 psf of roof surfice. Use standard ( i
threadedrods and ,{36 steel.The snow load to be carried is 20, 30, or 40 3.14. Repeat Prob, 3.13 using a pair of L8x6xI angleswith staggered{-in'- )
psf of horizontal projection"whicheveris appropriate for your locale. diam bolts in the 8-in- leg. ( ,1

(
3.15. Given the spliceshoun in the accompanyingfigure:
(a) Determine the marimum capacityT (25%dead load,75% live load) (
based on the 436 steelplateshaving holesarrangedas shown.
(b) What value of s should be specified to provide the maximum (
capacity T as computed in part (a), if the finat design is to have (
t
St:52:5'?
(
Prob.3.10
(
3.11. Determine the maximum allowabletensile load (20% dead load, g0% ftr'
lir.e (
load) for a singrec15x33.9 fastenedto a
|-in. gussetplate as in the +T
f, oiamoors (
(
iit
(
a>T
(
(

Prob.3.15 ( ,
Prob.3.11
( ;
(
l
(
'(
104 3//TENSIONMEMBESS PHOBLEMS r(l5
(
!

t
g.f O. nn L5x3+x* angle,as sbown in the accompanyingfigure,is to carry 20
i kips dcad load and ?0 kips live load using tbe shortest length of
connection using two gage lines of bolts in the 5-in. leg. Wlrat is the
Gusset
Dlale

Single angie
(
!-7xa.I.a:o

a
minimum acceptablestagger,tbeoreticaland specified(l-i". multiples),
( using A572 Grade 50 steel?Neglect shearrupture strength.
---> r
(
t=l

a 'l-l Slandarc holes


One open hole { o r l . i n . - d , a mb o i t S
90k located here
\ ! oiarnuorrs in 4" leg

( Probs.3.18and'3.19

(
(
8ffi:"i:i::lli#'i,"o open hole in the 4in. leg will not reducethe strength below its maximurn
Prob.3.16 possiblevalue. If Prob. 3.18 is not solved,assumes is 3.75in.
(
3.20. Design an eyebarto carry'24 kips dead load and 76 kips tive load, using
( flame-cut A572Grade 50 steel plate. (Refer to LRFD or ASD-D3.)
3.17. An f-Sxilx; angle,as shown in the accompanyingfigure,is to carry 20
( kips dead load and 60 kiprs live load. Using one gage line of holes for
$-in.-diam bolts in each leg, what would be the minimum stagger s
-44L I

( required to accomplish this? Consider the load to be transferredby bolts !;"$L

( in the 5-in. leg, while the holes in the 3|-in. leg may be consideredopen
ones(i.e., not to transmit the tensileload). Use A36 steel.Neglect shear
( rupture strength. ::*
(
(
(
Gusss'-a
80k

(
Other holc not shown
\ (assume at least threel

( P r ob. 3. 17-
(
( 3.18. Compute the minimum value of s that could tbeoreticallybe usedon the
angle of the accompanying figure such that the maximum factored
(
- tensile.force Tn may be iprried. Assume m is large enougb so that a
t
failure pattern through tbe open hole will not govern. Inctude considera-
tion of shear rupture strength.
(
( 3.19. Assuming that s for the angle of Prob. 3.18 is made as large as iequired
in Prob. 3.18, conipute &e minimum distance rn required so that the
(
I
L"
( ,1
F'* 4.1,/TYPESOFFASTENERS 107 (
(

Chapter4 TASLE 4.I.1 PROPERTIESOF BOLTS


Prool load.a
length
Proof load,a
yield Minimum
('
(

Bolt measurementb strengtl'f tensile (


method, method, strenglh,

$tructuralFasteners ANSI / ASTM


designation
diameler
in.
(mm)
ksi
(MPa)
ksi
(MPa)
ksi
lMPa)
(
(
(
A307 [2.4J,low-carbon steel
60
Grades A and B I to+ (
(6.35to 104)
(
hi gh-strength steel
?$25 12.51,
85 92 120 (
Types1,2, aod 3 I to1 (82s)
(L2.7to25.a) (58s) (63s)'
105
(
1 | t o1 | 74 81
Types1,2, and 3
(28.6to 38.1) (510) (560) (725) (

85 92 120 (
A&;gI2.7l, quencbedand I to1
temperedsteel (6.35to 25.4) (s8s) (63s) (82s) (
1 l r o1 l 74 81 105
(Note: AISCd Permits
4.1 TYPES OF FASTENERS (28.6to 38.1) (510) (560) (72s) \.
use only for bolts
ll to3 55 58 90 (
larger than 1] in. '
Every structureis an assemblage of individualparts or membersthat must be (6.35to 76.2) (380) (400) (620)
fastenedtogerher,usuallyat tbe memberends,by somemeans.welding is one and for threaded rods (
and anchor bolts)
such meansand is treatedin Chapter5- The other is to usefasteners, iuch as
r 50 (
rivets or bolts. This chapteris primarilyconcernedwith botting; in particular. I to1| 120 130
A490 [2.81,quenchedand
high'strengthbolts. High-strengthbolts haveessentiallyrepla..d riu.tt as rhe (12.7to 38.1) (82s) (ses) (1035) (
tempered alloY steel
principal means of maliing nonweldedstructuralconnections.Horvever.for
(
completeness, a brief descriptionof the other fasteners.including rivets a-qd .Actual proof load and tensileload obtained by multiplfing given stressvalue by the
unfinishedmachinebolts,is given. - (O.i?$/njlz' where lr: sress area in (
rensile srress u1" i,; A,:0.?854 tD
: diameter of bolt in inches, n - number of threads per
squareinches, D oominal (
3d
ioch.
HiEh-strength Botts o0.5%extension under load. (
"0.?%offset value- (
The tw'o basic types of high-strengthbolts are designatedby ASTtr{ as A3l5
dLRFD and ASD.J.3.
[2.5] and A490 [2.8J,&e materialpropertiesof which are discussedin Sec.2.2 (
and summarizedin Table 4.1.1.Thesebolts are heary hexagon-head bolrs.
used with heavy semifinishedhexagonnuts, as shown in Fig. 4.l.lb. The (3,t1 t::.o449)' (
High-strength bclts range in diameter from I to l:t in
ihreaded portion is shorter than for bolts in nonstructuraiapftications, and
The most coslmon diameteri used in building conitrucdbn are I in. and * in', (
may be cut or rolled. A325 bolts are of heat-treatedmediumcarbon steel in. and 1 in-
whereasthe most common sizesin bridge design are * (
having an approximate yield srrengthof gl to gz ksi (560 ro 630 ir{pa) deveiop a specified tensile stress in
High-strength bolts are tigbtened to
Jependingon diameter.A490 bolts are alsoheat-treated but are of c//oy sreel clamping force on the joint' The actual (
th.*'Jhi.h ,Juit, in a predilcnble
having an approximareyierd strengthof ll5 to 130 ksi (790 to 900 \dpa) through a joint is therefore due to the fricdon
transfer of service lobds
dependingon diameter..{449 bolts are occasionallyusedwhen diametersover bolts are (
I I in' up to 3 in. are needed,and also for anchor'boltsand tkeaded rods. Jeveloped in the piecesbeing joined' Joints containing higb-strength
where high slip
designedeither as slip-criticii (formerly called friction'type), (
106 (
t :
(
(
(
,( 108 4 / STRTJCTURAL
FASTENERS 4.2//HTSTOR|CAL
BACKGROUNDCF H|GH-STRENGTH
BOLTS 109
(
r connection.Their prinrary usc is in light structures.secondaryor bracing
( rnembers, platforms.catrvalks,purlins,girts,small trusses,and sinrilarapplica-
tions in rvhichthe loadsare primarily smalland staticin nature.Suchbolts tre
( also used as temporaryfitting up connectorsin casesrvherehigh-strcngth
( bolts, rivets.or weldingmay be the permanentmeansof connection.Unfin-
ished bolts are sometimescalled common,machine, or rough bolts and nral'
( come rvith squareheadsand squarenuts.
(
Ribbed Bolts
Thesebolts of ordinary rivet steelwhich have a rounded head and raisedribs
parallel to the shankrvereused for many yearsas an alternativeto rivets.The
( actual diameterof a given size of ribbed bolt is slightly larger than the hole
( a) Rivet U) High-strength c) High-strength inter- into which it is driven. In driving a ribbed bolt, the bolt actually cuts into the
hexagon head ference-body bolt edgesaround the hole producing a relatively tight fit. This type of bolt rvas
( particularly.usefulin bearing connectionsand in connectionsthat had stress
Figure4.1.1 Typesof fasteners
reversals.
(
A modern variation of the ribbed bolt is the interference-body bolt shorvn
( in Fig. 4.1.lc which is of ,{325 bolt steeland insteadof longitudinalribs has
rcsistance at service load is desired; or as bearing type, where high slip serrationsaround the shank as well as parallel to the shank. Becauseof the
( rcsistanceat service load is unnbcessary. serrations around the shank through the ribs, this bolt is often called an
( interrupted-ribbolt. Ribbed bolts rvere also difficult to drive when several
Rivets layersof plateswereto be connected.The current high-strengthA325 interfer-
(
ence-bodybolt may also be more difficult to insert through severalplates:
( For many yeats rivets were the acceptedmeans of connecdng members but however, it is used rvhen tight fit of the bolt in the hole is desired and it
today (1990) are virtually obsoletein the United.states.Undriven,.riversare permits tightening the nut rvithout simulLaneouslyholding the bolt head as
( formed from bar steel, a cylindrical shaft with a head formed on one enil;as may be requiredwith smooth loose-fitdngordinary A325 bolts. These bolts
shown in Fig. 4.1.1a.Rivet steelis a mild carbon steeldesignatedby ASTM as'. are, however,rarely usedirt ordinary steelstructures.
(
4'502 Grade 1 (F" : 28 ksi) (190 MPa) and Grade 2 (Fy,= 3g ksi) (260 Mpa),
( rvith the minimum specified yietd strengthsbasedon bir stock as rolled. The
forming of undriven rivets and the driving of rivets cause changes in the 4.2 HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND
(
mechanicalproperties. OF HIGH.STRENGTHBOLTS
\ - - The method of installation is essentiallythat of heating the riVet to a light
cherry-red color, inserting it into a hole and then applying pressureto the The first experimentsindicating the possibility of using high-strengthbolts in
( preformed head rvhile at the sametirne squeezingthe plain end of the rivet to steel-framedconstructionwere reportedby Batho and Bateman[4.1] in 1934.
( form a rounded head. During this processthe sbank of the rivet cornpletely or Batho and B.atemanconcludedthat bolts with a minimum yield strengthof 54
nearly fills the hole into which it had been inserted.Upon cooling, the rivet ksi (370 MPa) tosld be relied on to prevent slippage of the connectedparts.
( shrinks, thereby providing a clamping force. However, thl amount of clamping Follow-up testsby Wilson and Thomas[4.2] substantiatedthe earlier work by
( produced by the cooling of the rivet varies from rivet to rivet and thereforl reporting that high-strengthbolts smallerin diameter than the holes in which
'cannot,be
counted on in designcalculations. they were inserted had fatigue strengthsequal to that of well-driven rivets
(
provided that the bolts were sufficientiy pretensioned.
( Untinlshed Bolts The next major itep occurredin 1947with the formation of the Research
Council on Riveted and Bolted Structural Joints. This organizationbegan by
( These bolts are made from low-carbon steel,designatedas ASTM A30?
lz.4l, using and extrapolatinginformation from studies of riveted joints; in particu-
(/' and are the least expensirc type of bolt. They may not, however, produce the lar, the extensiveannotated bibliography by De Jonge [4.3J,completed in
least expensive connecdon since many more may be required in a particular 1945, was used. From this beginning,the ResearchCouncil has continued to
(
, (
(
110 4,/STRUCTURAL 4.4/DETAILS CF tilcH STRENGTHBOLTS 111
FA,g'ENERS
(
- (

ffiF,:
organizeand sponsorres€atchon high-srrengtbbolted connecdons,and issuc
specificationsat intervalson the basisof researchfindings I,

By 1950 the conceprof using high-strengthbolts.and a summary (


of
researchand behavior was presented[4.4J to practicing engineersand
thc (
steel-fabricationindustry. The first specificationin t95l permiited the replace-
ment of rivets with bolts on a one-to-onebasis.It was conservativelyassumetl (
that friction transfer of the load was nec€ssaryin all joints under service
load Frgr.rre4.3.1 TYPesof rivets' (
conditions. The f.a9to1of safetyagainstslip was .rtablirh.d ar a
high enough
level so that good fatigue resistance(i.e., no slip under varyin! stres-s (
or srress
rcversalconsistingof many load cycles)was provided in eueryjoint, similar
to 4.3 CAUSESOF RIVETOBSOLESCENCE (
or berrer than rhat shown by rivetedjoints.
In 1954a revisionwas made in the specificationsto include the use
of flat metal pins into (
washerson 1:20 sloping surfacesand to allow the useof impact wrenches Rivering is a method of connectinga joint by inserting ductile
for joined -A fot*iog a head at each end to prev-ent.the
installinghigh'strengthbolts.Also, rhe 1954revisionpermittedthe holes in the piecesbeing (
contact to be painted when the bolts were to createa-bearing-type
surfacesin joinr from ctrning up"it. Typical t)?es of rivets ar-eshown in Fig' 4'3'1 (see
connection: for rivet obsolescencehave been the
i.e', when the strengthof the connectionwas to be based'oniftr Uott
in beanng
also Fig.-ofa.l.Ia). The prinii-pat ."ni.t
againstthe side of the hole. advent Ugn-rtr.ngth bolts and development of welding techniques'The (
the develop'
In 1956 Munse [4.5Jsummaruedbolt behavior and concluded developnr.nt of rveldirg proceduresis discussedin Chapter 5 and
that bolts ibtti"g forms the basis for this chapter' However, in
mtrst have as high an initial tension as practicableif high-strength ;#;ilieh-uo.netn t

'to be efficient and economical. bolts were causes, a number sf inherent disadvantages
By 1960, the minimum boll tension was addition to the abo've-menUonea (
increased.The bearing'Iype connectioo was recognizedas an acceptaule have hastenedthe cbsolescence of structural riveting, especiallyfield riveting-
the other
stitute for a rivetedconnecdon,aod the conne.tiondesigned.on
sub- Riveting requireda crew of four or five experiencedpersons'On (
,t, basisof bolt installation do not need to be
slip resistance,known,then as a friction-type cannection,ioulopr"u"ury hand, rhe crews required for high-strength (
only was difficult and unfortunately even the most
be necessarywhen direct tension acts on the bolts or when stress highli skilled. inspection
reversals .r.*, required rigid inspection' Cutting out and replacing (
occur. .ip.ri.n.ed rivetin!
prior
Also in 1960 a simple installationprocedure,known as the bad rivets \r-asan ei,pensiuepio".dut.. Even the preheatingimmediately (
turtt-of-the-nut after cooling.
ntethod, was introduced as an alternative to the torque to driving is citical in developingthe necessarytightness
wrench method
previously required.The economics-ofhigh-strengthbolting The lrincipal facror that delayed immediate acceptanceof high-stlene$ (
furtircr improved washers.In the
rvhen only one washer,insteadof the priviously-required bolts was the high cost of tbe mat;rial including tu'o hardened
iwo, located'under labor cost for installing bolts did not offset the higher (
the element(head or nut) being turned could 6e uiea if the early 1950sthe ieduced
turn-of-rhe-nut cost. Once the washers could be reduced to one or elim!,nated (
nrethodwas used. bolt material
in
In 1962. the requirement for washerswas eliminated exc€pt and the greater strength of a bolt over that of a'rivet could be utilized
in special Now (1990) with even higber (
situations[a.6]. In l9&, the higherstrength4490 bolt was design, high-strength6olts becameeconomical.
introduced. would be
Significant changeswere made in 1976 when higher bort labor cost and corinectiondesigngenerallyrequiring fewer bolts than t
streng,h, ,u.r, the economy is clearly with higb-strength bolts'
rccognized,and strengthswere given for bolts ur.d-in required for rivets,
other than-standard (
Irrrlcs.
fl:e most 'recentspccificationsby the ResearchCouncii (
on Structural
connecrions(RCSC).14.7,4.g1 changesomewharthe philosophyof designfor BOLTS
4.4 DETAI!.SOF HIGH.STRENGTH (
bearing-type connectionsand for friction-type connictionr,'noru
called s/rp- A490 bolt
critical ioints- A more detailed review of inr historical
ia.t grounJ tr,an Both the most commonly used A325 bolt and the occasionally used (
nuts, identified by the
presented here is provided in the RCSC commentary are heavy b,exagon(trexineaa botts with heavy hexagon (
Design Criteria for Bolted a;;d RiaetedJoinrs by Kulak, ta.9l. Tle Guide to
Fisler,'and sfuik t3.u nsrr" rd" si gnui
"hex i onont het opof t heheadasshogninFig. 4. 4. 1.
(hereinafter referred to as the Guide)
ru*-.rL.s researchand makesrecom- Heavy bolts have shorter threaded portions than other bolts; this {
is
mendations which generally form the basis
for current design of bolted reduces the probabitity of having threads occgr w'bere marimum strength (
connections. "ruou, the shank of the bolt. Dimensions of heavy hex bolts and nuts
required
I,
(
(
\
r{-

( 112 FAST€NERS
4 / STRUCTURAT 4.4/DFTATLS BOLTS
OFHIGHSTRENGTH 113

ffi€g
4325 A490
( Type
Boit Nul Bolt Nut
(
VFGF rdgnttltCslo.r
-
( \
(tYocatl

lzq\. r
(
(
t
@ €)I Atcs rat:c:fa Graac r.lark (2)
@ @ OH or ?H i2)
n Grac C O DH.2 o. 2ii

( Ti'olin',1".I"'*
( Figure4.4.1 Hearyhexstructuralbolt ald beavyhexnut. (FromRef.a.9)
2 Seme €t lypa I
a''^. Saria as Type I

(
Noic na^aa:a./ ";.:"I,ifg
( are given in Fig. 4.4.1 and Table 4.4.1. Requirementsfor marking bolts and 3 rdia, irtlaa
r 6C'
'4.4.2.
( nuts, including manufacturer'sidentification, are given in Fig.
Tbe .4325 and 4490 bolts are available as Types 1, 2, or 3. The A325Type
(
(
1 is the medium-carbonsteelbolt that'has been availablefor many years and
is the one that would be supplied if not otherwise specified. Similarly for
A490, Type 1 is the usualalloy steelbolt. Type 2 for both A325 and 4490 is a
3
@ @ " @
(' lorv-carbonmartensitesteelaltcrnativeto Type 1 for atmospherictemperature (1) Additional optional 3 raCiallines at 120" may be added.
(2) Type 3 also accepta:le.
applications. For elevated temperatureapplications Type I must be used. (3) Additionat optional rnatk indicalng weathering gtade may be added.
(
Type 3 for both 4325 and A490 is a weatheringsteel bolt har"ingcorrosion
( resistancecomparableto 4588 weatheringsteel (seeTable 2.1.1). bolt and out assemblies.
Figure4.4.2 Requiredmarkingsfor acceptable
Occasionally,ASTM AM9 bolrc are used where diameterslarger than 1| (FromRef.4.9)
(
in. are required.
(' A variation of the standard A375 and ,4.490used for bearing connections ing nuts. Interference-body bolts have particular applications rvhere high
is the interference-bodybolt as shownin Fig: 4.1.1c.Thesebolts have a biinon bearing capacity'is desired togetherwith stressreversalsor vibratory loads.
(
head and may be used with the standard higb-strength nuts or with self-l9pt-r
(
Proof Load and Boli Tension - Stip.Critical Connections
( ,
Until the 1985 RCSC Specification[4.7J,all high-strengthbolts were required
TABLE4.4.1 A325ANDA490BOLTOTMENSTONS
(FROM
REF.4.7)
( to be installed with a sufficient pretensionforce to create as high a compres'
(in.)
Boltdimensions (in.)
Nutdimensions sion force as practical bet'*'een the piecesbeing connected,such that shear
( Nominal
Heavyhex structuralbolts Heavlrhex nuts forces were transmitted through connectionsby friction betrveenthe con-
bottsize,
( o Widthacross Heighl. - Thread Widthqcross Height, nected pieces. That Specification relaxed the pretension requirement rvhen
(in.) flats.F H length ilats, W H bolts are net subject to direct tension and slip resistancebetweenconnected
( piecesis not rdquiied [4.7, Sec.5].
( L/2 7/8 s/r6 1 7/8 3r/64 When slip resistanceis required, the pretensioningshould be as high as
s/8 I L/16 25/64 l t/4 I L/16 3e/64 possiblewithout chancing perrnanentdeformation or failure of the bolt. Bolt
( 3/4 I t/4 L5/32 l 3/8 I r/4 47/64 material exhibits a.stress-strain(load-deformation)behavior that has no rvell-
( 7/8 1 7/16 35/64 1 r/2 I 7/16 ss/64 defined lield point,. as shorvn in Fig. 4.4.3.Instead of directly using a yield
I 1 s/8 39/64 l 3/4 I s/8 63/64 srress,a so-called praot load is used.Tbe proof load is the load obtained by
( I r/8 I L3/t6 rr/t6 2 1 13/16 t 7/64 multiplying the tensilestressarea* by a yield stressestablishedby using either
I t/4 2 25/32 2 2 | 7/32
( - I 3/8 2 3/16 27/32 2 r/4 2 3/16 l Lr/72
( I t/2 2 3/8 r5/t6 2 r/4 2 3/8 I ts/32 'See footnote to Table 4.1-l-

(
l--
(
1 14 4 /5TRVCTURAL FASTENERS 4.sl|NSTAL|jTrCN
PROCEDURES115
(

a A.2%offiet strain or a 0.5% extensionunder load (see Sec. 2.4). ASTM


Min.
;
: len3totl tabulatesthis proof load for eachdiameterfastenerusing, for example,for j" I.'
60 i'- A49O rc f-in.-diam bolts a strain offset value of 92 ksi (630 MPa) and a length (
* _ + - - _
measurementvalue of 85 ksi (590 MPa). The proof load stress is approxi.
- ^ i
matelya minimum of.7A%and 80%of the minimum tensilestrengthsfor ,{325 {
i and A490 bolts, respectively'. (
I tension Sincethe early 1950sthe minimum requiredpretensionequalsthe proof
; i ,z aszs z
(
- 4- -z (= proof 1
," loaO for .4325 bolts. Using the turn-of-the-nut installation method (as dis.
e
; 'E , cussedlater in this section)no difficulty is encounteredin obtaining proof
r5o (
o
:. load for thesebolts with j turn of the nut from snug position, as shownin Fig.
co
l'-- j.- fro*rr
rnug
o
*$1,-.4.4.3.With the A490 bolt, however,the I turn from snug may not achievethe (
r00
:L:r-=
ih= -proof
.--.^! r^^r A t^^
load. Also f:-
for llong
^-- L^lr-
bolts, -more
^-^
than jI .turn
rL^- .-- f-^-
from ^snug
---^ --.:rt L^
will be -required
^^--2--) t^
to
achieve the same tension as for short bolts. (..
€.
"Snug"
I o'",n' s] in.oorts € Thus AISC (LRFD-Table J3.l; ASD-Table J3.7) requiresin ilip-critical (
gs= connectionsa pretensionequal to 70%of minimum tensiie strength,as glven
I .
rn. rhread in griO
5 (
Fjfi.it Table 4.4.2.This equalsthe proof load for ,4,325bolts and about 85 to 90%
tF=." of"proof load for ,{490 bolts.
: i ; ' r j 4 r f =' The magnitudeof pretensionthat is desirableand necessaryhas been the
)(
Turns from vrug subject of considerablestudy by researchers [3.1J.
::-
Frgure 4-4 3. T)?ical load vs nut roration retationships (
for ,4325 and ,q490 bolrr. T--
(From Kulal. Fisher.and Struik
[3.1]
-: (
PROCEDURES
4.5 INSTALLATION
( i

Connections Not Requiring Full Pretenslonlng


TABLE 4.4.2 MINII"tUMBOLT TENSIONOFOR FULLY,TIGHTENED
(
When slip-resistantconnectionsare not required 14.7,Sec. 5] and rvhen the :
BOLTS(LRFDTABLEJ3.1 AND ASD-TABLEJ3.7) ( '
bolts are not subjectto direct tension,bolts are to be tightened"snug tighlr!,
Bcli srze 4325 botts A4g0 botrs This is a tightnessthat exists"when all plies in a joint are in firm contact,'f (
('ri I (mm) (kips) (kN) (kips) (kN) which is further deiinedas the resultof "a few impactsof an impact u'renchor
(
the full effort of a man using an ordinary spud wrench" [4.7].-
r/z r2.7 t2 53 l5 67 i - t (
s/8 l5.e 19 85 24 107
3/4 l9.i 28 125 ConnectionsRequiringFull Precompression (
35 156
7/8 22.2 39 t73 49 218 There are four generalmethodsfor installing high-strengthbolts to obtain the (
25.4 51 227 64 285 :TF

r/8 pretension indicated in Table 4.4.2.These are the turn-of-the-nuttightening,


28.6 56 249 80 356 (
t /4 calibrated v'rench tightening, installation of alternate design bolts, and dirert
31 .8 7L 316 rcz 454
3/8 34.9 85 378 121 538
tension indicarortightening14.71. t
L/2 38.1 r03 458 148 The turn-of-tlrc-nutmethod is the simplest. Developed in the 1950sand ( .
658
1960s,this method obtains the specifiedpretensionby a specifiedrotation af \ :
"Equal to "snug tight" condition, which
70% of minimnm tensilestrength of bolts, rounded the nut from the causesa specifiedstrain in the ( ,
the nearesrkip, as speci-fiedin ASTI"I Specifications bolt. Although snugnessor initial tightness can vary due to the surface
:fj^,:
,{-315and A490 bola for UNC (unified staodard
coarEescrsw
for
condition of the piecesbeing tightened,this variation does not significan$y i ,
'irreadsunder affect the clamping force,as may be seenfrom Fig. 4.5.1.The clamping for*e
ANSI Bl.1; seefiffn Manual [1.17],p. 5_172). {
48.6 kips (220 kN) correspondingto a I turn-of-the-nutoccursat a sufficient$
*- large bolt elongation(i.e.,along the horizontal portion of'the cune) such that (
(
(
I
i
' (,'
I
116 4/STRUCruRAL FASTENERS PROCEDURES 1 1 7
4.5/ INSTALUTION
(
I
Eolt clongation, mm B ol i el on-,?a:io:]. = t*-

1.0 't.5 3 4 5 6 7 3
' | | '-'lroo
, J:oo
. . l -
lTurn of nut 17Turns
It I urn3
z , -U t I
*.
G.
Tension by turnol-the nut
I -- I ,'.'lin.tensilestrengrh --{
T
-]-
- --_i_ I
c'
.s I
- - Min tmsion \ -\ | SafetYmargin I
qJ. . l .9 ! |I l:i,*::l:11,"".n -l'oo
r"'rench i '"" z
(calibrated
I Turn J
1c a o ;f *;; rnethod)
rensioning
6 in.
lo.oaor _ proof road _ i I
i
c
.;
{E
kipsl .9
,us i(48'6 tr 4325 borr
I fso | * ciam 1
o
co
I| 4]-in.e,ip ' -'l roo l 6

-
I Salety margin iot , I
Eolt elongation. in. turnsot nut
(deformation)
Figure4.5.1 Bolt elongationiin a tlpical testjoint.
(FsonFisber,Ramseier, andBeedie [4.111
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25

arty variation in the initial snug tightness has insignificant affect on the Bolt elongation.in.

clamp::rgforce. Figure 4.5.2 4325 bolt behavior. (Adapred frosr Rumpf and Fisber [4.12J)
Calibrated wrench tightening uses manual torque wrenches and porver
wrenchesadjustedto stall at a specifiedtorque.Variationsin bolt rensionhave
.,.;enfourd [3.], p. 521to rangeas high as t 30%with an averagevariation of
t 10%. The RCSC Specificadon14.71therefore requires that calibrated TABLE 4.5.1 NUT ROTATION. FROM SNUG TIGHTCONDITION(FROMREF.4.8)
wreqchesbe set to produce a bolt tension at least 5% in excessof the values
Dispositionof ouler faces of bolted parts
specifiedin Table 4.4.2.Furthermore,calibratedwrenchesmust be calibrated
daily and a hardenedwashermust be used under the element (head or nut) Oneface normalto boll Bothlacesslopednot
axisandotherface morethan1:20lrom
being tightened. slopednot morethan norrnaltoboltaxis
Boltlenglh
One rnay wonder whether there is danger of having inadequat€ r€serv€r (undersideof headlo Bothfacesnormal 1:20(beveledwashernot (beveledwashersnot
strengtbif the pretensionexceedsthe proof load; i.e.,'whertit approaches90% end ol bolt) . to boll axis used) used)
of tensilestrength. Figure 4.5.2shows the effect of various turns of the nut
with the margin of safetyindicated.If the calibratedwrench method is used, Up to and including
strengh is the critical factor, with the typical safety margln shown in Fig. 4 diameters l turn l tutrt
4.5.2. The possibility of overtorquing the bolts with power wrenches is not Over 4 diametersbut
considereda problem sincesuch overtorquing usually fractures the bolts and not exceeding8
they are replacedduring installation. In tbe turn-of-the-nut method, deforma- diameters l trl- 3 tu- I turn
tion ts the critical factor with the typical safety margin shown in Fig. 4.5.2. For Over 8 diametersbut
r i : ^
either installation processone can expect a minimum of 2] turns from snug to not exceeo'JJg-Lz'
turn I turn
fracture. When the turn-olthe-nut method is used and bolts are tensioned diameterst i tu-
using I turn increments,frequently.as many as four turns may be obtained
( from saug to fracture. The tunr-of-the-nut method is the cbeapest, is more .Nut rotation is relative to bolt regardlessof the element (nut or bolt) bcing turncd. For
reliable, and is generally preferred over the calibrated wrench method. The bolts installed by l'to* aod less, the tolerancesbould be plus or mious 30o; for bolts
( instatled by I turn and nore, the tolerance sbould be plus or minus 45o.
approved [4.7] nut rotations are indicated in Table 4.5.1.
( Tbe third general category of installation technique, the installation of tNo researcb has been performed by rhe Council to establisb the tum'of-tbe-nut proce'
alternatedesignbolts, usesproprietary fastenersdesignedto indirectly.indicate dure for bolt leng&s exceeding12 diameters.Tberefote, the requircd rotation must be
( 'the bolt tension or automaticallyprovide the
required tension. A proceclurefor determined by actual test in a suitable tetsion measuring device which simulates condi-
( quali$ing suchbolts is prescribed[a.7J.Sometimesthe alternatedesign feature tions of solidly fitted steel.
t.
('
-
cne- :;rlfpl$ 119
P.. 4.6 / NOMINALSTREi\i3THCF lNDt"/lD!'^'L
118 FASTENERS
4 /STRIJCTUfr.AL
(
(
is a twist-offor yielding-t)?eelement.In suchcases,installation must bc']i rl
the most rigid part of the connectionand progresssystenaiically towari thc (
ieastrigid areas. Butt ioint
LaP iotnt {double shear) (
The fourth category is the direct tension indicator tighrcning. Agarn. l {single shear}
procedureis specified[4.7] to qualify any such devices.Tlpically a ha;Cened {a) Shear connections (
washer is used containing a seriesof protrusions on one face. The washer r'
insertedbetweenthe bolt bead and the gripped material with the protrusion. (
bearing against.the underside of the bolt leaving a gap maintained bv thc W s€dron \,
protrusions. Upon dghtening the bolt, the protrusions are flattened and the
gap is reduced.The bolt tension is determined by measuring the remaining (
gap, which for properly tensionedbolts will be about 0.015 in. (0.38 mm) or (
l e ss[4. 13] . Strudural tee
(
(
4.6 NOMTNAL
STRENGTH FASTENERS
OF INDIVIDUAL
(
(c) Tension colrnectrons
Loads are transierredfrom one member to another,by meerls of the conlec- (b) Eccenlric shear
connectlon (
tion betweenthem. A few typical connectionsare shown in Fig. 4.6.1.
The simplestdevicefor transferringload from one steel piece to anorheris (
wirh a pin (a qlindrical pi€c€of steel)insertedin holes that are aligned in ihe
I (
two piecesas shownin Fig. 4.6.2.The cotter pins shown would prevent the pin I
II
ilt )i
from sliding our. Load would be transferredby bearing of the shank of the pin (
I
against the side of the hole. From the free bodies of the pin it rnay be noted I

the transfer betweenplate l{ and B is actually made via shear on the pin (the
(
l l
slight rotation of the pin due to unbalanced moment would be relatively
negligible).There would be negligiblefriction between plates A and B. The
t (

earlieststeelstnrctures,particularlytrusses,were actually connectedby pins. (


When a high-srrengthbolt is installed to have a specified initial ten-cion. (
there will be an initial precompressionbetween the pieces being joined. as (d) Combined shear and tension connections
shownin Fig. 4.6.3.A uansferof plate tensionloads P as shown in Fig. a.6.3 (
will then occur r.ia friction and there may be no bearing of the bolt sbank FiOurla,6.r Tlpical boltedconnections' (
against the side of the hole. Until the friction force pI- is overcomethe shear
strc'ngthoi the bolr and the bearingstrengthof the plate n'ill not affect the (
"limit States';,or failure modes'that may conUol the strength
"rbility to transferloaC acrossthe shearplane betweenplates.The free-bcd,v The possible (
in Fig' 4'6'4'
tiiagrams for the 11nnsfg1 of loads in a pretensionedhigh-strengthb'rited of a bolted connectionare shown
connectionare shonl in Fig. 4.6.3. (
l-he AISC Specifications[1.5, 1.15Jrecognurctwo geoeral categoriesof (
performancerequirementfor high-strengthbolted connections,for many vears Tensile strength of Fasteners
3'2 and
known as bearing-,rype and friction-type.The i986 LRFD Specification[1.15] statein tensiondiscussedin sec' (
In accordancewith the fracturelimit one fastener
and 1989 ASD Spec-ifrcation [.5] hhve renamed &e frictioo-type connection nominal suength Ro of
the failure mode shownin Fig. 4.6"ie,the (
as a s/ip-critical connection.
in tensionis (
The strengthof all high-strengthbolted connectionsin transmitting shear [ 3. 2'21
Rn: F: A,
forces across a shearplane betweensteel elementsis the same whether the
(
connection is a beariig-type or a slip-citical connection. The slip-critical net area ln should be
connection has in addition the serviceabilityrequirement that slip must not where Fb = tensile strengh of the bolt.mateti{' Jht "
as the tensilestress (
of tnt bolt' knonn
occur at serviceload. the or""'through the threid.a porti*
(
(
(
{
120 4/STRUCTURALFASTENERS 4.6 / NOlvllNALSTRENGTHOF ll-lDIvlD'JALFASTENERS 121
(
(
( ;i {_:::H=-
(
(
(a) Sheartailure of bolt t h ; S h e a rf a i i u r eo f p l a t e
(
o --_- Freebody tn
I L ofPin
( I * D P I F
I Fl-
p
(
PA ab 8l' -*.
e t l - ;
r'

U LJ
( -+P ' Free bodier
or porlrons
of pin (c) Bearingfailure (d) Bearing failure of plate
( Free body plate I of bolt
showing shear
transtet
(
(
-.ure4.6.2 Transfer of load in pin connection.
t
( High.strengtfrbolt
w q
( a
( w
(
I
(c) Tensite [ailure (f) Bending faiture (g) Tensile failure
of olate
( of bolts of bolts

( Figure4.6.4 Possible
modesof failureof boltedconnections.

(
( where Fh : tensilestrengthof the bolt material
f = tensile force io: grosscross-sictionalareaof one bolt
( pf = frictional resistance
,, = coeflicient of lriction
( P -pT ;

Shear Strength of Fasteners


(
In accordancewith the fracture limit state as the basis for fastenerstrength
( and the failure mode shown in Fig. 4.6-4a the nominal strength R,, for one
( fastenerwill be the ultimate shearstressrs,acrossthe gross areaAuof the bolt
times the nqmber m of shearplanes;thus.
( '
Figure4.6.3 Transfe.rof load in pretensioned
higb-streagtbbolted consection. R,r: frAdt,: rnAt(o-60ry) (4.6.2)
(
( area"*. The ratio of the tensile stress area to the gross
-one area A,"s.z.z1..or.t
ranges from Note that the ultimate shear strength rvas found experimentally[a.7J to be
0.25 to 0.79.Thus, in terms of the gross area Auof bolt Eq. about 62% of.ultimate tensile strength; about the same ratio as for the yield
(
strengths(see Sec.2.6). The practical coefficient 0.60 is used instead of 0.62.
( Ro: F:(o.zsAb) {4.6.1) Equation 4.6.2 assumesno threadsto be ia tbe shearplanes.If threadsare in
the shearplanes,the area at the root of .the threads should be usedin placeof
( lr. Since the area at the root bf the threads is somewhat smaller than the
'See footnote at bottom of Table 4.1.1. tensile stressarea, the root area is taken as 0.70 of the gross area.Thus, Eq.
{
t.(
*da
- FASTENERS 123
FAcroR DESIGN (
4.7/L}A}AND RESISTANCE
122 4/STRUCTURAL FASTENERS

_(
force, when the end distanceis lessthan
4.6.2becomes @nnection; or two or more in line of (
1.5d. (
R,: m(a.to.e)
(o.eory1 (4.6.1r Experienceand tradition has recommendedthat the center-to-center
spac'
of 2! diameters ASD-J3'8J' When
ing of bolts be a minimum [LRFD-J3'9; (
or. with the resultingcoefficientslightlyadjusted, strengthbecomes
L-:2.67d is usedin Eq. 4.6.7,the nominal bearing (
Ro: A.41mAbF: (4.6.41 Rn= 3-0Fdt (4.6.e)
(
prevented' When a bearing
Bearlng Strength which is the basic expressionwhen tear-out is
uv Eq. 4.6.9 is achieved and no rupture occurs; th€ (
strength representea -be
The bearing limit stale relatesto deformationaround a bolt hole, as shorvnin excessive.Thus, Eq' 4'6'9 should be used only
elongation of the hole may (
Fig. 4.6.4d.A sheartear-outfailure as shownin Fig. 4.6.4bis closelyrelatedto whei deformation around the hole is not of concern.
not to have the bslt
a bearingfailure. Preferablyf"*.i iit.ogtltt shouldbe utilized' In order (
The bearingstrengthRo b the forceappliedagainstthe sideof the hole to than 0.i5 in., LRFD-J3.6 specifiesreduced strengths'Thus'
hole elongaremore (
than 1'5d and center'to-
split or tear the plate.The largerthe end distance/., measuredfrom the center for usual situationswhereend distanceI is not less
equations for nominal bearing (
of the hole to the edge,the lessthe possibilityof havinga splitting failure. center spacingis not lessthan 3d, the following
Referringto Fig. 4.6.5,the actualtearingwould occur alonglines1-1 and strength are to be used. (
J3.5; ASD'Table
2-2. As a lower bound for strength,the angle c could be taken as zero,giving r In srandard and short-slouedholes (see LRFD-Table
\a
llt ere"eE' - -

the nominal strengthR, as J3..1.)," (


R, , = 7. 4Fdt (4.6.10)
(
Rr,:,rlt-jlr, ( 4 . 6 . 5)
In long-slottedholes perpendicularto the load
(see LRFD-TableJ3.5;
(
ASD-Table J3.1)'
where ?,f : shearstrengthof plate material = 0.704 Rn: 2.0Fdt (4.6.11) (
4, : tensilestrengthof plate material is.the lower of (
d : nominalbolt diameter Thus, the nominal strength R, attributable to onefastener
bearing strength againstthe
the shearstrengrhon the strint of the boit or the (
Thus. controls, increased strength may be
side of the hole. when bearing strength
of the piecesbeing connected' oI (2) (
I d1 obtained by (1) increasingthe-thickness
R n: 2 t l L - ( 4 . 6 . 6)
t j(0.704,) increasingihe end distanceor center-to.tenter spacing- (

Rn = l.40Fdt
lL 1l (4.6.7)
(
L7-tl FACTORDESIGN
4.? LOADAND RESISTANCE (
which may be approximatedas
_FASTENERS
(
Design (LRFD) was
The general PhilosoPhYof Load and ResistanceFactor (
Rn:,".1:1: LtFu (4.6.8)
described in Secs. 1.8 and 1'9' Equation 1.8.1 gives the structural safety
requirement,as follows: (
which applies for the bolt closestto the edgefor the designof a singlebolt
oR,> xt,Q, [1.8.11 (

w here0:resi stancef act or ( st r engt hr educt ionf act or ) (


R, : nominal resistance(stren$th) (
- -j
'.o _
' v iP
i,: overloadfactors(LRFD-A4'1) (.
live load, wind load. earthquake load)
= bearing
A:,: loads (such as cleadload, and
slress
F, = tensile
or load effects (such 35 $sading moment' shear, axial force' (
stren$h torsional moment resuldng from the various loads)
of plate (
or exceed the
Equation 1"8.1 requires the design strength +R" rc equd
il;j Figure4.6.5 Bearingstrengtbrelatcd to
sod distance. ::. (
(
(
t

'(
124 4/STRUCTUML FASTENERS 4.7/LOAOANDRESISTANCE
FACTOR - FASTEN=RS 125
DESIGN
(
( sumrn&tioa of factored loads.or specificallS, for fasteners, Eq. 1.S.1 becomes TABLE4.7.T DESIGN
STRENGTH'
OFA325ANDA49OHIG|i-STRENGTH
EOLTS
(
0R" > P" (4.7.i) Tension sireng:ih Shear strengih
( fu d : resistance factor (for connectorsir relatesto the type of action, Fuo (ksi) (ksi)
suchas0.75for fracturein tension,0.65for shearon high-strength Fastener (ksi) Q: O'75 Q : 0.65
(
bolts, and 0.75for bearingof bolt againstside of hole)
( R,, : nominal strengthof one fastener 4325 bolts, when threads
P* : factored load on one fastener ate not excludedfrom o(0.75^ry) f t0.15{b1
(' shearplanes 120 - 67.5
0.75(90.0) : 35.1
0.65(54.0)
Si+rcethe loading is not related to the tlpe of member. such as tension ,{325 bolts, when threads
( metetreror colunrn,the variousload factor combinationsgivcn in LRFD-A4.l are excludedfrom shear +(0.7s4) +(0.604)
( *rg the samefor all membersin the structure.Horvevcr,the resistance facrc; d planes 120 : 67.5
0.75(90.0) : 46.5
0.65(72.0)
il€codlntsfor the possibility that the actual strcngth of rhe fastener(or 4490 bolts, wben thrcads
( ruuber) may be less than the theoretically computed strength becauseof are not excludedfrom +(0.75.ry) o(0.45d)
vanl*donsin material propqrtiesand dimensional tolerances.Thesevariations, shearplanes 150 - 84.4
0.75(112.5) - 43.9
0.65(67.5)
( A490 bolts, when threads
$'b;lbindividually within acceptedtolerancelimits, may combine in the actual
( sgiqBctureto give a strengthlessthan the computed value.Neither the { factor
cre excluded from sbear o(0.?sry) o(0.60ff1
planes ' 150 - 84.4
0.75(1i2.5) : 58.5
0.65(90.0)
( nor the overload factorsy are intended to account for carelesserrorsin design
or conslruction. rDesign streng$
( The strength of a fastenermay be based ori (t) shear,(2) bearing.(3) {R, equals stress in table times gross bolt cros-sectional area
t
r.Gttsion,
or (4) combinedshearand tension.The nominal strengths'intension,
^h.
(
-.$ear,and bearing were presentedin Sec.4.6.
( or
Deslgn Shear Strength - No Threads in Shear Planes
( oRn: O.tS(O.tSr!)e, (4.7.s)
( The design strength QRobasedon sheor strengthaf the fastener,accordingto
LRFD-J3.3,is
( where 0 : 0.75,a value for the tensilefracture mode as discussedin Chap. 3
0R, = 9(0.00ff) mAo : 0.6s(0.60^*)
^e u (4:7.2)' Fb : tensilestrengthof the bolt material (120 ksi for A325 boits; 150
( ksi for A490 bolts)
rvhere 0 - 0.65, a value selectedro calibrate LRFD [1.151to agreewith Aa: grosscross-sectional area acrossthe unthreadedshank of the bolt
( experienceand use in ASD [1.5J
( Fb : tensilestrengthof the bolt material (120 ksi for A325bolts; 150 Note that the 0.75Abrepresentsthe area through the threadedportion of the
. bolt. LRFD-Table J3.2 indicatesthat the "Tensile Strength" is 90 ksi; thal is,
ksi for A'490bolts)
( n : the number of shear planes participating [usually one (sittgle 0.75F:. As is apparentfrom Eq. 4.7.4,multiplying the gross areaArby 0.75fj
( shear)or two (double shear)as in Fig. 4.6.1a1 gives the correctvaluefor Rn. Using the reducedstresson the gross area gives
Ab: grosscross-sectional area acrossthe unthreadedshank of the bolt the sameresult as using the correct stresson the reducedarea.
( The design strengthsfor tension and shear on ,4.325and A490 bolts are
( Deslgn Shear Strength - Threads in Shear Planes summarized'in-Table 4.7.1.

( The designstrength SR, when threads may exist in the shear planesis based
on Eq. 4.6.4,which gives Design Bearlng Strength
(
The designstrength QR, basedon the bearingstrengthat bolt holes,according
+Ro: P(O.as^ff
) mA6 - 0.65(0.45ry)
*e, (4.7.3)
( to LRFD-J3.6 and developedin Sec.4.6 is prescribedin severalcategories:
( Deslgn Tenslon Strength l. For usualconditions(standardholes or short-slottedholes,end distancenot
The design'strength
QR,based
on the tension
strengthof thefastrnrr, uruording less than 1.5d, bolt spacingcenter-to-centernot less than 3d, and rvith trvo
to LRFD-J3.3 and developedas Eq. 4.6.1, is or more bolts in the line of force), Eq. 4.6.10TLRFD-Eq(J3-1a)Iapplies,
(
0R, : aF:(0J5A0): 0.75F:@.75Ab) (4.7.4)
( 0R,,: E(z.4dtF") ( 4. 7. 6)
- FASTE' :RS 127
FACTOR DESIGN
4 7 /LOAD AND RESISTANCE
126 4 / STRUCTURAL FASTENERS

where 0 : 0.75 4.7.ll (LRFD-J3'9) becomes


'd = P d h (4.7.r2)
nominal diarneterof bolt (not at threads) ,- +'T
Spacing
l : thicknessol connected part (say plate) m
tensilestrengthof steelcomprisingconnectedpart
.Fu:
(4 is 58 ksi for 4'36 steel) r
2. For long-slottedholes perpendicular to the direction of load transmission. where I : 0-75 ['-
end disianc,enot lessthan-1.5d, bolt center-to-centerspacingnot lessthan bolt
P: facrored load acdng on one z t

3d, and with two or more bolts in tbe line of force, Eq.4.6.11'ILRFD- ,t"'itt suengtb of Plate material
ag:
;,: r;

Eq(J3-lb)] aPPlies, i : thickness of Ptate material { :


\
* ,.1

eRn: +(2-0dtF") (4.7.71 dr, : diameter of the bolt hole ( t '


l

3 bolt
in a line is preferabtyTLRFD-J3'91
where 0 : 0.75 The minimum spacingof bolts (
less than 2l diameters'
diametersand 'nAi not li
to the edge wbet conditions of Eqs.4,7.6 and 4.7-7 are
3. For the bolt closest (
Eq.
not satisfied, 4.6.8 [LRFD-Eq(J3-1c)]applies' ,
of Transmltted Force (
(4.7.8) ::-' Mhlmum End Distance ln Dtrec'tton
9 R o : E L IF , the direction of the
-,. requirement for end distance in (
Equiriion 4.?.10 grvt the
r*'here g : 0-75 (
- f o r c e o n t h e b o l t s u c h t h a t a r u p t u r e c a n nare
o . oused,
"."'.w h eminimum
the a l l y distances
n t h e u s uend accepted
L : end distance in line of force, from the center of d standard Eq, . 4.7.6 una a.l.l
,: . srrengthsgir;;';;. Utdng strengths are used' F'q'
hole or oversizedhole, or from the mid-width of a slottedhole, : must be at least 1l diamete""Wttt"
higher (
to an edge of a coqnected Part
(
"ovalization" can be
4. When hole elongationgreater than 025 in. and hole (
DISTANCES
tolerated,Eq.4.6.9 TLRFD-Eq(J3-1d)J may be used, TABLE4.7.2 }JINII'U}'I EDGE PART)
iOUE' TO EDGEOF CONNECTED
(CENTEROF STANDANO (
0R,, : g(3-IdtF") (4.7.e) l;;;;;;trpbu r-
Minimum edge distance (
rvhere S : 0.75 At rolted edges ol
Ncrninal plates, shapes or bats'
(
At sheared
rivet ot boli or gas cut edges'
edges
Mlnlmum spaclng of Bolts In Ltne of Transmltted Force diarn€ier (mrn)
(in.) (mm) (.n.)
(mm) (
The usual spacing of bolts in the direction of the transmitted forcesmust be at (in-)

least 3 diameterswhen Eqs. 4.7.6 or 4.7.7 are used. Under all other conditions, 7/8 1)'t 3/4 19.1
't7 7 (
t/2 lLl
Eq. a.6.8 applies. Solving Eq. 4.6.8 for the midmum distance L from the I L/ 8 28.6 7/8

'=x
5/8 15.9 ?.5.4 (
center of one fastenerto the edgeof the adjacent hole, 19.1 I t/4 31.8 1
3/4 38.1 r r/8 28.6
't 22.2 1 t/2t 31.8 (
(4.?.10) /8 M.4 I r/4
1 7l.4 1 3/4+ 38.1
1 50.8 I r/z (
1 r/8 28.6 41.3
2 L/4 57.2 I s/8
1 L/4 31. 8
Then, adding the radius d ^/2 of the bolt bole to Eq. 4.7JA givesthe minimum 1 3/4 x dias I l/4 x diam (
t... OverI r/4 Over31-8
center-tNenter spacing (
is at
in'-(3'2 mm) *hen tbe hole
Ro dh tAU edge distances i! this column may be reduced t strength in the
Spacing> (4.7.11) *, .*...i iid-"i tnt marimtm design . (
F"t Z a poinr r*.bere ,o.J'a".*t
element. (
Since R. in Eq. 4.?.U is the reguired nominal srength which equals the {-- |Wbeawersizcorslotrcdbolesareused,seeLRFD.J3.10;ASDJ3.9. (
factored load P acting on one bolt dil'ided by the resistancefactor $, thus, Eq. '*r:
tTb.s"maybeltin.attbecodsolbeamconneclioaanglcs.I
(
l . s
I :+'

;. -;
l - : - - (
(
(
,(
128 4/srRucTURAL FASTENERS - TENSION
4.8/ EXAMPLES MEMBER - LRFD
CONNECTIONS
BEARING-TYPE r29
(
(
4.7.10 gives the minimum end disrancc, as follows: - TENSIONMEMBER
4.8 EXAMPLES BEARING-WPE
( CONNECTIONS - LRFD
R,,
L> [+.z.ro]
Fut The follorving examplesillustrate the AISC Load and ResistanceDesign
method for connectionsof tensionmembers.The principlesrelated to member
where the required nominal strength is the factored load divided by the strengthare discussedin Sec.3.9 and thosethat are fastenerrelatedare in Sec.
resistancefactor g. Thus, accordingro LRFD-J3.10, 4.7.

P I EXAII{PLE 4.8.I
L> (4.7.13) Compute the tensilesenice load capacityfor the bearing-typeconnection in
efr Fig. 4.8.1if (a) the bolt threadsare excludedfrom the shearplane and (b) the
u ' h e r e0 : 0 . 7 5 - bolt threadsare included in the shearplane. Use AISC LRFD Specification
P : factoredload per bolt with l-in.-diam A325 bolts in itandard holesand A572 Grade 50 steelplates.
F, : tensilestrenglh.
of the platematerial The servicelive load is three times the servicedead load.
I : thicknessof platematerial
SOLUTION
The end distanceactually usedmust be the larger of that computedfrom a
(a) Threadsexcludedfrom shearplane.First compute the strength of the
strength requirement and the minimum prescribedby Table 4.7.2 ILRFD-
platesbasedon tensionmembers(Chapter3):
Table J3.71.
A s : 6 ( o - 6 2 5 ) - 3 - 7 5s qi n .

Maxlmum Edge Dlstance A,: 16- 2(3+ *)j0.625


: 2.50sqin.
The maximum distance from the center of a bolt to the nezuestedge is l2r, A , : A n : 2 . 5 0s qi n .
rvhere I is the thicknessof the connectedpart, and may not exceed6 in. The
fhen, using Eqs. 3.9.2and 3.9.3gives
purpose is to make-sure that the piecescannot have excessiveseparationn'ith
the resulting corrosion from entering moisture. This assumesthe pieceshave : 169kiPs
QTn=QF.Ar: 0.90(50X3.?5)
been painted. Additioaal requilemenr may be requisitefor unpaintedpieces. : 122kips (controls)
QTn= QF.A,: 0.75(65X2.50)
The Specification [1.15] sectionsused in Load and ResistanceDesignd
fastenersare listed in Table 4.7.3. The acdon of thegntire connectionis a sheartransferof load betweenthe
i ttvo plates.The plane of contactmay be thought of as the shearplane. When
I there is a single plane of contactinvolvedin the load transfer. it is referred to
-
TABLE4.7.3 FASTENERS-AISCSPECIFICATIONSREFERENCES as "single shear."
Specification
section
(
LRFD[1.1sJ ASD[1.s]
(
General J1 JI
( Minlmum connection strength Jl .5 Jr.6
( Bolts, threaded parts, and rivets J3 J3
Tension and shear strengths J3.3 J3.4
Prying action J3.3 J3.4
Combined shear and tension J3 J3.5,J3.6
( Bearing*ype connection t3.4 J3.5
( Slip-cri tical connection J3.5 J3.6
Holes, dimeuid*ns 13.7 J3.2
( - Spaciog of holes J3.9 J3.8
End distance J3.10 J3.9 Figure4.8.1 Example4.8.1.
\
(
.ffi': - LRFD 131
.-t ro.c' ncnorNrn-Trrptr
f.TEMBER BEARTNG-rYPE CONNECTToNS-
CoNNECTIONS
f*r': 130 FASTENERS
4,./STRUCTURAL 4.8/EXAMPLES_rEi*SrON (
w
(
load D' and
Eg: the live load L equalsthreetimesdead
The ,Jesignstrengthof the bolts in shear and bearing must be computcd :.. Substitudn*:tnto ]'8'3
kips in Eq' 3'9'1 gives
{ ;
usingEqs.4.?.2 and4.7.6.The designstrengthfR" per bolt ib singleshearior { llren usi,rg?z; ut 112
:*x (
A3 2 5- X *is 'aa-
eTn: Tu
(
o^" t47?\ - ,L'.

::.--'-
( ,
: 2B.r
: :l1,Tfii#;(rx0.60r3) kipslbort ':t,'
*+,'
D:18-7kiPs
L : 3D: 56'1kiPs (
The designsrrengthin bearingfor usual situationsof 1.5d end distanceand 3rl . - - - l : ^

load I permittedis
-
=!.
(
sPacingis
center-to-center
;g., Thus,the maximumt'otalservice
::=-' = ? 4 ' 8 k i p s( f o r A 3 2 5 - X ) (
sR,, : E(Z.AF"dt) -* T:D+L:18'7+56'1
=i1; in-single
: 64 kips/bott
: a.75(2.4X65X0.875X0.625) j, : shearplane.The fastenerdesignstrength (; ,
oR:;" bort-in
strenlth
Note that for bearingstrength,{ is the tensilestrengthof the plate rnaterial: ,n,"lol,ll',"?ffi".HTLi;;;;t (a).rhe;'ts" (
65 ksi for.A572"Grade50. Thus, shearcontrols and the designstrengthper
3 singleshearfor A325-N* is
;:: , tn tcrb\ -, [4'7 'Zl (
lasreneris 28.1 kips. The total designstrength based on tbe fastenersthen :; QR n: + (0. 45F, b) ^A,
becomcs , (
Rn: 4(28.1) - 112 kips =a.:0.65(0.45X120X1X0.6013):21.|kips/bolt
QTn: (No. of fasteners) |i" '1"--'-- -:--r^ -L-^p ar e there are no changesin the net (
Sincethe singlesheardesignstrength(+7": 112 kips) is lower than the - t:::l-jiJl,,:l'*.ffi
:fililH:;:F"e,i,,nett iizr"r
sin..'in""'i' (
plate dcsignstrengthas a tensionmember(+7" = 122 kips). then
t (
QT,: 112kiPs (for A325-X) :-
T : 0'75(74'8)= 56'1kips (for A325-N) (
..
The end distanceL from the center of a standard hole to the end of the
plate may not be lessthan (LRFD-J3.10) t, to develop thefulr (
i"%er of J-in.-diamA3zsborts required
;l*l[* i" Fig.+.g.2 Portion double
(a of a (
lP z8.r i5 steelplates
"/ . --
>I : n 9 2 i nI. of the AsTzGradJ
srrengrh with threads excluded
tonn"tttion
0.75(6s)0.62s I lap splice connection) for a bearing-typt t'
Ler", I
In the above equation,the factoredload P on a bolt is assumedto be the (
maximum permitted basedon single shear.The 1.5 in. provided exceedsthe
minimum required 0.92 in. from the computation and also satisfies
\
the minimum for shearededgesgveo in Table 4.7.2. (
Rupture shear strengtb,known as block shear, is not checked here (see
(
Sec.3.6); it is not likely to control when f-in. thicknessof piecesis used. Q of bolts
In order to relatethe designstrengthto the serviceload, Eq. 3.9.1must be A5?2 Gnde 65 steel (
used.
I (.
QTN> T" [3.e.11 I
I (
Settingthe factoredsenice load d equal to the designstrengthQf, will give I
I

the marimum acceptableserviceload. Using the gravity dead and live load I (
I

factoredload combination.Eq. 1.8.3[LRFD-Eq(A4-Z)1, (


Tu: l.2D + 1.6L [1.8.3] Figure21.8.2 Exar"rPle4'8'2' , (
_gnation (
with t}rreadsiNcluded in the
B
it
T
'Standard designation for en A-135bolt in a bcaring-rypc connection witb threads eXcluded kam .'.-*' for an A325 bolt in abearing.type connccdon
L A
(
I
the shearplanes. shear planes'
I
I (
N : ---:-- -- (
I (
(
'( 132 4rISTRUCTURAL
FASTENERS 4.9 / EXAMPLES- TENSIONMEMBEREEA|::NG-WPECONNECTIONS- LRFD 133
(
i
( from the shearplanes.Usc AISC LRFD Specificationand assumea double r E)ilMPLE 4.8.3
( rorv of bolts u'iih standard sizeholes. Determine the number of l-in.-diam A325 bolts in standard size holes
requiredto carry 7 kips dcad load and 43 kips lire load on the plates in Fig.
( SOLUTIOI'I 4.8.3 if A36 steelis used.Assumethe portion of the double lap splice is a
( It is determinedby inspectionthat the cross-sectional area of the centei bearing-tlpeconnectionrvith threadsexcludedfrom the shearplane and a
plate is lessthan the sum of the areasof the two outer plates.Thereforein this double row of bolts.LlseLoad and Resistance Factor Design-
( caseone needonly checkthe strengthof the centerplate:
( A , = [ o - z ( i + * ) l o . 3 i 5: l . 5 es qi n . SOLUTION
In this example,the centerplate rvill control the tension strength:
( Itlax l" = 0.851s,o*: 0.85(6)0.375: 1.91sq in.
l, : 10( 0. 25): 2. 50 sq in.
(
Ar: An:1.59sqin. A n : [ t o - z ( 1 + 1 ) ] o . z s= 2 . 0 6s qi n .
( 'l'hen,
using Eqs. 3.9.2and 3.9.3gives MaxAn = 0.851s- 0.85(2-50) : 2.13sqin.
(
= 0.90(65X0X0.:zs)
+7,: gFrA|- : 132kips .' . A, : A, : 2.06sqin.
( '+7,:
QFyAs=0.90(36X2.50) : 8l kips (controls)
Q T n : Q F ,A ,: 0 .7 5 (8 0 )(1 .5 9:) 95 ki ps (control s)
(
QTn:$FuA,: 0.?5(58X2.06) : 90kiPs
( Thus, the designsrrengthof the platesin tensionis 95 kips.
In this casethe action of the entire connectionmay be thought of as a The factoredload 7, that mustbe carriedis
( shear transfer between plates occurring at the nuo planes of contact. \\ten
) 1 . 6 ( 4 3:) 7 7k i p s
T u : \ . 2 D + 1 . 6 L : 1 . 2 ( 7+
connectorsare positioned so that they cross two shearplanesof contact. it is
called "double shear."Doubleshear is a symmetricallyloaded situation insofar and this doesnot exceed the strengthof the members(i-e.'07" , T).
; as the shearplanesand directionsof shear transferare conc€rned,whereasthe For shear,usingA325-Xbolts,
singleshearcaseis unsynmetrical (Fig. 4.8.1). - 41.4kips/bolt
The design strength in double shear (per bolt) is oRn= O(0.60ry) Ddt:0.65(0.60)(120X2X0.4418)
( -:.. in bearingon the l-in. plateis
The designstrength
0R,,: O(0.60ry) ^e u : O.OS
(0.00) 8) : 4t .4kips/boit
(t 20X2)(0.441
( oRn: oQ.4F"lt) :0.75(2.4xs8x0.75x0.25) - 19.6kips/bolt
Thedesignstrength on rhef -in.plareis
in bearing
(
: E(Z.4Fdt)- 0.75(2.4)(80X0.?5X0.325) : 40.5kips/bott
( _0^,
95
( Number of Ib o l t s : f f i : 2 . 3
(
Useq-i-in. Aiama3Z5bolts(A3ZS-X).
(
using the factoredload P per fasrenerof,95/4 - 23.8 kips, the end
\,. distanceL lequiredaccordingto LRFD-J3.10is
( lp 23.8 I
-L >- | ---: l"0 6 i n . l
( Lo4,r 0.75(so)0.325 J I
----lg

( Sincethe computed1.06is lessthan the minimumfrom Table4.7.2ILRFD-


TableJ3.7J,the enddistancemustbe at leastthe 1.25in. from Table4.7.Z.'t]ne I

( shearrupturelimit state(block shear)shouldalsobe checked;howef.er,since


I

I
'bearingdoesnot controlin other I
( ''rr
regards.the shearrupturemodeis unlikely to
contlol. t
( 4.8.3.
Figure4.8.3 ExaaTple

(
-
JOINTS
4 9/SLIP-CRITICAL 135
>-',' 134 4 / STRUCTURALFASTENERS C

which equals'the factoredload Tu: 77 kips that must be supported.


l4se 2 in. eOgedistancesalong the sidei, 3 in. longitudinal spacing,and 2 in'
, t l , : : : E
cnd cltstance.

->r
JOINTS
I.9 SLIP-CRITICAL
When slip resistance at service load is desired, the joint is referred to as a
slip-critica!joint. In the 19?8 AISC Specification, such connections were
rcrmed frictian-type connections.All tensioned high-strength bolted connec-
tions aciually resist load by friction. Refening to Fig. 4.6.3, the pretension
joined.
force l" in the bolt equalsthe clamping force betweenthe piecesbeing
Frgure4.8.4 Blocksbcarfailureon plateof F-xanrple
4.8.3. The resistanceto shear is a frictional force pT, where p is the coefficient of
friction.
The coefficient of friction, or more properly the s/rp coefficient,depends
Using the factored load P per fastener of. 77/4: r9.3 kips, the encl bn the surface condition, witb such items as mill scale,oil, paint, or special
distanccL requiredaccordingto LRFD-J3.10is surface treatmentsdeterminingtbe value of p-
"the friction bond is definitely broken
I p 19.3 Slip"is defined as occuning when
L' yqq,: : 1 .7 7i n .] and the two surfacesslip with respect to one another by a rel4tively large
dJt(sg)025 amount" [4.14].The rangeof p varies from 0.2 to 0.6 dependingon the surface
Sincc the computedl.?7 in. exceedsthe minimum from Table 4.7.2ILRFD- condition[3.1].
'fable
J3.71,the end distancemusr be at leasr1.77 in. In order to avoid directly using the coefficient of friction and to permit
The shear rupture limit state ftlock shear) should also be checked; designof slip-criticaljoints usingthe samegeneralapproachas for bearing-type
particularly here, since the plate (i-in.) is a thin one and heavily loaded. coniections, the friction force pT is divided by the bolt grosscross-sectional
"shear stress"on the'bolt.
Referring to Fig. 4.8.4,the preliminary arrangementfor four bolts is to use 2 area Au to obtain a so-called
in. cdge distancesat rhe sidesand end. and 3 in. longitudinalspacing.
Investigatethe block shearstrengthof the resulting,urangement.Using I EXAMPLE 4.9.I
Commentary LRFD-J4, which indicatesto us€ the larger of Eqs. 3.f.1 anrj Determinerhe amountof force P required'tocauseslip of a {-in.-diam A325
3.6.2: bolt loaded as in Fig. 4.9.1,if the slip coefficient p is 0.33 (a typical value for
"clean mill scale" surfacecondition). Using the serviceload force P,
For shear yielding (along b-c and e-/) combined with rension fracrure the usual
"shear stress",
(along a-b and d-e\, compute the f": P/Ac

4 : 0.6 0 { ,A u s * F u A n , [3.6.1] SOLUTI-ON


: 0.60(36X10)0.25
+ s8(4- r3/r6)0.2s Using the pretensionload from Table 4-4.2,.
: 54+ 46: 100kips Ia : 39 kiPs
For shear fracture (along b-c and e-/) combinedwith tension yielding P: IrTo: 0.33(39) : 12.9 kiPs
lalong a-b and d-e),
I" : 0.604,An,* FrA,, [3 6.2]
: 0.60(58)[10- 3(13116)]0.25
+ 36(4)0.25
- 66 + 36 : 102kips (largergoverns)
gf,, usingg : 0.?5,gives
The designstrength
: - t - -

: 7?hps
QTn:0.75(102) Figure 4.9.1 Example 4.9-1.
I q---
(

136 4/STRUCTUML FASTENERS 4.9/SLrP-CRIICAL JOINTS 137


' (
(
TABLE4.9.I MAXIMUM ACCEPTABLE LOAO"SHEARSTRESS'''FV
SEFIVICE TABLE 4.9.2 FACTOROF SAFETYACAIruSTSLIP. SI.IP-CRITICALJOINTS
( FORBOLTSlN SLtp-CRtTtCAL FROMRCSi
JOTNTS(ADAFryED (coEFFrcrENTOF SLrP - 0 33)
SPEC|F|CATION
[4 7D
( Bolt Nominal
Hole type and direction of load application area
( diameter
Any direction Transverse Parallel (in.) (sq in.) (mmt) A.325
, ( Contactsurlace Oversize&
ot Standard shortslot Longslots Shortslots s/8 0.3068 L97.) 1.30 l.iJ

( boltedparts 3/4 0.4418 285.0 1.23 1.14


A32s A490 A325 4490 A325 A490 A325 A490
( 7/8 0.6013 387.9 t.26 1. 28
ClossA-Clean mill scale I 0.7854 506.7 1.26 1.28
I7 2T 15 18 t2 15 t0 13
and blast-cleanedsurfaccs I r/8 0.9940 641.3 1.09 1.26
rvith ClassA coatingsi I r/4 1 177'' 79t:l t.r2 1. 3i

( C/als B-Blast-cleaned r 28 34 24 29 20 24 L7 70
surfacesand blast-cleaned
( surfaceswith Class B coatingst
rather than a strengthrequirement,a maryin of safety lorver than that used for
( ClassC-Hot dip galvani"ed
strengthis reasonable. AISC has usedfor this situationa safetyfactor against
and rougbened surfaces 22 27 slip about 70Voof that usedfor strength.
( 19 23 l6 t9 14 16
Overcoming slip does not imply that a failure mode has been reached.
'4, is the uafactored service load ibear per bolt divided However, rvhen connectionsare subject to stress reversal there is greater
by &e.nominal area
concern regardingany slip at serviceload. Repeatedloading causesreduced
tCoatings classified
as Class A or Class B include tbose coatings which provide a mean fatigue strengthrvhenslip has occurred,particularly when oversizedor slotted
slip coefficient not less thas 0.33 or 0.50, respectively, as determined by test [4.15]. holes.are used.
(
(
Since the overali action of the cpnnection is a shearing effect, the "shear
i ( stress"f, in the fr-in.-diambolt ar rheload causingslip tJbegin is .-..-,,. TABLE 4.9.3 MAXTMUM SIZE(NOM|NAL)FOR OVERSTZEAND SLOTTEOHOLES
.\ (ADAPTEDFROM RCSC SPECIFTCATTON
[4.7])
: ( P 12.9
i": - 21.4ksi I Nominal Oversizg Shorl- Long-
( To: 0;d15
; boll size holeso slottectholesr holest
slottect
( (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm)
The AISC Specifications "shearstress"approachto
( [1.5,1.15]use rhe
provideadequateslip resistance in joints whereslip at seruiceload cannotbe s/8 15.913/16 20.6 rr/r6x 7/8 17.5x22.2 11l16xr 9/t6 L7.5x39.7
( tolerated.The limit stateof slip in thejoint is a serviceabilityrequirement.The 3/4 i9.1Ls/16 23.8 L3/L6xr 20.6x25.4 r3/r6xr 7/E 20.6x47.6
7/8 11 '' 1 t/16 27.o L5/r6xr t/8 23.8x28.6 t5/t6x7 3/16 23.8x55.6
actual failure of fastenersin a joint will be as discussed in Sec.4.6; that is, a
( shearfailure of the bolt, tensionfailure of the bolt, or bearingfailure in the
25.4 tI r/4 31.8 r/r6xr 5/16 27.Ox33.3 r/r6x2 t/2 27.0x63.5
r/8 28.6 I 7/16 36.5 3/r6xr r/2 30.2x38.1 3/l6xz L3/16 30.2x71.4
( connected.material. 1/4 3 1 . 8 I .g/16 39.7 5/t6xt s/E 33.3x41.3 s/I6x3 r/8 33.3x79.4
Sinceresistance to slip in "slip-critical"connections is a limit stateto be 3/8 34.9 Lr/16 42.9 7/t6xr 3/4 36.'xM.5 7/r6x3 1/16 36.5x87.3
( investigatedat serviceload, the limiting "shear stresses"to be usedare in r/2 38.1 t3/16 I
I 46.0 e/r6xt 7/8 39.7x47.6 9/16x3 3/4 39.7x95.3
conceptthe samefor LoadandResistance FactorDesignt1.151as wereusedin
'Nominal diametersui to in. (4.?6mm) larger thanbolts U.(ZZ.Zmn) and lessin diameter;
1978AllowableStressDesign.The LRFD and 1989ASD valuesare givenin fi I I
( Table4.9.1. in. (6.35 mrn) larger than I io. (25.a mm) diam bolts; ard * i!. (7.94 mm) larger than bolts I I in.
(38.6 mm) and glcater in diameter.
As may be noted, for the situationof Example4.9.1 the LRFD-J3.5 *
allowable"shear stress"4, of 17.0ksi for .{325 bolts is usedfor slifi-critical Nominally fi in. (1.59 mm; wider tbat bolt diamerer and baving a length n'hicb does not exceed
'connectionscontaining-standard holes.The margrn of safety agaiirstslip
the oversizediameter (footnote') by more tb- * in. (1.59 mm).
tNominally j! in. (1.59
( providedwould be 27.4/77.0: 1.26.Sinceslip is a serviceabilityrequirement, mm) wider tban bolt diagreter and baving a lcngtb longcr than for
short-slotted holes but not exceeding2 | times the bolt diameter.
| ' a
\
-
Fffi" a'
138 4 /STRUCruFALFASTENERS $ fH&<.'-
fi-
! €.ff.-
4.9/SLIP-CRITICALJOINITS 139
jq*adr+&-
i j|l*4!?r+!-

"ffi
t-ffi (
; . ".#fl
*#;
The factor of safetyagainstslip computedaboveis typical:for other b,,ii : .,E#:":.
.;S*F,. (
are all identical
ffi _The requiremenrsfor spacing, end, and edge distances
srz.csand for both 4325 and A490 bolts the variation may be observeclfrt,nr joint is a bearing-type connection or a slip-critical connection. (
I ablc 4.9.2.The clampingforceis the initial tensionfrom Table 4.4.2: ffi *nrrher the ggverns the
F... Si".r the faciored load per bolt will be lower when slip-resistance
T'hc reliability index F (seeSec.1.8) is higher for slip-resistance equations for spacing of fasten- (
*.hcn * ournuer of fasteners used, the bearing-related
holtsarc installedby the turn-of-the-nut method&an whentheyare installctj spacingand end distances. Of course,
ryo-.; and end distancewill permit smaller ('
hr caiibratedwrench [4.161.The AISC Specificadons more likely to control. Generally, slip-resistance
[1.5. 1.15Jdo n.1 *-ii Or minimums are then
rc;coq1i1e the differeflce;rhevaluesassumea t0% probabilityof slip w.ithbolt, (
,€ *ntrols in slip-critical connections,rather than strength in shear or bearing-
installedby the calibratedwrenchmethod.The allos'able"sbeal stress"valuc, .; (
=F-ii.
in LRFD-J3-5 and ASD-J3.6are rounded lorver and slightlylediced fronr .oF
4.93
r n><aMPLE
thoseusedin 1978ASD-1.5.2.2.
RrO.sign the connecrion for Fig. 4.8.2 as a slip-critical connection using
I

Since slip'resistancecertainly must relate to the contact area betw.ec'n .,$;-


_.! wersizl,l holes and a ClassA surfacecondition. Use f-in.-diam A325 bolts in
picccs'the basic valuesobtainedfor stanciardholes are reducedwhen largc,r
;,:,. a double row and AISC LRFD Specification.The live load is four times the
hole>reducethe contactatea.Dimensionsfor ovensized and slottedholesurc (
;1' OtuOload-
tli\cn in Table 4.9.3.The valuesfor oversized and short-slotted
holesare 85,i (
antl thoscfor long-slotted holesare70%of the valuesforstandardholes.
;*;r,i SOLUTION (
design strengrhQf, basedon plate strength in tension was computed
'.* - . '\- The
;t,-o'
Design ol sllp,crlilcal connections - LRFD speciflcafion .*, ,n trxampr" +.g.2 to be 95 kips. Using the relationship betweenfactored load (
t:=-.- and'seiviceload, Eq. 1.8.3,
Thc dcsign of slip-criticaljoints requiresfull considerationof the srrength (
Itmtt statcs.The strengthof the fastenersin shear.bearing,and direct tension. T u : l - 2 D + 1 ' 6 L: 9 5 k i P s
as discussedin Secs.4.6 and 4.7 must be provirJed.The strengrhmust be E (
prtrrtdcd to resist factoredtoads.In addition, the serviceload that must :- :1.2D + 1.6(4D):7.0D
be ;": (
transicrredby friction without slip must nor exceedrhat indicatedin LRFD-
J3.5. presentedhere in Table 4.9.1. Galambos.Reinhold, and Ellingu,ood .;'.. 95 (
.= D : - ; : 1 2 . 5 -k-i-p- s- - r
['l'i6] have presentedan excellentstatisticalsrudl'of connecdonslii as a i, 7. 6
:crviceabilitylimit state. '(
T : D * L : I2.5 + 4(12.5) : 62.5 kips
E F.X"\}1PLE4.9.2 (
I)ctcrmine the tensilecapacityof the connectionpreviouslyinvestigated
in The serviceloa{capacity R per bolf based on shear (double shear) in a
i:xampie4.8.1as a bearing-rlpeconnecrion
1rig. c.a-t); however,coisider it slip-critical connectionis, from Table 4-9.1' (
as a slip-critical connection*ith the usuai clean mill scale(Class : 13. 3kips/ bolt
A) surface R : FumAa: 15. 0( 2) 0. 4418 (
condition.Use fr-in.-diam,{325 bolts in standardholes with 4572 Grade
50
plate material.use Load and Resistance Factor Desisa. T 62.5 (
Numberofbolts: : : 4-7
SOLLITION ari". f 7U (
The tension member (prates)design strength
9?" was determinedin IJse6- f -in.-diam
bolts(A325-SC). I (
Example4 . 8 . 1t o b e
(
STn: 122kips (basedon ed.-t.) Note that bolts in a slip-criticaljoint are designatedwith an SC following
(,
irron Teble 4.9.1,the seniceload capacityper b.oltin singleshear . the ASTM Specification number, as indicated above. This connection oniy
is required four bolts as a bearing-typeconnectionin Example 4.8.2. (
R : ntFuA6: 1(17)(0.6013) : 10.2kips/bolt
(
?n= 4(10.2) : 40.9kips E EXAMPLE 4.9.4
This sen'ice load capacity I basedon the slip-resisranceis lower Redesignthe connectionof Fig. a.8.2 as a slip-critical connection with sran' (
bolt-related_
than the dard ioles for C/assB (blast-cleaned)surface condition. The live load is four
strength determinedsen'ice load ?n: ?4.g kips (
Example4.8.1for A325-X;thus,7": 40.9kips. ' - computed
----r--- in times the dead load, Use ]-in.-diam 4325 bolts in a double row, using the
I AISC LRFD Specification.Assume there may be threads in the shear planes. (
(
(
(
' (
140 4rISTRUCTUMLFASTETSnS 4 1oIALLOWABLE
STRESS -_ FASTENERS 141
DESIGN
(
(
SOLUTION Since the underlying philosophy of the allowable s',ress methocl is to
( The design strength eT, of the plates is 95 kips, as computedin Example cofl1puii"'stresses" at sen'ice load,8q.4.10.1 mal be divideC b.. ,irg [rtrii
( 4.8.2.The sen'iceload basedon the plate strengthis 62.5kiis as computedin cross-sccti(rnalarca. and the sides of the equation ma\. bc irrterchan!,cri
Example4.9.3. ( re\'('rsing the inequality) giring
( The sen'ice load capacity R per bolt basedon shear(double shear)in a
( slip-critical connecrionis. from Table 4,9.1,
R : F,m.4,^: 29.0(2)0.441g- 24.7kips/bolr
=[':.-,h]
lt:*,] ( . 1. 10.)2

(
Thus. the "nominal" stress/ has the units of force per unit area, and the
( u=','1 right sideof the equationbecomesan allowablestressF. Note that only when
Number of bolts : : : : 2.5
R 24.7 rhe bolt is installed without initial tension rvill the actual stressbe R/A6:
(
When threads are included rvithin the shearplanes,the strengthbasedon initial tension in the bolt till causepart or all of the service load to be
( shcar is reduced becauseof the reduced cross-sectionthroughlhe threads. transferredby friction, giving rise to the fictitious "nominal" stress/ acting
Using Eq.4.7.2, i on the bolt cross-sectional area.In either case,Eg. 4.10.2properly expresses
(
the safetyrequirement.
( gR,,:o(O.asry)m,
( 0.65(0.45)(120x2)0.4418: 31.0kips/bolt Shear Strength of Fasteners
( Since this is less than the bearing.strengih(40.5kipsTbolt)compuredin The strengthin shearof a high-strengthbolt is givenby Eq. 4.6.2rvhen threaCs
Example4.8.2,it governsthl strengtt.fnr iequiredfactoredloadto becarried are excludedfrom the shearplanes,
( is 95 kips.The numberof bolrsiequiredfor strengthis
(
Rn: meu$.oar!) 14.6.21
(
of bolts- 2:
Number 3 : 3.1 In termsof the working stress(or allowablestress)designmethod,the strength
0R,, 31.0 is dividedby a safetyfactory/f. Thus,usingthe traditionalfactor of safetyof
( Thus, for this design rhe 3.1 bolts required for strengthexceedsthe 2.7 bolts about 2.5 for mediumlengthjoints (typically2.0 for shortjoints to 3.0 for long
required for the serviceability-ilip-resistance. joints), Eq.4.6.2substitutedinto Eq. 4.10.1givesthe allos'ableshearstress{,,
( -''E
Use 4-]-in.-diam botts (A325-SC).
0.60I:
( ,,,: t : o.zsFj. (4.10.3)
(
4.10 ALLOWABLESTRESSDESIGN- FASTENERS which for 4325 (F! :120 ksi) becomes30 ksi, and for A490 ( F: : 150 ksi)
( becomes37.5 ksi. ASD-J3.4uses.Q - 30 ksi for A325-X (threadseXcluCed
The gineral pirilosophy of Allowable Stress Design (ASD) was described in from shearplanes)and d: 40 ksi for A490-X. The adjustmentfrom 37.5
( Secs. 1.8 and 1.9. Equation 1.8.8 gives the structural safety requiremenr,as (i.e.. 0.25fj) to 40 reflects approximation in the 0.60 relationship between
( follows: tensile strength ,ff and the shear strength r,. The number nt of. the shear
planesacting is assumedto be attachedto the area; Au is really mAo.
* =rn,
(
[1.8.8] \\then th.readsare possiblewithin the shearplanes,the cross-sectionalarea
( should be reduced.to that measuredthrough the threads.Either a smalier area
rvhich expressesthat the design stfeDgthbR" divided by a factor of safety should be used in computng f or the allowable stress {. must be reduced.
( 7
must exceed the sum of the service loads. In the allowable stress dejign AISC has chosento have the nominal stress/ continue to be computed using
( method, the safety provision is.t/e. the gross area A6i thus, the allowable stressmust be reduced.The ratio of
In terms of fastendrg the right hand side of Eq. 1.8.8 becomesthe total tensile stressarea* to the grossarea is approximately0.70 to 0.75; therefore,
( service load R per fastmer in shear, tension, or bearing, as tbe case may be. the allorvablestress'F, ir reducedby that amount to give Fu: 27 ksi for
( Then dividing both sides * ,lr;:ety provrsion y/g gives A325-N (threadsiNcluded within sbearplanes)and d : 28 ksi for A490-N.
t
(
( Lr/r: rsJ=* [4'10'1) 'See footnote at bottom of Table 4.1.1.
, (
4.,
DESIGN- FASTENERS 143
-aa-.: _- -F

FF
''&:..
4.1O/ALLoWABLESTRESS I
t
/ t .
i,..
k

142 4 / STRUCTURAL FASTENERS ;


ta

splittingout-of the
As discussed 'u 4.6. the bearingstrengthto prevent
in sec. instead (
TABLE 4.10.1 ALLOWABLESHEARSTRESSFy FOR BEARING-TYPE' gru.n"Uye*l +O9, 1ut u "oeificient3'0
coN NECTloNs (FRol'JASD-TABLEJ3.2) bolt at the end of ioii.ction, --i'i'g, a '
\ !
o f t h e 2 . 4 i n E q . 4 . 6 . 1 0 . H o w e v e r , s i nresearch
c e E q . .has
4.10 o p t ethe
. 6 r v a s a dthat
determined dinthe1978 -i:
. F u
lared on Eq. \ /.
/- ,i
- ASD Specification' whenthe higbervalue is used' Also'
be excessiue
Fastener U"l tl''lPr' deformationof tt',. t otesmay and end distincesfrequentlycontrol (
for i,oft tpuJil
minimum ,.quir"rnents
bearing'
A325-N, threadsiNclwled in shearplanes 21 140
insteaOof the upPerlimit on (
A325-X, threadseXcludedfrom shearplanes 30 210
(
Connectlons
A490-N, threadsiNcluded in sbcarplanes 28 190 SllpCrltlcal (i.e', Frlctlon'Type)
for slipcritical (
A490-X, tbreadseXcludedfrom shearplanes 40 280
Sincesrip resistasnce at serviceroadis the importantcriteri-on
to obtain adequate safety againstslip is (
connections,the designpuiro*plv t9 Atlowable Stress Designor
must also
.Bolts in slip-criticaljoints (i.e.,friction-typeconnections) ii "*"Jing
identical*t.u.,.r-iJr*l'design geiral requirements for. slip-critical (
sarisfytheseallowablestresses. n additionlo satisfyingthe allowable L,oadand Resisi-L i..tor olsignJt*
stressesrelatingto slip resistance asdiscussed in sec.4.9. werepresented in Sec' 4'9' (
connections in
Slip-critical clnnections must haveadeqtlatestrength;accomplished
.. .Allowable limitations for shear (
StressDesignby satisfyin;,1*ffillt.ttt"tt must
The allowableshearstresses{, for A325 and A490 bolts in beanng-type bearin!-typeconnections,and rn addition
connectionsare summarizedin Table 4.10.1. and beari'g g*n "tlu" for (
of slipresistance'
requirem.e-nt
loi;ty ,tt, leit''iceabiliry r.,irry the allowablestresslimitations (
Thus, it would be appropnui.io
Speciiication [4'7Jfor Allowablestress
Bearing Strength of Fasteners givenin Table"i.i.t from oi ncsc allowed slightlyhigbersresses'
(
Specification
T[e strengthin bearingof a high-strengthbolt is given by Eq. 4.6.i0 rvhen Design.Ho*.u.r. iie r9r8 A?D ^f, tootT:t rvas17'5 ksi (
holes, For instan.., ,t. allowable,t.ar'rtr.sses lor for -slip holes and class
bolts are in standardand short-slotted t.rpectiiely, standard
and2zksi for iiisand A490ui,t, whereas the values are (
ASD'specifiiation'
Rn : 2.4Fdt [4.6.101 A surface"onaiii*-in tU. rgzS- the Rcsc specification for use (
t rp..ti4,9
Following the generalworking stressformat of Eq. 4.10.1.the strengthin reducedto rz.o rui and21 tri, Additionll research and the
*a r9g9 AsD Specifications.
bcaringfUq. c.O.tO)is dividedby the factor of safetyFS and the nominal in the 19g6LRFo steeldesigndictated the downward (
hearing area dt to obtain desirefor more uniform safety,ttto-,igtto"t (
adjustment-

[ t =* ]
=[+:dfo] (4.10.4)
,Mlnimumspac|ngotBolts|nLlneo|TransrnlttedForce
(
(
from one fastener to another resultingfrom
: nominal bearingstressunder serviceload (the subscriptp is used The preventionof tear'through in Secs'4'6 (
w.hcre .fo ttt. riar of a holewasdiscussed
'
ratherthan b which is usedlater for bending\
for pressure, high bearingli the uolt uguirrrr
d : nominal diameterof bolt a n d 4 . ? . R e p l a c i n g P / Q b y z r , * t r e ' e Pthe
i s tsafety
h e s efactor l o a d ( b a s e d e i t h e r o n(
r v i c e1/A'W'4312
bearing) per bolt and i "p"ttnts
t : thicknessof plate againstwhich bolt bears shearor (
: allowablebearingstress becomes
4 2P dr. (4.10.?) (
When the factorof safetyof 2 traditionallyusedfor bearingis applied,the Spacing,
nr*T (
allowablebearingstress$ would be
w"v'v P
where : serviceload Per bolt. (
2.4F"dt
Fo: : \.2Fo (4.10.s) F, : tensile strength of'^platematerial
2.0dt '= thickness of the Plate material
(
i
rrhich is the valueof ASD-J3.7for standardholes.When deformationaround dr - diameter of the bolt hole (
the followinghighervalueis permitted:
the hole is not a consideration, A S D . J 3 . 8 s i m p l i f i e s E q . 4 . l 0 . ? b y u s i n g t h g r y m the
i n a lAllowable
boltdiame terdin
Suess (
(4.10.6) place of d^ *t.rtii""olt tor.t # inuo-lued-Thus,
4: 1'54 (
(
(
(
'(
144 4/STRUCTURALFASTENERS 4.1r /EXAMPLES-TENSTON
MEI'TBERS STRESSDESTGN 145
USTNGALLOWABLE
(
(
Dcsign bolt spacing requiremenr for standardholesis ASD-Eq(J3-5),
UsingEqs.3.11.4
and3.11.5,
(
2 P d 7 7 5
( S' p a c ei n- g ) ; 1 + - (4.10.s) f' : A : l; : 2oksi ' : oK
\t 2 J . t J
[o.oor, 3oksil
g
(
When other than standard bolts are used, the d in Eq. 4.10.8is increasedin 7 7 5
( rfo-: : 32.5ksi]
L : =l : 30ksi < [O.SO4 OK
accordancewith ASD-J3.8b. A" 2.50
( (b) Fasteners.The allorvable capacity R in single shear is. from Tablc
( 4.10.1,
Minlmurn End Distance In Dlrection of rransmitted Force
( R(singleshear): mApF,.: 1(0.00t3)30: 18.0kips/bolt
The prevention of splitting out at the end bolt of a seriesof bolrs in a line,
( requires a certain minimum end distane, as discussedin Sec.4.7. Replacing The allowable capacitf in bearing when deformation around the hole is of
PIQ by 2P in Eq. a.7.13g,uo the ASD-J3.9 requirement concern (ASD-J3.7.1)is
(
2P R(bearing): 1 -2Fudt: 1-2(6s)(*Xt) :42.7 kips/bolt
( t= (4.10.e)
The shear value is the smaller of the two (18.0 and 42.7) and therefore
(
rr
controls:
( rvhere L '= end distance from center of entl bolt to edgemeasuredin the tine R : 18.0kips/bolt
of force
( 7 : (Number of bolts)R : 4(18.0) : 72 kips
P : serviceload on end bolt
Fu : tensile strength of the plate material Thus, a serviceload of 75 kips will make the nominal shear stressexceedthe
(
I : thicknessof plate material allorvablevalue of 30 ksi by about 4%, generallytoo high to accept.Note that
( this connection investigatedby Load and ReistanceFactor Design in Example
The distancefrom the ceater of a standard hole to an edgeof a connectedpart 4.8.1 would have been permitted to carry 74.8 kips, assumingthat live load
( is not permitted to be less than the value in ASD-Table J3.5 nor rhe value !
representsno more than7l% of the total sen'iceload.
( from Eq. 4.10.9(ASD-J3.9).
E EXAMPLE 4.11.2
( Investigate rhe acceptability of the connection of Fig. 4.8.1 to serve as a
( slip-critical (friction-lype) connection carrying a service load tension of 41
4.11 EXAMPLES- TENSION MEMBERSUSING
kips. The connection consistsof four ]-in.-diam A325bolts in standard holes
( ALLOWABL€ STRESS DESIGN
connecting A512Grade 50 steelplateshaving ClassA surfacecondition. Use
( the AISC ASD Specification.
! EXAMPLE4.II.I
( Investigatethe tensionmemberconnectionof Examplea.t.r (Fig. a.8.1)to SOLUTION
carry a total service load of 75 kips. The connectionis a bearing-type (a) Tensionmembercapacity. The areas as computed in Erample 4-8.1
( connection,with threadsexcludedfrom the shearplanes,using f-in.-diam are ' --.
( A325bolts in standardholes.Tbe plates are A577Grade50 steel.Use the
A, - An : 2. 50sq in.
AISC ASD Specification.
( Ar: 3 . 7 5s g i n .
( SOLWION UsingEqs.3.1i.4.and3.11.5,
( (a) Tensionmembercapacity.The areasas computedin Example4.8.1
T 4 l
are f.: : 3Oksi]
: 10.9ksi< [O-OOf" OK
( Ar: A o - 2 .5 0s q i n. 4: l}
( '4., 7 " 4 7
- 3-75sq in. f': : 16'4ksi< [o'so'q: 32'5ksiJ oK
( 4: *
t il
F SHEAR
4.12/ ECCENTRIC 147 ( :
146 FASTENERS
4,/ STRUCTURAL
( r
i
I
(
(b) Fasteners-slip resistance.
The allowablecapacityR in singleshearis. (
from Table 4.9.1. M=Pe

R ( s ingles he a r): mA u F o : 1 (0 .0 03t )1 7:1 0 .2 ki psTbol t t.. l\ (.,

(c) Fasteners-strength(i.e.,checkas if a bearing-typeconn€ction).The


allowahlecapacityR in singleshearis, from Table 4.10.1,for threadspossibll
u'ithin the shearplanes, - (af
lrj) (b)
(
(
(
R (singleshear)- mA6Fo: 1(0.6013 Figure 4.12.2 Combined rnoment and direct shear'
)21 :12.6 kips/bolt (
-t-:-a.

The allowable capacityin bearingis ;:i ('


ll: rrork [3-1, 4'17'
only in the pasr few years has significant experimentai
evaluate the strength of such joints' Essentially' two ( ,
R( bear i n g ): 1.2 F d t: 1 .2 (6 5 )(tX i ) : 42.7ki ps 1: a.18] been done to
::' ";;;aches are available to the designei: (1) the traditional elastic (vector)
plates rigid and the fastenerselastic;
(d) Allorvablesen'iceload capacity.The resulthereis the usual situation; ,r=i.. analysis assuming no friction with the
i.e.. the slip-critical shear capacity governs.Since the serviceability-related *.*-, and (2) an ultimite strength analysis (piastic analysis) wherein it is assumed
valueof 10.2kips is lessthan strength-related valuesof
l:fl--.'.
'
*:; tb€ eccentncally loaded fastener group rotates about an instantaneous center
' 12.6 and 42.7kips, the fastener is proportional to its distance
allowableload is 10.2kips/bolt. Thus, and'the deformation ut each
-=- ii:rri",i"n
:.* froiii the center of rotation'
in : (Numberof bolts)R : 4(10.2): 40.8kips gapacity(allowable
i: Since the AISC Specihcations[1.5, 1.15Jprescribethe
Lrirn) for a fasrener but do not specify the
Thc applicd load of 4l kips is essentiallythe allowableserviceload permitted ='i"
'*' AaD und-drrign sirengthi"
any rational approaches.may be used by the designer'Each
cn the mcmberwith its connection. I ;#;ianatysis,
remainder of this section'
jrr of these "pfro".t.s is aelt with- in detail in the

4.12 ECCENTRIC
SHEAR Traditional ElasUc (Vector) Analysis
been analyzed by
When the load P is appliedon a line of actionthat doesnot passthroughthe For many years eccentricallyloaded fastenergroups have
subjected to
ccntcr of grarity of a bolt group, therewill be an eccentricloading effect, such ,:: considerinj tUe fastenergroup areas as an elastic cross-section
::: are nominal in the sensethat
as in Fig. a.i2.l. A load P ar an eccentricitye, as shown in Fig. 4.12.2,is direct shear and torsion. The stressesresulting
provide a guide to safety but are not real
statically equivalent to a rnoment P times e plus a concentric load P both they have stressunits (say, psi) and
-F.:..
ari actuaily carried by fricdon' This elastic
acting on the connection.Since both the moment and the concentric load s6essesbecause-theservice-loads
of
contribute shear effects on the bolt group, the situation is referred to as
l :

*Jvri, metbd has been used becauseit makes uie of -simplemechanics


procedure'
eccentricshe.ar. materials con€pts and has been found to be a conservative
consider frrst the
To develcp ir,. .q".rions for use in this procedure,
M,as shown in Fig' 4'12'3'Neglecting
connection acted upon by the momerrl
plates, the moment equals the s-um of the forces shown in
friction between the
(CG) of the fastenerareas:
'Si: Fig. A.fZ:b times their distancesto the centroid
(4.12.1)
M = R i t + R z d z + . - . + R 6 d 6: E R d
to its distance d
The deformation in each fastener is assumedproportional
l")" ftbm the assumedcenter of twist. If atl fasteners
R on
are
each
considered
fastener is'
elastic and of
therefoie' also
-*:r: - equal cross-sectionalarea A, the force
-:-- d from tbe centroid of the fastener grouP'
pioportional to its disunce
Rl
r.il
{h}
. g , :Rr: =& (4.12.2)
g
dL dz dG
Frgure4.12.1 Tpical eccentricshearconnections. ;f t.
'€,.!,-

f:
(
\(
\ 4.12 /EQCENTRIC SHEAB 149
148 4/STRUCTURALFASTENERS
(
( R,
grr
(
,rl', )
( d3 ai l"t
( ?q\'a,J
(
I r \
-(",$ d6
arl
,y1,, i
I
( Figure 4.12.4 Horizontal and vertical
( (a) Connection (b) Forces on @nnectors compooeotsof tbe force R.

( Frgure4.12.3 Pure moment connection.

( tially the familiar mechanicsof materialsformula for torsion on a circular


sbait, Tr/f ,which is discussedin Sec.8.2.The torsional moment I is M; the
Rewriting the forces in terms.of R1 and d1,
( radius r -from lhe center of rotation to tbe point at whicb the stress is
Rrdr: computedwould be the distanced.
( R r: r uy1; R z=
d,.'
...:
"'' Rs:ry @:ns) it is usually convenient to rvork s'ith the borizontal and vertical compo-
( nents of R, i, and R", respectively,obtained when the borizontal and
SubstitutingEqs.4.12.3into Eq.4.12.1gives vertical "otpo*nts of d, x and I, respectively,are used in F4- 4.12.6.From
(
Fi g.4.12.4,
) r Rd? RrdS
' , ' + . . . + -Rrdt
r-
( ![:#'F -'t'--ir 'yA * x
(4-12J)
dr d, ^, = and Rr: R
( Z
p
( : + l a l * d l +d ?+ . . . + d t l (aJz.aa) Substituting Eq. 4.12.7into Eq. 4.12.6gives
d t '
( Mv
D Rr: fr and Rr: (4-12-s)
( - +Ed2 (4.12.4b)
#
cIr
( Noting that d2 : x2 + /2; Eqs.4.12.8may be written
The force in fastener 1 is therefore '
( M Y
Md, ro\ r-_ (aJ2.ea)
( Rr: (a.12.5a) Lr2+Iy,
fr
( Mx
and by similar reasoning,the forces on the other fastenersare Rr: (4'12'9b)
( W
Md" Md.
( Rz: Yo'=' R l : f r ; ...; {o: # (4.12.sb) By taking the vector sum of R, and R", the total force R on the fastener
Ldz'
( becomes ' .--
or in general,
R : Y'?1
+T; (4.12.10)
( ^ : FMd (4.12.6)
( To cornpute the total force on a fastenerin an eccentric shear connectlon
(
which gives the force R on the fastener at the distance d from the center of such as shown in Fig. 4.L2.2a,the direct shear force Ru is
rotation. P
( Note that if stress is wanted, Eq. 4.12.6 may be divided by the bolt P :
"u - (4.12.11)
cross-sectionalarea A, to give stressf : R/Ao. The denominator then_would til
(
become tAdz, which is the polar moment of inertia J about the center of
rotation for the series of bolt cross-sectionalareas. Equation 4.12.6 is essen- where If is the number of fastenersin tbe group.The total resultant force R
, (
( :<
pir
SHEAR
4.12/ ECCENTRIC 151 (
15C FASTENERS
4 ,/ STRUCTURAL
(
(
then becomes r DFJG(AMPLE 4.1L2
on the top right bolt in
Usethe elastic(vector)methodto compute.theforce-R (
( 4 . 1 11 : ) bolt groupof Fig The
4-12.6a. bolts are all the same
fr **n,rically loaded (
ir?s.
r EXA M P LE 4. I 2. I (
Use the elastic(vector)methodto computethe maximum force R on any bolt SOLUTION (
in the eccentricallyloaded bolt group of Fig. 4.12.5a.The bolts are all the e = 6-6ln.
sameslze. (
M : lA(6'60) : 66'0in'-kiPs
SOLCTION
(
From Fig. J2.5 it can be seenthat &e upper and lower right fasteners E d z : 4 ( 3 - 5 0 ) 2 : 5 1 ' 8i n ' 2 (
Sincethesetwo fastenersare equallystressedonl-v"
are rhe most highll'stressed.
one need be investigated;check upper-right fastener.The eccentricity e. as My 66.0(3) ( ,
R,: : 3 ' 8 2k i P s+
measuredfrom the centroid(assumedcenterof rotation).is tr: - (
e:3*2:5in. (
M : 24(5) : 120in--kips Rr: : 2 ' 5 3 k i pI s
1. #: # (
j.-*
I x 2+ E Y 2 : 6 (2 )2+ 4 (3 )2: 6 0 i n .2
.

Pcosa 10(0.8) (
Mv 120(3) R"..=1'':i:2'00kiPs-'
P
"r :-:6.Gkips (
Lxz + ly' 60
Psinc gP (
Mx 1 2 0 (2 ) Rcy -F: : r.5okips
l
R : --
".Y = ---:4.0 kips i 4 (
Ex2 + Ey2 60
(
P 2 4 n : / L R r * R , " l t+ [ R , * R , . . ] t
R..: t
tT:?=4.OkipsJ
n:1ffi3-82+2'oo)t : 7.09kips (
(
!

4 : y(a.0+ +.0)2+ (6.0): : 10.0kips


is:-.-
(
-r*--'--
Rq 1""
':

Ltl "-.''.1"'
: t:-
(
!,: '
F, . R
t ' (
e. *$
I R. +O
lR. - f", (
i1al
fa, 1,, .:!f,s (
*. fok
o
1". {a
o
7
R o l a ' (
i", 1,, (
t.i". Ia.
€. f", (
o* .Y=-
R, -:'
:.-
-G.=:
G) Forcas acting
(
(o) (b) Forces acting on la3ten€T3
: (e)
on tastengra (
Figure4.12.5 Example4.12.1. Figure 4.12.6 ExaoPle 4.12.2- (
..-i='-
--..-+.
#:
(
(
(
"(
152 4/STRUCTURALFASTENERS 4.12 / ECCENTRTC
Sr-tEAR 153
(
\
( Ultlmate Strength Analysls resPonsers
(
This method, also called ptastic analysis,currently is recognizedby tbe Guide Ri: Rur,(1- "-ror;o'55 (4.12.16)
( [3.1f as the most rational one.
In this method it is recognizedthar the eccentricload p causesa rotation where-Rd, : iuAt.The coefficients10 and 0.55 were experimentallydeter-
( as rvcll as translationeffect on the fastenergroup. The translationand rotation
mined and the maximum A at failure was about 0.34 in. [3.11.].iote tbat e in
( can be reduced to a pure rotation about a point defined as the instantaneous
Eq. 4.12.16is the Naperian base(2.718) and not the eccentricity.For A325
centerof rotarion (seeFig. 4.12.7).
( bolts, the ultimate shear strength r, is approximately 70% of the tensile
The requirementsfor equilibrium are as follows:
strength (120 ksi minimum). Actually the experimentalwork directly obtained
( n _ ruArtobeT4 kips for ]-in.-diam A325bolts in doubleshear,'naking tu equal
{
IF,, : o; I R , s i n o- , p s i n D : o (4.12.13) to 0.7 of 120 ksi.
i- I
The experimentalwork relating to Eq. 4.12.16usedbolts loaded symmetri-
( n cally (that is, in double shear);however,the generalstrength metbod could use
( LFn: 0; E R, cos0, - pcos6 : 0 (4.12.14) any appropriate load R vs deformation A relationship, not necessarilyEq.
i_l 4.t2.t6.
( For the slip-critical connection,a modified strengtbmetbod approachmay
n
be used wherein the resistanceRj from each fasteneris the sarne,say equal to
( ll,t:oi I a,a,-p(e* ro):g (4.rz.rs) R". With frictional load transmission,the frictional resistanceoffered by each
j-l
( fastener is essentiallythe same.
( Actually the concept of instantaneouscenter is identical to the elastic
(vector) method when the resistanceRj is assumed proportional to the
( E D(AMPLE 4.123
deformation (i.e., stressis proportional to strain). For either the elastic or the
Illustrate the general strength metbod by determining the nominal strength
( strcngth method, the deformation is proportional to the distance d, from
load P" that may be applied to tbe fastener goup of Fig. 4.12.5. Use Eq.
the instantaneouscenter of rotation
( 4.L2.16 as the load-deforcration expression,&d :lssume that tbe ma,rimum
For the strength analysis,two approacheshave been used [3.1]. For the
deformation A-", at failure is 0.34 in. Assume the full shank cross-sectionsof
( bearing-type connection, slip is neglected so that the deformation of each
-instantaneotrs 'IlG the bolts resist shear.
fastener is proportional to its distance from the center.
( rcsistance of each fastener is related to its difonnation according to ,its't
load-deformation relationship;-An expression proposed by Fisher ;
( I4.Zll SOLUTION
and used by Crawford and Kulak l4.l7l for this load R vJ deformation A For {-in.-diam A325bolts, 8q.4.12.16 becomes
(
( Ri: 0.?(120x0.6013x1- ,-ror;0'5s
P
( v : 50.5(1- "-roa1o55
(
('
x\
.E
l--b \ The load is applied in tbe y-direction; therefore 6 = 0 Fig. a.12.7).Using
l/di for sin 0, and x,/di for cos 4, Eqs. 4.72.13rbrough 4.12.15
become

t++)
d,
(
-&
( '-4
4\
L^,*,:, (4.12.1,7)
Centroid of
::
rd--
(
( '
lristantaneouseenter
VI faitener group {C.G-l
x'
sLpR t / . : P, (4.12.18)
'of rotation (t.C.l
( *
IR, d,: Pn(e+ ro) (4.t2.re)
( Figure 4.12.7 Instantaneousceoter of rotation.
, (
-
P:"- SHEAR
4.12/ ECCENTRIC 155 rw,
\ * i

154 FASTENERS
4 ,/ STBUCTURAL a

/ ri
\
B'
/ *.
value is ro ; 2.06 in., as shown in the following table:
vl
1 , . = t ' , =5
--

ry R,d,
i--'r-e {t
----fcri r r . Ii n04
, I Fasteners x, li di A R,
r l l
3 " l l
| .et +-4r<x 0.06 3 3.001 0.202 46.7 0.93 r4Q.2
I Ic 1
lc.c. 8.6 8.55 0.5
2 0.06 0 0.060 0.004
i' t 3 0.06 -3 3.001 0.2a2 6.7 0.93 140.2
O l l O o
4.06 3 5.048 0.340 49.6 3e.87 25A.3
i-_."-l Figure 4.12.8 Strengtbmetbod for
Exanple 4.L2.3.
4
5 4.06 0 4.060 0.273 48.7 48.68 197.6
T r r a lr n = 3 i n .
6 4.06 -3 5.048 0.340 49.6 39.87 250.3
138.85 9'19.0

Also. a basicdeformationassumptionis
E q . 4 . 1 2 . 1 8 : P, : 139kips
d.
, (0.34) 979.0
u max
Eq.4.12.19: P n : f f i : l 3 9 k i P s

(a) Since an iterative processwill be required to solve Eqs. (a.12.17 Thus, P" : 139kiPs. I
through4.12.19.let the first trial ro- 3 in. (seeFig. a.12.8).
Studies [4.17, 4.18, 4.2A,4.221have indicated that an ultimate strength
(plastic) analysis is the most rational approach to obtain the strength of
Rixi eccentric shear connections. The elastic (vector) analysis was found to be
Fasteners x, di A, R, R, d, conseryative, making the ratio between strength'and service load range from
di
2.5 to 3.0. However, sincethat elasticmethod does not properly reflect actual
behavior, the margins of safety are variable from case to case,though cons-er'
l 1 3 3.162 0.r84 45.9 74.53 145.3 vative.
2 1 0 1.0 0.058 32.2 32.23 .32.2 *ECCENTRIC LOADS ON FASTENER GROUPS" pfo'
The tables
3 1 - 3 3.162 0.184 45.9 14.53 145.3 vided in the AISC Manuals [1.?, 1.1?l for eccentric shear are based on the
4 5 3 5.831 0.340 49.6 42.5L 289.1 ultimate strength concepr described in this section. ilhe first edition of the
5 5 0 5.0 0.292 49.0 48.99 244.9 Guide t3.U .contained some polynomial functions that approximated
6 5 - 3 5.831 0.340 49.6 42j1 289.1 the theoietical solutions for bolts on one or two fastener lines. Brandt [4.191
19530 r rqrg has provided a practical way of making a general solution to theseproblems.
Sllp-Critlcal Connectlons
E q .a . 1 2 . 1 8 : P" : 195kips The same strength procedureis recommended[3.iJ for slip-critical connections
as for bearing-type connecrions.since slip-resistanceis a serviceabilityrequire-
i 145.9 ment, not a strength requiremeat, it is logical to investigate the s$ength of
E q.4 .1 2 ,1 9 : P n- : 143kips
either type connoiion by the ultimate strmgth approach describedabove.
n iiefened procedure for anaiysis of slip-critical connections at servics
Sincethe vrluesare not identical,furthertrialsare required.One will generally 6 constant for all fasteners,say, at
load is to consider the resistance Rr"shear
find thar P,, from Eq. 4.12.19is relativelyclosc'to the correct value even whatever is the ma:rimum acceptable stress" F, (see Table 4.9'l frOm
though Eqs. 4.i2.18 and 4.12.19give valuesthat are not very close.A trial RCSC t4.TD.Since the bolts in a slip-critical joint must be installed with iritiat
value of ro thrt will give { betweenthe two valuesbut closeto the value from tension, thire will be a fairly uniform clamping action between ths pieces
Eq. 4.12.19will make the calculationconvcrgerather rapidly. The correct beingjoined.
1

-.(
i.
156 4 / STRUCRRALFASTENERS 4.r2 lECCENTRTC
SHFAR 157
(
(
r EXAMPLE4.12.4 may be interpreted as the allowable value for a slip-criticsl connectionancl P
( RcpeatExample4.12.3(Fig. 4.12.5)using Ri: R, as for a slip-critical the safe applied load. For ;-in.-diam fasteners,usine F,.: 17 ksi (seeTable
( connectionusing$e instantaneous
centerapproach,similarto the ultimate 4.9.1),givesfor singleshear.
strengthmethod.
( R,, : 17(0.6013): 10.2kips
( SOLUTION
and the serviceload capacity would be
For R,: R, and6:0, Eqs.4.12.13
through4.12.75
become
( P : 2.86(10.2)'= 29.2kips
( Rt -- I I : o (4.12.20)
d,
Load and Resistance Factor Deslgn

(
R , I cIil * - " : o (4.12.21)
r EXAI!{PLE 4.12.5
Compare the sen'iceload capacitiesP of the eccentricsbearconnectionof Fig.
( RrI d,-p(e*ro):Q (4.72.22) 4.12.5when investigatedby various methods.Solveassumingthe connectionis
( (a) a bearing-type connection with threads excluded frorn the shearplane, and
Try ro : 2 in. Referringto Fig.4.12.8,
(b) a slip-critical (friction-tpe) connection.Assume the live load is 80% and
( dead load is 2Aa,o of the total. Assumethe plates are thick enoughthat bearing
( on the plates does not control. Use {-in.-diam .{325 bolts and AISC Load and
xi
Fastener xi di ResistanceFactor Design Specification.
( li
di

( SOLUTION
1 0 3 3.0 0 (a) Elastic analysis-bearing-type connection.
( 2 0 0 0 0 R : 10 kips (fasteners4 and 6 in Example4.12.1)
( J 0 _ -3 3.0 0
4 4 3 5.0 .0.8 The design strength $Ro h shear on the boit for a bearingt)rpe connection
( 5 4 0 4.0 - 1.0 \_._n (A325-X) is
( 6 4 -3 5.0 0.8
20^0 L6 eR"= O(0.60ry)^eu 14.7.21
(
: 28.1kips/bolt
: 0.65(0.60x120x1)0.6013
( :
From Eq.4.12.11, The factored serviceload R, is
(
P: R"I R , : 1 . 2 D + 1 . 6 L : 1 . 2 ( 2 )+ 1 - 6 ( 8 ): 1 5 . 2k i p s
( ;,:2.6R,
Since the factored load (15.2 kips) on the critical fastener is well below the
( From 84.4.72.22, design strength of 28.1 kips, the load P on the eccentric connection may be
( R"Ed, increasedptopbrtionally. Thus,
P: -R.(20)
n::2'86R"
( A- P : 24(28.7/L5-2): 44-4 kiPs

( For this assumption,fastenerNo. 2 is at the center of rotation and therefore is (b) Elastic analysis-slip-critical connection. The design strength fR, is
"shear stress" from Table 4.9.1
not involved in F4. 4.12.22. Also, fastener No. 2 is assumed to have no stiU 28.1 kips/bott-as computed in (a). The d
(
contribution to F4.4.12.21. When ro is assumedslightly larger than 2.0, Eq. is 17 ksi for 4.325 bolts i:n standard holes. Thus, tbe serviceload bolt capacity
( :
_ 4.L2.21gives P 3.6R" becausex/di: 1.0 for fastener No. 2. When ro is for slip resistanceis
assumedslightly smaller tban 2.0, Eq.4.12.21 gives P : 1.6R" because'xi/di
( - - | for the same fastener.Thus the value P : 2.86R" from F4. J222 is Allowable R : FomAa: 1?(1)0.6013: 10.2kips/bolt
( acceptedas the answer(i.e., ro : 2.0 in.). If a factor of safety is applied, R" The computed maximum load per bolt is 10 kips, very closeto the limit for the
t"(
sa
*4-!.

v (
. 159 4 / STRUCTT!?AIFASTENERS 4 . 1 2/ E C C E N T R T C- . ' i A R 159
( ,
* (
slip-critical connectic,n.strength in sheardoesnot govem. Ttus. (g) Summary. (
. P : 24(10.7/10):24.5 kips
(
(c) ultimate strengtb-bearing-type connection.The designstrengthgR" Bearing-Type Slip-Critical
is still 28.1 kips/bolt as computedin (a), *'hich meansthe marimum nominai Procedure Load P Load P (
resistanceR,, per bolt is 28J/Q:43.2 kips. Thus, Pn from Example4.12.3 (
must be reducedin the ratio of 43.2to sraldmum R, (i.e.,a9-6kipsj. Thus. Elastic(r'ector) method 44.4kips 24.5kips
51.8kips (
Strengthanalysis
$Pn: 0.65(13e)(al.Zlal.e) = ?8.7kips lnstantaneouscenter 29.2kips ( i

The factored load on tbe connectionis AISC Manual - interpolated 50.7kips 27.9kips
) 1 . 6 ( 0 . 8 p :) t . 5 2 p
P n : 1 . 2 ( 0 . 2 P+
Equating P" to 0P" Sves (
Thus, one may note the elastic(vector) method producesthe most conserv'ative
P : 78.7/1.52 : 51.8kips
result. I
(d) Instantaneous c€nter-slip-critical connection. The service load ca-
pacity from F"xample4.12.4is (

P = 29.2kips Deslgn Formula for Moment on Slngle Llne of Fasteners (


.
(e) AISC Manual [1.17] Tables, "EccENTRIc The AISC lv{anual[1.7, 1.171in its section,
"ECCENTRIC LOADS ON (
LOADS oN FAS-
TENER GRouP.S"-bearing-type connection.Since the horizontal spacing FASTENER GROUPS," gives a seriesof tables that allow' the designerto (
of fastenersis 4 in., the AISC tablesare not directly applicable.One could determine the number of connectorsrequiredfor a given load and eccentricity.
interpolare berweenTABLE XI for 3 in. and TABLE xli for 5+ in. In unusual casesfor which the tables do not apply, or when they rnay not be
readily available,it is desirableto have a simplealte.rnativemethod to use.The (
xo:5in. TABLEXI TABLEXII following developmentfrom Shedd' providesa useful simple formula.
n - 3 bolts (p.5-66) (p.s-6e) (
Consider a singleline of n equallyspacedfastenerssubjectedto moment
Angle= 0o Angle: 0o alone,as shown in Fig. 4.12.9.Sincewith uniform spacingthe resistanceof the (
Coefficienr,C : 2.59 2.97 fastenersis uniform from top to bottom, and accordingto Eq. 4.12.6, R:
lnterpolared,C : 7.59+ (2.97- Z.Sg)(l/2.5) : 2.74 Md/(Xd2;, the force varieslinearly as shown in Fig. 4.12.9. (
Assuming R is the force in the outermostfastener,and that it represents (
QP,: cgro the accumulation of stressthat would occur on a rectarigularresisting section
over the distance p, one may designatethe averageload per inch of height at (
n'here *\,: 0R, : designstrengthof one fastener.Thus,
the outermost fasteneras R/p.
(
QPn= 2.74(28.1): 77.0kips Using similar triangles the load per inch at the extreme fiber may be
. - determined. (
P 77.7^.52: 50.7kips
In this case,the interpolated designstrengthis lessthan the value computed (
in ^
Example 4.12.3; a conservativeiesult. In general,becausethe anglesof the Extremefibervalue: lt+ \ (4.t2.23) (
resultant forces on the fastenerschaagenith changesin the urrrig.*.nt
of P\n- | I
bclts- interpolation should not be used. The above serves-uloty .s (
an
illustration of the meaningof the termsin rhe AIsc Manual tables. I (
( i) AISC il{anual [1.1?]Tables-slip-aitical connection. The tensile force is the area of the triangle representedby the force per inch
The inrerpolated
coefficient c : 2.74 from (e) is multiplied by the sewiceload (
capacity (10.2
kips) per bolr from (b). Tt us,
(
P : 2.74(10.2)
: 2?.9kips 'Thomas C. ShcrJd, Structwal Desigarn Slael (John Wilry* & Sons, Nes, Yorl 1934), (
f -
9.287.
a )
t-:
i ' :
r .'i:
t--_- - (
r l

\(-
SHEAR
4 . 1 2/ E C C E N T R I C 161
( 160 4 / STRUCTURAT=
FASTENERS
''. - .:
(
Ivlore complicated formulas have been developedto compute the ma{-
(
mum strcssor force cn a fastencr.but no direct solution fcrr the nurnberuf
( connectorsor the nurnberof rou'sis possiblefrom suchcquations'

( r=fi r EXAI\TPLE4.12.6
( Determinerhe requirednumberof *-in.-diamA325 bolts for one verticalline
of fastenerse - @ in the brrcket shownin Fig. 4.12.10.Assumeit to be a
( beariug-typeconnecrionrvith threadsincluded in the shearplanes (A325-N).
( Use AISC Load and ResistanceFactor Design-
iI Resisrins consistins
secrion
resistance
( I l-,-. of c-onnectot
unirs161ydittrbuted SOLUTIO:T
j
( I (a) Factored load. Using the gravity load equation,Eq. 1.8.3,

(
il P": 1.2(7)+ 1.6(41): 74 kiPs
U (b) Design strength of a fastenerin a bearing-typeconnection.
( --l l- o,o
=2
/fi (width) =I
*
( +P., : g(O.aSfj),neo (shearstrength-double shear)
Figure4.12.9 Moment on a single line of fasteners.
( : 42-2kips (controls)
: 0.65(0.45)(120X2X0.6013)

( diagram, gR,, : e(z.4F"dt) (bearingstrength)

( r : L2f\u2\tftIp' }) 't n, - ,\ | Rn2


a(n- 1)
(4.12.24) : 45.7 kips
: 0.75(2.4X58X0.875)0.5

( (c) Estimate the numbdr of bolts required,using Eq. 4-12.28-


The.internal resistingmoment is
( 6M
M : r(|np) (4.12.2s) n : - 4.0
( Rp
Substitution fu- 4.72.24into F-q.4.12.25gives t *_
-t'

( 1f \ The R value (here gR,) has nor beenadjustedfor the direct sheareffect; try 4
- Rnz 12 \ Rn3p
(
- M : 4 6 ; . j t t " r ,:|f f i (4.12.26) fasteners.
(d) Check the adequacy using the general ultimate strength analysis.
( Starting with rhe assumptionthat the instantaneouscenteris 3 in. to the left of
Solving Eq. +;tZ.Z6 f.or n2, one obtains
( the vertical line'of fasteners,severaliterations are required to obtain satisfac-
6Mtn-1\
( (4.r2.27)
(
n :
& [" J
which as a first approximation becomes
( 7I DL, 41KLL

( lM (4.r2.2s)
(
V&
which is suggestedfor design use.
( l" ot"t"
Since Eq.4.12.28 is for moment alone acting on a single row of fasteners,
( the numerical value for R to be used in it should be adjusted to account for
436 steel
direct shear and for more than one row of fasteners-It is suggested.touse a
(. ,reducedeffective R for the direct-sheareffect and use an increasedeffective R
( for the effect of lateral spread. For lateral spread use a multiplier on R of 1.0 Figure 4.12-iA Exanple 4.L2.6.
, ( for one line up to about 2.0 for a squarearray of connectors.
P 4.12/ECCENTRICSHEAR 163 (
162 4/STBUCTURALFASTENERS
(
(noting that M equals Pu dmes (
tion of Eqs.a.12.1?through4.12.19.The final resultsare tabulatedbelorv.It rr Tbe momen'tcomponent R,, from Aq. C.tZ-ea
n6rctl that quite a few iterations may be neededto get the values of. Pn front c) is (
P"eY
Ei4s.4.i2.18 and 4.12.19exactly eQual;however,the initial assumptionof R,'=ffiF Ic.rz.sa] (
,,, : 3 in. gave P, : 111 kips from Eq. 4.12.19.The authorshave found thar
even the first trial givesa reasonableapproximationof the answer. (
verify that answeris ro : 2.55 in. to the left of the line of fasteners: rx2 + Ly' : zl?\'+ (6)tl : 8o in'2
(
72(d6 (
Rix,
R,,:f : 3 2 - 4 k i P s" +
Fastener xi di ai Ri R,d,
di (
the resultantis obtained'
Then, usingEq- 4-12'12, \
i 2.Ss 6.00 6.519 0.340 49.6 19.39 323.2
2 2.55 2.00 3.241 0.169 45.2 35.53 146.3 R,: :36'7 kiPs< [oR" :42'2kiPsJ' (
!'ffi
3 2.55 - 2.00 3.241 0.169 45.2 35.53 746.3 (
2.55 - 6.00 6.519 0.340 49.6 19.39 323.2 the mostheavilyloadedbolt doesnot exceed
4
'10934 . " Thus, the factoredload =R, 9l areaccept' (
939.1 the design""nj'h;R; cz'z ttipt for A325-N'Thus'4 fasteners
able. (
li, *ur, be notedthattheedgedistanceL measured in the,!11ci:L"trtT
E q . 4 . 1 2 . 1 8 : P, : 110kips (LRFD-J3.10) requiring that L > (
,.r,.t','u',1',""t;;;;"st satisfyEq. 4.?.13 loaded ^ t r is
bolt
8 q . 4 . 1 2 . 1 9 : P, : 110kips (Equal provessolution)
heavilv
- r ----:r-. r^^l-l
;i';;:,-Ja ro'."nl onthemost
L ir

ffffiq,i."ffi,.fi;, (
"ia ut P it, the original equation' t
Note that the solution aboveis for singleshearand has assumedthat no AlzlN uott'@4-i"' p (
iii a_4{-in.-diam
threadsare in the shearplanes(A325-X).Also, the maximum R,, even though
logically computed using Eq. 4.12.16,cannot exceed the LRFD-Table J3.2
(
r EXAMPLE 4.12J
specifiedvalue (basedon 0.6.Fj : 72 ksi), A325 b.oltsin standardholesfor (
Determine the ,.quir.O numberof |-in.-diam
4.12.11,alsu*ing 4 vertical rows' Use a slip-critical
Ro : o .6 F :A b : 7 2 .0 (0 .6 0 1 3: ) 4 3.3ki ps the bracket plate of Fig.
-mi1 (
scale (Class {; surface condition' and use AISC
connection u,ith clean
Then. { must be reducedin proporrionthat 43.3 kips is to the maximum R. (
Load and ResistanceFactor Design'
(i.e., 49.6 kips) in the table above,
(
P, : 110(43-3/49.6): 96 kips
(
for A325-X in singleshear.

1--
r6" = 5t DL,55'LL
For A325-N, this value must be multiplied by 2 for the double shearcase (
of this example, and multiplied by 0.7 becausethreads are possible in the
I (
shearplanes(A325-N). . . l l l . . l
Compare OP, with { using the shear-relatedp value since shear con- . . l l l . . ;
trolled the fastenerstrength, o . llr. i
::ii::\X
A36 steel
(
:
[op, : 0.65(96)2(0.7) 8? kips] t [P": 74 kips] oK 2-in. (
phte on
The above showsthat 4 fastenersin a line are more than adequate.Investiga- each llange (
tion (not shown) for 3 fastenersindicatesthat 3 fastenersare not adequate.
(e) Check the adequacyusing the elastic(vector)method.The direct shear wl4 x 127 (
componentR- from Eq.4.12.11is (
Standard
-P..
r' --
72
"Rs r - : : l 8 . O k i p sI 9a9e (
q 4'12'7'
IN Figure 4.12.'11 Frcenrric sbearconnectioo of Example
(
(

:
\
. (
lr 164 4,/STR1pTURALFASTENERS SHEAR
4.12/ ECCENTRIC 165
' (

(
SOLUTION
( In the above equation. the senice load per plate is 30 kips, and the load per
(a) Factoredload. Sinceone-halfthe load is carriedby eachplatein a
: line of fasteneri is 30/4, which muStbe usedsinceEq. 4.12.28applics to one
singleshearsituation,useone-halfthe total load in all calculations
for one
( line of fasteners.No adjustrncntin R rvasmadecithcr for direct shear or for
plate.Usingthe gravityloadequation,F4. 1.8.3,
severallines of fasteners.Try 5 bolts per row.
(
P, : 1.2(5)+ 1.6(55): 94kips (or 47kips/ptare) (d)'Check rhe adequacyusing the generalultimate strength analysis.
( Referring to Fig. 4.72.12,and using the samemethod illustrated in Example
(b) Designstrengthof a fastener
in a slip-critical
connection.
For strength,
valuesare as for bearing-type 1.12.6, the value of ro is found to be 3.03 in. to the left of the centroid of the
(- connections.Assumeno threadsare to be inlhe
shearplanes(A325-X).For singlesbear, fastener gtroup:
(
0R, : g(0.604\^eo (shearsrength-singleshear)
Rixi
, ( R.d,
: 0.65(0.60X120X1X0.4418)
: 20.7kips (controls) Fastener xi li di A, Rj
( di

( 0R, : g(Z.4F,dt) (bearingstrengrh)


-2.72. 6.00 6.588 0.211 34.6 -14.27 227.6
: 0.75(2.4X58)(0.7s)0.5
: 39.2kips 1
( -2.72 3.00 4.A49 0.129 31.1 -20.90 126.0
2
'' 1 . 5 9 244.3
For slip resistance,
the serviceload cap.acity
is ' 67 0.28 6.00 6.00? 0.192 34.0
0.28 3.00 3.013 0.096 28.5 2.65 85.8
R - ntFuAa:1.0(17X0.4418)
: ?.5kips
l1 5.78 6.00 8.331 A.266 i ) . / 24.74 297.1
(c) Estimatethenumberof boltsrequired, t2 5.78 3.00 6.512 0.208 34.5 30.61 274.6
usingEq.4.12.28. It is assumed
that slip resistanceat serviceload is thi controUingtimit state;strengthwill 16 8.78 6.00 10.634 0.340 36.4 30.07 387.3
laterbe checked. t7 8.78 3.00 9.278 0.297 36.0 34.11 334.5
-8E.od
E: 1887.2
lM
n - \ l _ : : 5.7 Multiply theabovetimes2 for symmetry: 177-2A 3774-4
t/Rp -2.72 0.00 2.720 0.087 ?7-5 -27.53 74'9
3
( 8 0.28 0.00 0.280 0.009 9.6 9.60 2.7
13 s.78 0.00 s.?80 0.185 33.8 33.77 795.2
',(
18
'8.?800.28135.9
8.78O:OO
' (
E : ## #
(
E q . 4 . 1 2 . 1 8 : P - 228.9kips
(
+ 3.03)- 229-2k'tPs
fu. aJ2.79: P^: 4362.7/(16
( 2 .

Note that the solution aboveis for singleshearand has assumedthat no


(
3 threads are in the shear planes (A325-X). In addition, consider that LRFD
- o
( limits the mixirnu* stt.ngtb of a bott in shear to
( =31'8
kips
4 r o 9 14o
(
* ,,",1,L"'ffi;T:20)0'4418
Reducing
( - Pn: 229(31,.8/36.4): 200kips
( 5 o 15.
Compare g{ with { using the shear-relatedp value since shear con-
( troiled the fastener strength,
( lep,:0.65(200): l30rips]t lP,: a?kipsJ oK
Figure4.12.12 Fastenernuurberingfor Example4.12.7.
,. (.
L
U

t;:"'
166 4/STRUCTUFAL FASTENERS 4.13/ FASTENERS tN AXTAL
ACTTNG TENSTON 167
(

Strength is more than adequate;it was not expectedthat srrengthwould


govern for this slip-resistantconnectionhaving standard holes and Class A i ' ; however,the regular pattern of Fig. (
surfacecondition. Only when using a surfacecondition havinga very high slip 4.l2.l\ is preferred. I
coefficient is there a real probability of srrengthcontrolling.
(
(e; using rhe strength analysis approachbut reducing the capacit-vin (
proportion that the allowablecapacity[7.5kips from part (b)f of a slip-crirical ACTINGIN AXIALTENSION
4.13 FASTENERS
connectionis to the force (36.4kips) on the most heavilyloadedfastenerin thc (
strengthanalysisof the bearing-typeconnection. Thus, the servicelqad capac- Axial tension occurring without simultaneousshear exists in fasteners for (
i ty i s tensionmemberssuch as hangers(seeFig. 4.6.1c)or other membersu'hoseline.
of action is perpendicularto the member to which it is fastened.When such
P : 229(7.5/36.4): 47.t kips > [Required30 kipsl
tension members are not perpendicular to their connecting members, the
This procedureis alwaysconservative. An alternativeis to do an analysisas
(
fastenersare subjectedto both axial tensionand shear.The latter, more typical
illustratedin Example4.12.4wherethe resistance of eachfasteneris the same. - case,is discussedin Sec.4.14. (
(f; Check using LRFD N{anualtables,"ECCENTRIC LOADS oN FAS- :- Section 4.6.1 discussesthe nominal strength R,, for fastenerssubjeci to
TENER GROUPS." The horizontalspacingof fastenersis not exactlv rhe (
:: axial tension; Eq. 4.6.1 givesthe strengthas
sameas in TABLE XVII; however,whenthe externaldimensionsof the arra1,
are about the same,and the verticalspacingof bolts agreeswith the tables,the Rn: F:(o.75Ab) [4.6.11
coefficientwill be found to be about the same.If the LRFD table is assumed (
. tVhen Eq. 4.6.1 is used in Load and ResistanceFactor Design (LRFD-
applicable as the authors believeit is for this case,enter the table with the (
Table J3.2),the designstrengthfR, using the resistancefactor + of 0.75 is
number (n : 5) of fastenersin a verticalline, and the eccentricity(xo : 16
in.) of rhe load from the cenrerof gravity of the $oup of fasteners, Q Rn: 0. 75^*( 0. 75Ab) (4.13.1)
Find coefficienrC : 6.15 Valuesof g(0.75{) havebeengiven in Table 4.7.1.
$ P o : C o R , : 6 .1 5 (2 0 .7:) 1 2 7ki ps When Eq. 4.6.1 is usedin Allowable StressDesign(ASD-TableJ3.2),the (
which compareswith g{ : 130 kips for a bearing-typeconnecrionfrom rhe service load capacity R is the nominal strength R, divided by the factor of
analvsisin (d). safety of 2. Thus,
,=
For rhe slip-criticalconnectionof this example, : o.375FlA
R : 0.541@0 .7sA) (
t
P : C R : 6 .1 5 (7 .5:) 4 6 k i p s R: F,A6 (4.13.2) (
which compareswith P : 47.Lkips computedin (e). (
(g) Investigatethe connectionusing the elastic(vector)method.Sincethe where 4 : allowable serviceload nominal stress,T/Au
slip-critical service load condition has already been shown to govern, the : 0.375(120)= 44 ksi (ASD-TableJ3.2)fcir 4325 bolts (
*-
illustration of the use of the elastic (vector) method is perforrn-edfor the : 0.375(150)= 54 ksi (ASD-TableJ3.2) for 4,490bolts
(
serviceload (30 kips on one plare). At: fasi,energrosscross-sectionalarea
Check5 bolts per row by elasticmerhod: Fb : tensilestrengthof fastenermaterial(120 ksi for ,{325 and 150 ksi {
P 3 0 for .4490 bolts) . (
R' - - n- :2 - 0 - 1.50kipsI T: servicetensileload on a fastener
(
-:- Fastenerssubject to axial tensionmust be pretensionedaccordingto Table
I..' * }.' : ro[1z.zs;'(s.?s)rl
+ + (6)']: 766in.2
+ 8[(3)2 4.4.2 whether the design is for a bearing-typeconnection or a slip-critical (
. ia

connection[4.7J.
R.:#:qf :3.76kips t - s
(
(
Prestress Eftect of Hlgh-Strength Bolts Under Extemal Tenslon
R": - 3 o ( 1 6 ) s:'37.s6 o k i p s . -;- ('
# I : g _
In order to understand the effect of an externally apptied load on a preten-
sioned high-strength bolt consider a single bolt and the tributary portion of (
Actual R = (1.50+ 3.oo)2
+ (3 .7 6 )2= 6.34kips< 7.5 i *
OK the connectedplates as shown in Fig. 4.13.1a.The piecesbeing joined are of
i
I _1ir
;G (
- !:tf
q,!&

(
(
(
i
(-" 168 4,/STRUCTUML FASTENERS
4.r3lFASTENERS
ACTTNG
tNAXrAL
TENSTON 169
(
(
I e I e*t"-"r = Next,substitution
of 8q.4.r3.3for e,.andEq. 4.l3.4for c, into Eq. 4.1-7.7
( ; I roao /o' I?"t"'J' gives
,/
(
(
,r-rrF-
,Tl--]n
E
!t- ro : . T r - T t + P
A r Et AoE,
(4.r:i.ri)

( c' l The moduli of elasticity.8, for the bolt and E, tor the plate are cssenriallythe
( l " l(a)
+

(b)
4=Flrelension
installation same and may be eliminated.Then soh'ing fcir Tl gives

( {c)
(rr- r)*- r n -r , + p (1.13.e)
Figure4.13.1 Prestress
effecton boltedjolat.
{
(
(
thicknessr and the area of contact betweenthe piecesis A Prior to applying
o.
externalload the situation is as sho*n in Fig. +.i3.tb, wheie the bolt hasbeen
n('-*l-n('.*,').,
installed to have a pretension force ?i (values as in Table 4.4.2). The pieces
( beingjoined are initially compressedan amount c,. For equilibrium, Tt-Tr.h (4.13.i0)
(-
C,: To (4.13.3)
( The external load P is then applied and the forcesacting are shown in Fig. r EXAMPLE 4.13.7
( 4.13.1c.This time equilibrium requires Assume{-in.-diam ,4325bolts are usedin a direct tensionsituationsuchas in
Fig.4.13.2.With bolts spaced3 in. apart and havingl+-rn- edgedisrances,rhe
( P*C1=7, (4.13.4) tributary area of contacr may reasonablybe about 9 /q in. If the maximurn
rvherethe subscript / refersto final conditionsafter applicationof the load p. external tensileload permittedby AISC Load and ReslstanceFactor Designis
(-
The force P acting on the systbm lengthens the bolt an amount 6, applied, how much does the bolt tensionincrease?Assumethe sen'iceload is
( betrveenthe undersideof the bolt head and the surfaceof contact betweenthi 20% deadload and 80%live load.
( trvo connectedplates,
__- SOLUTION
o Tl- Tb
( Er:- (+.r:.s)\ (a) DesignstrengrhfRr. Using 8q.4.13.1,
AuEt
( 0R, : 0.75.qe(0.75A): 0.75{120X0.75)0.6013
: 40.6kips
rvhere Et: modulus of elasticityof the bolt
( - Tt - final force in the bolt after exrernal road is applied
"l
( At the same time, the compressionbetweenthe plates decreasesand the
plate thicknessincreasesan amount 6r,
f
(- 6P:Et (4.13.6)
(
where Eo: modulus of elasticityof the plate material
e q = final compression force between the pieces being joined, after iffened
anglgs
(- external load is applied

( If contact is maintained, compatibility of deformation requires6u: 6r; thus,


o)
(
Eq. 4.13.5equated to Eq. 4.13.0gives
T t: T o
I
_ C ,- C l (u.t:.21
T
AoEo AoE,
( Figure 4.13.2 Fxample 4.13.1.
t , (
' J
\
170 4 / STRUCTURALFASTENERS 414 /COMBTNEDSHEARAND TENSTON 171
(

(b) Permissiblesen'iceload R per bolt. Equatingthe designstrengrheR,,


(
to the factoredload Ru gives
R,: 1 . 2 ( 0 . 2 R+) t . 6 ( 0 . 8 R ): 1 . 5 2 n (
1.52R: 40.6kips (
R = 26.7kips (
(c) Initial tensileforce in ]-in.-diam A325bolt. From Table 4:4.2, (
Ta : 39 kiPs (
^-.J I
t
(d) Determine final tensileforcein bolt. The ratio of plate contact area to
bolt areais I
140 kips
ItO kips

seition A - A
(
(
A_ 9
: 15 4.13.2.
Figure4.13.3 Exarnple (-
nr: o.6olt
This neglectssubtractingthe bolt areafrom the total tributary area,but little
differenceresults.Using Eq. 4.13.10with the load P per fastenerequal to its and.ResistanceFactor Design assumingthe load is 10% dead Loadand 90% (
ma.rimumvalue R gives tive lga{..
(
26.7
T 1: 3 9 + : 3 9 + 1 .7 : 4 t).7ki ps SOLUTION (
1 * r, (a) Design strengthfR" per bolt. Using Eq. 4.13.1,
(
The increase in tension is 4.3%. The variation in actual pretension from : 37.3kips
gR,, : 0.75ry(0.15A): 0.75(150X0.i5)0.4418
installation may be expectedto exceedthis amount, so that this increaseis not C
of concern. Furthermorethe tributary area used for the example(9 sq in.) is (b) Calculate the factoredtensionforce 7,.
probably the minimum one might encounterin practice,sincelessthan a 3-in. (
pitch and gageis rarelv used. ru: 1.2(0.1x140) : 218kips
(
The important conclusionfrom this exampleis that no significantincrease \1.6(0.ex140)
in bolt tension ariseswttil the external load equals or exceedsthe pretension (c) Determinethe numbern of bbtts required. (
force, in u'hich casethe piecesdo not remain in contact and the applied force Tn 218 (
equalsthe bolt tension. : : 5'9' saY
6
If the connectioncan distort and give rise to "prying forces" thesemust ;& fr: (
!

also be considered.(See LRFD-J3 and ASD-J4 and the treatment in the


"Split-Beam Tee Connections"
part of Sec.13.6.)In the situationof Example
Use 6-l-in.-diam A490bolts. I a
4.13.1the approximatefactor of safetyagainstovercominginitial compression (
betweenpiecesis 4.14 COMBINEDSHEARANDTENSION C
To
FS: -j9 =1.5 f
In a large number of commonly used connections, both shear and tension
P 26.7
occur and must be consideredin their design. Figure 4.14.1 shows a ferv (
In general,for A325 bolts under LRFD-J3 or ASD-J4, the margin of typical connections in which the connectorsare simultaneously subjected to
safety againstserviceload exceedingthe proof load is approximately1.5 for both shear and tension.The connectionsbown in Fig. 4.14.1ais a common (
diametersup to 1 in. and approximately
1.3 for diametersover 1 in. I one where two anglesjoin the beam web to the colurnn flange. From the (
moment force indicated in tbe figure, the upper fasteners are subjected to
!r EXAI\{PLE 4.13.2 tension in proportion to the magnitude of the applied momenl Howevs, one (
Determine the requirednumberof ]-in.-diam ,4,490bolts for the counecrion may recall from structural analysisthat only a small amount of end rotation
shorvn in Fig. 4.13.3.Assurnethat the piecesmaking up the connectionare (
on a beam is necessaryto changefrom a fixed end 1s s hinged end condition.
adequateand that the nominal tensilestresseson the bolts govern.Use Load In addition the web carriesonly a small part of the bending moment. Thus one (
(
(
t
t

'('
172 4 / STRUCTURAL
FASTENEBS 4.14 / CCMETNED
SHEARAI.IDTEt'lSiOtl 173
(
( a circular rclationship
(

(
(
l#]'.[#]'=,0 (.r.i4.1)

rvhere ftu, : factoredtensionload on bolt


( factoredshearload on bolt
Ruu:
( 0,R,, : designstrengthof bolt in tensionalone(0, : 0.75)
9,Rn, : designstrengthof bolt in shearalone(f,' : 0.65)
(
The nominal strengthR,,, of bolts in tensionis givenby Eq. 4.6-1,
(
R, , , : R, , - F: ( 0. 75A) t 4. 6. 11
(
The nominal strenglh Rn,,of bolts in shearis given by &. 4-6.2,
(
R n, : Ro: m , au( 0. 60#) 14. 6. 21
( .

( for no threadsin shearplanesl.and Eq. 4.6.4.

( Rr":Rr,: *u@.+Sf!) [a.o.a]


( f.or threadspossiblev'ithin shearplanes.
The AISC Specifications[1.5, 1.15] havesimplified the circular interaction
( relationshipof Eq. 4.14.1into a sraight line which requiresa reductiononly in
(c)
( the most severeloading cases.The suaigbt-line expressionis
Figure 4.14.1 Typical combinedshearand tensionconnections.
( R.., R,..
' - (4.14.2)
( ' ---'l Q,Rn, 0,,Rno

( may intuitively sense that the moment shown will be relieved before a'r where C is a constant.Agreementwith the more exactrelationshipis shorvnin
significant tension force can be developedin the fasteners.Such connections 1-\. Fig. 4.14.2.Multiplying Eq. 4.14.2by 0,R", and solvingfor Ru, gives
( are used when.little end momentis desiredto be transmitted.An exceptionto g,Rn,
this occurs in the caseof a very deep beam such as a plate girder. ^
----=- R.,,.
( R,., s CQ,R n, - UU (4.14.3)
Referring next to Fig. 4.14.1bin which the applied .o-.nt is transmitted f,,,R,,,
( through the flangesof the beam, the situation is different. [n this case a large
The AISC Specifications format by dividing all
[1.5, 1.15]bave usedthe .ttrsss
applied moment is intended to be transmitted so the connecrionis made at the
( terms by the gross cross-sectionalbolt area Ab. In addition, rvhen the
flanges, the elementscarrying most of the moment. Chapter 13 deals with this
expressionsfor SrR,, and Q,ftooare substituted,4.4-74-3 becomes
( type of connection.Figure4.14.1cand 4.14.1dtypify the two types of fastener
( loading in combined shear and tension which are developedin the following
parts of this section. 6
i f f . r n f l AA,r R,,
R;; . ^0.7s(o.7sF:)Ab - e0.75(o.lsF:)
(4.14.4)
(
nr='' A, 4
(4.14.5)
( fu,30.56F:C-1.44f,,
Bearlng-Type connectlons - Load and Resistance Factor Desrgn When threads are pc5ssiblein the shear planes the coefficient 1.44 becomes
(
In earlier sections, the nominal strengths of fasteners loaded separgtely in 1.92.The Specifications [1-5, 1.1.5]have used C :1.25 to obtain the straight
( line in Fig. a.14.2.and the coefficients \.M andl.92have been taken as 1.4
shear and tension were treated.When the full strength in tension is required,
( the full strength in shearis not simultaneouslyavailable. Basedon experimen- and 1.8, respectively,for threadsiNcluded and threadseXcludedin the shear
tal studies,A.r,t,3.11,the strengthinteractionequationmay be representedby planes.The term F'j has been used instead of f,, to signify an upper limit for
(
, (
s*I :il
- 1
P 4.14/coMBlNEO SHEARANDTENSION 175 (
174 4 /STRUCTURALFASI'ENEBS
(
R4 F;. MPa (
qfl-
tenston
1.0 {
=1k= L = 12.2 tsi
R* l' ,i
- L = 15'7 ksi (
Q,n;l I fr;'=t.o f- - 9.f ksi
r
];:-k-"\ L: r2.t ksi
( '
.i

AfSC designt/ (
& -t.o
*H- (
I
1.0
- ,"# anu*
*x-
( '',
Figure 4.14.2 Nondimensionalshear-tensionstrcngtb interaction curve: bearing-typc' (g
(
connections. I
.fs- {A =
-j. -
\ It'
| '.
/' ':l
ft-
a nominal stresscomputedat factoredload level.For A325 bolts (A325-X) Eq. F,;* 2z-orsi
4.14.5becomes
F,l,s 0.56(120x1.25) -'t.&4fu, (4.14.61
( :
F,j,s 84- 1.44f", (4.14.7)
Thus, LRFD-J3.4 and Table J3.3givesfor A325-X,
..:
( . f
FJ,s85-l.4f,u (4.14.7)
Equation 4.14.7illustratesthe typical AISC Specificationformat for use (
u'ith bearing-typeconnections.The specific equationsare summarizedfrom F; = zt.8 rsi

LRFD-Table J3.3 in Table 4.14.1,and the A325 and A490 equationsare F; = tg.s rsl (
sh o wnin F ig. 4. 14. 3. (
(
TABLE4.14.1 TENSTON
STRESS.
L|MTTF;
WHEN WITHSHEAR
COMBINED
(FORBEARTNG-WPS (FROM
CONNECTTONS) LRFD-TABLE
J3.3) (
Fri, 2A 30 40 50 6!
(
1C
Fastener (ksi) (MPa) F;. ksi (
.4'307bolts 39-1.8/""<30 270- 1.8f,,,<210 Figure 4.14.3 Interaction relationship for combined shear and tension in bearing-type (
A325-N bols 85-l.g/,,<68 590*L.8f"u<470 connections,LRFD-Table J3.3.
(
(tbreads not excluded)
.{325-X bolts 85-f.4Ls68 590-L.4f"u<470 (
(thrcads excluded)
A490-N bolts 105-1.8/,,<M 730- 1.8f,,s 580 Sllp.GrltlcalConnecdons (
(threadsnot excluded)
A490-X bolts f06-1.4f"us84 730- l. f,o s 580 Since a higber factor of safery againstslip is necessaryfor slip-critical (
(threadsexcluded) : {' connectionJthan for bearing-tyPe,any reduction in the clamping forces (
(developedduring the pretensioning of the bolts; due to an externallyappligd
'Nominal stress due
to factorcd load acting on grqssbolt cross-sectionalare4
:
::3
?
iensiteior* R, (ier bol9 wilt reducethe clampingforce,and hencereducethe (
fu, - Ru,/At,.
friction force. (
i:"r !+o
*. :
i * !
(
(
(
( 176 4/STRUCTURALFASTENERS ,l 4.r4 / ooMBTNED ANDTENSTON
SFiEAR 177
(
I
Again, a straight-lineinteractionrelationshipis used: but one that is more
I
I
Solving Eq. 4.14.8 for the maximrtmservicetoad shear stressV/Ab tha,t
i conservative than the type of Eq. 4.14.2 for bearing-t)?e connections.The t

II
may exist in the presenceof tension,glves
constant C is reduced from 1.25 to 1.0 for slip-critical connections.ln
( addition. since slip resistanceis a serviceload consideration,the numerator
=a[ro (4.14.e1
( terms of Eq. 4.14.2becomeserviceloads T and l'(rension and shearon a bolt;
I [t":;] ;]
that may simultaneouslyact, and the denominator terms becomethe maxi- Letting /" be called {,', the allowableshearstressrvhen external tension is
( mum forces permitted in slip-criticalconnectionssubject to tension or shear also present, and substitutingthe valuesfor F,, the ailowable shear stressin
( acting alone: the absenceof tension for bolts in standardboles,one obtains from Eq. 4.14.9

w,l-[;]='o
the limitations of LRFD-J3.5:
( (4.14.8)
( / r\
F,j s 1?11- ; I A325boltsin standard
holes (4.14.10)
\ r o/
(
rvlrere Fu : maximum nominal service load shear stress V/Ar permitted in
( slip-critical cdnnectionssubjecrro shearonly (LRFD-J3.5,Table F: < zr [r - +) oo* boltsin standard
holes (4.14.11)
\ , D /
( . J3.4)
These equations are shown in Fig. 4.14.4.
The useof the initial tensionforce ?, from installation of the bolts reflectsthe
( "prestress" concept
discussedin Sec.4.l3. Until the externalload on a bolt r E)GITTPLE 4.14.1
(. exceedsthe precompressionforce betweenthe piecesthe teasion force in the Using Load and ResistanceFactor Design, determine the adequacyof the
bolt wiII not changesignificanrlyfrom its inirial tension ?.r. fasteners in Fig. 4.14.5 when l-in.-diam A325 bolts are used in (a) a bearing-
(
type connection (A325-X) with threadseXcluded from tbe shearplanes, and
{: (b) a slip-critical connection(A325-SC)with Class A surfacecondition and
standard holes. Assume the column flange and the ST sectiondo not govern
(
the answer.The gravity loading is 10%dead load and 90% live load.
(
SOLUTION
( (a) Check connection as a bearing-typeconnection (A325-X). Obtaining
( the tension and shear componeotsof the factored applied force, -'

( + 1.6(0.eX75)
Pual.2(0.1)(7s) = 117kips

(' ', P,, :0.8(117) : 93.6kips


Tensioncomponent=
Shearcomponent:Pu,:O.e(t17): 70.2kips
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

/(
(
o.2 0:4
N'
Py P-75k

(
Figura 4.14.4 S];pcritical conaections. Figure 4.14.5 Exaraple 4.14.1.
,'( ...*
Ff
4/STRUCTURALFASTENERS
ANDTENstoN
4.14/ CoMBNEDSHEAR 179 (
178
(
! EXAMPLE 4.14.2 (
Thc factored loads ?" and Vu pet bolt are
Determinethe maximum value of the load P in Example4.14.1assuming(a) a
TensionTu:93.6/6 : 15.6kips/bolt (
slip-critical connection, and (b) a bearing-type connection (A325-N) with
70.2/6 : ll.7 kips/bolt threads possible in the shear planes.Use AISC Load and ResistanceFactor (
ShearV,:
Design and assumeClassA surfacecondition with standard holes.
(
Using Table 4.14.1,
SOLUTION - (
F,i,: 85 - I .4f," s 68 ksi (a) Slip-critical connection.The serviceload forces are
(
Muttiplyingby At for ]-in.-diam bolts, the abovebecomes Tension@mPonent = P, : 0.8P
(
Max Tu : F,!,At Shearcomponent: Pr: 0.6P
(
: 8 5 (0 .6 0 1 3-) t.4 V u< 6 8 (0 .6 0 1 3) The load per bolt in shearis
(
: 51.1 - l.4V, S 40.9kips V : 0.6P/6 : 0.10P per bolt
(
The load per bolt in tensionis
Tu: 15.6< [Max r, = 51.1 - 1.4(11.7)= 34.7kipsl (
Note that the 34.7 kips limit from the linear ioteractionequationis usedsince T : 0.8P/6 : 0.133perbolt (
it does not exc€edthe upper limit on that value of 40.9 kips. In addition, the i r\ (
shearvalue 11.7kips/bolt must be checked.The designstrength(Eq. a.7.1)in F,:-: l?lt - j Ia.ra.roJ
singleshearis 4 (
/ 0.133P
\
d,R,,, : O.O5(0.60
r!) me o F , :! 1 7 t 1- (
39 J:rr-0.0s8P
: 0.65(0.60X120X1)0.6013
- 28.1kips > 11.?kips (
OK The maximum serviceload shear V per bolt pgrmitted on {-in.-aiam bolts is
(
The connection is very conservativelydesignedas a bearing-t1peconnection. Ir{axp : F,!A6: (l? - 0.059p)0.6013: 10.2 - 0.035P
(b) Check connectionasa slip-criticalconnection(A325-SC).For strength. -:- " (
a slip-critical connection must satisfy the same strength.relatedcriteria of a Equating / to \{ax Iz gives
(
bearing-typeconnection.The shearstrength was investigatedin (a); bearing 0 . 1 0 P: 1 0 . 2 - 0 . 0 3 5 P
strength was given in the problem statementas not controlling. P:76kips (
For serviceability, the adequacyof slip resistancemust be checked.The I
The strength in shear,tension,and bearing must also be checkedas if this were (
serviceload forcesper bolt are
a bearing-.typeconnection.For somevery slip-resistantsurfaceconditions the (
I,: 0.8(75)/6 :10 kips/bolt strengthas a bearing-typeconnectionmay control insteadof slip resistance;a
relatively unusualsituation. (
v : 0.6(75)/6 : ?.5 kips/bolt (b) Bearing-typeconnection(A325-N) with threadspossible in tbe shear (
From LRFD-J3.5,Eq. 4.14.10, planes.The factoredloadsare
(
P , : \ . 2 ( 0 . 1 ) P+ 1 . 6 ( 0 . 9 ) P: 1 . 5 6 Pk i p s
(
Tensicncomponent: P,., :0.8(1.56P) : 1.25Pkips
(
-fhe Shearcomponeot- Put: 0.6(1.56P) - 0-94P kips
serviceload shearcapacityper bolt is (
The factored loads per bolt are
Max P : FJAI- 12.6(0.6013)
: 7.6kips/bolt (
T"= 1.25P/6 = 0.208P
which exc€edsV : 7.5 kips; therefore,the bols are satisfactoryas a slip-criri- (
V"= 0.94P/6 - 0.156P
cal connection. t (
{
(
(
(
(
180 ' 4/sTFucTuFALFASTENERS '.1 SHEARAND TEr,lStON
4.14/ COT.JBINED 181

(
(
(
(
FromTable4.14.1,
F',:85 - 1.8fuoS
68ksi
Multiplyingby At for fr-in.diambolts,rheabovebecomes
M* 7" - F,i,At
I loads (threadsexcludedfrom shearpfune)is
F',: 85 - 1.4fu,,
and thedcsignshearstrength
is
< 68ksi (A325-X)

d.Rn,: 0.65(o.6oF!)
ntAu
( - I .Bv"s68(0.6013)
85(0.6013) The linearinteraction iar Fj, may,in general,
equations as
be expressed
( - 51.1- 1.8V"< 40.9kips
F',: Ct - Crlro 3 F, (u)
( EquatingT, to Max 7" gives rvhcre C, and C., arc constants.
( 0 . 2 0 8 p : 5 t . t - 1 . 8 ( 0 . 1 5 6 p=) 5 1 . 1- 0 . 2 8 1 p Convert Eq. (a) into a force equation by multiplying by the bolt area 16;
thus
( P : 105kips
F,i,At: CrAo- CrfuoAu3 FurAo (b)
( Clteckthat the Ma,*T" from linear interactiondoesuot exceedthe 40.9kips
upperlimit, or, if EA6 rcpresentsthe total area of all bolts, then F;,EAb: Elu and
(
f,,DAu - LVu, giving
( Ma* 4, : 51.1- 0.281(105)
: 21.?kips< 40.9kips OK
LTu- CrEAb- CzLVuS gRn, (c)
( In addition,the shearstrengthmustbe checked,
rvhere If, and lVu are the total factored tension and shear forces, respec-
( O,R": 0.65(0.4SF:),nA
b i,ively,applied to the connection.Solving &. (c) f,orLAu gives
( : 0.65(0.45X120X1X0.6013)
: 21.1kips c'Ev"
E A.:ET"+ (d)
( :0.156(105)
V": 0.756P : 16.+kipso 21.1kips cr
OK
( rvhich is the basic desigttequationfor bearing-t)?econnecti.ons.
Tbe valuesof
Thus, the maximum value of the service load p is 76 kips as a slip-critical
-.- C, are 85 and 106 for A325 and 4'490, respectively,and the values of C, arc
( connection and 105 kips as a bearing-t)pe (A325-N) cotrDection E. 1.4 when threads are eXcluded(A325-X) from the shearplanes and 1.8 when
( E E)(AMPLE 4.143 threadsare iNcluded (A325-N) in the shearplanes.
For A325-X bolts, Eq.(d) becomes
( Determine the number of l-in f-in.-dian A325 bolts required ro car$f a shearDv vs.J s

force consisting of 14 kips dead load and 56 kips live load, and a tension force LTu+ L. LV,
(' of Z4ldps dead load and 96 kips live load. The connectionis ro be designed (')
85
( such that the resultant force act"stbrough the centroid of the connectioo. Ust
Load and ResisranceFacror Design. (a) DesigD as a bearing-type (A325-x) For this example,the factoredserviceloadsare
( connection, and O) design as a slip-critical (A325-SC) coonrctioo having Class
A surface condition and standard holes. LTu: 1.2(24)+ 1.6(96): 182kips
( ' -:.-
L v u : 1 . 2 ( 1 4+) 1 . 6 ( 5 6 ) : 1 o 6 k i p s
( SOLWION
In this design it seemsapparent that since both the tension and the shear and usingEq. (d) whichis expected
to governgives
(
forces are of comparable magnitude, it is tikely that neither the maxinum
( LT' +-\48V" - 182+ 1'4(106)
shear strength nor the maximum tension strengthof the fastenersmay be used, Required
LA^:
"'.b : 3.9sqin.
as may be observedfrom Fig. a.1a3. Use of design charts 85 85
( l4.24lis one possible
-- approach- The following approach l4.241may be used when charts are not The use of Eq. (e) satisfiesthe tension requirement.Tbe shear strength must
( available. also be checked.
' (a) Bearingtype connection. From iable
( 4.14.1(LRFD-Table J3.3)" the
interaction criterion for maximum nominal stress in tension under factored 0,R,,,: 0.65(0.60)
(120)(1)r, : 46.8A
t kips/bolt
(
(
v

182 4 /STRUCTUFAL FASTENERS


(
4.15ISHEAR
ANDTENSION
FROM
ECCENTRIC
LOADING 183 ('

The toral bolt areallu requiredto carry I{ would be


maximum tension must also be checked. The design tensile si^rengthgrR", per
bolt is (
- : *zt6.u: 2 .3 s q i n .< Z.9sqi n.
Requ i re dL Au
e,Ro, : O.?5(0.?S.f!) Ao : 62.51, kips
e u: 0.75(0.?5X120)
As expected, the tension force limitation based on the linear interacrion 's-
::;; using the factored load ETu: 182 kips from part (a), the total bolt area
equationcontrolled.The numbern of bolts requiredis aR;. required is
#;
3.9 +^j:'
#,
Requiredn = : 8.8 bolts !Sr-.'-
€:' RequiredEAo: : 2.7 sqin. < 6.0 sq in.
[[Ig st*,.
- *o / . )
i*.:t-:.
f f i 1 , '

tile I0- l-in.-diam A325-X boltsfor a bearing-t1peconnection. .€:l


It is clear that slip resistancein shear controls. The number of bolts required is
#*::
Ti::.'
(b) Slip-cti,i. heckedin (ar =+- 6.0
for a bearing-typeconnectionappty to the slip-criticalconnection.The inrer- 1ia :
4a-'.
Requiredn : : 13.6bolrs I

action relation,Eq. 4.14.10from LRFD-J3.5,is ef [.J4lE-


usel4-f -in.-diam4325boltsfor thissrip-criticalconnecrion. t
t:.! I

c =rz(r ;) [+.ra.ro] *4.15


SHEARAND TENSIONFROMECCENTRICLOADING
For ]-in.-diam bolrs, Tt:28 kips. MultipryingEq. 4.14.10by lo gir.es
In a bracket connection such as in Fig. 4.1a.1a and d, the eccentric load
r(0.4418)
F , i A o : t 7'\IAt -s l ' l\ produces both shear and tension in the upper fasteners.As in most other
zsAb ) trf connections, the manner io which the pieces behave is complex. However,
nominal forces carried by the fastenersare usually determined 6y using one of
Note that in Eq-(0 lo could be the total area LA5of all participatingbols two approaches:(1) that of neglectingany inirial tension in the fasteneisor (2)
and I could be E?'. However,?i is the initial tensionin ine bolt; thJs. one that of consideringthe initial pretension forcesin the fasteners.When fasten-
area (0.4418)appearsin the numeratorto give stressunits.This u-ill be correcr ers such as A307 bolts are used,the amount of initial tension presentis usually
n'lr':therthe other variablesareTT/LA^ for all bolts or T/Ao for one bolt. small and of an indeterminableamount. Tb,erefore,in this case,the neglectof
If
t he area A o is consideredthe total areat A
uof all participatitrgUottr.then Eq. any initial tension is reasonableand grvesconservativeresults. On the.other
( [) nrav be q'ritten hand, when high-streugthbolts are used the initial pretensionforces exist and
LV: lTLAb- 0.2'1LT should be recognized.
(e) If initial tensiondoesnot exist to any appreciabledegree,the application
Note that 0-27 : fi(a.Mn)/zl. Solvingfor the toral bolt areaLA u required of moment Pe (Fig. 4.14.1d)will produce a tensio'nthat-is maximum at the
gives top bolts. Near the bottom of the connection, compression would exist
Lv + o'27LT between the pieces being joined with little effect direcily bn the bolts. The
r/ r: -J7-
Required (h) direct shear would be canied nearly entirely by the bolts since little friction
would exist from bolt installation. The use of 4307 bolts having little initial
n'hich may be consideredthe desrgnequation for 4,325 bolts in slip-critical tension is rare in important connections having shear in combination with
cLrnnectionshaving ClassA surfacecondition and standardholes. moment-induced tension; thus no further treatment is given to the analysis
For A490 bolrs, the denominarorof Eq. (h) becomes21. Thoueh the neglectinginitial tension.
l-in.-diam bolt was used in this de'elopment,it is nored that eo/r, ;i Veillette and DeWolf [4.25] have conducted tesrs on tee connections with
sufficiently constantto useEq.(h) as the designequationfor all sizesoi bolts. bolts loaded in shearand tension.
For this exarnple,
Tenslon from Bendlng Moment Gonslderlng Inlilal renslon
LAu:Y#:
Required L$@ : 6.0sqin.
consider the serviceloed moment M applied to the bracket of Fig. 4.15.1 to
The use of Eq. (h) satisfiesthe shear requirementfor slip resisrance. causetension on the up-Perbolts (maximum in tbe top one of each row of boltj
The shown as black dots).'High-strengtbbolts used as sucb fastenersare require.d
(
\ (
1 84 4/STRUCTUML FASTENERS 4.15/ SHEAR
ANDTENSTON
FROMECCENTRTC
LOADTNG 195
(
(
and shouldnot e.rceedf o, it compressionbetweenthe piecesis to remain at
(
the top.
( The load I on the top bolt is equal to the product of the bolt tributar_v-
arca (width b timesbolt spacingp) timesdr. Thus,
(
T : f,obp (4.15.3)
(
SubstitutingEq. 4.15.2into 8q.4.15.3givesthe load on the top bolt as
(
6M 6Mp
( 't : - . h n : - (4.15.4)
bd2"t 4z
(
Assumingthe top bolt is approximatelyp/2 from the top, the value of ?ncan
(a) (b)
( be modifiedto be
( ttot- rol ?L*n.o:r(
(
i!{
l l r l
+)
I I t r 6Mpld-p\
= E :-art (4.1s.5)
( l-+/
g d,
( v There is logic for using this procedure in Allowable Stress Design where
( service loads are used in the analysis. The authors consider this method
- acceptablefor use in Load and Resistanc€Factor Design.
( F_

tf- rr + r,o1-1
l t EXAI\TPLE4.I5.I
(
Determinethe capacityP for the connectionof Fig. 4.15.2if the fastenersare
lnitial compressiv: Stress on contact Finat stress on
stress on cont3ct area- area due to applied load contact area l-in.-diam A325-X bolts subject to shear and rension in a bearing-type
( (c) (d) connectionwith no threadsin the shearplane. Use AISC Load and Resistance
Factor Design,assumingthe load is 20%dead load and 80% gravity live load.
( Figure4.15.1 Stresses oo coatactsurfaceof mcoeat-resistingconsectioo,consiae;nf .
initial tensiol in the bolts. 1'
SOLWION
( (a) Compute factbredload P".
( ' to be installed lvith a prescribed initial tension in them whether the jornt is ) t . 6 ( 0 . 8 P:)1 . 5 2 P
P u : I . 2 ( 0 . 2 P+
( considered a bearing-type or a slip-critical connection (RCSG 14.71,Sec. 8).
This tension in each bolt will precompressthe plates or sections being joined. ^l l -l
( For the situation of Fig. 4.15.1,the neutral a:cis.under the action of moment
( M will occur at the centroid (CG) of the contact area; that is, ^t d/2 for the 11lfl
(
rectangular contact area shown
The initial bearing pressurefoi as shown in Fig. 4.15.1c is assumed to be
I

H-FI -lor
( uniform over the contact area bd and is equal to 2
l"llll"l x
-l(Y
r',

(
f o , : *bd (4.1s.1) 3
l.llll"l X
rt)

(
tl" I
E_lJ
N
4

( where ETo : the pretension load times the number of bolts. The tensile"stress
f* at the iop due to &e applied moment is .
L-unJ
(
. Md/z 6M (h)

" ( ' rto (4.1s.2)


I bdz Figure 4.15.2 Sbearand moment-inducedtensioo connectionfor Exa:nple 4.15.1.
(
U

4.15 / SHEARANDTENSION
FROMECCENTRTC
LOADTNG 187
186 4/STRUCTURAL FASTENERS
I

(
(b) Compute the factored shear and teasion on the bolts using thc bolt cross-sectional areas comprise the resisting section:
assumptionthat applied loads do not overcomeinitial compressionbetw'cen 'Mv (
Mv
-
the piecesbeing joined. Referring to Fig. 4.15.2,the neutral axis for flexure is f
lt : (4.1s.6)
I LAoy,
at mid-depthof the contact area.Equation4.15.5,using the factoredmoment
(.
ivl, and the maximum factored load Tu per bolt for M and 4,*n.0, respec- When all fastenersare the samesize(as is usual), A, may be combined with /,
tively, and noting the moment M, equalsthe load P, times the eccentricitl'e to obtain the tensileforce I in a bolt. Thus, (
o f 3 i n. , giv es
-
6 M". :. p l d _' pi l- - -6- (' t -. s_ z- pl X
: 0l t .l i2112 +
_ 3P1 T:Aof,: (4.15.7)
"t T :
tzLa
-
I z0z)' Lt', J #
*;1
.r .-
In order to show that Eq.4.15.5is identical to Eq. 4.15.7,let the depth d (
Note that since there are two vertical lines of fastenersthere is a 2 in the .-S.5.
,.3-

u""'fi'J:[:::ih::il: E:-
tk-
of the contact area equal np, where n is the number of fastenersin one line;
iii#'ll;a'ybya'borts
is -_=- Eq. 4.15.5then becomes
3Si,

-.E: (
I
P..
v. u - - - -
t.52P
: 0.190P
*:,:.-
-:#,.
r : f r r *t ) - 6 t ,I (4.1s.8) (
Ln
"14;_ -
(c) DesignstrengthsSftn of bolu ia shearand tension.In shearthe design .FT
$ote that p0 - \/2 is the distance from mid-depth ro the outermost
strcn g t h0, , Rnois *-
ffi- fasiErierand correspondsto y of Eq. 4.15.6.Further, a single line of fasteners
spacedat p apart may be treated as a rectangular resisting section of width
e. R,,u: 0.65(0.6orf ) * o -{* ('
A/p and depth np.The momentof inertia of such a sectionrvould be
: 0.65(0.60)(120X1 )0.4418: 20.7kips

and in tension the design strength FJ,A, is reducedfrom its maximum value I:;i(i)'^" (4.1s.e)
by virtue of the simultaneouslyacting shear; thus, from Table 4.14.1 after -f

mu l ti p ly inB byA t , = which correspondsapproximatelyto the moment of inertia of the bolt areas, !

.: EAuy'. Thus, Eqs. 4.15,?and 4.15.8are essentiallythe same. Basedon this


F , i, Ao :8 5 A 0 - 1 .4 f" ,Ab< 6 8 Ab . '
:... reasoning,designEq. 4.12.28may also be used to estimaterequired nurnber of /
F J ,A u : 8 5 (0 .4 4 1 8-) 1 .4 V "< 6 8 (0.4418) { fastenerswhen fastenersare subjectto moment causing tension or shear and
I

M* 7" : 37'6 - 1'4V" < 30'0kiPs l,;:=,


tension. (
1sr
f'
Assuming the interaction equation cootrols, solve for P by equating I to 's-
I (
,-+ r EXAMPLE 4.15.2
Ma x{ , € For the connectionof the bracket of Fig. 4.15.3to the column, determine the
'+j i
o .2 t4 P : 3 7 .6- 1 .4 (0 .1 9 0 P ) ;a
number of f-in.-diam A325 bolts requiied to transmit the shear and tension
(
P : 78.4 kips s{ forces.Use 3-in. verticalpitch. (a) Use bearing-type(A325-X) connectionwith
*' threads excluded from the shear plane, and (b) use slip-critical (A325-Sc) (.
Thcn also check maximum Vu and the upper limit (30.0 kips/bolt) on Q: .1::
connection.Use Load and ResistanceFactor Design assuming the load is 52
; kips gravity live load and 8 kips dead load
V": 0.190P: 0.190(78.4)- 14.9kips . 20.7kips
I

OK
: F -
T,: A.274P: 0.214(78.4): 16.8kips < 30.0kips OK - g
SOLUTION
:*'.
.. "E
(
Therefore.the serviceload capacityP is 78.4lcrps. : * (a) Bearing-type(A325-R connection.The factored load { is
'"€-'-
;' (
& = 1.2(8)+ t.6(s2): 92.8kips
?q3
+ € The designshearstrengthfR,n for fastenerssubject to shear alone is
Conslderlng Inltlal Tenslon - Simpllfled Procedure
As long as the initial compressionbet *'eenplatesresultingfrom initial tension
= o.oi(o.oo4r
O"Ro, )na,
in installed bolts is not totaily counteractedby external load, one may = 0.65(0.60X120X1)0.6013
- 28.1kips
c<rmputetensilestressin a bolt by rhe flexure formula f - M-v/I as if only the
a
' (
188 4 / STRUCTURAL
FASTEIJEFS 4.15lSltEAR
ANDTENStOr.t
FROUECCENTRTC
LOADTNG 1 8 9
(
(
One could check4 bolts per line,
( IP
I
I
t { o,rrnA32sbons : +[{r.s)t+ (4.s)tJ
L1,2 : 9oin.2
(
( Il .^ v 92. E( 8) - 1. 5
R,,: -*-:37.1kips<38.1 kips OK
( #:

( Clearly,4 boltsper line are acceptable.Note that there is a slightdiscrcpanry


between 0R,,, : 40.6 kips and the upper lirnit on the line interaction(40.9
( kips).That arisesfrom attemptingto simplify the linear equation;either limit
seemsacceptable.
(
Use8 - i-in.-diam .4325bolts, 4 per row.
( (b) Slip-criticalconnection.The strengthrequirementsexaminedin (a) are
Figure4.15.3 Eranrple 4.15.?.Design for shearand tcnsion.
( still appiicable here; however,usually the senice load limitations relating to
slip resistancervill govern. Equation 4.12.28 may be used wirh serviceloads
( and allowa.bleresistancesentered,
rhe 'lesigntension;::It;;;j:ers subject
to tension
arone
is
( M = 6A(8)/2 : 240in.-kips per bolt line
(
R, : FumAb- 17(1X0.6013): |}.Zkipslbolt
: 0.75(0Js)(120)0.6013: 40.6kips
(
The reducedvalue for shearin the presenceof tension is
Notingthat ,t/ for Eq.4.lz.zgis 92.8(g)/z
: 371in.-kips
perverrical
lineof
( - T/Tr)
fasteners,the number n of fastenersper line is approxi.utily Fo,:4(t (LRFD-J3.5)
(
( ,1 : I
lm :
6(371)
: 4.3 required for M alone
Sincestrengthmust be checkedeven though the joint is a slip-critical one, the
number of fastenersto resisttensionis the sarnecaiculation as in (a) where4.3
|lRp 40.6('
*6,
( fastenersper line were indicated.It is more likely here that shearwill control:
P 92.8 thus, estimating R at somewhatlessthan 10.2 kips, say 8 kips,
( h : - : 1.7 requiredfor shearalone '60
2R 2(2&1) P
( ' : : :.4 esdmatefor shearalone
Try 10 bolts(5 per line): rt Z*,
(
Ev': 4[(3)2+ (6)t] : 180in.2 With about 4 bolts required for shearand 4 requked for tension.more rhan 4
( should be investigated.Try 5 bolts per line. The maximum serviceload per
92'-8J-8)6 bolt in tension and shearis as follows:
( R,,l y-
g
: -.13; ;24.7 kips< 40.6kips OK
( Mv 60(8)6
R': = 16'okiPs
, -_ - *: ff
( R,u:3: : 9 . 3 k i p s < 2 8 . 1k i p s O K
T10 ' P 6 0
Ln
( Ro : : : 6.0kips
Next check the interaction between,shear and tension.From Table 4.74.1, ;;' 16
(
F',:85 - l.4f,u36gksi F , ( 1- T / T ) A '
( .F;:
0R;, : F,j,At: g5(0.6013)_ 1.4R,, < 6g(0.6013) : 17(1- 16.0/39): 10.0ksi
(

oK :
MaxR o: F,lAt: 10.0(0.6013)
(
(
: ll l _li[:;ijTi::,>247kips : 6.0kiPs= [Ru : 6.0kips] OK
, (
F PROBLEMS 191 ( t
190 4/srRUcruRAL FASTENERS
( . i

'4.16. "Sen'iceability (
Thur. 5 bolts per line exactly meetsthe slip resisnnce requirementand is more Theciiore V. Gaiambos,T. A- Reinhold. and Bruce Ellingwood.
Limit States: Connectioa Slip," Journal of the Stntctural Diuision, ASCE" 108. (
than aCequatefor the strengthrequirementsin shear and tension.
Itse i0-;-in.diam A325 bolts,5 pcr row. I STl2 (December1982).2668-2680
"Eccentrically Loaded Bolted
4.1?. Sberwood F. Crawford and Geoffrey L. Kulak. ( )
Connections," Journal af the Structural Diuision,ASCE, 97, ST3 (Marcb 1971)'
765-783. (
"Ecceotrically Loaded Slip-ResistantConnectioas," Engi'
4.18. Geoffrey L. Kutak. (
SELECTEDREFERENCES neeringJournal, AISC, 12,2 (2nd Quarter 1975)' 52-55.
"Rapid Determination of Ultinrate Strengtb of Eccentrically
4.19. C. Donald Brandt- ( ,
4.1. C. Batbo asd E H. Bateman. "fnvestigations on Bolts and Bolted Joints." Loaded Bolt Groups," EngineeringJournal, AISC, 19, 2 (Zad Quarter 1982),
94-100. Disc. by Cedric Marsh, EngineeringJournal,19, 4 (4tb Quarter 1982), (
Sccond Report of the Steel Stnrctures Research Committee- Londoa: His
- 2L+215; Nestoy lsenkis, Engineering_.!_gtrygl,2I), 1 (lst Quarter 1983), 46;
Majesq/s Stationery Office, 1934. (
4.2. w .lv{. Wilsoe and F. P. Thomas."Fatigue Testsos Riveted Joints," Bulletin 302, 2 (Znd Quarter 1983),88.
"Nonlinear Analysis of Eccentric Bolted Connections."
EcEg. Experlment Station, U. of lllinois, Urban4 IL.. 1938. 4.20. Avigdor Ruteaberg. ( i
4.3. A- L R De Joage."Riveted Joints; a Critical Review of tbe Literature Covering . EngineeringJournal, AISC, 21, 4 (4th Quarter 1984), 227'236.
"Bchavior of Fasteoersand Plates with Holes," Journal a! the (
Tbck Developmenl" New York: Anericaq Society of Mechanical Engineers. 4.21. l. W. Fisher.
1%5. Structural Diuision,ASCE 91, 5T6 (December1965), 265-286. (
"Plastic Bebavior of Eccentrically-Loaded Ccanections," fngi-
4.4. AISC. *Slaposium on Higb-Suengtb Bolts," Proceedings o! AISC National 4.22. Carl L. Shermer.
"
Engineering Conference.New York: Americao lttstitute of Steel Construction. , neeringJotrnal,AISC, $ 2 (April 1971),48-51. *High-
(
L950.22-43. 4.23iEugene Chesson,Jr., Norberto L. Faustino, and William H. Mu"se.
4.5. Willias H. Muase. "Researcb on Bolted Connections," Transactions,ASCE, l2t Strength Bolts Subjected to Tension and Shear," Jowtal of the Structural (
( 1 e 5 6 )1
. 255-1266. Diuision.ASCL 91, ST5 (October1965),155-f80. ( ,
"Design Charts for Bolts with
4.6. *Rivets and Higb-Strengtb Bolts, A Syrcposrrrm," Transactions,ASCE 126, Part 4.24. Hans William Hagen and Richard C. Penkul.
Ii (i961), 693-820. . Combined Shear and Tension," Engineering Journal, AISC, 2, 2 (April 1965), ( ,
4.?. Researcb Council on Structural Connections. Allaryable Stress DesignSpecifica- 42-45.
"Eccentrically Loaded High Strength (
tion for Strvctwal Joins UsingASTM A325 or A490 Bols- Chicago, IL: American 4.25. John R. Veillette and Jobn T. DeWolf.
Institute of Steel Coostruction, November 13, 1985. Bolted Connections,"Jotrnal of Stntctural E4gineering,ASCE. ltl. 5 (May
(
4.8. Researcb C-ouncilon Structural Coonections- Lmd and ResistanceFactor Design 1985),1003-1018.
Specificationfor Structursl Joinu Using ASTM 4325 or 4490 Bolu. Chicago, IL: (
.{-c:ericanInqlitute of SteelConstnrction"September1, 1985.
( 1

4.9. L:sea:ch Council oa Structural Connections. Commentary on Specificatiorcfor


S:ructwcl Joins Using ASTM 4325 or A490 Bolts. Chicago, [L: American
PROBLETT'!S
(
Istitute of SteelConstnrction,November 13, 1985.
4.10. Jobo W. fichgl, Theodore V. Galambos,Geoffrey L. Kulak, and Mayasandra K. All problems are to be done according to the AISC Load and Resistance (
Rarin&a *Load and ResistanceFactor Design Criteria for Connectors," Journal Factor Design or Allowable StressDesign,as indicated by the instructor. All
of rhe Srructural Diuision,ASCE, 104,ST9 (September1978), 7427-l4d.L. given loads are sentceloadsunlessothenviseindicated. All holesarc standard ( ,
4.11. J. W. Fisher, P. O. Racrseier,and L. S. Beedle."Strength of 44.10 SteelJoints holes and surface condition is clean mill scale (Class A) unless othenvise ( ,
FasieaeCsi& ,{325 Bolts," Publications,IABSE 23 (1963). indicated. When an ultimate strength analysis is requestedin an Allowable
4.12. Joba L. Rumpf and Jobn W. Fisher,"Calibration of 4'325 Bolts," Journal of the StressDesign problem, use a factor of safety of 2.5 to obtain the allorvable ( t
Srructwat Diubion, ASC$ 89, 5T6 (Deceaber 1963), 215-234. value. Where needed,assumedistance from center of hole to neerestedge
4.13. Jobn H. A Struik, Abayomi O. Oyeledua and Joho W. Fisher. *Bolt Teosion (
(edgeor end distance)is lI in. unlessotherwisegiven.
Control *'itb a Direct Tension lndicator," EngineeringJournal, AISC, 10. I (First ( ,
Values of yield stressF, *d tensile strength d for member steelsare
Quarter 1973),1-5.
4.14. Desi D. Vasarhcly"iand Kah Ching Chiang. "Coefficient of Friction in Joints of availablein Table 2.1.1.For-A325bolts, Fb :120 ksi minimum for bolts j- ( t
Varc'.:s Stetl.s," Journal of the StrucruralDiuision, ASCE, 93, ST4 (August 1967), to l-in. diameter,and 105 ksi minimum for 1|- to l|-in. diameter.For A490
- bolts, FD: 150 ksi minimumfor |- to 1|-h. diameter. (
2?j-243.
4.15. Jcseph A Yura and Karl H. Frank "Testing Method to Determine rbe Slip ( ,
Coefficiect for CoatiagsUsedin Bolted Joiots," EngineeringJournal,AISC,22,3 4.1. Determine the senice load tension capacity of the connection of the
(3rd Quarter 1985), 151-155. (also available in AISC LRFD Madwl [1.17J, . accompanyingfigure for the case assignedby the instructor. Investigate ( t
p. 6278) as bearing-t)?e connection with threads excluded (X) from the shear
( t

( i
(.r
\
( PRCBLEMS 193
192' FASTENERS
4 7 STRUCTURAL
(
(
or as spccify the value to be used.Llse(a) a bearing-typeconnection(A325-X),
planes, bearing-typewith threadsincluded (N) in the shearplanes,
( "Type and (b) a slip-critical (A325-SC)connection.
i slip-criticat lSCl connection,as indicated under the heading
( Connection." Specifythe minimum dimensionsA and B appropriatefor 4.4. For the caseassignedby the instructor,determinethe number of boits
the connection. requiredto developtbe full capacityof the double angle tensionmember
(" shorvnin the accompanyingfigure. Use a double row of bolts without
( stagger.Detail the connection.
% % Bolt
( Dead Lire Plate Diameter Type
( Case Load Load Steel (in.) Connection % % Bolt
Dead Live Angle Diameter Type
( 90 A36 3/1 A325-X Load Steel (in.) Connection
1 1 0 Case Load
( 2 1 5 85 A36 3/4 A32s-SC
3 1 5 85 A572Gr 50 3/4 A325-N 1 1 0 9 0 A572Gr 50 3/4 A325-X
( 4 2 0 '80 A572Gr 50 3/4 A.325-SC 2 1 5 8 5 A572Gr 50 3/4 A325-SC
5 2 0 80 A572Gr 60 7/8 A325-X 3 3 0 7 0 A572Gr 50 7/8 A325-N
6 4 0 60 A572Gr 60 7/8 A325-SC 4 4 0 6 0 A572Gr 50 7/8 4325-SC
( 7 1 5 85 A572Gr 65 7r/8 A490-X
8 1 5 85 A572Gr 65 7/8 A490-sc
(
(
gussetplste
(
(
(
(
( o o Prob.4.4
(
T+- o o _+T
( 4.5. For the single angle rension member of. A572 Grade 50 steel in the
( o o accompanyingfigure, how many |-in.-diam A325bolts are required for
the connection?The load I is 80 kips live load and 20 kips dead load.
( Assume a slip-critical connection(A325-SC)is to be used. Design the
( . shortestfeasibleoverlapof piecesfor the connection,and detaii it.

( Prob.4.1

( 4.2..For any of the casessolved in Prob.4.1, determine the factor of safety


againsislip at serviceload. Do you expect slip to occut at serviceload? If -T
(
bolt strength had controlled would slip have been expected at service
( load? !
t

( 4.3. Determine the serviceload capacity T for the butt splice of Prob. 3.15
. when sr : s2 - 2 in. and A325 bolts are used with no threads in the
( _ shear planes. Specify the end distancesrequired and evaluate whether or
( not th! given stagger of 2 in. is sufficient. If the 2 in- is not adequate, Prob.4.5 and 4.6

(
Tffii..
--F-iE:' -
Fr' ;\R":.;
E i?'1 PROBLEMS 195 C:
194 4/srRucrufiAl FASTENERS t
--.i- -ii:

-'n:
( \

4.0. Solve Prob. 4-5 as a bearing-t1pe(A490-X) connectionusing f-in--diam : f-3@3'-T*l'-geg"-1 r' {f


A490 bolts.
:f
.:-- (' \ t
?-.
4.7. For the single angl; tension member of A36 steel in'the accompanying ( l
figure, determine the number of l-in.-diam A325 bolts required in a
5-a o oilq o
bearing-typeconnection(A325-N) where threadsmay exist in the shear
plane. The load is 7 kips dead load and 70 kips live load. Assume there
*:'
a+
#;:
M C 1 8X 4 2 . 7
r t i i l l
o o : lI o M C r SX 5 1 . 9
(
(
are three lf -in.-Ciam empty holes in the outstanding leg that are not a
part of thgconnecdon. The bolts carrying the load I are to-be.in a single
iine with the iust bolt locateda distanceS aheadof the first empty hole.
:=
tE

t t i i l l
o o ': o o
lr = 0.625in. (
t- = 0.60in' (
Detail the coonection.
a;-
+::'_

+
:&-
l t i i l l
o o r lo o
(
, r ll r l
A36 steel =a: l
(
TI :_:_
--qr
f -
(
l'<-
fll ;_-
iF

-_; .- a
(
cuset4l (
plate
:=- ta)
',:l;
- (
Prob. 4.7 Prob.4.9
=--- (
-:
4.8. Design and derail the double lap splice shown, to develop maximum *. (
:l!

tension capacity assumingthe load is 20% dead load and 80% live load. :--:' (
The steel is A35 and Ar325 l-in.-diam bolts are to be used in a ::
R,-ftxre
bearing-typeconnection(A325-X) with no threads in the shear planes. (
.-
What is the resulting serviceload capacityof the joint? (
tsft x rz
ts-frx r (
-1r;' (
tt
l1 (
l1 9' - > T
T *
It (
ll

(
(
I - ..4>T
t-frx ra (
(
Prob. 4.8
(
(
4.9. Determine the serviceload capacityof this teasion chord splice of two Prob.4.9
(b) CrosEsection
channels.The steelis A5?2 Grade 65, and the f-in.-diam A325 bolts are (
rn a bearing-r]?e connecdon(A325-R with no threads in the shear
(
planes.The load is 25%dead load and 75% live load.
(
(
) (
(
I
^l( 195 4/STRUCTURALFASTENERS
.j PROBLEN1S 197
(
( 4'1o' Compute the maximum serviceload P causinseccenrricshearon the 4.13. RcpcatProb.4.1i as a slip-critical(A325-SC)connecrioninsteadof a
connection of the accompanyingfigure. The lJaciing is 25% derd load bearing-tlpeconnection.
(
and 75% live load.The bolts are-;-in.-diamA325 boits in a bearing-r1'pe
( connection(A325-X) with threadsexclucledfrom tire shcar plane. As- 4.14. Selectthe propcr diameterA490 bolts for a bcaring-t_\'pe
cunitcction
sume the bracketplate has adequatestrength. (A490-X)if the loadingis 10%deadload and 90%live lo:rd.
;(
(a) Use the elastic(vector)merhod. (a) Use the ehstic (vector)merhod.
( (b) Use the strength method with rorarion abour the instantancous (b) Use ultimatestrengthanalysis.
center. (c) Use AISC tables, "ECCENTRIC LOADS ON FASTENER
(
(c) Use AISC tables, "ECCENTzuC LOADS ON FASTENER GROUPS.''
( GROUPS", with interpolation.
( 8k
l'l
( l-"'tu" r l
Asume plate has
adequatestrength
(
(
: Pr ob. 4. 14
(
(
Prob.4.10 4.15. Assuming the fastenerscontrol the capacity, determine the bolt size
( required for the connectionshown when the load is 10% dead load and
( 90% live load. The connection is a bearing-type (A325-X) containing
4-11. For the ,{36 steelbracketplate of the accompanyingfigure,calculaterhe
A325bolts.
( maximum service load P (15% dead load and g5% live load) when
(a) Use the elastic(vector)method.
l-in.-diam A325 bolts are used in a bearing-rypeconnecrion(A325-N) (b) Use ultimate strengthanalysis.
( with threadsincluded in the shear planes.
(c) Use AISC tables, "ECCENTRIC LOADS ON FASTENER
( (a) Use the elastic (vector) method.
GROUPS.''
(b) Use the ultimate strength merhod. .\
( (c) Use AISC tables, ..ECCENTRIC LOADS oN FASTENER-
( GROUPS''.

( ' 6 "
P
(
( - o o t
I
( I
(? o o

i/
G/
( aYt o o
- o o l" nr'i.
( t l

( l-r:l
( P rob.4.15
Prob.4.11
(
a
( 4.12. RepeatProb. 4.1.1;exceptuseonly 6 bolts insteadof g; that is,2 at 3 in. 4.16. For the connectionof the accompanyingfigure containing |-in.-diam
vertically insteadof 3 at 3 in. A325 bolts in a slip-critical connection, determine the serv'iceload
(
, (
-
e ]ROBLEMS \ ' l
t96 4,1 5'FT..€TI-dRAL FASTENERS 199
( ,

(C) USC AISC tAbICS,.'ECCENTRIC LOADS


(
ON FASTENER
GROUPS.'' (
4.18. RepeatProb.4.17 using f-in.-diam A490 bolts. ( l

4.19. For the eccentricshear loading of the accompanying figure, fi-in.-diam (


A325 bolts are used in two vertical lines in a bearing-type (A325-x)
connecdon.The loading is 10 kips dead load and 30 kips live load. (
(a) Determine the adequacy of the destgn using basic principles of the (
elastic (vector) method.
(b) Compute the service load capacity of the connection using ultimate (
strength analysis.
\
(c) Use AISC rables, "ECCENTRIC LOADS ON FASTENER
( t
GROUPS.''
v!8 x 3l
(
rr = 0335 (
(
t1rc.b 4 16
(

capacityP (15%deadload and 85%live load) by the following methods.


o) :o ! i:" i; (
and compare the results:
I

t') ll
€,
.')
o ilo I (
(a) Use the elastic(vector) merhod.
(b) Use the instantaneouscenter-constant slip resistancemethod for o ti i ol rl (
slip-critical connecrions(seeExample4.12.4). (
tc) Use AISC tables, "ECCENTRIC LOADS ON FASTENER Prob.4.19
GROUPS.'' (
': : ; For the eccentricshearloading of the accompanyingfigure, rwo vertical (
lincs of ;-in.-diam A325bolts are usedhaving a 3-in. spacing.Selectrhe 4.20. For the eccentricshear loading ol the accompanyingfigure, {-in.-diam
A325 boits are used in a single vertical line in a bearing-type (A325-X)
(
proper number of bolts for a bearing-type(A325-X) connection. The
!i:ad is 40% dead load and 60% live load. connection. The loading is 7 kips dead load and 33 kips live load. (
(a) Use the elastic(vectorlme&od.
(
(b) Use the ultimatestrengthmethod.
(
Column (
flange

gt (
'Ee
Top row of bolts 0 a
(
q o
(
Contacl (
surface for
Prob.4.E (
^1"
.T
(
Prob.4.17
\
Prob. 4.20 and 1.2. i

_ ; ( l
r
(
t (
4 / STRUCTURALFTTSTENERS
PROBLEMS 20r
( ...J

( Determine the number of bolts required.wbat thicknessof piecesis cali-r'at 3 in. requiredto nrakethe connectionto the
fi-in. column flangc.
( required to avoid having bearing control and still use minimum edge The ioad is 10 kips dead load and 60 kips live load.
distances(seeLRFD-Table J3.7 or ASD-TableJ3.5). (a; Use a bearing-type(A325-X) connccrion.
( (a) Use the elastic(r'ecror)method. (b) Use a slip-critical(A325-SC)connection.
(b) Use the ultimate strengrhmethod.
(
(c) Use AISC tables, "ECCENTRIC LOADS ON FASTENER
( GROUPS.'' { oi",nnazs
436 steel
( 4.21. For the connectionof the accompaoyngfigure, subject to direct tension
and shear, two angles,4 x 3i x f, are used to carry their maximum
( D
capacity as a tensionmemberof A36 steel.Assumethe connectionof the o
( angles to the structural tee (WT) web will be along a single gage line as cl

shown. Determine the number aud positioningof l-in.-diam A325 bolts ct


( to attach the WT to the flange of a lV section. Tbe flanges of the WT
( and the W shapeare both |-il. tUict and ,4.36steel is used.
(a) Use a bearing-type(A325-X) connecrion.
( (b) Use a slip-critical(A325-SC)connection(20onDL; S0%LL).
Prab.4.23
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
2-14x rl*€
(
(
(
( Prob.4.21
(
4.22. For the eccentric connection of the accompanying figure, causing shear
( and tension on the fastenersconnectingthe anglesto the column flange,
( determine the number and spacingof {-in.-diam bolts required to make
the connection to the l-in. column flange.The load is 5 kips dead load
( and 35 kips live load.
( (a) Use a bearing-type(A325-X) connecrion.
(b) Use a slip-critical(A325-SC)connection.
(
4.23. For the eccentric connection of the accompanying figure, causing shear
( and tension on the fastenersconnectingthe structural tee (WQ to the
( column flange, determine &e number of {-in.-diam bolts spaced verti-

(
r /
(
't(t{3ira
ff{-
-s--
AND HISTORICAL
5.1/TNTRODUCTION DF/ELCPMENT 203 (
EF

Chapter5 *.; ( .
"r*s'

*
,F. (
: Y.:

'g':. (
g::.
(
Welding
Ea

:tt_
;&.
(
&''

* -" (
*
.9.
(
*:,

#--
rw,
(
4F;'

*.
42. (
..L-
(
.aa
4:;-j
'*<-
(
Fi-

f6 (
----
iiF.-
jJ: (
.{:-i.--
;E
(
E.
DEVELOPMENT
ANDHISTORICAL
5.1 INTRODUCTION €
Welded truss as parr of roof spacetruss syste6. (Photo by C. G. Salmon) (
The processof welding denotesthe joining of metal.piecesby heating to a :!:.;
( ,
"welding"
plastic or fluid state.with or without pressure. In its simplestform, ]+:

ments [5.2] reversing the polarity of transformer coils. He received his first (
iras been known and used for severalthousandyears.Historians have specu-
patent [5.3Jin 1885and the first resistancebutt welding machinewas demon-
lated that the early Egypriansmay have first usedpressurewelding about 5500
6 " :

€i
(
itrated at rhe American Institute Fak in 1887. In 1889 Charles Coffin [5.2J
:3:'
B.c. in making .opp.i pipes fiom sheetsby overlappingthe edges and -T. 'the
was issued a..pateqt for flash-butt welding and this became'one of (
hammering. Winterion tj.it has reported that Egyptian art objects dating
important butt weldingproc€sses.
about 3000 e.c. havebeen fo'undon which gold foil has been hamnreredand . (
Zerner, in 1885,introduced the carbon arc welding process,making useof
LL-

fused onto the basecopper.This type of welding, called forge wilding, was - - ; i

two carbon electrodesand N. G. Slavianoff [5.5] in 1888 in Russia was the (


man's first processto-,ioin pieces of metal together. A well-known early
first to use the metal arc process using uncoated bare electrodes. Coffin,
example of fbrge welding is the Damascussword which was made by forging (
working independently also investigatedthe metal tuc processand was issued
layeri of iron with different properties. Interestingly, forge welding was
a U.S. Patent in 1892.In 1889,A. P. Strohmeyer[5.2Jintroduced the concept (
sufficiently well developedand important enough to the eafly Romans that
of coated metal electrodesto eliminate many of the problems associatedwitb
they namid one of their gods Vulcan (the god of fire and metalvorking) to (
the use of bare-electrodes.
,.pr.r.nt that art. In recent times, the word rulcanizing has been used" in
Thomas Fletcher t5.U in 1887 used a blowpipe burning hydrogen a33d
referenceto treating rubber with sulfur but originaliy rvas used to meln to (
harden." Today, forge welding is practically a forgotten art in rvhich the oxygen and showedthat he could successfullycut or melt metal. In 1901-19S3
Fouche and Picard developedtorches that could be used with acetyleneend (
village blacksmith was the last major p-ractitioner.Welding as it is knoun
-trigtrty
to6ay is much more complex and refined and the remainder of this thus the era of oxyacetylenewelding and cutting began. (
section will trace ,o*. of the imponant eventsthat have contributed to the The period between1903 and 1918 saw the use of welding primarily as a
method of repair, the gleatest impetus occurring during'World War I (
art. Specificweldingprocesses are discussedin Sec'5-2-
Llttle progressin welding technologyhad beenmade until 1877,prior to (1914-1918). Welding techniquesproved to be especially adapted to repairing (
rvhich time most of the then known ptoc.stet such as forge welding and ships that had been damaged.Winterton [5.1] reported that in l9l7 there were
10j interned enemy ships alone in the United States that were damaged and (
brazing had beenusedfor at least3000years.The origin of resistance-welding
beganlround 18?? when Professorptihu Thompson began a set of eSperi' the number of persons employed in welding operations rose from 8000 to (
33,000duing the period 1914-1918.
202 (
(
.(
'-
1 2M s/WELDING
s2lBASTCPROCESSES
205
( ,
( After World War I (1918), there was continued experimentationrvith Co;iing on
elcctrodesand various gasesto shield the arc and the weld area, resultingin ItJelding machine e:ec:,roCe Eiectroce r'.:'e
(
the devclopment of gas tungsten arc welding and gas metal arc welding (see lJletalbeingweidet l,'lolirn \
eic pac
(
!ec.. f,2). During the period 1930 to 1950 mant improvemenrs'occurred, Gaseous
\
including in 1932 [5.5] the introductionof the use of granular flux to prorect shield
(
the rveld, which whe& coupled to the use of " .oniinuously fed electrode Slae
( resultedin the developmentof submergedarc welding (seesec. 5.2;, wherethe Arc stream
arc is buried under the granular flux. This common rnethod of the 1980sr',.as
( patentedin 1935.
Besemetal
( In 1958, the self-shieldedflux cored arc welding was developed,wherein Electrode cable
the gianular flux used for protectiog tbe weld is contained within the core of (a) Arc welding circuit (b) Shicldc,darc welding
I
tht' continuous electrode material, thus permitting greater use of automaric
and semiautomaticequipment. Figure5.2.1 Shieldedmetal arc welding (SN{AW).
(
In the 1980s automation has become a significant factor in welding
( tec:hnologyand extensiveuse of welding roboticsIs occurring.
( There are many welding processesavailable to join various metals and partly-into stag.and somepart is absorbedby the weld metal.The coaringis a
their alloys. Those of particular interest in welding structural steel, and of clay-like mixture of silicatebinders and powderedmaterials,suchas fluorides,
( interest to structural engineersin general,are discussedin Sec.5.2. carbonates.oxides,metal alloys, and cellulose.The rnixture is extrudedand
( baked to producea dry, hard, concentriccoating.
The transferof metal from electrodeto the rvork being rveldedis induced
( 5.2 BASTCPROCESSES by molecular attraction and surfacetension,without applicationof pressure.
The shielding of the arc preventsatmosphericcontarninationof thi molten
(
Welding is the processof joining materials(usually metals)by heating them to metal in the arc streamand in the arc pool. It preventsnitrogenand oxygen
( suitable temperaturessuch that the materialscoalesceinto one -rt.tiol. There from being picked up and forming nitrides and oxides rvhich mav cause
may or may not be prassure, and there rnay or may not be filler material embrittlement.
(
applied. Arc welding is the gdneral term for the many processesthat use The electrodecoating may perform the following functions:
( clectrical energy in the fonn of an electric arc to generatethe heat neceisary
for welding. .r l. Producesa gaseousshield to excludeair and stabilizethe arc.
( 2. Introduces other materials, such as deoxidizers,to refine the grain
There are Erany wetding processesthat have special uses for particular
( metals and for various thickaesses.This section emphasizesthose pror.rr., structureof the'weldmetal.
that are used in tbe welding of carbon and low-alloy steet for build'ings and 3. Producesa blanket of slagover the molten pool and the solidifiedrveld
( bridge!. Arc welding is tbe "lt.gory of processesthat are of panicular interesr. to protect,it from oxygen and nitrogen in the air. and also rerards
FOr some situations involving ligbt-gage steel, resistance*ridiog may also be cooling.
(
important. More extensive descriptions than those that follow ar1 available ia The electrodematerial is specifiedunder various American Welding Sociery
( the Welding Handbook 12.22,5.101. specificationsthat are listed in AWS l2.241Table4.1.1,and is summarizedin
( Table 2.3.1.The designationssuchas E60XX or E70XX indicate60 ksi and 70
( Shlelded tVletatArc Wetdtng (SMAW). ksi, respectively,- for tensile strength. The X's refer to factors such as the
$ suitable welding positions,recommendedpower supply, type of coating,and
( Shieldedmetal zrg wslrting is one of the oldest-,simplest, and perhaps most type of arc characteristics.Morgan [5.6] has provided an excellentguide to
versatile tyPes for welding structural steel. The SMAW process i's often classification and use of mild steel coated electrodes.Table 5.13.1indicates
( referred to as tbe manwil stick electrode process.Heating is accomplished by which coated electrodesshould be used with eachparticular structuralsteel.
( means of an electric arc betweeu a coated electrode aod the materials bein! For welding high:carbonor low-alloy steels,low-hydrogenelectrodesare
joined.. The welding circuit is shown in Fig. 5.2.1a. required by AwS 12.24]to be used with SMAW for all steelshaving yield
( ' The coated electrode is consumed
as the metal is transferred fibm the stresseshigher than 36 ksi (248 MPa). The low-hydrogenelectrodeis a rod
( blectrode to the base material during the welding process.The electrode wire with a carbonate of soda, or "lime," coating. This eiectrode requires a
becomesfiller material and the coating is convertea partty into a shielding gas, different lsqhnique from that using the conventionalelectrodein that a short
(
(
v

206 5 / WELDING
(
s 2/EASTCPROCESSES 207
(

(
(
('
(
arc welding(SAW).
Figure5.2.2 Submerged (

T}::
(
arc must be made and globular-t1pe,rather than a spray-type,depositionof Figure 5.2.3 Gas metal ils wglrling (GMAW).
metal occurs. It is desirable in design becausethe as-weldedmechanical
propertieshave been found to be superiorto propertiesobtainedusingorher
types of electrodecoatings. the molten weld. Special uses of this method are described by Craig is.rl,
Lyttle [5.8], and Dillenbeck and Castagno[5.91.
originally, this merhod was used only witb inert gas shielding, bence, the
Submerged Arc Weldlng (SAln
ilame MIG (metal inert gas) has been used. Reactive gas€salone are ganerally
In the SAW processthe arc is not visiblebecauseit is coveredby a blanketof not- practical; the exception is Co2 (carbon dioxide). The use of CO, has
granular, fusible material,as shorvoin Fig. 5.2.2.The bare metal electrodeis become extensive for welding of steels,either alone or in a mixture with-inert
consumablein that it is depositedas filler mateial. The end of the electrodeis gz$es.
kept continuouslyshieldedby the moltenflux over which is depositeda layer Argon as a shielding gasworks for welding vinually all metals; bowever,it
of unfusedflux in its granularcondition. is not recommendedfor steelsbecauseof its expenseand the fact that other
The flux, which is the specialfeatureof this method,providesa cover that shielding gasesand gas mixtures are acceptable.For wetding carbon steel and
allows the weld to be made without spatrer,sparks,or smoke.The granular some low-alloy steels recent research [5.9] indicates the best overall perfor-
flux is usually laid automaticailyalong the seam ahead of the advancing m2nce is obtained using 80% CO2 and 20% helium. Traditionally, it has been
electrode.It protectsthe weld pool againstthe atmosphere, servesto cleanthe reconrmended[5.10] to use either a mixture of 75% argon and 25% Cor, or
weld metal, and rnodifiesthe chemicalcompositionof the rveldmetal. lO0% COr. For low-alloy steelswhere toughnessis i:mportant,tlie recoinmen.
Welds made by the submergediuc processare found to have uniformll' dation [5.10] is to use a mixrure of 60 to 70%helium, 25 to 30% argon, and 4
high quality; exhibiting good ductiliry, high impact srrength,high dehsity,and to 5% COr.
good corrosion resistance.Mechanicalpropertiesof the weld are consistently The shielding gas servesthe following functions in addirion to protecting
as good as the basematerial. the moltea metal from the atmosphere. r
The combinationsof bare-rodelectrodesand granular flux are classified
l. Controls the arc and metal-transfercharacteristics.
under Aws A5.17 or A5.23.Th.y are designatedby a prefix F followedby a
2. Affects penetration,width of fusion, and shapeof the weld region.
two-digit number indicatingtensilestrengthand impact strengthrequirements
for the resulting welds,and followed by EXXX classifyingthe electrode.The 3. Affects the speed of welding.
designationsappearin Table 5.13.1underthe SAW process. 4. Controls undercutting.
The submergedarc method is commonly used to weld steel in shop By rnixing an inert gas with a reactive gas the arc may be made more
fabricationoperationsusingautomaticor semiautomatic equipment. stable and the spatter during metal transfer may be reduced.The use of CO2
alone for welding steel is the least expensiveprocrdure becauseof its lowei
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) cost for shielding gas, higher welding speed, better joint penetrarion, and
sound deposits with good mechanicalproperties.The only disadvantageis that
In the GMAW processthe etectrodeis a continuouswire that is fed from a it gives harsh and excessivespatter.
coil through the electrodeholder, a gun-shapeddeviceas shown in Fig. 5.2.3. The electrode material for welding carbon steelsis an uncoated mild steet,
The shielding is entirely from an externallysupplied gas or gas mixture. The deoxidized carbon sunganese steel covered under AWS A5.1E and listed in
distinguishing featuresof this merhodare rire high rates at which filler metal Table 5.13.1 {see also Tabie 2-3.1). For welding low-alloy steel a deoxidized
i;an be transferred,and the gaseousshietdthat is uniformly provided around low-alloy materia! is necessary.
,(
208 s /'w[LDtNG s 2/BA.S|CPROCESSES 209
(
(
The GMAW processusingCO, shieldingis good for the lorvcr carbon and Vr'ire Euiig
Flux ccred electrode and contact lube
( lcrv-alloy steelsusually usedin buildings and bridges.
( Base plaia 1

Flux Cored Arc Weldlng (FCAW)


(
The FCAW processis similar to GMAW, except that the continuously fed Drive rol!ers l,lolten slag
(
fillcr metal electrodeis tubular and containsthe flux materialwithin its core.
( The core rnaterialprovidesthe samefunctionsas doesthe coatingin SMAW
trr the granular flux in SAW. For a continuouslyfed wire an outside coating
( s'.ruld not remain bonded to the wire. Gas shieldingis provided by the flux wetd pool
Sol'd;fyingwetd metaf
( corc (self-shielded) but additionalgasshieldingis frequentlyprovidedby CO, Wa:et
circuia:ron
'.'Jelclmelal
-l:s. Flux cored arc rveldinghasbecomea useful procedurefor field rveldingin
( s'i.,'erecold weatherconditions[5.11]as rvell as to speedup higb-riseconstruc-
( tion [5.12j. I
The electrodes used for obtaining rveld metal having minimum specified
(
i'ield strengthsof 60 ksi (415 MPa) or lessare coveredunder AWS 45.20, and
( are designatedE6XT or E7XT, for tensilestrengthsof 60 or 70 ksi, respec-
tively. When it is desirable to produce weld metal having yield strength
( exceeding60 ksi (415 MPa), the electrodesare coveredunder AWS 45.29, and
( are designatedE8XT, E10XT, and E1lXT, having tensilestrengthsof 80, 100,
Base plate 2 \
and 110 ksi (550, 690, and 760 MPa), respectively. Completectwetd

(
Figure5.2.4 Electrogaswelding witb a flux cored electrode.(Fronr lVeldingHandbook
( Electrogas Weldlng (EGW) t2.221)
( The EGW processis a machineprocessused primarily for vertical position
'.r'elding shownin Fig. 5.2.4.Either flux cored or solid electrodesmay be used.
(
This method is used to obtain a single pass weld such as for the splice in a:
( '=
heavy column section. Weld metal is deposited into a cavity created by the
separatedplate edgeson two sidesand water-cooled"shoes" or guidesto keep
(
the molten metal in its proper location on the other trvo sidqs. The gas
Molten
( shielding is provided either by the flux cored electrode,by externally supplied slag bath
Electrode
gas, or both.
( 'Welcl
pool
vrraler-cooted
( Eleetroslag Weldlng (ESW)
Weld metal
shoe

( The ESW process,shown in Fig. 5.2.5,is similar to electrogaswelding, except


( that the welding is actually done by the heat produced through the resistance Completed
of the slag to the flow of current.The molten conductiveslagprotects the rveld --l -rl.u
wetct
( and melts the filler metal and the plate edges. Since solid slag is not
:t*
't
o,","
( conductive, an arc is required to start the processby meltiag the slag and
heating the plates. Since resistanceheating is used for all but this itritial stage,
( the ESW is really not an arc welding process.The side guides,or "shoes", Day
( be nonconsumableas in Fig. 5.2.5,or they may be consumable.The electroslag Figure 5.2.5 Nonconsumableguide method of elecuoslagweldilg (three electrodes).
process allows rvelding nearly any thickness of material in one pasi; both (From Welding Handbook l2.2ZJ)
( electrogasand electroslagwelding becomeeconomical as the thickness of weld ta

( required becomes large. Becauseof the slow rveld travel speed used in this
.:-'rt
, (
v

5.4,/WPESOFJOINTS 211
(
21O s / ViELDllrG
(
analysisdf the carbon steels.Most mild steelsfall well within this range.while (
pr()cessa weld with relativelycoarsegrain structureand low notch toughness
i s th e r es ult . higher-strengthsteelsmay exceedthe ideal analysisshown in Table 5.3.1. (
An excellentreviervof electroslagweldrnghas been provided by Raman When a mill producesa run of steel ii maintains a compteterecord of its
chemical content which follows all shapesmade from the particular ingot. If (
[5.14]. Schilling and Klippstein[5.15Jhave reportedresearchon elecrroslag
rrcld:ngfor bridges,and Fense.Wood,and Fisher[5.16]report experiencervirh the designeris concernedabout the chemistryof a particular gradeof steel,he (
elcctroslagu'eldingon weldedbridges. may requesta Mill Test Report. Any variation in chemical content above the
ideal values may be evaluatedand special welding proceduresbe set up to (
insure a properly weldedjoint. (
Stud Weldlng -' '

The most commonly usedprocessof weldinga metal stud to a basematerial is (


knorvn as arc stud welding, an essentiallyautomatic processbut similar in 5.4 TYPESOF JOINTS (
characteristics to the SMAW process.The stud servesas the electrodeand an
elcctric arc is createdfrom the end of the stud to the plate. The stud is The type of joint depends on factors such as the size and shape of the
containedin a gun which controlsthe timing during the process.Shieldingis memberscoming into the joint, the type of loading, the amount of joint area
accomplishedby placinga ceramicfemrle around the end of the stud in the available for welding, and the reladve costs for various types of welds.There
gun. The gun is placedin positionand the arc is created,during which time are five basic types of weldedjoints although many vanations and combina-
the ceramic ferrule contains the moiten metal. After a short instant of time, ti'onsare found in practice.The five basic types are the butt, lap, teg corner,
the gun drivesthe stud into the moltenpool and the weld is completedleaving andedgejoints, as shownin Fig. 5.4.1.
a small fillet around the stud. Full penetrationacrossthe shank of rhe stud is *,.
-&-
obtainedand the weld is completedusuallyin lessthan one second. .&'-
Butt Joints
:-
g'
g;.
.g: The butt joint is used mainly to join the ends of flat plates of the sameor
5.3 WELDABILIWOF STRUCTURAL
STEEL .E:
-*- nearly the samethicknesses. The principal advantageof this type of joint is to
-.
'- eliminatethe eccentricitydevelopedin singlelap joints as shownin Fig. 5.4.1b.
Most of the ASTM-specificationconstructionsteelscan be welded without -i-^
When used in conjunction with full penetration groove rvelds.butt joints
specialprecautionsor specialprocedures.
:.
Section5.13 discussesthe need to mininiize the size of a connection and are usually more estheticallvpleasing
selectthe proper electrodeto join a particulargradeof steeland a summaryof t--
than built-up joints. Their principal disadvantagelies in the facr that the edges
the "matching" electrodes
:_:a

and the basesteeiis givenin Table 5.13.1. :fd


to be connectedmust usually be specially prepared (beveled,or ground flat)
The weldabilityof a steelis a measureof the easeof producing a irack-free and very carefully aligned prior to welding. Little adjustment is possibleand
and sound structuraljoint. Someof the readily availablestructural steelsare 'f ",
the piecesmust'be carefully detailed and fabricated. As a result, most butt
1.':
more suited to welding than others,and are discussedin Chapter 2. Welding joints are made in the shop where the welding proceis can be more accurately
proceduresshould be based on a steel'schemistry instead of the published controlled.
ma.rimumalloy contentsincemost miil runs are usuallybelow the maximum
alloy limits set by its specification.Table 5.3.1 shows the ideal chemical
H

TABLE 5.3.1 PREFERRED ANALYSISOF CARBON


B-:
:..:
--rF-
ffi
(a) Butt joint
5
(b) Lap joint
srEEL l'5.17.lFORGOODWELDABIL|ry
I .3*
Normal Percent requiring
Eiement range(%) specialcare gE*
fdt
tl
Carbon 0.06-0.25 0.35 "-F-
il
Manganese 0.35-0.80 1.40 i l 4
Silicon
1 _ . : _ _

- :
0.10mar 0.30
Sulfur ;.:&:- (c) Tee loint (d) Corner joint (e) Edge joinr
0.035mar 0.050 i - :
i 4F'
Phosphorus 0.030max 0.040 ,,l*f: Figure 5.4.1 Basic types ol weldedjoints
;+
it.5+-;
T+
t- -tiF
r'!!F
\
, (
212 5/WELD|NG 5 5 / rYPESOFWELiiS 213
(
( Tee Joints
Lap Jolnts
( This type of joint is usc,Jto fabricutebuilt-upsccrir:l' suchas t*s. I-rh:pes.
The lap joint, shown in Fig. 5.4.2. is the mosr common type. It has ts'o
( principal advantages: plate girders.be.rring.stiffcncrs.liangcrs.brackets.and in gencra!.p!:'ces
1. Ease of fitting. Piecesbeing joined do not require the preciseness in framing in at righi anglesas shorvnin Fig. 5..1.1c. This t;'pe of ji::t is
( especiallvusefulin ihat it permitssecticnsto be buih up of flat platesiltir c',r
fabricating as do the other tlpes of joints. The pie,cescan be slightly shifted to
( accommodateminor errors in fabrication or to make adjustmentsin length. be joined by either fillet or groovewelds.
2. Ea.seof joining. The edges of the pieces being joined do not need
( special preparation and are usually shearedor flame cut. Lap joints utilize Corner Joints
( fillet welds and are thereforeequally rvell suited to shop or field rvelding.The
piecesbeingjoined are in most casessimply clamped togetherrvithout the use Corner joints are usedprincipally to form built-up rectangularbox sections
( of specialjigs. Occasionallythe piecesare positioned by a small number of such as used for columns and for beams required to resist high torsional
erectionbolts which may be either left in place or rem6vedafter the weldingis forces.
(
completed.
( A further advantageof the lap joint is the easein which platesof different Edge Joints
thicknessescan be joined, such as in the double lap joint in Fig. 5.4.2e.The
Edgejoints.are generallynot structuralbut are most frequentlyused to keep
reeder should especiallynote the truss connection shown in Fig. 5.4.2cand
( two or more platesin a given plane or to maintain initial alignmeet.
considerthe difficulty in making sucha connectionby any other type of joint.
As the readercan infer from the previousdiscussions, the variationsand
( combinationsof the five basictypesof rveldsare rirtually infinite. Sincerhere
( is usuallymore than one way to connectone structuralmemberto another.ihe
designeris left s'ith the decisionfor selectingthe bestjoint (or combinarion
( joints) in eachgivensituation.
(
( 5.5 TYPES OF VJELDS
(
The four t)?es of weldsare the groove,fillet, slot, and plug welds as sho'."1in
( Fig. 5.5.1.Each type of weld has specificadvantagesthat dererminerhe extent
of its usage.Roughly. the four types representthe following percentagesof
( weldedconstruction:groovewelds,159o;fillet welds,807c;the remaining57c
( are made up of the slot, plug, and other specialrvelds.

(
Groove Welds
(
The principal use of groove welds is to connect structural members that are
( aligned in the sameplane. Sincegrooverveldsare usually intended to transmit
( the full loadbf.tle memberstheyjoin, the rveldshouldhavethe samestrength
as the pieces joineci. Such a groove rveld is kno*n as a contpletejoint
( penetrationgroaueweld.When joints are designedso that groove rveldsdo not
extend completelythrough the thicknessof the piecesbeingjoined. such welds
(
are referred to as partial joint penetrationgroooe welds. For these, special
( designrequirementsappiy.
d-f I There are many variationsof groovewelds and eachis classifiedaccording

(
(
U::J (d)
to its particularshape.Most g"rooveweldsrequire a specificedgepreparalion
and are named accordingly.Figure 5.5.2 shows several'rypesof groove u'elds
and indicates the groove preparationsrequired for each.The selectionof the
( proper grooveweld is dependenton the welding proc€ssused,the cost of edge
, ( Figure 5.4.2 Examplesof lap joints.
I$a
214 5/,ilrELDtNG s.5/TYPESOFWELDS 215 (
(
I

Figure 5.5.3 Use of groove welds in tee


(
joints.
%
(b) Fillet welds
Ends shall be "fitting up" because of the
semicircutar
They generally require less precision in the (
-'
or have cotners overlapping of pieces,whereas the groove weld requires careful alignment with
rountted to specified gap (root opening) between pieces. The fillet weld is particularly ( ,
a radius not
. advantageous to welding in the field or in realigning members or connections
tessthan thickness A l------t A (
orparrconraininss{or that were fabricaied-withinecc€tted- toler'ancesbut which may not fit as
L Ll (
I o | \_J . accurately as desired. In addition, the edges of pieces being joined seldorn
t r r i .'.?i.-_:

.i;-

r:: -
need special preparation such as beveling or squaring since the edgeconditions ( ;
Section A.A \E('
(
Section A'A .iF
. . /

D=
-/ ,r*_.
, t-T..-t

(c) Slot weld


/

Figure5.5.1 Typesof welds.


,l-E-.l,

(d) Plug weld


4
-t--.
-----
t-_-i-r= TE (
(
(
E.
-i=:. (a) Lapped plates (b) Stitch plates (c) Slotted connection
*^ ( ,
5 ;:'
r*. (

{=<=
A
-;
" 7::
(
5-i-li-+
l l r I

t t t t
F
(.
ial Square (b) Single-V (c) Double-V I . -
l l
t
-r t l

(
(d) Tee connection (e) Brackets (0 Beam bearing
-€
:Fiin
plates (
N:D r=C3 {-E3 :.;.i{.
&5
*- (
(0 Single-U
R
(d) Singlebevel (e) Double bevel

p
3r (

{=<=
(
{=.1=
(h) Single-J
fl<- (i) Double-J
-ir
-':- (
(gi Double-U (
(g) Column base plates (h) Pipe connection (i) Beam brackets
Figure5.5.2 Typesof groovewelds. '"'i5l
*:. (
: .+.
(
prep3rations,and the cost of making the weld- Groove weldsmay also be used
in tee connectionsas shonn in Fig. 5.5.3. 3 (

Flllet Welde JL
0) Built-uPsections
(
(
Fillet welds owing to their overall economy,erse of fabricating, and adaptabil'
ity are the most.widely used.A few usesof 6llet welds are shown in Fig. 5.5.4. (
Figure 5.5.4 Tlpicat usesof flhl weHs.
(
(
C
(
216 5 z'li'ELDiNG BASICWELDSYMBOLS
(
PLUG Groove or Bun
( EACK FILLET OR FLARE
SLOT SOUARE v BEVEL U J FIAREV EEVEL
(

\
(
^^ \ fl llV V V V \r t(
SUPPLEMENTARY
WELDSYMBOLS
(
CONTOUR
Ends curved as BACKING W€LD ALL IIELD
SPACER WELD
( per LRFD and ASD-J2.3.b AROUND
FLUSH coNvEx
For otherbasic and
supplementary wald
( syrnbols.see

( n C .tr Aws A2.4-86

( STANDARD
LOCATION
OF ELEMENTS
OF A WELDINGSYMBOL
(
Frnishsymbol Groove angle or rncluded
( Figure 5.5.5 Slot and plug welds in combination lritb fillet welds. angle of counlet5rnk
ConloursymSol lor plu8 lvelds

(
Rool openrng, deplh Length ot wetd rn rnches
( resulting from flame cul,ting or from shear cutting proceduresare generally of ftlhng lor plug
adequate. and slot welds
Prlch (c. to c spacrng)
( Eftective
thtoat
ol welds rn rnche:
----,
Depthot preparation \
( or sizein inches
Slot and Plug Welds \ \ Freld weld symbol
Referencet""
(
Slot and plug rveldsmay be usedexclusivelyin a connectionas shorm in Figs. -.-f T.\ Weld all arcsnd symbol

( 5.5.ic and d, or they may be usedin combinationwith fillet welds as shownin ..== process
Specrtrcalon,
\\ a gE
ot othet reference I o o
Fig. 5.5.5.A principal use for plug or slot welds is to transmit shearin a lap : =g \_)
( joint rvhen the size of the connectionlimits the length available for fillet-or- =--=- -a
3^
.i oo
( other edgewelds.Slot and plug rveldsare also useful in preventing overlappinB'.=-€ = : p
Tail (omittedwhen <vl
parts from buckling. reterenceis not used) Arrowconnectsrelerencelinelo arrowside
( of ioint.Usebreakasal A or B to signlfy
Basicweldsymbol thatarrowis pointingto thegrooved
( or detailreference memberin bevelor J-grooved joints.

( 5.6 WELDINGSYMBOLS
l&te:
( Before a connectionor joint is welded,the designermust in some way be able Siizc.watd-symbol..l6rEilh ol wald ar|d spacingmust raad h thlt oder trom tstt to.ight abng ora retsreiEr tin . Netoet
Orbilation ot rotgroncatino rpr locatitn ol tho 8rory dtsr8 ftr rris.
( to instruct the steel detailer and the fabricator as to the type and size of weld
'rvelds Tlo porpendiarla leg ot N,. l/. l), ( watAsycrDob rilrst bo at |etr
required. The basic types of and some of their variations are discussed Anow an4 OtrrerSEe *'alclr are ot the ssng si:o uru€6sooroil,iso shown. Drnsnsirns ol fittelrekb must be shownon
( in Sec. 5.5. If individual and detailed instructions were needed each time a bofi t'|c Antr Silasnd thc O0ror SiJe Syn$ol.
Th! point ol tho liob wotd Synrbotmust point toward trto r'r.
connection was made, the task of providing directions for making the joint - Syrttbol! sppty b€nrgon Bbrud changg3h dhtctbfl ct reErrg rntess goreme'<tby lho
"dn
( dirnensirned.
ara.rrf ryntol o. orhonvis€
rvould indeed be formidable.
Ircse synbols do nol orprcftty prgvijs tof thc cG3eOra bequcnily ocqrs ln strueturalrgrlq *he'' cluplbatcmgtorisl
( The need for a simple and yet accurate method for commrrnicating --=
1:F
(strchrs stitf€nors)occurson th9 f8r gids of a web or gussct pbta. Tho latricatng industryhss adop:od this coovontroo:that
whon lho Utlrr€ ol tho dotailroatonatdiscto€6 thc exbtbnce ol e rogrroer on ttn tar s6o as rirottas on trrsnea, sida,the weklrng
betrveenthe designerand fabricator gave rise to the use of shorthand symbols *s shown kr the n6ar side sh8[ bo duptrcatedoo thg lar siJ6.
(
that characterize the type and size of rveld. As a result, the American Welding Fi:

( Society standard symbols,shown in Fig. 5.6.1, indicate the t)pe, size,length, AueHcrN lHsrmte or Sreel Coxsnucnox
and location of weld, as well as any specialinstructions. Figure 5.6.1 Staadard welding symbols. (From LRFD Manual [1.17] and AWS A2.4
( g
: !

Most of the commonly made connectionsdo not require special instruc- Is.3e]).
( tions and are typically specifiedas shoun in Fig. 5.6.2.For a more detaileduse 4

.E
l r
(
217
THECUALIWif:" #:L::D
5.7/ FAclaRS AFFECTING C9t' :cTloNS 219
w
218 5 ,/ WELDIf\tg
i

(
i,uot ,r"tot I Groorev'relds
{

nr+ (
M
Frctron atdacltin{ lcg
Square groore
*tlded frorn both
(
rid6.
tron/n onlv on ons $reld (
#ren borh rider ue thc
Back (
9ouge

Singtebevel with i in. (


rogtopening.45ob€vel
on uppet piece. and a (
backing weld used.
(
rndrcard 2-an.long
weld3 ato intermid6nl (
E ruggerecl on 4jn. cenlers

SingllV welcledlrom
$/eld all around one srdehaving ! in. +'1F:- ' Figure5.6.3-Detailsshowinguseof weldingsymbols'
root opening and 30o angle
within the V.
'*.'
3tj':

welds in
2G.-:
'g However, in this particular detail, it would be better to make the fillet
during the field erecdon
Figure5.6.2 Commonusesof weldingsymbols' the shop since the plug weld might be overstressed
feasiblen'ill be made in the shop, due to
pro..rr. In general, ,r tuny welds as
Therefore it is importfit that the designer specify
Lconomic considerations.
those welds that are to be field welded'
of rvelding symbols the readeris referred to the American Welding Society'
Aws A2.4 [5.39].
The readermay feel that the numberof symbolsis burdensome.However. 5.7 FACTORSAFFECTINGTHE OUALIW OF
the systemof designatingweldsis broken down into a few basictlPes that
are WELDEDCONNEGTIONS
set of Whenever
instructions. a particular connec-
built up to give a to*pGt. of many
tion is used in many paru of a structure,it may only be necessaryto shorv
a Obtaining a satisfactory welded connection requires the conrbination
of the weld and ending with
typical detail as stro*o in Fig. 5.6.3a.Wheneverspecialconnections are used' individual skills, Uegl;ing witb the actual des€p
engine€r needs to be aware of &e faetors
t-nfv should be detailed sufficiently to leave no doubt as to the designer's the welding operati;n. The structural
accordilgly'
intentions,as shownin Fig-5.6-3b' that affect ttre quatity of a weld and design the connections
in Fig. 5.6.3b the deslgnerspecifiedthat the plug rveld be nude in the
shop and grgund flush while the doublebevelweld connectingthe gussetplate Proper'Electrodes, weldlng Apparatus, and Procedures
to the column be madein the field. Sincethe designerdid not specifyrvhether After the proper electrode material is specified to matcb the srength
of the
the fillet welds attachingthe angleto the gussetPlatewere to be m:'rdein the iteel in thl pieces being joined (see Sec. 5.13)' the diameter of the welding
shop or in the field, thJ steelfibricator would be free to nrlke the decision.
(
(
220 5 / WELDTNG 5 . 7 / F A C I O R S A F F E C T i i : GT h E C : - i A L t r yO F W E L D E DC O N T t I C I I O N S 221
(
(
-i r--B
: i
(
(' {:tD rl
tl
--l L- Rool opening F
( (b; Berel with backup plate
iai Bevel with feathered edge
( (b) Hor:zontal
(a) Flat Spacer
(Removed belore
\ welding second side)

(
(
(
f=4 " -lL Land(roottace)
(c) Bevel with a land (d) Double bevel with a spacer
( (c) Vertical { (d) Overhead

( Figure5.7.2 Typicaledgepreparations
for groovewelds.
Figure 5.7.1 Welding positions.

(
penetrationweld. Occasionallya spacer.as shownin Fig. 5.7.2d,is providedto
( preventburn-throughbut is gougedout before the secondsideis welded.
electrode must be selected.The particular size of the electrodeselectedis
( basedon the sizeof the rveldto be made and on the electricalcurrentoutput
of the welding apparatus.Since most welding machineshave controls for Control of Distortion
(
reducing the current output, electrodessmaller than the maximum capability Another factor affectingweld quality is shrinkage.If a single bead is pur down
( can easilybe accommodatedand shouldbe used. in a continuousmanneron a plate, it u'ill causethe plate to distort as shou'nin
Since the weld metal in arc welding is deposited by the electromagnetic Fig. 5.7.3. Such distortions will occur unless care is exercisedin both the
(
field and not by gravity, the welder is not limited to the flat or horizontal designof the joint and the weldingprocedure.Figure 5.7.4showsthe resultof
( u'elding positions.The four basic welding positions are shown in Fig. 5.7.1. using unsymmetricalwelds as compared to symmetricalrvelds.Although there
The designershould avoid wheneverpossiblethe overheadposition, sin€ it-is:. are many techniquesavailable for rninimizing distortion, the most common
( the most difficult one. Joints rveldedin the shop are usually positionedin the '. one is that of staggeringintermittent welds as shown in Fig. 5.7.5a.and then
( flat or horizontal positions but field welds ma.v require any welding position returning to fill in ttre spacesas shorrr in Fig. 5.7.5b,a typical sequencebeing
dependingon the orientation of the connection The welding position for field shorvn. For many structures,such as plate girders, short segmentsof rveld
( welds should be carefullyconsideredby the designer. (though not usually regular intermittent rvelds) may be used at strategic
( locations to give enough strength to hold all pieces in place; then the
( continuouslines of weld are placed.
Prcper Edge Preparatlon To minimize shrinkageand to insure adequateductility, the AWS Code
( (Table 4.2 of Ref. 5.25) has established minimum preheat and interpass
Typical edge preparationsprovided for groove rveldsare shown in Fig. 5.7.2.
temperatures.-Forwelds requiring more than one progression(pass) of a
( The root opening R is the separation of the pieces being joined and is welding operation along a joint, the interpasstemperatureis the temperature
provided for electrodeaccessibilityto the base of a joint. The smaller the root
( of the depositedweld when the next passis begun.
opening the greater must be the angle of the bevel. The featherededge as
( shown in Fig. 5.7.2a is subject to burn-through unless a backup plate is
provided as shown in Fig. 5.7.2b.Backup strips are commonly used when the
( \ Pra
?o

welding is to be done from one side only. The problem of burn-through is \ /


( lessenedif the bevel is provided a land as shown in Fig. 5.7.2c.The welder
should nor provide a backup plate when a land is provided since there-rvould
J/
b'e a good possibility that a gas pocket would be formed preventing-a full Figure5.7.3 Distortion of plate.
(
, (
'a.:'.
ia;i
.,'-4
F
I

lr- . 222 5lwELDrNG (


I s.8/ POSSTBLE
DEFECTS
rNWELDS 223
l,'
I
i --/
5.8 PObSIBLEDEFECTSIN WELDS
(.
Unless good welding techniques and procedures are
used, a number of
possibledefecs may-resultrelating to discontinuities
(a) (b) *itr,in the weld. some of
the more common defectsare: incomplete fusion, inadequatejoini
Poor design Good design Figure 5.7.4 Effect of weld placemeat- p.n.,r"-
tion, porosity, undetrJltiog, inclusion of slag, and cracks.
Examples of these
defectsare shown in Fig. 5.8.1.
The following sumrnarizesways of minimizing distorti*,l

l. Reduce the shrinkageforces by Incomptete Fuslon


(a) using minimum weld metal; for groovesuse no greater root Incompletefusion is the failure of the basemetal and
open- the adjacentweld metal
ing than necessary;do not overweld. to fuse togerher compretery.This 'nay occur if the ,*i;;-',"-i.l"i"Ja
(b) Using as few passesas possible. n.".
(c) Using proper edgepreparation and fit_up
(d) using intermittent weld, at least for preliminary connecticn.
Lack of
(e) Using backstepping; depositing weld seg$ents toward

*''"S
fusion
the previ-
ously compretedweld; i.9., in the directio' opforit. to
lenositing ln"orpfat,
fi
the progressof welrting the joint.
2. Allow for rhe shrinkage to occur by
(a) Tipping the pldtes so after shrinkageoccurs they will
aligned.
(b) Using prebendingof pieces
be correctlv
- --- ---'i
(a) lncomptere fusion *-qF
(b) Inadequare joinr penetration
3. Balance shrinkageforces by
(a) using syrnmetry in welrring; fillets on each side of
a piece con-
tribute counteracting effects.
@) Using scatteredweld segmens.
(c) Using peening;stretchingthe metal by a seriesof blows.
(d) Using clamps,jigs, etc.; this forcesweid metal to stretch.as Gaspirker
it cools. Undercut

Blodgett [5.181has provided a more extensivetreatmentof ways to minimize I


I
distortion
f\'T-+
1 3 5 (c) Poroaity
7 9 (d) Undercutring
2
8 r0
Longitudinal crack

I 3 5
7 9
7 b 8 10 (e) Slag inclusions
(a) Initial (b) Finat
Figure 5.7.5 Sequenccsfor intermittent *.elds.
:: Figure 5.8.1 Possrtle
weld defects ."
(
'(
224 s /wELDING 5.9/ TNSPECTTON
ANDCOi-iiROL 225
(
(
nol becn properlv cleanedand are coatedu'ith mill scale,..lag,oxides,or other Cracks
(
foreign matcrials.Another causeof this defectis rheuseof weldingequipment Cracksare breaksin the weld metal. either longitudinalor t:ansl'erseto the
( of insufficient current, so that basemetal doesnot reachmeltingpoint.-Too line of weld. that result frorn internal stress.Cracksmay also exlend fronr tht'
rapid a rate of s clding u'ill also have the sameeffecr. weld melql into the base metal or mey be entirely in the base mctal in the
(
vicinity of the rveld. Cracks are perhapsthe most harmful of *eld defects;
( horvever,tiny crackscalled microfissuresmav not have an;- deiinental effect.
lnadequate Joint Penetration Some cracks form as the weld begins to solidify, generallv caused by
(
Inadcquatejoint penetration means the rveld extendsa shallowerdistance brittle constituents,either brittle statesof iron or alloying elenierts.forming
( through the dcpth of the groovethan specified,as sho*n in Fig. 5.8.1,where along the grairr boundaries. More uniform heating and slo*'er cooling rrtll
( c()nlpletepcnetrationwas specified.Partialjoint penetrationis acceptable
only prevent the "hot" cracks from forming.
rrlrcn it is so specified. Cracksmay also form at room temperatureparallel to but under the u'eld
( This defect, relating primarily to groove rvelds.occurs from use of an in the basematerial. Thesecracksarise in low-alloy steelsfrom the combined
(' unsuitable groove design for the selectedrvelding process,excessivelylarge effects of hydrogen, a brittle' martensite microstructure, and restraint to
clectrodes,insufficient welding current, or excessiverveldingrates.Joint de- shrinkageand distortion. Use of low-hydrogen electrodesalong with proper
( signsprequalifiedby A\\tS 15.25,Sec.2.6 through2.101shouldalwaysbe used. preheatingand postheatingwill minimize such "cold" cracking.
(
i

( Poroslty
5.9 IN S P E C TION AND CO NTRO L
( Porosity occurs when voids or.a number of smail gas pocketsare trapped
during the cooling process.This defect results from using excessivelyhigh The enormous successand $owth in recent years in the area of structurai
(
current or too long an arc length. Porosity may occur uniformly dispersed welding of buildings and bridgescould not have occurredr*ithout some means
( through the weld, or it may be a large pocket concentratedat the root of a of inspectionand control. The welding industry has led in the developmentof
fillet weld or at the root adjacentto,a backup plate in a grooveweld. The guidelineswhich, if followed, virtually insure a sound weld. The inspection
(
latter is iaused by poor rveldingproceduresand carelessuseof backupplates. and control procedure should begrn before the first arc is struck, continue
( .--.:. throughout the welding procedure, and if necessary,? pretest of the joint
( should be made to assure its satisfactory performance. Since such close
Undercuttlng supervisionis not possiblebn every weld made, the following susestions will
( serveas a guideline td achievegood structural rvelds:
Undercutting meansa groove melted into the basematerialadjacentto the toe
L of a weld and.left unfilled by weld metal. The use of excessivecurrent or an
l. Establishgood welding procedures.
i excessivelylong arc may burn or dig away a portion of the base metal. This
defect is easily detectedvisually and can be correctedby depositingadditional
weld material.
2.
3.
Use only prequalified welders.
Use qualified inspectorsand have them present.
( 4. Use special inspection techniqueswhen necessary.
(
Good weldigg procedurescan be developedfrom recommendationsfrom
('' Slag lnclusion the AWS, AISC; and the manufacturersof rvelding supplies and equipment.
Slag is formed during the rvelding processas a result of chemicalreactionscf The procedure to be followed will depend on the chemical and physical
( properties of the materials, the types and sizes of weld, and the particular
the melted electrode coating and consists of metal oxides and other com-
( pounds. Having a lower density than the molten weld metal,the slagnormally equipment used.
floats to the surface,where upon cooling, it is easily rimoved by the welder. All welders should be required to have passed an American Welding
( SocietyQualification Test beforebeing permitted to make a structural connec-
However, too rapid a cooling of the joint may trap the slagbeforeit can rise to
( the surface.Overheadrvelds as shown in Fig. 5.7.1dare especiallysubjectto tion. Although this is usually considerddadequate,it doesn't prot€ the ability
slag inclusion and must be carefully inspected. When several paises are of the welder to make welds at the actualjob site, particularly if the welds are
( . unusual or difficult and were not specifiedin the Qualification Test. Happily,
necessaryto obtain the desiredweld size,the weldermust removeslagbetween
( each pass.Failure to properly do so is a common causeof slaginclusion. most welding contraclorsexercisecontrol over their weldersin such situations.
._!q
I

( a-!B!
?t;*
-r*,
44t r*

sja/EcoNoMIcSoFWELDEDBUILT-UPMEMBERSANDcoNNEcT|oNS 'd
r''
' &
226 5 /'S€LDING
a1
: -
l
/ F
1
B
4

r ' F

%Fl '-

T,?
il
ia

il ( ,
I *.,u'nnI
I -"'r I
u t
a ' .
r.rr Botted grrder sectton
t ( r t

\=-/
l J l

Figure 5.9.1 Checking sizc of 6llet welds' tl


ilil
site generallr hrt' tli' w
The use of qualified welding inspectorsat a-job
r*'ork,feelingthat the in:pcct' r
effect of causing*'eldersto perform their best tbt Welded girder section
welding inspectorshpttltli"
is able to ,."ognir,e the qualiiy of their welds' The Comparison between plate girders'
to recognize possible defectr' '\rr.'
u .o*p.rent ielder himself and be able
"; suspiciouswelds should be cut out and replaced'
;; is uisual but rt r'
The simplest and least expensivemethod of inspection
weld appearancg fit;tt i"'
dependent on the .on1p.tao* of the observer and -^--^l ^^^-^-., ^f .r,. mUSt
be overlooked' A weldins i:''".' cstheti csmay,bei ntang ible. Theact ualeconom yof r veldedconnect lons
deceivingt5.201.In somecasesa poor weld.may the oueralldesignof the structural
rneans of checking the si;rctil liil'' be viewedfrom a.broadaspecluno in.tuoe
such as shown in Fig. 5.9.1aoffersa rapid
ttttt#.ro.d providing a less
welds.
is an. i.mport'rr;: connectionsare usually neater in appearance' / :
On more important structures,for welds wbere fatigue connections'Figure 5'10'1 shows a
mgre rigid in'pcr. cluttered effect in contrast to boited
consideratio+ or weldswhosefailure could be catastrophic, plate girder and a section of a {
i

of the useful ones arc tlrc comparison u.,oi..n a section of a bolt.d


tion techniques [5.20Jshould be used. Some of tttt weldedjoint' welded
methods' ]frte ultrasonic' mcth'r! weldedplate girder.Besidesttreneaterupptuiunt"
ultrasonic. radiogfaphic,and magneticPanicle rreeoom to be innovative in his entire
sound $'aves through the $cltlnrcttr connectionsoffer the designermore
[5.21-5.231passls uttra-trigh-frequency to standard sectionsbut may build
waveswhile a u'eld uititt't;i designconcept.in. a.rign.r is not bound
Defectsin a particularweld will iefleci the sound advantageous'Similarl-v' the best
metht-'ill tnclu'lc up any cross section de-emedto be rnost
defects $ill not impede passageof the waves. Radiograpftic the loads from one membir to another can
be used'
this method the radiati'g Sr)ufccrr configurarion ,o ir*r*it
rhe use of both x-rays and gammarays.In -l-hr' the need for holes in members
on the other' welded connectionsgenerallyeliminate-
piaced on one side lf the weld ana a photographic plate
method is expensiveand requires special piecautions be
taken due l1r th'r t possibtvioi "'"ti JoP"3 ",'ll-:,T:'j:
excep :J: *:
member' :'i: l:t;;
a welded ::l1"'ll;s'ill
connection
furnishesa pcFnr't' :iil:L:HTi. J " foti.o tension
;;'r"
haz-ardsof radiation. Howeu.t, th. method is reliable and cross-sectlon.
usesiron po\\di': g.n.r"u[v result in'a memberwith a.smaller
nent record" The magnetic particletesting method 15'241 can sometime reduce field construcdon costs by the
polarized by passing an eicdtrt' welded connections
ri-hich is spread *ourid the welded area and in I
poles nill be formed at the edges of anr fact that *.*u.* *uy ie shifted slightly to accommodate3"::^:Iors
current rhrougb the weld. Small local may be shortened by cutdng and (
fabrication or erection. Alro, m.mbe"rs
deiects, and this may be interpretedby an experiencedobserver' o=iaing, as rvell as lengihenedby splicing a piece of the
extensi\erericu uy ,uituit. (
The t4eldiig Hindbook 1i.27,pp. a68-5i51 provides an rejoined
samecross-sectlon.
of the man)' nondestructivetesting methods' Generally,
thecosrof welding.
influence
directfactors
il:HffiHerar
".t;U;Tffi; ;,h. ;;opi' .ress expe3": Y: T1,1:-"1T:*::J:
r I

a
--- -t -l:-- Qamo

machines,
,['iil;';e availabilityin the shopof automaticwelding
OF WELDEDBUILT'UPMEi#BERS
5.10 ECONOMICS
AND CONNECTIONS
:tffi:
.:';;;;{11'5::1ry'l:3,*::.il::f,":Y
liilru;*i'.i1"'-*..ffi -\ -- -r rL- ^',^ll^$rilirrr
I

:lT-Hilt"""milt,h:piecestobe"''i9i1ii:,:"::.:::::1?:il0:'"":::
oI sPeclal JrE) rur rrvrertr6 Erv r'v'vY
for a continuous operatlol n wbereas
field welding
Ln be scheduled
$srns trf t h c ntto, *otk /\eL-- ^-o?,rrinns
Overall economy in welded connectionsis difficult to evaluate' must often wait for cranesand specialerection
equipment' Other operauons
used c.in
factors to be consideredsuch as the amount of electrodematerial bc welded can be difficult if not
to be placcd ()n such as rhe proper preheatingof piecesto
easily be computed while other factors such as the value

I
(
a

' ( .
i
a

228 ) l;,':LD|NG I
l ) 1 i . ' S l , ' E/ , i j i j i i i . r ' , i n L . t . ,
-:1.^;i'.,!;lr;i
i ; r - 1 _ EV1 r : : _ r S zlV
(
(
impt'rssibleto perform in the i:eld. Other factorsthat influenceg,eldins,costs TABLE 5.11.1
'.
" li Z [ t : l L t i : i ' " ' V f l l , a i l i ' J 1 . 1 ' . ' . . ' . t t ; - L C T | \ i i . - I h : ] C . A T
l . i i i ' ; r l . l l i . J lS
( are. FCI PARTIAL JOINi Frl.,if iilr.IiO:j C-:O',':',','ELDS
',!,
( A l i r P T E D F R O I , {A V J S D l i 27j ;;:-:S 2 7 AND 2iA 3t
( l . Cost of preparingthe edgesto be wclded.
t . The amount of s'eld nl;terial required.
( 3. The ratio of the actu:l sc tinte to ovcralls.eldingtime.
D a s em e t a l
( 1. The amount of handli:g required.
t h i c k n e s s( f )
5. General overheadcosis. ol thickersparl
( joined
The factors listed above are generallyunknown io the designerbecause
( the :abricator is usuallynoi seiecteduntil after thedesignhasbeencompleted. (in) (mm'i (mm)

( IIt.'.iever, the designermust srill make decisions-shouldshort length large


siz': fillct n'elds or longerlenglhsmallersizerveldsl',eused?Shouldlargesize L/8 <T< 3/16 3.2<T< 4.8 l / l
al
-1 I IC :
( fili:t rveldsor grooverveldsbe used?If the decisionis to usegrooveweldsthen 3/t6<T< r/4 4.8<r< 6.4 1.,i6' J ris ,t

rh: proper aad most econonicalt]'Demust be selected. L/4 <T< t/2 6.4<T< r}.i 3. i16 ) 3/ i6
( r/2 <T< 3/4 L2.7<T< 19.0 t ; '4 6 t/4 6
In most instan€s the designeris not as concernedrvith the specificcost of
( 3/4 <T<Lt/2 19.0<7"< 38,1 5/ 16 8 s/16 6
a "i'eld t)?e as with the relatite cost. Donnelly [5.26] has developedfactors < ,lA
I t/2 <.r< 21/4 3 8 . 1< r < 57.1 8 3r'g 10
rel:iing the cost of fillet and goove rveldsof common sizesto the cost of a j..'16
( 2 L/4 <r<6 5 7 . 1< T < t 5 7 8 1 i', l3
sin::le-pass]-in. fillet rveld 6 < T T52 <T -i"''16 8 s/8 16
( Currently (1990),rveldedconnectionsare used for the vast majority of
shop connectionsand a suable though not a majority of field connections. rWeld sizeis the leg dimcnsion
( of fillet u'cld.The q'cldsizeneednot exceed the
Ivfore extensivetreatmentoi iveldingcost is availablein the WeldingHandbook thicknessof the thinnerpart joined.For this excepdon.particularcareshouldbe
( [2.2?,Chap. 8] and from Blodgeu,[5.27]. takcnto providesufficientpreheatto ensureweldscundness.
*Minimu* sizefor bridgeapplications is 3/16 in.
(
tFor metric,minimumsinglepassweidsmustbe u=d.
( 5 .11 S I Z E A ND L EN G T H L IM IT AT ION S F O R FILLE T W E LD S SException:f is thethinnerpartjoincdrvhenspccia: prcbeatprovisicns
of .\\\'S-.i.1.-
( ---t-' are uscd.
Since all s'elding involves tbe heatingof the metai pieces,prevention of ic;o
( '.
rapid a rate of cooling is of fundamentalimportancero achievinga good rveld.
( Consider the trvo extremethjcknesses of platesin Fig. 5.11.1,each of rvhich
has received a bead of fillet weld. Most heat energy given off during the tially limited to a horizontaldissipation.In othci rvords.the thickerthe piate.
( welding processis absorbedb1'platesbeingjoined.The thickerplaredissipates the faster heat is removed from the n'eidin-zarea. ther-cbylo*'ering ihe
the heat venically as well as horizontally whereasthe thinner plate is essen- temperaturein the region of the q'eld. Since a minimum tcmperatureis
(
requiredto causethe basemetalto becomemolien.it is thereforenecessanio
( provide as a minimum, a weld of sufficientsize(and heat content)to pfevent
the plate from removing the heat at a faster rate than it is being supplied.
(
t\ ru,"p.,.,,*-f'\ Llnlessa proper_temperature is maintainedin the area being weldeda lack of
( fusion will rdsult.

( lsdisrriburion L_
(
Minimum Weld Size
(
To help insure fusion and minimize distortion the AWS 15.251 and AISC
( Specifications[1.5. 1;15]providefor a minimuni size*'eld basedon the thicker
of the piecesbeing joined. The requirementsfor fiilei r.veldbasedon the ieg
( - {r) Thick p!:ie (b) Thin plare
dimension a of the fillet and for partial joint penetrationgroover'.'eldbaseC
( Figure 5.11.1 Effect of thicknesson cooling rate. on the effecti vethroat( see. Sec. 5. i2)
ar e givenin Table5. 11. 1.

(
v i

'5 512 / EFFECTTVE


AREASOFWELDS 231 ( i
230 /uJELDii'iG I

r;
I

( 66. 4 rnnr m
mi i F-' LRFD and ASD-JZ.2.b recommend the use of end returns, whenever ( i
t<; ri4- : . = I
for other limitations the readeris referred
l: practicable,as shown in Fig- 5._11-.3. (.i
q -

[1.5'1.151-
\

F. !o theAISC Specifications
. i
am.r = no specrf rc
.timir
I
'
( ,i
{effectivenessma}'
be limited; see ( ;
. Sec.5.14l
AREASOF WELDS
EFFECTIVE \ :
1"
7 1
, !64mml d-.. =, - t
\
i
/,i
{1,6 mrni
*-
I , mr itrrngth, of the various typesof welds discussedin Sec.5.5 are basedon ( i
I

'.
elfectiaeareas.The effective areaof a groove or fillet weld is the product of the i
-.elfectiuethroat dimension I, times the length of the weld. a i
\ .|
I I

.t
:,- The effective throat dimension-depends on the nominal sizeand the shape
a
\ ;
i of the weld, and may be thougbt of as the minimum width of the expected i
Frgure5.11.2 Maximum weld size. €:=--
=- failure plane.
ls.e.v I L
|/.F.r
-:.F:--'
-*.-.-.
k
-H:_r-

Si
(
Maxlmum Fillet Weld Slze Along Edges *
-:s GrooveWelds
ffii*. (
The maximum sizc,of fillet weld used along the edgesof piecesbeing joinc.l r. 1ffi - T.hr effective throat dimension of a full penetration grocve weld is the
(
limited (LRFD and ASD-J2.2.b)in order to prevent the melting of rhe hlr.. Fi thicknessof the thinner part joined, as shown in Figs. 5.12.1aand b. For a
materialat the location where the hllet would meet the corner of the pl:rrcri $,*, pariial joint penetration groove weld, the effective throat may be less than the (
the fillet were rnadethe full plate thicknes-s.
Thb maximum permitted r: {.,;,.- €--,-depth of the chamfer. For example,when bevelor V joint gtooves'havean
included angle at the root of the groove less than 60o but not less than 45o (
Fig.5.ll.2): F_
"€:- (
l. Along edgesof material less than |-in. (6.2t-mrn)thick, the mininrunr ;+,' t.=Tr (
sizemay be equal to the thicknessof the material. := to=T
:+::-: I
2. Along edgesof material I in. (6.4 mm) or more in thickness.rlrc : 1 l l (
maximum size shall b. * in. (1.6 mm) lessthan the thicknessof rhc f + r, \ll
t l

12
I

+
material.unlessthe weld is especially designated
on the drawinsstr,irr' ' | (
l--:: I t
built out to obrain full throat thickness. .-i- |
(
T, (Tz

(a) (
Mlnlmum Etfective Length ot Flllet Welds
(
When placing a fillet weld, the welder builds up the weld to its full dimenritin .
as neat the beginning of the weld as practicable.Horvever,there i5 3le,sr i ;r (
slight taperingoff in the region where the weld is started and where ir en.jr ft'
i \
e= D -l' tr.zm-t
O (
' '
Therefore. the minimum effective length of a fillet weld is four times rhc 45o € a ( 60" (GMAW and FCAW
to' D
nomioalsize(LRFD and ASD-J2.2.b).If this requirementis not met. the srzc
vertical and overhed
pcitions)
(
a)60"
of the u'eldshall be consideredto be one-fourthof the effectivelength. rf\z (

M
l r t l
(
( ,i iI
(
lo *o
I
I
(c) 8€^rel or V iont (d) Bsvelor V ioint ( I

Figure 5.12.1 Effective throat dimcnsions for groove welds (LRFD ard ASDJ2.l.a) (
Figure5.11.3 Usc of eod returas. made by SMAW, SAW, GlvlAW, and FCAW.
(

_(- i
( t
(
'( ..t
.a
232 5/VJELDING .
t
1
STBINGTHOFWELDS
5.13/ NOHrr'rAL z$t
( i

{
( I
t
' ( .' 'tl: 5.13 NOIIIINAL
STRENGTH
OF WELDS
i
( Sincerveldsmust transmitthe entire load fiom onc memDerto anothcr.ri'elds
must be sizerjaccordinglyand be formed froni ihe correct electrodcr::atc:irl.
( For desigr)purposesfillet rveldsare assumedto transr-.'lit
loads throus.hs'!;ear
( (a) (b)
slress on the effective area no matter how the fillets are oriented on ihe
structural connection.Groove welds transsut loads -xactly as in the pieces
( F,gure5.72-2 Effectivethroetdimensions
for fillet wclds(cxceptby submergcd they join.
arc
( process). The electrodematerial used in welds should have propertiesof the basc
material. When properties are comparable the weld metal is referred to as
( "matching" weld metat. Table
5.13.1 gives "matching" rveld metal for manl'
( ASTN{ structural steelsused in buildings and bridges.
n'hen SMAW or SAw processesare used, or rvhen the GIr{A\\' or FCAW
( processesare usedin verticalor overheadpositions,the effectivethroat is the
cepth of the chamferless |'in. when the includedangleis 60q or more, the Strength of Groove Welds
( efiective throat is the full depth of chamfer for all four processesmentioned. Complete joint penetration groove welds are considered to have the same
Effective throat requirementsfor the groove situationsmentioned.as well as strength on the effectiuearea as the pieces being joined. Welds subject ro
(
others,are given in LRFD and ASD-JZ.7.a. tension normal to the effective area must be made rvith "matching" rveld
( metal, where the propertiesof the weld metal are comparableto thoseof the
( base metal. In compression,where stability of the compressionmember is
Fillet Welds usually the major factor, the weld metal strength is permitted to be one
( classification(10 ksi) lower than the "malching" base metal requirement.Tbe
The effective throat dimension of a fillet weld is nominally the shortest authors recornmend,however, that malshing electrodes be used-wben the
(
distance from the root to the face of the rveld, as shown in Fig. 5.12.2. membermay possiblybe used in tensionin the future.
( .\ssuming the fillet weld to have equal legs of nominal size a, the effective Thus. the nominal strength R,- of weid per inch of length is basedon
( throat t " is 0.707a.If the fillet weld is designedto b_eunsymmetrical(a rare yielding of the basemetal, which gives
situation) with unequal legs,as shorvnin Fig. 5.I2.2b, the value of t. mustJre-.
Rrn: trF, tenstonor comPresslon ( 5 . 1 3j 1 )
( computed from the diagrammaticshape of the weld. The effective throat ..
(
dimensions for fillet welds made by the submergedarc (SAW) processare (s.13.2)

(
modified by LRFD and ASD-JZ.Z.aas follows to account for the inherently
superio_rquality of such welds:
where
,": .rr*l;*.'f;::SIrllT.rD
P. : yield stressof the basemetal
( 1. For fillet welds rvith the leg sizeequal to or lessthan f in. (9.5 mm), the Note that as discussedin Sec.2.6. tbe shearyield stressis taken as approxi-
*--"- mately I (actually 0.6) of the tensioa-compressionyield stress.When "match-
{/ . effective throat dimensionshall be taken as equal to the leg size a.
2. For fillet welds larger than I in. (9.5 mm), the effectivethroat dimen- ing" electrodematerial is used the weld material is somewhatstrongerthao the
( sion shall be taken as the theoreticalthroat dimensionplus 0.11in. (2.8 base material; thus the strength of the welded joilt is controlled by the base
( mm) (i.e.,0.707a+ 0.11). material properties.
When the groove welded joint is subject to shear, the weld metal is
( permitted (AWS-Table 8.4.1 12.241)to be of lorver strength than the base
metal; i.e., less than "matching" *'eld metai. in which case the strength Fr*rq
( Plug and Slot Welds of the weld material must be used instead of Fr, in mmputing .Rn,'.
( The effective shearing atea of plug or slot welds is their nominal area
( (sometimes called faying surface)in the shearingplane. The resistanceof plug Strength ol Fillet Welds.
or.slot welds is the product of the noninal cross-sectiontimes the stresson
The strength R,,- of a fillet weld per inch of length is based on assumption
( * that area.
that failure of such a weld is by shear on the effective area whether the sbear
(
" ( ..',]:;
2..:,
: ,i{

. r':,"
:.r€
. t
l -
5.13 / NOMINAL STRENGTHOF WELDS
F+.* (
( '
Tensile slress
?
along bar (
I I |.
F -^
H E'3 a
_ta
! x Y
Il ^
. i 3
I

i- d.J
(
.-! I c''l
. d
rJ J,i a.l
.
I .;
a.l
icl
E €5 ?TT;
lr-
l< \ ; It; - : t

ll w?, Ip f/
(
; i:t t

E
eiir iq,
'7 7 I a ' f - * >< c =i a X
t! <>r =! (
? E E " }t < i J I
9Y <;jj
i
=
I I c-
(
I ':x t_
o
(J
E ot
@

d x
l=
I ./i X
j e r
..d
&
(\t
l.l 5

I9>- <eb l tt)< n , i (-v : 2 7 ll ? -3


s*= rzr P I
l74
R "?, ee5
> = t>a
a - (
h;e
o
Vd,
<&l t < si
: / d
<i:j < ijj
lo, 3
Distribution of rheat
slressesin weld (
I
F

2 ( t
i c-t - c .
.lx
a lap joict with longitudinal fillet welds'
lal
9
s .Xx
i "r;
t< F[ure 5.13.1 Typical stressdistributioo in (
rl F
1C O)^ br+ l s tx
!, ob

o
- tl l
9 E? r-. X
il w:i * iII R x i*I 'J oO ,=
' & 1
(
la4
= ? . !
a l I
t s3 -
-o
.ai li.
< x t<x t x 4a X,it
;':*7. a t " 3
,^-) (
l > I| r -
q l ltaX
l q
l
U) ;t - x* > = l>= J a t a

J
t<
l * - -
<L
*
<i.:- ! otJ at . ^ : (
l<rL = ' = !

? . . 9
F

-_:x
i (
3 (J g t : I 7 - cc =c j
-E
!
GI )\ ox rti
I - ' t a ' )
9 V i ? (
(Y ea xn b
v
a
l Il r , ? 1 ! i :: (
Ir:*
l! Efr< - 1 ?
d a
o
tlj
8Ee < X ? I i. ' ? :x ? *
. J 1 = ' - r
= : 2 = '
F
E
E
' v a X q X '>= t /,
i< ?3.: l(,
l 3=
- v

- --=:: t 4
(
=€ =R
* a + .= ,'
? ? , ? 1 2
E
<l:i <'A 1 :;
i<rr (
€' ; +! =
2 €
) ? ,
F
z ]
r '
- -
J - t
c J -
(
irJ
- c l ) -4 = *
t
UJ
IY
i cq) ; . Y ' 7 ,
n -
(
-z ^

*
a

T
-

U
- .

' J V -
5 o E. -7. E= , 9 5 4 - a (
:U:- ! F 5
a -
UJ
c
o
o Y .== a O
F d
n ;

x 6
r r ) r ) <.. ! E c P ' 7 J
(
h
i6;
Fg 6;?
I
I
a.r g
's!- i 9 y , i
E L7:
ut 4 d
i sI t -
> ) < {d>< o
b

a
-

!
d y

(
1 ??s t
: C ) r.l O -.:l€ .J a 3
(DQ) i ' o g = :
cc uL o-
+ ! t r | I

i t ? € 3 t z 2 ' ? . 8> . 9 3 :
LU
) t9(,
* 6 gEjii $ ! ! i F l =
3 : ' . 1 > , *- ... 7 = -
i i*.+

(
! I ? E i i ?e
€ r t
<': ? , qE ! J
1 -'z a L b
E:f I-.

:?,55
'i".:
rt
o = \ J ! ,
it l2- .J . 2 ^ A E = 3 E' 2 2 !
's'!;.
(
4 Fges
(rr)rnr-
i c r o a
F r : c c C
(, r, fi l'- izAij
F
7: r-
C
Lats<- , E * r * i C.+1!?r,
e .:a-.
."
:
O
F
< J
(\l
<<!l Euii, !

''i
= i

J '
t

:
l *r.:
f +":.
-
(
.€Ys= <.= i-:
E,:F,.
/
A
l
€ 5.H+
>- e ..7
c 7 . 3
4 i . - ;
. - r l
t--
(
; .= ':A! !
. ^ 7 ? r t n
9
9 s F t :
9 e J =
I- (
p J e = =
()
UJ
o.
o
) - 'i 6E> rt >
'-? g
) ' A - :
<c , - c ; ' ; ' ;' E I (
J CI
2 r ^ >E ) , ? - V A 'J J. -
-
(
joint with traosversc 6llet rcldr
r i + *

5.13.2 Typical stBss distdbution in a lap


(
234
(
(
- -l
\
,1'
i

s/WELD|NG . . -It s.14/ LOADANDRES|STAT{CE


FACTOR _ \ijELDS
DESIGN 237
(
(
(
(
( t
7i

( FY = l
3
c l o
,.
( \ ,l \
L
n -''l
( Ll
v {
< - _ - E n n J
v - - ( - -

I . t,

lll'li
c
r c r
( o
J

(
( -ol-,,
( 0 0.02 0.04 0.c5 0.08 0.1
" r, -=:trtIIIZ Detormation
J, in.
( Y
{a}
Figure 5.13.4 Load-deformationrelationship for a |-in. E70 fillet u'eld. (From LRFD
( (b)
Manual [.17]).
F:gure 5.13.3 Typical stress distribution in a tee joint
( with fillet welds (shear
!ransverseto fillet).
( 5.14 .LOADAND RESISTANCEFACTORDESIGN_ WELDS
(
The generalphilosophyqf Load and Resistance
FactorDesign(LRFD) rvas
(' Fig. 5.13.3-Due to the tendencyof the fillet to rotate about point
C, the describedin Secs.1.8 and 1.9. Equation1.8.1givesthe structuralsafer,v
maximum stress fr-in tension irn the y-direction is approximateiyfout
' J tfme5 requirement,asfollows:
( the averagestress-fvs. .! '
The load-deformltion relationship of a fillet rveld has been studied +R,2Ltiei [1.s.1]
( by
Butler, Pal, and Kulak Is.zgl, Kurak and Timmler
[5.30],Swannell[5.31,5.32]
( and Neis tf .l.l111ndi-sshownin Fig. 5.13.4,wherethe riader.uy otr.*e rvhere 0 : resistancefactor (strengthreductionfactor),valuesof ivhich for
that
the strength is relat-edto the angleat rvhich the weld is loaded.ihe longirudi- rveidsare given in Table 5.i4.1
( n-alwelds in Fig- 5.13.1are loaded ar 0o (parallel to the weld ds); Fig.
5.13.a R, : nominal resistance(strength): R,,, for welds
( shows considerable ductility Qarge deformation capability) for
sucf, welds. 1 : overloadfactors(LRFD-A4.1)
Figure 5-13-2shows transversewelds loade.dat 90o;'fig. S.if.4 shorvsgrearer Q, : senice loads(selSecs.1.8 and 1.9)
( strength but considerablylessductility for such weids.
Equation 1.8.1 requires the design strength 0R, to equal or exceed the
( Note also from Fig. 5.13.4that even though rhe srrengthof a fillet weld
-the summation of faaored loads,or specificallyfor welds,Eq. 1.8.1becomes
becomes greater as ihe angle to the axis of weld inireases, that extra
( strength is not utili-ed by the AIsc Specifications (s.14.1)
[1.5, 1.15]. rn, ,n.a, fR,o 2 R,
( strength of the weld materiar,taken at 0.6FExx,is tbe upper limii where 0 : resistancefactor (for welds the 0 factor is the same as for the
used.
The fact that welds will deform plastically (constant load with increase
( in material it connects;that is, 0.90 for the yielding limit state and
deformation) before failure permits relatively simple rreatment of fillet rvelds
:
( loade{ both parallel (d 0") to the axis of the weld and perpendicular R,*: :#'T#iTnffiTJ;lil'L,r,h orwerd,
butno!toexceed
(d - 90") to the axis of the we!d. It is assumedthat the plastic
defonnation the nominal strength per unit length of adjacentbasematerial
( will permit all such welds to resistequally anyvhere along their
lenlth= R,, : factoredload per unit length of weld
(
, (
. -rt
-wELgs ' 239
-
DESIGN
FACTOR
511/LoAD ANDRESISTANCE / - t

238 5 /WELDING
-;s
: :i3 -'
( ,

(FROM LRFD MANUAL [1 17] TABLE i2 3=at*Ye welds (


T A E L E 5 . 1 ' 4 . 1 DESIGNSTRENGTHOF WELDS
i {,., ir" arrignstrensth
(LRF,D'J2I) penetration
r:-:::,lr.y:^:l,.Ttplete (
Resis- Nominal RequiredTjo't
dependson rhetyp.-oisrress thatis applied:
tencS strength slr€ngth i:*. vffififids (
Faaor 0 FsuOt F- levelo'
E *+--
l. Tensionandcompression norrnalto effectivearea,f and tensionand
'ii 1,,.- weld:
CompletePenelrationGrooveWeld
*;t--:'*mpres'ionparallelto axisof (
'i =. (5'14'2)
"Matching" .re",' +R,,*: 0.90r'4' basematerial (
Tenslonnormalto i,?- = 0-90t.4'- weldmetal (5'14'3)
must b€ us6d ;-*. . sRn*, ( ,
etfrtive area .i*..
ilr'd,n.o*,; . are the yield stresses the base and weld rnetals'
Comprassionmrmal to : 3.'.' where F, and F,*..*.r.tiigi'-*.ra,. .of
indicated in Table 5'13'1are used'
(
strength lov0i when *
eft€ctive Itea $, - rcspecriv'ely.
ia -?-_
equal 196r lo:r asthe:ield-t:t-T^t:tthe basematerial' (
" i' t{;;
"malchrng
Tcnsionor compresson than : .f. 4', area':
may be used ;l- 2. Shror on effective (t
parallelto sxis of weld ; -
base-metal
L^-- ^.^l

-" (- nw: o'got.t/


fRn- (
-+ o* ( 5. 14. 4)
.r-.r :- A
0.oAr
90r .ir( r0.
. nr \
60F") (
Partal PenetrationGroovsWetds (
' ':t"' ' 0'65
- 'L^ ^,.^'re rhe sl yield stressts; taken approximatelyas
Weld metal wr'l r '=i Note'ihit in the above,the shear for the weld metal; (
sttengthlevo;r-(:-: iectrod e tensiles*u'gih
loss tn;ir' - :- for-the Uur.-*.i.I and 0.6 of the
to or 0'80 is used for the weld metal' (
"ffialChing'r'e": '= tbus, the f.*tt + ftctor of
Tensionor comPression peneuation g,*u. *elds are similarly treated and the summary
paraltelto axisof weldd metal fnSYCur."c': :--
" Partial (
- designstrengthsis givenin Table 5'14'1'
Shaarparallelto 8xi9 (
ol weld e l o.ts l o.oot,". I ,,-
Flllet Welds (
F, --,,tt Drn rt, \ .,er rrnir lensth of a fillet weld
pItilI O.gO I
IoooF'-I
I :
; *',filfl.:ifi:9,'l*:fiiil,:jj,"#il:T:L:l,ro'o*,' (
otttl*ttot i; (
:: U0.75r,(0.60F'CI() fitletweld
, ,-,,, ,, metal
,,, s:::
,-.--.| --r oR,,*
a|d
.rJIc\v.uvl FX.:K
Weld base
(LRFD'J4')of theadjacent (
$r::rfrtl3F;:' , $j- but norlessthantheshearrupruresrrength (
to or lessthan --^t
metal' (s.14'?)
$- metal
Tensionor compr6ssion
parallelto axis of weld9 #*lH*',:,", rRo* = 0.75r(0.604) base (
t: (seeSec' 5'12) (
ptugor SlotWelds '-
where t, : effectivethroat dimension
.= of electrod:,T::t:,*^-
oo1 : ,.ntitrstrenslh
rJ (
I I I .,Gilil;;. utoog;hich
marerial weldisplaced
..
ShearParallelto faying H:r['l]H'L', ,T' : lff#ffit;t
surfaces(on et{ective io'otlttt than..
(
"matching" F'
area) wed i-l
#il';"v bor.sa: .$ f:r pJ?,y,.1,*tjlacturetg::fl"ft :T::ifj
Notethatthelimitstate i::
ror
(
.t" b.t;.valuesor eRn*, based onEq'5'14'6
' ffi['ffir:T|T"]L-'; ""i'^ ^, f^- ohiplrlerl metel arc
(
rFordefiniiicn area,se€seci.J2.
ot ettec{ive vanous sr*Lruue
i.'- lfr:":Tt}"*..#;il;
Awsqr.l ..
+ll illi:ni"n:',i,fffi;,;";il;l.r.i, "matching" .*L _^ ,'E'' welding (sMAw) ili""1
and ln I a
(
cweld than
metalone strengthlevelstronger weldmetalwill be permit'ted ,,ff
(
oFiilerwelds and partial-penetration groovowelds ioiningcomponontelsmants9t T']--15 €
l*:s
memb€nt, such as flange.toweb conneclions' may 6e OeitgneOwithOutregardto the € ;;; r^. ,r-Gnirinn
of cff (
m 8 m p € r 5 , 5 u c n g 5 l | . 1 t | g l ' . t ! r w t ' v l ^ , . . | | g v u v l r J ' l . . u , Y v Y ' Y l J ! t '
axls of the welds'
H 'SceSec'5'12for
or cotnpressivestr,essin thoseElemontg parallel t6 the -
-€
:€t ' (
rThe designof ennected mEtedalls gorremedby sect. J4.

'
,s
:#"=
- d 5
(
(
" (
' { ,.:t
\ 24O 5/IAELD|NG : I
- .I { 5 14 / LOADAND RESISTAI-ICE
FACTORDES;Gtj _ 9,.:LDS 241
( t
. l
I

( I
TABLE5.r4.2 DESIGNSHEAR
STRENGTHOFFILLFTWELD.9F,*.(kips/in.) T A 3 - = 5 . 1 4 . 4 V J I L D S- - A I S CS P I C I F I C A T I O N S
RIF:5ENCES
( (SHIELDED
METALARCWELDING)

( Nominal Eftective
size lhroat Minimumtensilestrengthof weld (ksi)
Topic
( (in ) (in.) 90 100 il0
( Filler metal and flux for rvelding A3.5 A3 {,
r/8 0.088" 23gb 2.77 3.17 3.56 3.96 4.36 Eifective net area ttJ B:
( 3/t6 0.133 3.58 4.18 4.77 5.37 5.97 6.56 Dcsign tensilestrcngth D1 D:
r/4 0.L77 4.77 s.57 6.36 7.t6 7.95 8.75 General JI
( s/16 0.221 5.97 6.96 7.95 8.95
Ji
9.94 10.94 llinimum connecrionstrengtb Jl.5 ll l-l

{ 3/8 0.265 7.16 8.35 9.54 10.74 11.93 i 3.12 Balanccdweld connection J1.6 i l.e
7/16 0.309 8.35 9.74 11.14 1? S? 13.97 15.31 \\'elds J2 J?
( t/2 0.354 9.54 11.14 t2.73 t4.32 15.9i 17.50 Groove q'elds J2.t J2.t
e/16 0.398 10.74 t2.s3 t4.32 16.11 17.90 19.69 Effective areas
( J2.1.a f a :
J:.-t-d,
^
5/8 0.442 rl.gr 13.92 15.91 17.90 19.88 21.87 Limitations J2.1.b J2.i.b
( rr/16 0.486 t3.12 15.31 17.50 19.69 ?1.87 24.M Fillet welds t1 1 I?T
3/4 0.530 74.32 16.70. 19.09 21.48 23.86 26.25 Effective arcas J2.2.a J !.4.4
( Limitations J2.2.b Jl.l.'b
ur, = 0.707 rimesleg size a :
( A.707(L/8): 0.0ggin. Plug and slot welds J2.3 J Z^:
bgr. Designstrengtb 12.4 11 r
10.60Fox ) : 0.75(0.707a)(0.60times tensilestrength) JL.A

( : 0.75(0.700(1/1ix0.60x60)
: 2.38kips/in.
(
( A summaryof the designstrengthsof rveldsis given in Trble 5.14.1.A
TABLE5.14.3 DESIGN
SHEAR
STRENGTH
oF FTLLET
WELD,+R* (kips/in.) summaryof the AISC Specificationsectionsrelatingto rveldsar..'pears
in Table
( (SUBMERGED
ARCWELDING) 5.14.4.
(
Nominal Effeclive
size throal Minimumtensilestrengithof weld (ksi)
( E EXAJ\{PLE5.I4.I ,
(in.) (tn.) 70 80 90 100 110 Determine the effecti-vethroat dimension of fr-in. fillet rveld n:ade b1- (a)
(
shieldedmetal arc rvelding(SMAW), and (b) submergedarc x-elcling(SAw).
I/8 0.125" 3.38" 3.94 4.50 5.06 5.63 6.19 in accordance
( ' 0.188" with the AISC Specificarions[1.5,1.15].
3/t6 5.06 5.91 6.75 7.59 8.44 9.28
( L/4. 0.25A^ 6.75 7.88 9.00 i0.13 11.25 12.38
5/16 0.313" 8.44 9.84 L1.25 12.66 14.06 15.47 SOLUTION
( 3/8 0375" 10.13 11.81 13.50 15.19 16.88 18.56 (a) t": 0.7A7a: 0.707(0.4375):0.309in.
7n6 0.419b LL.32 t3.21 1s.10 16.98 18.87 20.76
( (b) r" :0.707a + 0.1i : 0.707(0.4375)
+ 0.11 : 0.419in.
r/2 a.463 12.51 14.60 16.69 78.77 20.86 27.94
9/t6 0.508 Thesevaluesa10in agreementwith thosegiven in Tables 5.74.2(for S\IAW)
( 13.71 15.99 18.28 20.56 22.85 25.t3
s/8 0.552 14.90 17.38 ,22.35 and 5.14.3(for SAW). E
19.87 24.83 27.32
( Lr/r6 0.s96 16.09 18.78 2L.46 24.14 ?6.82 29.5L
3/4 0.640 17.29 20.17 23.05 2s.93 28.81 31.69
(
E EXAII{PLE 5.14.2
( ut" = = tF:::
s leg size for sizes s 3/S in. Determine the desigtrshearstrengthfR,,,u of a f -in. fillet rveld produced by
b -
t" 0.707a-+ 0.11 for sizes > 3/8 ia.
--::. (a) shielded metal arc welding, and (b) submergedarc weldin_a.Assume E70
, car.
(
qo6orExx
) i:."
,:. electrodeshaving minimum tensilestrengih F** of 70 ksi are used,acccrding
( : ::I[i)!],::ffi;,::Hffli? 1E:
'+ to AISC LRFD Specification.
( ' ,;.;
..:. i:-i

1
.-!L_
I -
l

f-,*' 242 5 /WELDING 5.14 / LOAD AND RESiS;ANCE FACTOR DESIGN-!'JELDS 243 (
(

SOLLITION
(a) SN'IAWprocess.t,:0.707a: : 0.265in. Acco.rtlinsr,,
0.707(0.3?5; |l
Eq.5.14.6,
+R,* : Qr,(0.60Fr**)
(b) SAWprocess.
: 0.75(0.265)(0.60)?0

t,: o: 0.375in.
: 8.35ki ps/i n.

oR,,*,: gr.(0.60F**): 0.75(0.375x0.60)70


: 11.81kips/in.

Thesevaluesagreewirhthosein Tables5.l4.2and5.14.3
'wj
r EXAIIIPLE5.143
Determinethe designshearstrengrhfR" for a |-in.-diam plug weld usingI..-,i
elcctrodematerial.Use AISC LRFD Specification.

SOLL'TI ON
SectionA-4 Section 8-8
Assuming the weld diameterD satisfiesthe limitations of LRFD-J2 1 b
'. (a)
re'latingto the dimensionof the piecein which the plug weld is made. {bf

riguidttc.t an1.1 sectionsfor porsibteoverstressing


of basematerial.
0R,, : 0.75(area
of fayingsurface,nO27a)(0.60FExx)

: 0.75(0.4418X0.60)70
: 13.9kips
Sectionsb-b and c-c trill not b€ critical since two lines of ,*'eldtransfer
as shown in the equationfor maximumeffectiveweld
load acrosstwo sections,
Maximum Etfecllve Flllet Weld Slze sizeacrossthose sections,
In Sec.5.ll the limitationson maximum and minimum fillet weld siz,ean,.! ) : 9 (0.6d)r,
9a(0.707)(0.60FExx (5.14.10)
length relating to practicaldesignconsiderationswere given. Those rcquirc.
ments relate to the size of weld that is actually placed. Regardingstrcngrir. F..t.,
dmancff: 1.41 (5.14.11)
however.no r,r'eldsof whateversizemay be designedusing a strengrhgrcrrci ' .f E X X
than availableon the adjacentbasematerial.
Consider the two lines of fillet weld transmitting the shear I/ acr.,.. Consideringthe four fillet welds of Fig. 5.14.1b,sectionsd-d and e-e are
section a-a of Fig. 5.1a.1a.The designstrengthgRn* of the fillet wetd r. the same as section a-a; therefore, Eq. 5.14.9 applies. On sections/-/ and
given by Eq. 5.14.6.The design shear rupture strength eF,An, of the br.c g-g four fillet welds transfer load acrosstwo sections.Thus,
materialis 0.75(0.6d) (net areain basematerialsubjectto shear;accordin{:t,'
LRFDJ4. Equating the capacityper inch of the weld meral to rhe shc:rr ) : O2(0.6F,) t,
O4a(0.707X0.60FDS( (s.14.12)
capacitl per inch in the basematerialgivesfor shieldedmetal arc w'etding
and again Eq. 5.14.9is the result.
0Ro* (weld) : gRo (basemetal) Even when fillet welds @nnect members that are in tension, the transfer
of load by meansof the weld is a sbear transfer to the base pieces wben the
z,a (0.707)(0.60FErn; : 6 (0.6F,) t, (5.ta.st fillet welds are parallel to the direction of the load. For such cases,the
0.60dr, maximum effective weld size concept still applies.
Futr
d max
cfl
: 0 .7 0 7 ( 5 . t 4 .t' i
2(0.707)0.60FExx Fexx r EXAMPLE 5.14.4
Determine the design shear strengtb OR,,* to be used for the flange to web
where tr : thicknessof basematerial connection in Fig 5.14?. Tbe plates are A36 steel and electrodes having
F" : tensilestrengthof basematerial Fexx : 70 ksi are to be uscd with (a) shielded metal -g wslding (SMAW) and
F.** : tensilestrengthof electrodematerial(70 ksi for 870 electrodcsl (b) submergedarc welding(SAW).
t,(
i1'

244 5,/WELDING Sl FESSD:SiGr.l- VJLLDS


5 r 5 7,ALLOLVABLE 245
(
(
pro\'rsirn 7lf givcs
(
( R. , R ,I .
( iu"*J=^ [4.10.1]

( Sin:e the philosophy of allorvablestressde.sigl'1 is to gompute "stresscs" ar


F.gure5.14.2 Example5.14.4. s e r v i c el c a d . E q . 4 . 1 0 . 1 m a v b e d i v i d e d b y t h e " e f f c c t i r e " : l r c a o f t h e r v c l d p e r
( inch, the sides of the equation intcrchanged(reversingthc inequality) giving
(
( SOLLJTION = Allowablestress: ( 5 . 15 . 1)
( lv{inimum rveld size : d-io : fr in. (LRFD-Table J2.5) [t= l] lt: &]
(a) Slv{AW process.Equation 5.14.9applies,
( or the sen'ice load R per inch of rvcld may not exceedthe allov,ableload R -
, F,,t, 58t
d ma x c:0
n .7 0 7 # :0 .7 0 7 ;; : 0.59r per inch of weld. This may be expressed
(' rEXX tv

( R < [R* : Allowablestresstimesr"] (5.15.2)


: 0 .5 9 (0 .3 1 2 5=) 0 .1 8 3in.
( The allcrvablestresses for (1) shearon the effectiveareaof all u'eldsand
gRn*.: 0.75(0.183x0.707)(0.60)(70)
: 4.08kips/in.
( (21 the tensilestressnormalto the axis on the effectiveareaof a partialjoint
penetrationgrooverveldare equal to 0.30 timesthe electrodetensilestrength.
( or, for trvo fillets, the design strength is 2(a.08): 9.16 kips/in. Thus, even
However, the stressin the adjacentbase metal may not exceed0.60F, for
inough a S-in. fillet weld must be placed, its strength in design may not
( tension or 0.40.F,for shear.The summaryof allorvablestressesis gii'en in
exceedthe strengthassuminga :0.183 in.
Table 5.15.1.and R" valuesof allorvableshearresistance per inch for various
( (b) SAW process.Here the effective throat dimension equals the rveld
electrcdestrengthsare given for SIvtAW and SAW, respectively, in Tablcs
size.Equating the weld strengthto the plate strengthgives
( 5 . 1 5 . 2a n d 5 . 1 5 . 3 .
2a(0 .6 0 )7 0: 0 .6 0 (5 8 )r The limitations on maximum and minimum sizewelds rverediscussedin
( Sec.5.t1, and the effective,areas rverediscussed in Sec.5.12.
o .* .r, : A.4 1 4 t: 0 .4 1 4 (5
/1 6 ) :0.129 i n. The generalsummaryof AISC AllorvableStressDesignprovisionsrelaring
(
to rvel C si s i n TableS: q. q.
( , : 04.08ki ps/i n.
0 R n * ' = 0 .7 5 (0 .1 2 9 )(0 .6 0 )?
( E EXA\TPLE 5.15.1
or, 9.16 kips/in. for two fillets..Again, the same result is obtained as in (a)
because9.16 kips/in. is the design strength based on the *-in. web plate, of a f -in. fillet rveldproducedby (a)
Deiermine the allowableshearresistance
( shieldedmetal arc processand (b) submergedarc process.Assumeuse of E70
which is well below the strength of the weld metal. tl
( electrodeshaving minimum tensilestrengthFr** of 70 ksi, and useAllorvable
StressDesign.
(
STRESSDESIGN_ WELDS
5.15 ALLOWABLE
(
SOLLTI ON
( The general philosophy of Allowable StressDesign (ASD) was describedin (a) SMAW process.t " : 0.707a: 0.707(0.375) : 0.265in.
Secs.1.8 and 1.9. Equation 1.8.8 givas the structural safety requirement,as
( follows: R * = r" (0.30. Fr *1): 0. 265( 0. 3) 70
: 0. 265( 21): 5. Sl kips/ in.
( &=ro, [1.S.8]
(b) S A W process.
t ": a: 0. 375in.
( R, : l"(0.30Fo*) : 0.375(21.0)= 7.8Tkips/in.
( As previouslydiscussed
in Sec.4.10 for bolts,dividing Eq. 1.8.Sby the ,uf.ty Thesevaluesmay be checkedby referringto Tables5.15.2and 5.15.3. EI
\
5.15 / ALLO\IJABLESTRFSS DESIGN _ WELDS 247 (
246 5 ./WELDING
(

TAELE 5 15 1 ALLCJJABLESTRESSES ON EFFECTIVE AREA OF WELDS TABLE 5.t 5.2 ALLoWABLE RESISTANCE F* OF FILLETWELDS. KIPS / lN. (
( A S D i 1 5 t ) - T A B L EJ 2 . 5 ( U S E DB Y P E R M I S S I O N
OF A|SCi . ( S H I E L D E DM E T A LA R C W E I . D I N G \
.r4,i
(
Required Weld Nomrnal Ef{ec1r'.'e throal
Typaot WeU atlC Slress' ( A S D - J 22 a )
Minirnumlensile strengthof weld (ksi) (
Slrength Levef'' size
(in ) (tn ) 7C 80 90 100 r1c (
Cornplel*Petxlratlon G roore Welds :.::';;;
Fr.:-.-"
r/8 0.088 1. 59 1. 86 )11 2.39 2.69 2.e2 (
Tcrnsbn norn''al to Same as base melal
3ir6 0.132 2. 38 2- ?8 3.18 3. 58 3. 97 4. 37
eftectirre area EL.
(
t/4 0.177 3. 18 3_71 4.24 4.17 5.30 5.83
(bmpression normgl b +'
5/15 0.221 3.98 4.64 5.30 5.96 6.63 7.30
eflective area 0.265 4.77 5.57 6.36 7.L6 7.95 8.75 (
3/8
Wdd netaf wilh I slrengrh €F.
,tF;: 7/16 0.309 5.57 6.49 7.42 8.35 9.28 10.?l (
Tensbn or clrngressicn Same as base melal levef equal b Cr lesS rhan -:- 0.353 6.36 7.42 8.48 9.54 10.60 I1.66
paralel lo aris ol weld 'malcfirq'weld
meld rr
L/2
e/16 0.398 7. 16 8. 35 9.54 10. 74 11. 93 13. 11 (
permilled.
Shearon efieclivearea 0.30 x rcminal lensile s/8 0.141 7.95 9.?8 10.61 11.93 13.26 14.58
0.486 8.75 10.21 1 1 . 6 7 13. 12 14. 58 16. 04 (
strargth of vcld melal (ksi) l L/ 1 6
3/4 0.530 9.54 1 1 . 1 3 r2.72 14. 31 15. 91 l?. 50 i
GrooveWeldsd
Parliat-penelratbn 5i1: Y

(
Compressigt normd lc
eflective area
(
Tensionr ccrnpressien Same as base metal One may dererminethe nomirialsafet-v- provision (y/Q) by comparingthe
(
parallello arc of weld" Weld metal wilh a slrenf l: designstrengthgRn* in Load and ResistanceFactor Design(Sec.5.1.1) *itlt
hvef equal b or less than the allorvableload R*. Using the valuescomputed in Examples 5.14.2 and (
0.3O x nondnal lensile -malcfing'web
meld rs 5.15.1for f-in. fillet weld rvith the SlvtAW process and E70 electrodes.
strargth of wdd metal (ksi) (
permilled.
Tensbn rsrnal to effecfve 0.30 x noninallensile 0Rn* : 8.35kips/in. LRFD QesienStrength
(
area str€ngthol wdd melal (ksi),
ercept teraig slte3son base R . : 5. 57kips/ in. ASD Allou'ableLoad (
metalshall nol exceed0.60 x
yield slressof base melal (
FillelWeHs \
TABLE 5.15.3 ALLCUJABLERESISTANCER- OF FILLETWELDS, KIPS/ lN
Shear on efiecfve arca 0.30 r nominal lensile Weld netal wilh a strengln (SUBI'ERGEDARC WELDING) T (
strenglho{ weld melal (ksi) bvet equat b c less than
-matclirg'weld meld ts (
Nominal throat
Etfective
Tensioncr crrnpression l,.tinimumtensile slrenglh of wetd (ksi)
germillEd. srze (AS}J2 2 a)
Parallelb axis of weld" (in ) (in.) 70 100 I I ,'\

Plug and Slol Welds


r/8 0.125 2.75 2.62 3.00 3. 37 315 4. 12 (
Shear paralel lo faying sur- 0.30 x rominal lensile WeH metal with a sttentlh 3/16 0.187 3.37 3.94 4.50 5.06 5.62 6.19
(
laces (on eftective area) srr€ngrho{ wdd metal(ksi) levet equal tc or less then r/4 0.250 4.50 5.25 6.00 6.75 ?.50 lt.l5
'malctir€- weld metd 6 10.-11
5/16 0.312 5.62 6.56 7.50 8.4 9.37 (
permilled. 3/8 0.375 6.75 7.87 9.00 1 0 . 1 2 11.25 11.37
'For dcfrn:ion of effccure atca.seeASDJ2. 7/ 1 6 0.419 7.55 8.80 10.06 1r.32 12.58 13"84
bl'r.,r"matchrna" *eld
metal.seeTablc 4.i.1, AWS Dt.l [2.24]' r/2 0.463 E.34 9-73 11.12 12. 51 13. e0 15. 30
'\\'cld *ltarchiog" weld metal nill be pcnnltl.d e/16 0.508 9.14 10.66 12.18 13.71 15.23 16.75
mcr:l one strenttb levelstrongerthan
'iScc s/8 9.93 t1J9 13.25 14.90 16.s6 i8.ll
ASD-il i !-r fci a i:nitation on use of partial-pcnctration&roote wcldcd jornts 0.552
'frillct r,,'eidsand parr:al-pcnetration t-'f bu:il'r:; 19.67
I,roovc weldsloining rhe componentelemenis rr/t6 0.596 10.73 12"52 14.31 16.09 17.88
*-itbout reg.rrd to thc tsn'ric ''' 19.21 lr. t3
nrcmbers. srr-h as nange-io-,*eb connections. *uy ba dcsigncd 3/4 0.640 1r.52 13.4 15.36 17.28
comprcssive stress in thesc elementsparallel to the axis of the welds-
lThc
dcsign of connccted material is governcdby ASD-D througb ASD-G-
(
fl
( .:
_:t
,, 248 5/l €LDING : t
' iE i '''/ELDSCONNECTINGMEMBERSSUBJECTTO DIRECTAXIALLOAD 249
.': !

.. li
( Fronr Eq. 5.15.1and using0.?5as the 0 facror.
(
(
F S : 1 = : , , , 9 ; "- : 2 . 0 0 +-
tl<
R" . 0 .7 5 (5 .57)
(
Thus, the nominal strength R,,*.usedin LRFD is trvice the allou'ableload R*. Figurea.',6.2Designsketchfor Example5.16.1.
( usedin ASD. Typically, the allowableserviceload is obtained by dividing the
*rcngth by a desired factor; for connections2.0 has traditionally been used.
(
Once the safe serviceload has been established,that load may be dir.ided by (b; Compute the tiricknessrequiredfor the plates.
( an elasticcross-sectionalproperty, such as area. to obtain allorvablestress.
iT,,: eFrAr: 0.90(50)18 (yieldinglimir state)
(
QT,,: QF,A,: 0.75(65)1. (fracturelimit sute)
(
5.16-WELDSCONNECTINGMEMBERSSUBJECT Since there are no holesand no eccent,ricityof loading, tbe effectivener area
( TO DIRECTAXIALLOAD. l" equals the gross areaAr. Thus, from the above two equationsit is noted
( that 0.90(50)< 0.75(65);rherefore,
In the design of rvelds connecting tension or. compression members, the
( principal task is to insure that the welds are at least as strong as the members 110'4
Required
- ' - - -n.:
- s J+- - : z.45sqin.
they connectand that the connectiondoesnot iatroduce significant eccentric- 0.90(50) 45
( ity of loading.
( 2.45
Requiredr: in. Use 16 x 6 plates .
6:0.41
( Groove Welds
(c) Select electrodeand an AWS prequalifiedjoint. From Table 5.i3.1,
( In the caseof full joint penetrationgroove rvelds as shown in Fig. 5.5.2, the use F7X-EXXX ( Fexx : 70 ksi) flux electrodecombination. Referring to
( full strength of the cross-sectionmay be developedby selectingthe proper AISC LRFD Manual [1.17] section "WELDED JOINTS" or AWS 12.251
electrodematerial correspondingt<i the base material as indicated in Table Table 2.9.1, selecta prequalifiedsingle-V-groove rveld designatedB-L2a-S.
( 5.13.1,and specifyingan AWS prequalifiedjoint. The designation B refers to a butt joint, L refers to limited thicknessof
( material for this weld (in this case2 in. ma"ximum),and S refersto submerged
arc rvelding.The weld requiresthat a backup plate be used.The detailsand
( 3 EXAMPLE 5.16.I
rveldingsymbol are shorvnin Fig. 5.16.2. E
For the plate tension member (Fig 5.16.1)carrying axial serviceloads of 60
( kips live load and 12 kips deadload, selectthe required thicknessof the plates
E EK{}TPLE 5.16.2
(A572 Grade 50 steel), the proper electrodematerial, ild specify a proper
( Repeat Example 5.16.i, exceptuse .4572 Grade 65 plates,a square-groove
AWS prequalified groove'joint. Use Load -and ResistanceFactor-Design.
weld, and submergedarc rvelding(SAW).
(
( SOLTJTION SOLU-TION
(a) Compute the factoredload to be carried. (a) Detirmine'the requiredplate thickness.
( .
T u : 1 .2 (1 2 )+ 1 .6 (6 0 ): 110.4ki ps tf'l
( Required
o,: !: : 1. 89sq in.
o.e0(6s) s8.5
(
i.89
( t : ---;-
6 : 0.31in.
l [-T-l
Requiied
' Use f6 x 6plates.
.-+ l a" +---
( 60kLL I t oorr_r-
ll I (b) Selectelectrodeand specifythe proper prequalifiedjoint. From Table
T 2 KD L 1 2 KD L
( - 5.13.1, use F8X-EXXX flux electrodecombination. From LRFD Manual
Figure5.16.1Example 5.16.1. [1.17] or AWS [2'.251Table 2.9.1,selectthe square-groove weld designated
(
(
-
5.rG/ WELDSCONNECTING
MEtilBERS TC DTRECT
SU&,EC.T AXIA';LOAD 251
(
5 z'UIELD|NG
(
(b) Selectthe electrodematerial and selecta proper prequalifiedAWS (
I
t6 lfirex joint. From Table 5.13.1,use 860 electrodes.
From the LRFD Manual [.17,
, . / o {
72k , 7zr i. S-ftZi or AWS 12.251Table 2.9.1. select the double-bevel-groove joint
< ' *
I designated TC-U5a. (
(
5.16.3Designsketchfor Example5.16.2.
Frgure l,lote:On the basisof strengthonly, a single ]-in. bevel (TC-U4b) could have
been used insteadof the double-bevel-grooverveld specified. However, weld- (
ing the stem of the tee from one side only may caus€ excessivewarping and (
B-LI-S (LRFD Manual p. 5-181)as indicatedin Fig. 5.16.3.ftris u'eld hl, introduceseccentricityinto the connection.
zero root opening and is prequalifiedfor material no thicker than I in. I (

Note: In Examples5.16.1and 5.16.2it was not necessary to includethe ucl,l (


''!E; '
Flllet Wetds
sizeor the length of the weldssincethey are to be madefull joint perctrarron --t:j-
(
and the full u'idth of the platesunlessotherwisespecified. ??-:-' .
The designfor fillet weldsis basedon the nominal shearstresson the effective
areaof the fillet weld as discussedin Sec.5.12.The selectionof the sizeof the (
I EXAMPLE 5.T63 fillet weld is based on the thicknessof the pieces being joined and the
Determinethe serviceload capacity,assumingthe load is 70%live load.of rlrc availablelengthover which the filet weld can be made. Other factorssuch as
tee connectionshownin Fig. 5.16.4and detail the properdouble-bevel-gror'.c ihe type of weldingequipmentused,whetherthe welds are to be made in the t'
t
weld for the SMAW process.Assumethe flange of the tee does nol conrr()i fietd or in the shop,and the sizeof-other weldsbeing made will also influence.
the sizeof fillet specified.Large fillet welds requirelarger diameterelectrodes (
design.Use Load and Resistance Factor Design.
which in turn requirelarger and bulkier welding equipment. not necessarily (
convenientfor field use.The most economicalsizeof fillet weld is usuallythe
SOLUTIO,\' (
(a) Determinethe strengthof the i x g plate. one that can be madein one pass;about fr in. for SMAW and I in. for SAW.
Also, if a certainsizeof fillet weld is used in adjacentareasto the particular (
Q T n: Q F rA r: 0 .9 0 (3 6 Xi )S: 1 9 4 .4k i p s joint in question,it is advisableto use the same size since then the same
electrodesand welding equipmentcould be used and the welder would not (
T u : 1 . 2 T o + 1 . 6 T 1 : 1 . 2 ( 0 . 2 7 +) t . 6 ( 0 . 8 r ): 1 . 5 2 r have to alter his procedureto accommodatea larger or smaller rveld. In (
addition. inspectionof the weldsis further simplified.
eT^ : Tu (
I EXAIVTPLE5.16.4
, : 1 2 k8 i p s
#: Determinethe sizeand lengthof the fillet weld for the lap joint shown in Fig.
5.16.5using the submergedarc (SAW) processif the plates are A36 steel.Use (
The maximum serviceload tensionforcepermittedby LRFD is 128 kips.
AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design. (

I' t
r32k i--!xz (
/
rtl Gussetf
lI il r/ _ - rI K {E 6 0 95k
(

oi. (
__U/_
t t (
l"
t ?
l-2 luu*luu*
v t {
(31 l'roblcm (b) Solution (a) Problem (b) So{urion
(
Figure5.16.4Example 5.16.3. Figure5.16.5Example5.16.4.
(
(,
(
(
'(
5/WELD|NG
5.16/ WELDScoi.llJ:CTING lvlE[tBERSSUBJECTTo DIRECTAXTALLOAD
(
( SAUITION
( Rcferring to Sec.5.11,LRFD-Jz.z.bgivesthe follorvinglimits:

( Maximumsize: * _,i : fr in.


Ir{inimumtkg:}in. 95k
(
Use { -in. fillet weld.sincethat is about the maximumsizerhat can be madein
(
one passby the SAW.process.
( Since the fillet rveld exceedsI in., LRFD -JZ.2.astaresrhar rhe effective F7X
'ioat (!)
l. equalsthe theoreticalthroat(0.707a)plus 0.ll in. rb )
(
Figure5.10.6
Solutionsto Example5.16.5.
t" : 0 .7 0 7(0 .5 0 )+ 0 .1 i : 0 .4 6 4i n.
(
Fronr Table 5.13.1,use F7X-EXXX flux electrodecombination.
( 'fhe
designstrengthof |-in- fillet rveldper inch of lengrh;accordingrc Eq.
which is well below the plate shearrupture strengthof 16.3 kips/in. The toral
( 5.14.6,is
length l, of fillet weld t.Outt.O trr.,
(- 0R,,* : Qr"(0.60Focr): 0.75(0.464)42: 14.6kips/in.
Since the weld capacity may not exceed'the plate shear rupture strengrh L,.=m=18.0in.
(
accorriingto Eq. 5.74.7,
(
M ax 0R, . . : g r(0 .6 0 F u ):0 .7 5 (0 .6 2 5 )(0 .6 0 )5g
: 16.3ki ps/i n. Two posible solutionsare shownin Fig. 5.16.6,both of rvhichprovide 19 in.
( of ]-in. fillet welds.The solutionin Fig. 5.16.6bis preferredsinceit is more
The weld strengthcontrols. compact and reducesthe overall length of the connection,giving better stress
( The factored tensileload to be carried is distribution.
. a
( T u : 7 .2 (2 5 )+ 1 .6 (7 0 ): 1 4 2ki ps
( The total length l*. of filler rveld required is
Balaneed Connection
(
, : : X : e . 7i n . t. .-:
In a number of cases,memberssubjectedto direct axial stressare themselves
( \. 1
t
unsymmetricaland causeeccentricitiesin welded connections.Consider the
,-__i
To satisfy the strengthrequirementonly 5 in. of rveld are neededon eachside. angle tension membershown in Fig. 5.16.'lwelded as indicated. The force T
( Horvever,in order'to avoid excessivenonuniformity of loading (i.e., shearlag. applied at somedistancefrom the connectionrvili act along the centroid of the
( Sec.3-5)in the plites, LRFD-J2.2.brequires"If longitudinal-filletrveldsare member as shorvn.The force z rvill be resistedby the forces Fr, Fr, and -e
used alone in end connectionsof flat bar tensionmembers,the length of each developedby the rveld lines. The forces ^F,and F, are assumedto act at the
( fillet weld shall be not lessthan the perpendiculardistancebetweenthem.,,In
-:-f

edges g! the angle rather than more corectly ar rhe center of the efiective
( fact, the transversedistancebetweenlongitudinal fillet welds may not exceedg throat. The force F, rvill act at the centrOidof the rveld length which is located
.in. unlesstbe effectivearea.provisionsof LRFD-B3 are applied. at d/2. Taking momentsabout point ,{ located on the bottom edge of the
( In this example,use |-in. fillet weld, 7 in. oo earh side as shoivn in
t

( Fig.5.16.5b. i

Gusset{
( E EXAMPLE 5.16.5
Rework Example5.16.4using |-in. fillet welds.
( I
?
''r

( SOLUTION
since the nominal size is less than $ in.. the effective throat l" is the-full
.*
( t
leg dirnensionwhen using submergedarc welding. I
t
(
0R,,,,,: fr"(0.60Fe*x): 0.75(0.25\42
- 7.87 Y'tps/in.
tT Figure5.16.7Balancingthe weldson a'tensionmemberconnection.
( " ta
.1
, ( t rJ
-. 1e
.-f,
TO DIRECTA1IALgOAD
MEME:3S SUBJECT
S.16lgELDS CONNECTING
255
(
t
254 5/WELOING
(
'-:;1'

used in LRFD: allowable


positive, ." urra in ASD would become factored load T, /\
member and consideringclockwise moments in ASD would become design strengrh0R,,* in LRFD.
1*ir,unce R*
-Frd- Fzd/z*TY:Q (5.16.1l i
LM^=
(
or or.the
theru,srrensrh
=r*%T,I1hi;tf.1" rodevelop angre:,T:ir:-:':;
Ty Fz Assumethe gussetplatedoesnot (
( 5 . 1 6 . r1 the effectof eccentricity.
\:7- T F;i;.fffi;i;"g
the siaew Factor
processis used.UseAISC Loadand Resistance
L l;;;* and (
times the lengtir Desiglt.
The force F, is equal to the resistanccR., of the weld per inch /
\
L* of the weld: i.. SOLUTION
F2: R*L*2 (5.16.1t the (
;" (a) ComPute the strength of the member. Referring to Table 3'5'1,
cffective net area A, is (
Horizontal force equilibrium gves
( 5 . 1 6 . )4 A , : U A r : o ' 8 5 / r - o ' 8 5 ( 3 ' 6 1: ) 3 ' 0 7s qi n ' r\
LF*-7^-Fr-F-4:o
(83-2). (.
and
'oss,ro.r
Sorving 5.16r:T:li':?' This is from LRFD-B3categoryb followingLRFD Eq.
The designsrrengthof lhe-anglemember is the smallerof the following: /
\
( 5 . 1 6 .r5 \
:
4:rt- dt z QTn: o.goF,-As: 0'90(50)3'61 162kips (
' (
: ( cont r ols)
Designingthe connectionshown in Fig. ?.!01 to eliminate
eccentnettr QTn: 0.75F"A, : 0'75( 65) 3'0? 150kips
the The
welds. prcx'edurc (
causedUi rhJunsymmetricalweld is called balaicing
for batancingrhe weldsmay be summarized as follows: (b) Selectweld size and compute strength'
(
l. After selectingthe proper weld size and electrode,'computethe
forcc Min sizefillet weld : fi in. (Table5.11.1)
(
resistedby th- end weld ^F2(if any) using Eq' 5'16'3'
r:
2. Compute Ft using Eq. 5-16.2- Maxsizefilletweld:;- frin. (Fig.5.11.2)
(
3. Compute{ usingEq- 5-16.5,or is (
Use fr-in. fillet weld with E?0 electrodes.The designstrength9Rn*
Ft-T- Ft- F' { 5 . 1 0t '
gRn- : gr.(0.60Fr,**) : 0.75(fr)(O.ZOI142 : 4.18kips/in- (
4. Compute the lengths,L., and L,3, oo the basisof ('
which cannot exceedthe shear ruPture strength of the base metal,
,,_ ( 5 . 1 6 . 7i e (
*. Max$R,.:91(0.604):0.75(0.375)(0.60)65:ll.0kips7,in.
(
and
F, The weld controls. (
L*!:
( 5 . 1 6 . 7tb
R* /\
L6 rc*$ (Fy=5oksi)
of ucld
)
An alternative to the above is to compute the total length L., , I
A = 3.61 in.?
requiredto carry the load, sub6act the lengtl on the end, and then
allocate the I Y = 1'94 in. \.
a

to the distancc'
remaining requireJ length to F, and 4 in inverseproportion - . /
from the centerof gravitY. "desirable": ho\\'€r'cr
Note that apiroximately balanced welds are I
I... .na connectionsof staticall.v-ler:rdcd
LRFD-J1.6. does nol requirc it for /'(
single angle,double angle and similar members."
anJ (
The foregoing discussionof balanced welds is valid for both Load t- Figure5.16.8 EramPle 5-16.6. I

The service ltrld -.


ResistanceFactor Design and Allowable Stress Design. /'
:' . /
I

I
I

f ) '
(
'r
5,/WELDING s.16/WELDSCONNECTTNG
MIMBERS TODIRECT
SUBJECT AXTAL
LOAD 257
(
( .
..

-Lox ax|
11

('
<r--.- -a
-
{-r t4
( :s :" ll - . -" I | +.+-rJ
Hoe -Ir-
|.yra

( < _ t '
'E 3 .
,igure 5.16.11 Forcesacting for Example 5.16-7
( Figure5.16.9 Balancingthe n'eldsfor Exanpie5.16.6-
( SOLUTION
and rvhichcan still be placedin
This time try * in. as moreeconomical
( (c) Determine the lengthsof weld to be usedfor the connection.Referring
onepass.Usingtheforcesin Fig.5.16.11.
( to Fig. 5.16.9,
1s0(1.94)
( F z : 0 R ,,* .L n :4 -1 8 (6 ) : 2 5 .1ki ps rt : -;r : 48'5kiPs

( From moment equilibrium about the back of the angle (at Fl), - Tu- F, - Fr: 150- 48'5: 101'5kiPs
4
( - 25.1(3)
150(1.e4)
Fi: : 36.0kips . fR,* : 6r"(0.60Fo*): 0.?5(*)42: 9.84kips/in.
( 6
rvhichis lessthan the shearrupturestrength(1i.0 kips/in.) of the angle;
( Summation of forcesgives therefore,the rveldcontrols.
( Fr: T, - F1 - Fr.- 150- 36.0- 25.1:88.9 kips F, 48.5
1,.
-h'r - :-:4.9in. Use5 in.
9Rn,. 9.84
\
F, 36.0
Lnt: : :
(
_ ffi aJd 8.6in. Use9 in.
L*.t:
n
:
101.5
: lo.3in. L/se1l in.
( -&" ll;-
( n 88.9 Use weldsas summarized
in Fig. 5.16.12.
Ln3: : : 71.2 tn. Use22in.
.. ;-
gfi ;;;
.+.I - --:
r_ O
( . . \
F7X (typ.)
( Use weldsas shownin Fig. 5.16.10,thoughfor better economythe largest
weldsthat can be placedin onepassare preferredand thiswouldalsoreduce
( the connectionlength.
(
( ' EXAMPLE 5.16.7
ReworkExample5.16.6if theweld at the endof the angleis omitted,andthe Figure 5.16.12 Solution for Example 5.16.7.
( SAW proceisis usedinsteadof SMAW.
t

( - :

Slot and Plug Welds


(
Slot and plug weldshavetheir strengthbasedon the areain the shearingplane
( betweenthe platesbeingjoined. As indicatedin Sec.5.5, their principal useis
( in lap joints. Plug welds are also occasionally used to fill up holes in
connections,such'asbeam to column angleswhere temporaryerectionbolts
( had been placed to align the membersprior to welding. The strength Qf such
welds may or may not be included in the designstrength of a joint. As a rule,
(
plug and slot rveldsare designedto work together with other welds, usually
( Figure 5.16.10 Solutions for F.xaople 5.16.6. fillet welds,in lap joints as shownin Fig. 5.5.5.
' (
F
SU&'ECT'l'OD.:rlT AXIF.L.LOAD
MEMBERS (
258 5/WELDING 5.16/ WELDSCONNECTING
(

r EXAMPLE 5.T6.8
Dererrninethe serviceload i" permittedon the connectionin Fig. 5.16.13if thc (
load is 80% live load and 20% dead load. The steel is A36 and Load and
(
ResistanceFactor Designis to be used.
(
SOLL'TION
The designstrength0Rn..per inch suppliedby the |-in. fillet weldsis E ->/ b3d \- n--$xe
F{ 31 6- v 5 Figure5.16.14 Example5.16.9.
as.- (
+ R, *: S r.(0 .6 0 F = * x ) . "{F

€L-;
G (
+0.tt)]a2: 74.6kips/in.
: 0.?5[o.s1o.zoz) €.=-
€ r E)GNIPLE5.16.9
(
but not to exceedthe shearrupture strengthof fhe plate, ,F' Corpure rhe serviceload capacityof the connectionshownin Fig. 5.16.14
the SMAW processare used.
: 19.6ki ps/i n. *.- *hen A573 Grade 50 steeland weldingby (
M ax f R" *. : 9 r(0 .6 0 F ,): 0 .7 5 (0 .7 5 )(0 .6 0)58 Assumethe sen'iceloadis 83%live load and17%deadload.UpeAISC.Load
*===== (,
FactorDesign'
and Resistance
The strengthprovidedby the fillet weldsis E
* (
Tt: L-(OR'.,) : 10(14'6): 146kiPs
"'
#- From Table5.14.2, a fr-in. 870 fillet weldprovidesSR"" : 4.18kips/in' ' (.
The designstrengthQR, prorided by the 1|-in. diam plug weld is fillet weldsis
s. ft'. resistanceIr providedby the (
' ? T r : L * ' ( o R , * ): 2 ( 5 X 4 ' 1 8- ) 4 1 ' 8k i P s ( ,
?n,: oR": o.?519(0.60)70 : 74kips :---
.::-: -
4
= I, providedby the |-in. wideslotweldis
The resisrance (
The total factoredload may'be equatedto the total designstrength. i:j..'
:
i: ' - : / a' \' 2
r"B (
Tu= Tr * Tz: 146 + 74 : 220 kips :' F a y i n gsar lrqe a:-
I "Jrrr6 + Z . Z S ( ] ): l . 9 l s q i n .
,}-
8 I
Checkthe tensilecapacitl'of the plate: : 60. 1kips (
; 7.,: QR n: 0. 75( 1. 91) ( 0. 60) 70
. *
Q T n: 0. 9 0 { i . : 0 .9 0 (3 6 )(9 )0 .7: 5 2 1 9ki ps (control s) (
t eT.: T, + Tr : 41. 8+ 60. 1 : 101. 9kips ( cont r ols)
Q T n : 0 . 7 5 F " A , : 0 . 7 5 ( 5 8 X 9 ) 0 . ?: 52 9 4k i p s
,€ Note that slot has a semicircularend (LRFD-J2-3-b,par' 4)'
which makesthe sen'iceload capacity T Check the tensilecapacityof the plate: t (.
iF
2 1 9: 1 . 2 ( 0 . 2 r ) + 1 . 6 ( 0 . 8 r:)1 . 5 2 7 tr*g :
QTn:0'90r,'ls : 0'90(50Xs)0'375 135kips (
: iis*
f : i4-1kips : 146kips (
: A: QT,: 0.75F,A,: 0.75(65X8)0.375
i+ ***i::: (
iF- Thus,the serviceloadcapacityT is
t-lxs I c"*.t t +*FF.
,F::- 1 0 1 . 9 : 1 . 2 ( 0 . 1 ?+?1. .) 6 ( 0 . 8 3 f ) : 1 . 5 3 I
:9,:. (
T: 67 kips =
(
r EXAMPLE 5.16.T0 )
I Design an end connectionto developthe full tensilestrengthof a C8xl3-?5 is
(
.. a lap length of 5 in. The channel of A572 Grade 50 steel is connectedto a
in. gusset.plate,and the fillet welds are to be made by the SMAW process
-...- t "" (
;: anA t*y not exceed
Figure5.16.13 Example5.16.8. |-in. Use Load and ResistanceFactor Design. (
(
(.
.3
'l
, t) :i
260 5//wELDING I 5.17 / ECCENTRIC _STRENGTH ANALYS|S
SHEARCONNECTTONS 261
.l
( a
I
:
( SOLUTI 0N c8 x 13.75
( (a) compure the designsrrengrhof the channel.
Fronr Table 3.5.1,the
effectivenet area l" is 0.E5ls.
(
QT,: 0.90F,.18: 0.90(50)4.04: 1g2kips
+ 7,: 0 .7 5 F ,Au : 0 .7 5 (6 5 X 0 .9 5 ) 4.04
: 167ki ps
(
(b) Selectfillet weld size a and compute lengrh required.
(
Min a : fr in. (Tabte5.11.1)
(
Max a : 0.303- * : 0.24 in., say I in. (Fig. 5.11.2)
(
wlrile |-in. weld must be usedon one end along the channelweb, Figure5.16.15 Solutionfor Erample 5.i6.i0.
( |-in. rveld
could be used along the flanges.It is better not to mix the fillet sizei so try
|
( in. all around.
( 0R, , *,: { t" (0 .6 0 fo * ) : 0 .7 5 (} )(O .Z OZ)a2:5.57ki ps/i n. 5.17 ECCENTRIC
SHEARCONNECTIONS
*'hich cannot exceedthe shearrupturestrengthof the basemetal,
_STRENGTHANALYSIS
(
( M ax eR, , * ,: 9 l (0 .6 0 4 ,) : 0 .7 5 (0 .3 7 ;)(0.60)65
: 11.0ki ps/i n. There are many situationsrvherethe loadingof fillet weldsis neithcrparallel
to nor transverseto the axis of the fillet rvelds,as shorvnin Fig.5.17.1.
( The weld controls.
Analysis of such eccentricloading casesis complicatedby the fact that, as
( shown in Fig. 5.13.4,the load-deformationbehavioris a function of the angle
R e q u i r Le nd : 3 oi n . 0 betweenthe directionof the resistanceand the axisof the fiilet rveld.
( *,: #:
Since-thelengthall aroundis only 26 in.,additionalcapacityfrom fillet rveid
t
in a slot, slot welds,or plug welds,is necessary.
( (c) slot weld. Try a slot weld in accordancewith LRFD-J2.3.b.
( '\
Min rvidth cf slot - (r + *) (roundedro next odd fr in.)
( : 0 .3 0 3+ 0 .3 1 2 5: 0 .6 155, say j { i n.
,
( Max widrh of slot : 2i (weldthickness): 2i(0.303) : 0.6gin.
( Load Tu to be carried by slot weld,
( RequiredTu:767 - (26 - 0.68)5.52: 26 kips
(a) Shear and torsion (b) Pure torsion
(
TrV it-in- rvidth of slot and estimatethe slot area as rectangulareven rhough t

( the end must be rounded:

( Length required : : 1 . 2i n .
( 0.7s(11/16)42
Max length of slot : 10 (weld thickness): 10(0.303): 3.03 in.
(
Ut. u tlot weld it" "1, The final designis shorvnin Fig. 5.i6.15. Nore that the
(
ffitmustbesemicircularorhavecornerSroundeptoa
( radius not less than the thicknessof the parr containing slot (LRFD or (c) Shear and bending
Y
ASD-J2.3.b). I Figure 517.1
( Tlpes of cccentric loadile.

, , \. ( , :
r*F *-
j -_8.
-5-; -::
(
5 17 / ECCENTRTC - STRENGTHANALYSIS
SHEARCONNECTTONS
262 5lwELDiNtl 1". '

.'.;t

:-' R,
(
Element
ln a mannersimilar to that usedfor eccentricloadingon boltedcoilncr-
ti<rns(see Sec. 4.12). the strength of an eccentricallyloaded fillet riclt!
(
configurationcan be determinedby locating the instantaneous centcr ,,i wdd torces act
(
al centroids ot
rotation,using the load-deformation relationshipof a fillet weld. The resr,- elefnents
t,i.lnccR, of a tt'eld segmentat any distancefrom the instantaneous c€rrcr rr (
proportional to such distanceand acts in a direction perpendicularro rhr r
radial distanceto the segment.Unlike bolts,however.wherethe load-delorni.i-
tion relationshipis independentof the direction the shearforce acrs on rh( (
circular bolt cross-section,the fillet weld strengrh dependsbn the angtc (
betweenthe applied force and the axis of the weld resistingit.

A^^:, t R, i\ cent", ot
Until the availabilityof calculatorsthat could readily obtain the valuer
from complicated formulas, a trial and error procedureto determine rhc
center (
strengthof eccentricallyloadedconnections,either bolted or welded.\\'r.rS ntri
feasible. Thus, traditionallythe elasticvectoranalysissimilarto that discusse.! (
for bolts was used for eccentricallyloadedwelds.as is explainedin rhe nev
(
section(Sec.5.18).
Though the AISC Specifications [1.5,1.751do not,prescribethe methodr:i (
analy-sisto be used for fillet welds eccentricallyloaded in sherr, the mr'rsr
rational procedureseemsto be the strengthanalysisproposedby Butler. Pai. (
and Kulak [5.28.5.29Jwhich formed the basis for the 1978 ASD Mhnuai Figure 5.17.2 Resistance R of a fillet weld segment. (
tables.Somemodificationbasedon more recentwork by Kulak and Timmlcr
[5.301was used in the development of the LRFD Manual [1.171tables.Thc I
conceptand generalprocedureof the strengthanalysisfor both setsof table. (
are the same. rotational; that is, the combinationof the rotationaland translationalparts
Tide [5.34, 5.351and Brandt [5.36] have given an excellentderailcd will be purely rotationalabout the instantaneouscenter. (
treatmentof the method used by AISC for rhe ASD Manual [1.7]. Thc Using the LRFD Manual[.17] symbols,Eq. 5.17.1ma1'be expressed
(
computerprogramby Brandt [5.36]is useful. - & rJ " , . t ' ' r
R, : R,.ul,[1 - "t 1A: (s.17.2) \
A more complicatedproblemof eccentricshearparallelto one of the axc.,
of the weld configurationcombinedwith a force acting at 90o to the sherr (
force has been treatedby Loomis,Thornton, and Kane [5.371.Thesedesign where e : naturallogarithmbase: 2.718...
aids are primarily for beam connection angle welds, including C-shaped. '
R,.,rr,: ultimate shearload on an elemenl
L-shaped,and lines,wherethe beamis subjectto axial tensionor compression.
10+0 (
The more recentwork of Kulak and Timmler [5.30]forms the basisof rhc R,.,,,,: (0.791Fr**1.) (0 in degrees) (s.17.3)
presentationthat follows. The practical application of this method b1' an f0 ;;3E (
indir-idualdesignerrequiresthe use of a computer spreadsheet or other kr:pAo:8.274e0'orl4o (s.17.4)
(
software.The strengthof a weld segmentper unit lengtirhas beengiven[5.29j
b; A, : deformationof an element: :' J,.* (s.17.5)
r*". I
R , : R , , u r , [ l- " - r o , ] ^ ( 5 . t 7 .)i (
Ao : 0.11 in. (maximumdeformationfor 0 : 0o)
n h i ch is a c ur v es uc ha s th o s efo r 0 :0 , 1 0 ,3 0 ,a n d 9 0oshow ni n Fi g.5.13.1. ri : distancefrom instantaneouscenterto an element "(.
The original work and formulaswerefor |-in. fillet weld with 860 electrodes: r,,,", - distanceto elementfarthest from instantaneouscenter
I
the more recent update used |-in. weld with 870 elcctrodes.The procedure
involvesdividing the n'eld configurationinto elementsas shownin Fig. 5.17.1. a,.-" : aol3
- [ ) * ,]-0" (o indegrees) (5.17.6) (
When an eccentricload causestranslationand rotationof the weld configura- I
tion. there rvill be some point about which the entire deformationwill be k, - | - 9.4"0'otoe (s.17.7) (
I,

, l
* (
il
, ( 264 5/WELDING il 5.17 /ECCEIiTRIC SHEARCONNECTIONS_ STRENGTHANALYSIS
. l 265
:l
( I
,l
( The procedureis as follows: -l
-:
( I- Divide the weld configurationinto segments, say l-in. Iong segments.
i

2. Sclect a trial location for the instantaneouscenter of rolatiJn (see


( Fig.
s.r7.2).
( 3- Assume the resisting force R, or R, at any rveld segment acts in
a
direction perpendicularto the radial line from the instanlun.ou, cenrerto
(
the centroid of the weld segment.
( 'L Compute the angle 0 (in degrees)between the direction
of rhe resisting
fgrce R, or R, and the axis of the rveld.
(
5. compute the- maximum deformation a,.-- rvhich can occur at that
( particular 0 beforefailureof the werdsegment,using Eq. 5.17.6.
6. Deformations on weld segmentsare assumedto uary iinrurly rvith the
. ( distance from the instantaneouscenter to the rentroid of the weld seg-
( ment. Thus, the critical sJgrnentis the one where the ratio of its A,-_* to
its radial distancer, is the smallest.
( 7. CompatibledeformationsA,, accordingto Eq. 5.17.5,oay then be com-
( puted at each rveldsegment.
8. Compute the ultimate shearload R,,u,,on each weld segmentusing Eq.
( 5. 17. 3. Sym.

( 9. Compute the resistingforce R, at eachrveld segrnentoccurring rvhenthe ^h.


dul

critical segmentreachesits failure condition, using Eq. s.17.2. ?


( 10. Using statics,computethe load { that representsthe nominal strengthof
( the connectionwhen the load is applied at the given eccentricitye. For p,
appliedin the y-directionas shorvnin Fig. 5.I7.2, the staticsequationsare Trlal ro : 4.0 in.
(
LM :0; PnQ + ro) : IR,r, +*LRrr, (5.17.8) Figure5.17.3Weldsegments
( -_. ror Example
5.I7.i.

( IR,r, +ERiri
.on __- T - (s.17.e)
( e+ro The rveld size is I in. and E70 electrodesare used in the SMAw process.
i
Assumethe basematerialstrengthdoesnot govern.
( . - ;
14,: O; P,=E(R,)r+I(nr)" (5.17.10)
( SOLUTION
(a) Divide the weld configurationinto segmentsi in. long. The resisring
( P, : ER,cos0,+ IRj sind, (5.17.11) force will be assumedto act at the centerof a segment.The instantaneous
( centerwill be usedas the origin, as shownin Fig. 5.77.3.
ll. compare rhe valuesof Pn from Eqs.s.r7.g and 5.17.11.If they are equal (b) Seledtaltrial location for the instantaneouscenrer (lC) of rotation.
( the solution is correct.If they are not equal, revisethe trial value of ro and Assumesay r0 : 4 in. Then computethe coordinatesof the centroidsof the
repeatthe processuntil Eqs. 5.17.9and 5.17.11give the sameresulr. segmentsand the angles4 and 0, for the vertical and horizontal segmenrs.
(
respectively,as shown in Table 5.i7.1. Note that IC will generallybe on rhe
( oppositeside of the verticalweld line from the point of action of the load.*
E EXAMPLE 5.I7.I
( Determine the nomi-nalstrength P, of the C-shaped fillet weld configuration
(' shown in Fig. 5.17.3.The horizonial lengths ut. I in. each and the verrical i
'The use of a spreadsheetprogram.
length is 14 in. The eccentricload is applied at 3.5 in. from the 14-in. lehgth. such as l.otus l-2-3. tvill allou' a rapid solution of this
l' problem by trial and error.
( :
( - . . tt
=k
r (
_l
-
f
5 /V.JELDING 5.17/ ECCENTRTC - STRENGTHp; :ALYSTS
SHEARCONNECTTONS

ComputeR,.,,,,for eachsegment.
Illustratingfor segment !

TABLE 5.17.1 GEOMETRYFoR TRIAL I (ro - a in') oF EXAMPLE5 17 1 (e) 1,


Horrzontal Lenglh x v 4 gj 0 10+0
segmenls (in ) (in.) (in ) (in.) (radians) (degiees :
R,.urr (0.791Fo*r.) [5.17.3]
i'T ';517
'l
7.00 9.552 0.748 42.e For l-in.. t.: and for E70, FExx : 70 ksi; thus,
0.25(0.707), (
I 6.50
) I 5.50 7.00 8.902 0.666 3n.l
l 0 + 42. 9 (
) I 4.50 7.00 8.322 0.57r 32.t R,.ur,: (0.7e1 : 14.805kips
X70X0.25)0.707
x 0,
lfitffiJ(Jl3]
venrcal Lengith v ri . 0 ,
segments (in.) (in.) (rn.) (in.) (radians) (degrees) (f Compute the force R, that acts at each segment when the nominal
strengthof the connectionis reached.For segment1,
4 4.00 6.50 7.632 1.019 58.4
5 4.00 5.50 6.801 0.942 54.0 : 8.274eo'0114('2'e)
kr: 8.274eo'0ll4e : 13.49 Is.rz.aJ
6 4.00 4.50 6.021 0.844 48.4
: 0.4e0'0146142'et-
kz: 0.4e0'01'r60 = 0.7481 Is.rz.zl
1 4.00 3.50 5 .3 1 5 0.719 4l.l
8 4.00 2.50 4.7t7 0.559 32.0
4.272 0.359 R, : R,.u,[l -'l-\|'/Lollkz [5.17.2J (
I 4.00 1.50 20.6
't.L
10 4.00 0.50 4.031 0.124
R, : 14.805[1 - e(-13.4e(o.03Eo)/0-u)]0'7481
: 14.70 kips
(
'"1g)
Computecheckof staticsto determinecorectness of trial value of ro. (
the resultsare in Table 5.17.3.
Using fus. 5.17.9and 5.17.11,
(c) Compute the maximumdeformation4,.-* which can occut at eachtfl
Using Eq. 5.17.6,illustratefor segment1.
vatue for the ses.ments. ((
TABLE 5.17.3 CHECKOF STATICSFOR TRIAL 1 (ro - 4.0 in.)
j,.-"' : aof1 * 'l-t" (0 indegrees) [s'rz'e
] (R,), (8,), R,ti
(
Segment
l-r I
(
oo': I 14.70 9.55 6.50 7.00 t0.77 10.00 140.4
(
J , . * : o . r t [ + 1* , l o.o38oin. t4.41 8.90 5.50 7.00' 11.38 8.94 t28.79
[ ) J 3 l 4.i5 8. 32 4. 50 7.00 11.90 7.65 117.72 (
{, 15.05 7.63 4.00 6.50 12.82 7.89 114.87
(d) Compute the ratio r,/(A,.a:r) for each segment.Thoseresultsarc rrr 14.81 6.80 4.00 5.50 11.98 8.71 100.73 (
Table 5.17.2. 6 t4.u 6.02 4.00 4.50 10,.79 9.59 86.94
7 13.89 5.32 4.00 3.50 9.15 10.46 73.85
8 13.13 4.72 4.00 2.50 6.96 ll.l4 61.95 (
AT EACH SEGMEiIT- TRIAL 1 (ro = 4.0 in.)
TABLE 5.17.2 F*=SISTANCE 9 12.08 4.27 4.00 1.50 4.24 ll.3l 51.62
t0 10.30 4.03 4.00 0.50 r.28 t0.22 41.s3 \
Segment A,,*, L,.rrr*_/ f, L, ft.urr kr k2
L - 9t*n 919t 91832 (
1 0.0380 0.00398 0.0380 14.805 13.49 0.7481 14.?r) {
2 0.0399 0.004{9 0.0354 14.633 L2;t8 0.6982 14.{l
3 0.&125 0.m511 0.0331 14.3% t2.02 0.6451 l{.1: (
From Eq. 5.17.9,rotational equilibrium gives
1
n 0.0333 0.0043? 0.0304 15.218 16.10 0.9382 15.0-s (
0.0345 0.00507 0.0271 15.118 r5.31 0.8796 l 4.si p, : 2(qtg.42)/(4.0 + 3.5) : 244.9kips
5
6 0.0361 0.00600 0.0240 t4.913 14.36 0.8105 I4.JJ (
From Eq. 5.17.11.force equilibrium in the y-directron gives
t
0.0387 0.00728 0.0212 t4.746 13.23 0.7298 l Ss o
E 0.Gr29 0.00910 0.0188 14.360 1r.92 0.6383 l { | r
P, : 2(95.91): 191.8kips
(
9 0.0511 0.01196 0.0170 13.615 10.46 0.5400 13.0s
r0.30 ,Since the values of Pn from the statics equations are not equal, the (
t0 0.0725 0.01799 0.0151 11.847 8.97 0.4'139
assumedleaiion of the instantaneousc€nter-isnot correct.Try a new value of I
(
(
(
. a
( ;'f
5/WELDTNG :i s.17/ ECCENTRIC
SHEAR - STRENGTH
CONNECTTONS ANALYS|S 269
( II
( I
ro and repeflt the analysisuntil the valuesfrom Eqs. s.l7.g and 5.1?.11are
( identical.Since the eppliedload { is in the 1.dly.crion for this example,the
( sumnlationof forcesin the -t-directionis automaricallysatisficd;91.2?kips
acting in one direction from the segmentson one sideof the axis of symmetry,
( and the sameforce acting at 1800from the segmsntson the other side of the
( a.risof symmetry.
(h) After severaltrials the value of ro is determinedto be 8.00 in. Table
( 5.17.4shorvsthe coirect solution.
(
( TABLE
5.17.4SOLUTION 5.17.1(ro: 8.00in.)
FOREXAMPLE

( 0, Ar. max Lr,^^t / t, 8.urr (R,)v


P
'( 1
I 56.3 0.0339 -0.00268 0.0339 1s.17 15.06 12.53 190.0
2 53.6 0.0346 0.00293 0.031? 15.11 L4.95 12.03 L76.3
( 0.0355 0.00322
J 50.5 0.0296 15.03 t4.79 TL.42 162.8
.+ ^ 39.1 0.0395 0.00384 0.0277 t4.67 14.26 11.07 I47.0
(
-5 34.5 0.0416 0.00429 0.0261 t4,48 13.95 11.49 i 35.4
( 6 29.4 0.0445 0.00484 0.0246 14.22 13.56 11.81 L24.4
7 23.6 0.0484 0.00555 0.0234 13.86 13.06 Lt.97 114.0
( 8 17.4 0.0544 0.00649' 0.4225 t3.32 Figure 5.17.4 Loading for Example5.L7.2.
t2.42 11.85 i04.0
( 9 10.6 0.0644 0.00791 0.0218 t2.47 rt.52 TT.32 93.7
10 3.6 0.0854 0.01065 0.0215 11.00 10.09 10.07 80.8
( D : 115J6 13285 (b) Nominal strengthof a fillet weld. From LRFD-J2.2..the maximum
( nominal strengthis
( R n : l ,(0. 60. r 'ox) : 0. 707( 0. 25x0. 60) 70
: 7. 42 kips/ in.
(
P .:2 (1 3 2 8 .6 )/(5 .0 + 3 .s ) :2 3 \.1 ki ps
(c) Adjust the computednominal strengthso that the maximum forceon
( From Eq. 5.17.11,force equilibrium in the y-direction gives any weld segmentdods not exceed7.42 Y,tps/in.The maximum resistanceis
( 'P,: 2 (tts .5 6 ) :2 3 t.1 k i ps 15.06kips/in. at segment1 (Table 5|17.4).
( Thus, the nominal strengthP, is 231 kips- I 7. 42
CorrectedPn : 2371A06 : 1i4 kips
( ! EXAMPLE 5.17.2
Determinethe maximum serviceload P that the ecc€ntricshearconnectionof
( (d) Alternative procedure using constant resistancervhen the computed
Fig. 5.17.4may be permitted to carry using strength analysisand the AISC
( Load and ResistanceFactor Design Specification.The live load is three times formula resistaii-ce-R,would exceed 7.42 V,rps/in. Since the AISC LRFD
the dead load. The weld is I in. and E70 electrodesare used in the SMAW Specificationdoes not permit R, to exceed7. 2fups/in. (for ]-in. E70 using
( process..Assume SMAW procedure),the strengthanalysiscould be done by settingmaximum
the basematerial strength does not govern.
( R i : 7.42 kips/in. during the analysisto find the instantaneouscenter.From
SOLUTION Fig. 5.13.4one may-observethat using the constantresistance of 7.42kips/in.
( (a) Strength analysisusing basic concepts.The nominal strength of this rvhen the computed -R, exceeds'thatvalue has the eifect of making the rveld
connectionas determinedin Example5.17.1is exhibit elastic-plastic behavior. For this assumption,the solution for the
(
instantaneouscentergives ro : 7.08 in. and the detailsare providedin Table
( P": 231kips 5.17.5.
(
.(
I

I
I SHEARCONNECnONS- STRENGTHANALYSTS
5.17 / ECCENTRTC 271
27A s /WELOINb
{
/
TABLE 5.17.5 SOLUTIONFOR EXAMPLE5.17.2 (ro : 7.08 in.) ($ 9ompute the safe service load P using the factored gravity load
combination. LRFD-A4.I, Eq. (Aul-2).For the given 75% live load and 25% i
Computed used
dead load,
Seg 0, A, -u, A, fl.urr Ri Ri (8), R,
Pu: l'2D + l'6L
(,
| 47.3 0.0365 0.03m t4.94 r4.69 7.4? 5.46 766i
0.0354 0.4322 15.04 14.87 QP o: Pu: 1. 2( A. 25P, + 1. 6( 0. 75P): 1. 5p (
2 50.8 7.42 5.75 tt].::
3 53. 9 0.0345 0.0345 15.1? 15.0r 7.42 . 6.00 li8.lt t 6P- 94.8
4 42.5 0.0382 0.0278 t4.79 t4.43 7.42 , 5.47 7l i- P:i;:,,:63kiPs (-
-
5 37.8 0.0401, 0.0261 t4.62 t4.12 7.42 s.ao 66.5: (
6 32.4 a.u27 0.0244 14.38 t3;r3 7.4? 6.77 62.30
7 26.3 0.0465 0.0230 14.04 13.22 7.42 6.66 58.65 r EXAMPLE 5.173 1

Determinethe maximumserviceload P that &e eccentricshearconnectionof \


8 19. 4 0.0522 0.0219 13.52 12.56 7.42 7.00 55.?0
9 12. 0 0.0620 0.0211 12.67 11.64 7.42 7.26 53 ?5 Fig. 5.17.a(sameproblemas Example5.17.2)may be permitted to carry using /'
\
10 4.0 0.0833 0.0207 11.r2 1 0 .1 4 7.42 7.4t 5t ;i strength analysisand the AISC Allowable Stress Design Specification.The (,
I : 63.t4 Of"q'Ul weld is I in. and E70 electrodesare used in the SMAW process.Assume the
basematerial strengthdoesnot govern t'

..SOLUTION (
1'

F r om 8q. 5. 17 .9 , '"
(a) Strength anall'sisusing basic concepts.The nominal strength of this ('
\
P ^ : 2 ( 6 3 . 1 4 :) 1 2 6 . 3k i p s connectionas determinedin Example5.17.1is
1
\
FromEq.5.17.11, P, : 231kips
(
8 3 .5 ) : 126.3ki ps
P,: 2 (6 6 8 .0 3 )/(7 .0 + (b) Allowable stresson a fillet weld. From ASD-J2.4, the allowable
(
resistanceR is
Thus. the nominal strengthP, is 126.3kips. (
, .5 -1 03. For ]-i n. w el d usi neI:' ti
( e) Us e LRFD Ma n u a l [.1 7 ] ta b l e s p R : l. ( 0. 3Fr **)
electrodes. = 0.707(0.25X0.30)70
: 3.71kips/in. (
a : (e - xL)tL :(3.5 - 0.45)/14: 0.218 \(
- 3.0/14: 0.114 (c) Reducethe computednorninal strength into the sen'iceload range so
k : kL/L /
that the maximum force on any weld segmentdoes not exceed3.71 kips/in. I

k:0.2 0.214 0.3 The maximum resistanceis 15.06kips/in. at segment1 (Table 5.17.4).Thus. (
a : 0.2 1.694 7.962 the allowableserviceload P is
0.218 1.655 1.692 1.920 C :7.692 I

0.3 1.473 1.125 P : 23t#


Corrected : 57kips
(
T ablev a l u e: Q P n : C C .D L : : 94.8ki ps
1 .6 9 2 (1.0)(4)14 /
(d) Use 1978,,lSDManual tables,p. 4-80. For |-in. weld usingE70 \
electrodes.
u'here Cr : coefficient for electrode: (Electrodeused)/70 (
D : number of fis of an inch in weld size a = (e - xL)/L: (3.5- A.45)/14: 0.218 (\
L : length of vertical weld (in.) k - kL/L : 3.0/14: 0.214
(
(0 Summary.Comparethe valuesof the design strength0P,. k:0.2 0.214 0.3 /I
l. Strength analysisreducing P" after completlrg analysis: - a :0.2 1.02 1.18
+P" : 0.?5(114): 85'5kiP' 0.218 1.020 r.043 r.180 C: 1.043 /
\
2. Strength analysisusing maximum Ri : 7.42 kips/in.: (,
+P" - 0'75(126'3)= 94'7kiPs '
Tablevalue= P = CC4L- : 58.4kips
1.043(1.0X4)14
3. LRFD Manual tables: QP,:94'8 hiPs {
((
.
(
(
, ( '-- :- t

272 "s/WELD|NG - ELASTTC


5 i3 / ECCET{IRICSHEARCONNICTTONS (VECTOR)Ar'lALyS:S 273
(
(
rvtiEre' cr : coefficient for electro6s: (Electrodeused)/70
( where r : radial distancefrom rhe centroidto point of stress
I) - number of fis of an inch in rveld size /n : polar momentof ineitir
( _..L - Iengthof verticalrveld(in.)
(e) Summary.Cornparethe valuesof ihe serviceload p. For computing nominal stresses or forceson rvelcisc'lntcntsihe irrci;ijorls of
(
the linesof u'eidare definedb1 edgesalongs'hichthe lilletsareplaced.rathcr
( I. strength analysisreducing{ aftcr completinganalysis: P : 57kips than to the cenier of the effectivethiort. This nrakeslittle difference.sincethe
3. ASD lr,lanualtables: P : 58kips throat dimen:icn is usuallysn:all.
( of stressdue to
Note that ASD.Manual tables useclslightly different equationsfor the For the generalcaseshorvnin Fig. 5.18.1,the cornponents
( sftength analysisthan-usedin the LRFD trlanuat; hou'ever,the differenceis direct shearare
n*t significant. The safe serviceload using ASD is 58 kips comparedwith 63 P,
( f-t : ( 5. 18 . 3 a )
kips using L.RFD. The.LRFD valuedependson rhe rario of livi to deadload A
( whereasthe ASD value is the samefor all live to dead load rarios. The results
from both LRFD and ASD agreefavorably. E P:
( t - (5.1s.3h)
( A
5.18 ECCENTRIC
SHEARCONNECTIONS
( -ELAST|C (VECTOn)ANALYSIS
(.
The traditional elastic vector analysis is easierthan the strength method to
( carry out when the computeris'not available,or when the AISC Manual tables
( are not available.The elasticvector method is conservative,sometimesexces-
sively so.
( The elastic method has the following assumptions:
( l. Each segment of weld, if of the same size, resists a conc€ntrically
(' applied load with an equal force. This concept was used for welds on
tension membersin Sec.5.16.
( 2. The rotation causedby torsional moment is assumedto occur about thq
( centroid of the rveld configuration.
3. The load on a rvetd segment caused by the torsional moment is
( assumedto be proportic;al to the distance from the centroid of the (a) Connection
-. weld configuration.
('
4. The direction of the force on a weld segment caused by torsion is
( assumedto be-perpendicularto the radial distancefrom the centroid of
the weld configuration.
(
5. The componentsof the forcesdue to direct load and due to torsion are :-
( combined vectorially to obtain a resultant force.
( It will be convenient to think of this analysis using the principles of f-,'1--T--t
I I l^^ €v
mechanicson a homogeneousmaterial, combining direct ihr- ivith torsion.
( Beginningwith the stresseson a homogeneoussection,
l r i -
(
(
P
.f' : - : stressdue to direct shear
A
(5.18.1) t i l
( Tr
f" : stressdueto torsionalmoment {s.rr.z1 (b) Effective cross section
tP
( Figure 5.18.1 Frcentric bracket couection.
t"(
-
b.' (
274 5/WELDING 5.18 / ECCENTRICSHEARCONNECTIONS_ ELASNICryECTOR) ANALYSIS
(
- t '

{,.> - -F_] tcrms D ind d. as shownin Fig. 5.18.2.Eq. 5.lS-7 becomes


*1 4
l - r l
l
E----:r.
i l 'l I
r-E=; lf td\2 h
=
v
l _ -+ TP
e [t
ru\;) . ,'.| :
ilta' + b,t (5.18.8)

-J -Jt valuestreated as properfies of lines for other common

F i g u r e5 . 1 8 . 2 Treatment of weld configuration Ias lines having unit thickness. (


i, I EXAMPLE 5.T8.I
I
f .Compute the maximum load (kips/in.) on the weld configurationshown for
the bracket in Fig. 5.18.3using the elastic(vector) merhod. Assume the plate
The x- and r'-componentsof f" resultingfrom torsion are € )
rr*- thicknessdoes nor affect thd iesult.
-{?,..

Ty ( P , t ,- . + P , e . )y q_----..
tt, _ _
tx
_-
(5.18.4a)
IP IP t,
:EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE':.'.
The maximum force R will occur at points A and B. The propertiesof
.,*;"- lines will be used.
f,
'Y ,:":(P'e,+Pre')x ( 5 . 1 s . 4)b (a) Locate the centroidof the configuration,Taking momentsabout the
Ip Ip
€-1.. I
EJ'ver.tjcal weld.
= -
1ry
^ t r \ ^
2(6)3 {
where Ir: I, * Ir: I/,, + Leit + I/.,., + LA xz (S .tl t._si X: - = l8 in . ''"
-
-?-
-- 2(6)+g
-:---
In Eq. 5.18.5.i and ! referto distancesfrom the centerof gravityof the ueld (b) Computethearea(length)and thepotarmomentof inerriaaboutthe (
-.{J
group to the center of gravity of the individual weld segments..f., and /,. centroidof the configuration.
F=-
'-::. (
refer to the mornentsof inerda of the individualsegmentswith respectto rhr-ir
own centroidalaxes. :2(6) + 8:2oin'
j= I

Thus. for the situationof Fig. 5.18.2.Eq. 5.18.5becomes


;-. /ct3 I

"."
':
I 'o : * + 2L1 6
' (4 . 1t
)+ in3
g] r ,[ut,.z)'l*8(18)]: 314
5: ---
lJ
t
f t

Iy

( 5 . 1 86 )
v
For practical situations,the first term of Eq. 5.18.6is neglectedbecause.
u.irh
r. small. the term is not significantcomparedto the other terms.Hence

r,= 2[r241il'+ D-l ( 5 . 1 8 .)7

Note that /o equalsthe throat thicknesst. timesthe property of /ines;i.e..


an element having length but having a width of unity. Actually, the area I in -g
Eqs. 5.18.3equalsthe thicknesstc timesthe total lengthof the weld configura-
tion: and in Eq. 5.18.5the polar moment of inertia equalsthe thicknessr.
J ir -8"
v
times the polar moment of inertia of the configuration as lines.\lthen rhe
stress/ is multiplied by t., it becomesa force ft per unit length,say.kips/in.
Treating the welds making up the effectivecross-section in Fig. 5.18.2as I

line u'elds (i.e., as in deriving Eq. 5.18-Twirh r.: l) and using ihe general Figuro5.18.3 Example5.18.1.
(
' ( 276 . s,/lirEudrnro 5.18/ ECCENTF:C
SHEAR - f ijisriC ryECTOR)
CONNECTTCxS Al.r{LystS 27T
(
( TABLE 5.18.1 PROPERTIES
OF WELDSTREATEDAS Lii.j=S (c) Compute the ciimponents of the force on thc rvelclat poinrs I and B.
( Section From the direct shear.
Secfion illodulus Polar Moment of Incrtia, lo
b:width; d=deptlr
( J,!9 about Centerof Grat!ry
R ::::
'fl
: { t . i 5 k i' pi ., s' -7- ' j .1 1
( )2
L 20
S:a t'^ =
L{2 Frorn the torsion f about the centroid of rhe configurarion.
( O

(
(
' lro_]l i )^ : d-
J
"
,o (3b'+ d')
, - d---?-
R..:
Tv

T
:
1 5 (1 2 . 2) 4
3*
:2.33 krps/in.->

( i5(1:'1)4':
l-uJ R' l. : ! : : 2 . 4 s k i p s r . ,j i n .
3. E-T , b ( 3 d :- b r ; lP 314

,tr
( d
S=bd ,o =-----

n I The vectorsum givesthe resultantforce R.


(
_ d 2
( v' : - R : i,( 2. 33) 2+ ( 2. 45+ 0. 75) : : 3. 96kipsTin. r
z(b+d\ .
4. lbd -r d2 ( b + d ) o- 6 b . d .
( ):- ,
r '- : -
_ b 2 72(b + d) E EXAMPLE 5.18.2
x=-
( 2(b+d\ Determinethe weld size required for the bracket of Fig.5.1E.3 rvhen the
(
(
,LE" _ b 2
2b+d
S=bd+l-
n -

6
i f

. 8bt +6bdz + d3
,o =--1l-
serviceload P is 15 kips (80% live load and 207cdead load). Compare rhe
resultsusing(a) elastic(vector)analysisfrom Erample 5.18.1and (b) strength
analysisas describedin Sec.5.17,both uith AISC Load and Resisrance
Design.Assumethe plate thicknessdoes not affect the result.
Factor
( - bo
t'
2b+d
( :: SOLUTION
- d 2 ^ 2bd+d2 ,i-
v' = - 5=- , _bt+6b2d+gd3
,o---_lF (a) Elastic (vector)method. According to LRFD the facrorcd load must
( b+zd 3 :
be computed,
do
( \\ ::-
?d+b - P u : 7 . 2 D + 7 . 6 L : 1 . 2 ( 0 . 2 ) 1+5 1 . 6 ( 0 . 8 ) 1:5 2 2 . 8k i p s
( l-*1
(
7.
IEI S=bd+I-
S2

a
5
,o
(b+d)3
, =--A-
The maximum load (lips/in.) on the rvelddue tc the factored P rvill be (using
the resultfrom Example5.18.1for P : l5 kips),

( R u : 3 . 9 6 ( 2 2 . 8 / 1 5 ) : 6 . 0 2k i p s / i n .

( 8. 'ru]
r !-uJ
e:b*u" =--J- ^ Zbd+dz
I
t9
_ b3+8dt_
t2 b+zd
do
.{ 0R,,'. : 0.75a(0.707)(0.60FExx
Weld resistance )
( : 0. 75a( 0. 707) ( 0. 60) 70
: 22. 3a
.{

s[tr
r -
( l-r-l The rveldsize'requiredis then
)Z b3+3b[+d]
( S = b d +- a IP R, 6.02 5
J Requireda : : : a'27 in" saY in'
( +R^ 223 ;

( Use*-in. E70 fillet welds.


S: ar? (b) Strength anaiysismethod. First. the sreng,th analysismust be per-
( Ir:2m3
I formed. Divide the horizontal 6-in. rveld into 6 parts and the vertical 8-in.
t

( t length into 16 segmentsof I in. each, though it is ccnsideredadequateto


. * Y
always use l_:in.segments.The modification of the strength rnethodis used
( .{
.+i
z
( " ?
I
f
278 s/WELOING
a
5.19/ LOADSAPPLIED
ECCENTRIC
TOTHEPLANE
OFWELDS 279 ('

wherein R, is takene4ual to7.42 kips/in. wheneverthe ccrnputed R. g.6u1J


From Eq. 5.17.9,and multiplying by.2 becauseof symmerry,gives
exceedthat value.The instantaneous centeris found by trial io be ar *0^ll j
in. from the verticalweld line; that is, negativemeansto*.ard the locarioni,i ER, r , 2( 285. 80)
the applied load P. The solutiondetailsare in Tables5.19.2and 5.ls.j -Pn _ _ : d-l '' , 2 k i p s
e + ro 14. 0- 0. 115. -
P n: L( R, ) , : 2( 20. 59): 41. 2kips
The nominal strength P" 741.2 kips. This is the srrengrhusing |-in. wetd
TABLE5.18.2 GEOMETRY
ANDR,uu, EXAMPLE
5.19.2 using 870 electrodeswirh the SMAW process.The design strengttgglpois
-J,
Seg Length x y fi 0t A,.", A 0.75(41.2): 30.9 kips. The weld sizerequiredis
No (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (deg) (in.) (in.) ik,is
Pu : 22.8kips : QPn: 3g.g:-
I 0.39 4.00 4.42 5.5
s.25
0.0776 0.0208 11.491
2 1.39 4.00 4.23 19.1 0.0525 0.03r.9 1 34 s l weldsizet : 3ffi2
Required : o.l8in.
3 2.3e 4.00 4.66 30.8 0.0436 0.024i i4:ee
4 3.3e 4.00 5.24 40.2 0.03e1 0.02ir 14.?i: (c) Use LRFD Manuol [.17] tables,p. 5-103.For ]-in. weld using ETO
5 4.39 4.00 5.94 47.6 0.0364 0.0307 l.{.95: electrodes,
6 1 5.39 4.00 6.7t 53.4 0.0347 0.0347 I5.1ii.l
7 0.50 - 0.12 3.75 3.75 - 88.2 a : (e - xL) / L: ( t A. O- 1. 80) / 8 : 1. 525
0.0278 0.0194 7 83i
8 0.50 - 0.12 3.25 3.75 - 88.0 0.0278 0.0168 i.t131
k : kL/ L : 6. 0/ g: 0. 75
9 0.50 - 0 .1 2 2.75 2.75 - 87.6 0.0279 0.0142 k :0. 7
? fi31 0. 75 0. 8
l0 0.50 - 0.12 1 1 < 2.25 - 87.1 0.0280 0.0116 : l:., a:1.4 0. 983 l. l1
ll 0.50 - 0 .1 2 1 . 7 5 t.75 - 86.2 0.0281 0.0091
- 0.12 t.25 -84.7
? !(li r.525 0.893 A.952 1.011 C : A.952
t2 0.50 1.26 0.0283 0,0065 ?.81:
13 0.50 - 0 . 1 2 0.75 - 81.3 1.6 0.874 0.99
0.76 0.0288 0.0039 7 . 7 ej
14 0.50 - 0 .1 2 0.75 0.28 - 65.3 0.0318 0.0014 ..0,6
Tabl eval ue: epn: CC. DL: 0. 952( 1. 0) ( 4) :g 30. 5kips
As may be noted, the LRFD tables give essentiallythe same result
obtainedin part (b).
(d) Summary. The weld size a required using 870 etectrodesand the
SMAW processis l
T A B L E 5 . 1 8 . 3 S O L U T T OFNO R E X A M P L E5 . 1 8 . 2( b ) ( r c = - C . tj 5 : n
Elastic(vector) method.requiredo : frin.
Computed Used
seg Ri Ri (q), R,r, Strengthanalysis, required : *in'
No. (kips) (kips) (kips) (lcps-in ) f
As will alwaysbe the case,the elasticvector methd is conservative.
I 10.49 1 1'l
0 .71 29.S3
l l1 (? 1 , 4
t.\L 1 .32 3r.zi
1 3 .6 1 7.42 3.72 5.19 LOADSAPPLIEDECCENTRIC
4 14.29
Jr.-1-
IO THE PLANECF WELDS
7.42 4.74 3t.59
5 14.73 7.42 5.45 43.70 When an applied load is eccentricto the plane of the weld configuration,as in
6 14.99 7.42 5.93 49.41 Fig. 5.19.1,the strengthmethod of analysismay srill be used as long as rhe
7 7.62 3.72 -0.11 13.93
8 -0 .1 3 plane of the rveldsis rigid. The weld plane is rigid in Fig. 5.19.1becausethe
7.47 3.72 1:_07 (
9 7.22 -0 .1 6 welds are on each side of a plate; i.e., there is sufficient rigidity between
3.72 l0 ?2
l0 6.80 3.72 -0 .1 9 the two lines of weld such that there will be no bending of the maierial betng, (
8.i6
ll 6.10 3.72 *0.24 welded in the plane of the welds.
6.5i
L2 4.99 3.72 -0.34 4.f6 As discussedin S€c.5.17, the strength of a segmentof wetd dependson I

l3 3.35 3.35 -0.50 :.5.1 the angle 0, of the resisting force R, to the axis of tbe weld. It makes no
l4 1.46 l.{5 -0.6r 0.10 differencewhether R, acrsar an angleto tbe plane of the welds (Fig. 5.19.1)or
g:2gJ9 2S5^iO whether it acts in the plane of the welds (eccentricshear as in Secs.5.1? and I

5.1s). I
**/
(

280 5 / ViELDiNG 5.I9 /LOADSAPPLIED TOTHEPLANEOFWELDS


ECCENTRIC 281
(
(
Plate th ickness Thus. there are four methods(Nos. 2 and 3 are really identical)suggested
( Fe,i
f i l e '-ii'lr
1 f for use:

tl
( t, Strengthanalysisdividing the weld on the tensionside of the neutrll a.iis
( into segments,the resistance of eachdepcndingon the ang.lethe resistanc.-
makeswith the weld axis using the formulasin Sec.5.17.The rveldon thc
( compressionside of the neutral axis is assumedto have only a resistance
( tt tl parallel to the weld axis.The compressionforce from bendingis assumedto
ttJ
be carried by direction compressionof the piecesbeing rveldedusing a
( triangular distribution with the yteld stressat the extreme compression
( Frgure5.19.1 Wcldsin sbearandbending. fiber. The instantaneouscenteris then locatedby trial in a mannersimilar
to that illustrated for eccentricshear.Detailsof the procedureare described
( by Dawe and Kulak [5.38J;
( 2. Strength analysis exactly as for eccentricshear. In this procedureall rveld
The situationin Fig. 5.19.1is commonlyreferredto as shearand bending, segrnents,both on the tensionand compressionsidesof the neutralaxis,ale
( u'hich is actually the stresscondition on the bracket plate supponing the load assumed to have resistance.This procedurewill give the values in the
P. The rveldsnrust carry the loads in the samemanner that the rnemberSeing LRFD Manual tables.
( connectedcarries them. The stressesare shown in Fig. 5.19.2. 3. LRFD Manual tables.
( For loading of the.weld configuration'in shear and tension,one must 4. Elastic (vector) analysis.
realize that the yelSsegments subject to compressionare not free to rotate;
( thus, if a strengih analysisis made the compressionregion should be assumed
I EXAMPLE 5.19.1
( to have a compressivestressdistribution between the piecesbeing welded.
Compute the size of E70 fillet weld required for the shear and tcnsion
Dawe and Kulak [5.38]reportedthat relatively good agreementwith testswas
( connection in-Fig. 5.19.3a,using the SMAW process.Assumethe column and
obtained using any of a triangular,parabolic,or rectangularstressdistribution
the bracket plate do not control. The load is 80%live load and 20%dead load.
on the compressionside of the neutral axis.
( and Load and ResistanceFactor Designis to be used.
Tbe LRFD N{anual[1.17]doesnot contain tablesfor the caseof shearand
( bending. The tables for eccentricshearare suggested[1.17] to be used for.g[.
casesrvhere" the connectionmaterial betweenthe welds is solid and doesnot' SOLUTION
( (a) Compute the factoredload P,.
bend in the plane of the welds."
( Alternatlvely, the elastic (vector) method is conservativeand relatively : 15. 2kips
Pu: L2( 0. 2) i0 + 1. 6( 0. S) 10
easy to use for loading in shearand tension-
(
(b) Use the traditional elastic (vector) method. The weid segmentsare
(
treated as lines having a thicknessof unity (1.0).The direct shearcomponent
( sl P \ v P M c M
z\ztir,z;
) 7=G, 7=3
(
(
n
N.I
n
E
t
:--1
l
I
:.'{ l"-1 tf, Lr'.
l l l l
=\l =l = V=c I l r
H
( -l Fl V
A-
I i
h
:
I
t
E T
- ! l
r

= t r
t
( 11 E I

E 5 E
E I
( V E F aar

(a) VJetdgroup (b) Actual shear (c) Assumed (d) Bending


( lrom stress nominal stress
, Fig. 5.19.1 distribution sbear s!ress distribution '.
(bl Assumcdueld crossseclion
( distribution
(a) Bracket

( Figure 5.19.2 Stresseson vertical lines of *'eld acting in shearand bending. Figure5.19.3 Example5.19.1.

t.( 1|.(F
F!"' 282 5/WELOING 5 I g / LOAOS
APPLIED
ECCENTRIC
TOTHEPLANE
OFWELDS 283 ( ,
( i

is assumedto be carried equally by eachs€gmentof weld, For rmoment alone on one line of weld, (
M M , (
' ' ' = ! =*
(R,),, : * :- vo.76kips/in.
'' R- - - (5.19.1)
A 2 (t' )L , 2 (1 )1 0 m T-r,,1
kips/in.
.S \ c (
The rensioncomponent(horizontal)due to the moment pe is Sincethe maximum valueof R is eR,n (
ItIc 15.2(6)5 6M ( \
(R,),: : : 2.74kipslin. .0R,,*:V
T l6ef 9w ( ,
r : *[z1ry1roltl-166.7
where in.a 6M (
The resultant forcc is Required (5.1e.2)
!_: +R*
RequireQ
d R,,: W :2.g4kips/in. Equation 5.19.2 for welds correspondsto Eq. 4.12.28for bolts. Sinceit is (t
correct only for moment alone, R,,- should be enteredas a reducedvalue to
The designstrengrhof 870 electrodefillet weld is (
account for direct shear.
gRn, : gr.(0.60F**) : 0.25(0.707)a(0.60)lO
:2:..ja (
I EXAMPLE 5.19.2
and the fillet weldsizea requiredis (
Determine the length L required to carry the load indicated in Fig. 5.19.4,.
when 75% of the load is live load and 25%is dead load. The weld to bi usedis (
3
R e'q u i r eod: ? Y : 0 . 1 3 i n . , s a y tn' *-in. E70 fillet weld. use AISC Load and Resisrance Factor Design.
223 G ( \
(c) Use LRFD IWanual[l.l7l rables,p. 5-91. For weld using F . , ' l i SOLUTION ( ,
electrodes, (a) Compute factoredload {:
(
P,: r.Z(o.ZtcO
+ 1.6(0.75).40
60kips
a = e/L: 6/10: 0.60 (
/<:0 (b) Estimatelengthof weld L requiredby using Eq. 5.19.2:
(
F i n dC : 1 . 1 0 7
0R,,* - 0.?5(a)(0.707)(0.60)70
= 22.3akips/in.
(
T ablev alue: g P" : C C .D L : 1 .1 0 7 (1 .0 )(D)10: 11.07Dki ps :22.3(5/16) : 6.96kips/in.
(
RequiredD - l5.Z/1f.07 - 1.4 Mu - 60(4) : 240 in.-kips per Z linbs of weld
(
Requir eda: 1.4 /1 6 : 0 .0 9i n ., s a y I i n .
Required I =
lM : ll in' (
The elastic(vector)methodis as expectedmore @nservativethan the srrenerh \/ fC'O (
methodrepresented by the LRFD Manual tables.The minimum desirablerrzc
(
to be usedfor this situationis probably in.
fr
Usefi-in. E70 fillet welds. (
(
Design for Lines of werd subfect to Bendrng Moment
( ,
Ev'ens'hen there'are moderatereturnsat the top of lines of fillet weld. an
estimateof the length requiredmay be obtained Ly using the sameapprLlcl: (
a-susedto dererminerhe numberof bortsin a line io so. 4.l2. rn Fig. a.ll.v. (
R/p hts units kips/in. which becomes+Rr,, the designstrengrhat de rop of
the linesof s'eld. (
Figure 5.19.4 Example 5.19.2.
(
(
( t
(
. ( n l

:
-t
284 . 5,/WELD|NG i SSLECTEDRETEREI.ICES 28s
(
1 a
( --t
a
A reducedvalue of gR,,*. hasbeenusedto accountfor the directsheareffcct. i
The designstrengthof E70 elecrrode
( since the *-in. returns at the top add somerhing;rry r. : 10 in. - 1 ii-ir. fillet *'eld is
(
(c) If the rcrurns are neglected,the LRFD ltinual t1.171tables,p. 5-91.
can be used to obtain an approrimateresult, as follorvs:
I
I
sR,*,: or"(0.60Fo**)
( i : 0 . 7 5 ( 0 . 7 0 7 x * ) ( 0 . 6 0 ) 7: 0 6 . e i k i p s / i n .
a : e /L : 4 /1 A: 0.40
( k : 0
The designstrengthOR,",exceeds
the 6.?1kips/in. rcquircd:thus. L : 1 0 i n .
( Find C : 1.549
is adequate.
( T a b l ev a l u e: e P n : C C T D L : 1 . 5 4 9 ( 1 . 0 ) ( o ) t:0 1 5 . 4 9 Dk i p s , UseL:10in.

( Requircd D : 60/15.49: 3.9


Additionaltreatmentof eccentric
load on rveldsis to be fcuid in Chantc:
( Requireda : 3.9/16: 0.24in., sayI in. 13 on connections.

( ForL: 8 in.,
( Find C : 1-299, requireda : 0.29in.. say'fr in. SELECTED
REFERENCES
( (d) Elastic (vector) method.The actual weld configurationhas the *-in.
returns rvhich make the centerof gravity of the weld configurationlie closerto. 5.1.K. Winterton. "A Brief History of Welding Tcch:rology," iileldrng attd lr.letcl'
( Fabrication,November 1962'.December1962.
the top than the mid-depthassumedin part (c). Also. thereis no indicationin
5.2."100 Yeals of Metalworking-welding, ssezing ar:d Joinin?," The lron Age.
( the LRFD tables that thosetablesshould be usedrvhenthe load is applied June 1955.
such as to cause moment and shear.Thus, it may be prudent to use a 5.3.H. Carpmael Electric welding and lvelding Appliances. London: D. van Nos-
(
conservativeelastic (vector) analysis. trand Company, 1920.
( Locate the center of gravity of the configuration, 5.4.Preston M. Hdl. "77 Years of Resistanceweldin3." TIte lltelding Engineer,
February 1954,54-55; March 1954.36-37; April t954, 62-63.
( _ 2(10)5 100 ) . ) . w. L. Miskoe."The centenaryof Modern welding, 1885-1985-A commcmo-
y : -:-;-----------= : - : +-7o ln.
( 2 ( 1 0+ 0 . s ) 27 ration," WeldingJournal,65, April 1986, L9-24.
5.6.D. W. Morgan. "Classification and Use of Mild Steel Covered Elcctrodes."
( The direct shear component(R.), is computedassumingthat none of the.,
\' IYe[dingJounnl, December1976,1035-1038.
shear is carried by the returns, 5.7.E. craig. "A unique Mode of GMAw rransfer," welding Journal,6d, Sep'rcm-
(
ber 1987,5i-55.
P 6 0 5.8.K. A. Lyttle. "GMAW-A
( (R"),: : 3.ookips/in. versatile Processon the Move," lvelding Journal,62.
: u: 410) March 1983,15-23.
( 5.9. V. R. Dilleobeck and L. Castagno."The Effects of Various Shielding Gascsand
The tension componentdue to the moment pe is Associated Mixtures in GMA welding of Mild Sleel," l4relding Journal, 6,
( SeptemberL987,45-49. (Seealsoletter from Nils Larson, Chairman, Committees
2L3 c50 and A55, American welding society, and author's reply, 67, March 1988,6.)
( 'Ix : - + 2L(5 - 4.67)2
+ z(O.s)
(4.7q2
72 5.10.Aws. welding Handbook,Tth ed., vols. 2 and 3. Miami. FL: Arnerican welding
( Socidty,-1978,1980.
(10)' 5.11. "Office Building
_ Columns Field Spliced r*ith Self-Shielded Welding
( + (4.76)2: 190.5in.3
+ 20(0.24)2 Wire," WeldingJournal,65,October1986,53-54.
6 "Self-Shielded
( s.t2. FCAW SpeedsHigh-fuse Construcrioa," WeldingJour-
60(4)4.76 nal, 8, April 1984,47 -49.
( ( R " ) , : -lg5; : 6.00 kips/in. 5.13. . "Self-ShieldedFCA Welding is a Breezein the Windy Ciry," lTelding
Journal,67, March 1988,47 -48.
(' 5.L4.A. Raman. "Electroslag welds: Problerns aDd cures," rvelding Jounw!, 60.
The resultant force is
( DecemberL98L,17-2I.
oR, : yG oot'+Goot' : 6.7rkipslin.
Required 5.15.c. G. Schilling and K. H. Klippsteia. "Tests of Electroslag-welded Bridge
( .*
-4 Girders," WeldingJournal,60,December1981,23-30.
,*
$

! (
#
tit
".-d

.?
.:E:
-.tilt* . .
'.e-:'

286 5/WELD|NG
nF:-.--. ( ,
' PFOBLEMS 287
;.-- ( t
&

5.16. A. W. Pense,J. D. Wood, and J. W. Fisher. "Recent Experienceswith Elecrnrsiaa (


5.37. Kerineth M. Loomis, William A. Thorntoq and Thomas Kane. ..A
Welded Bridges." ll/elding .lournal, 60, December 1981, 33-12. -:- Design Aid
,:::. for Connection Angle welds Subjected to Combined Sbear
and Axial Loads,,, (
5.17. Omer W. Blodgett. "Distortioo... Hon, to Minimize it.with Sound Doian 'a
EngineeringJournar, AIsc, 22, r (4th euarter r9g5), 17g-196.
Practices'andControlled Welding ProceduresPlus Proven Methods for Srrajihr ..1
5'38' John L' Dawe and Geoffrey L. Kulak. "welded ionnections (
' ::J under Combined
ening Distor"ted!v{embers,"Butletin G261. Oeveland, OH: The Lincoln Elcci:-;. Shear and Moment,,, Jonrnol of the Stntcrural Diaision,ASCE,
Company. (No date) :i..j 100, ST4 (April (
t9741.727-741.
5.ltl. Omcr W. Blodgett "shrinkage Control in Welding," Ciail Engineering,N6rc:::. 5'39' AWS ' Symbolsfor Welding, Brozing and NondesttzctiueExaminarion ( '
(A2.4g61.
ber 1960,56-61. +:- Miami. FL: American Welding Societn 19g6.
5.19. E. R. Holby.
"weld
AppearancesMay Be Deceiving," werdinglournol,6l..\l,r +.. - ( ,
1984,33-36. t5:.
(
5:20. J. E Jones."lnspecting for Fatigue," welding Journa!,62,May 1983,2l-2.1. .19.

5.21. R. Fenn. "Ultrasonic Monitoring aod Coouol During Arc Welding," ll'eiJtn: l:-
;.-..
-
PROBLEMS (
Journal. 64, September 1985, L8-22. i:
(1
5.22. Paul D. Watsoo. "Design for Welding Examination," Welding Jounu!.61. All problems are to be done accordingto the AISC Load
-n and Resisrance
Febnrary 1982,32-35. Factor Design or Allowable StressDesign,as indicated by (
5.23. C. M. Fortunko ald R. E. Scbramm."Ultrasonic NondestructiveEvaluationr,,! :.- the instrucior. All
given loads are serviceloads unless othinrise indicated. (
Butt Welds Using Electromagnetic-Acoustic Transducers,'; WeldingJournul. 6l Wbenever.possible,
show all answerson a design
v sketch(draw
':--'- to scale)using appropriatewelding
February 1982,39-46. ;'.. (
iymtols.
5.24. Ronald Selner. 'Dye Penetrant and Magnetic Particle Inspection,i' ll'elJt*i +

. Journal,6l, February1982,28-31. :- 5'1' Specificallyidentify the AWS Dl.l Joint Designation


(
5.25. AWS$ Strzctwal *ltetding Cade-Stee, (ANSI/AWS Dl.1-88), 11lh e<iir:i.n for each of the
follorving"pr-equ.alified"
burt joints madeby thJsrbmerg.d u*-pr*.r, (
Miami, FL: Amencan Welding Society, 1988 [sane t 2.241.
(sAY). Specify the proper thicknessfor eachof the platei
5.26. J. A. Donselly. *Determining tbe Cost of Welded Joints," EngineeringJoun:;.. as weli as the (
groove angle, root opening.and other requirements
AISC, 5,4 (October 1968), 146-147. for the welds. Draw
the cross-sectionfor each weld. The given loads are g57- (
5.27. Omer W. Blodgetl "How to Detersrine the Cost of Welding," Bulletin Go!,, live load and
15% dead load. Refer ro Aws Dt.r
Cleveland, OH: Tbe Liocoln Electric Company. (No date) lz.24l,AsD Manuar [r.Tl section (
5.28. L. J. Butler and G. L. Kulak. *strength of Fillet Welds as a Funcri(rn, :
Direction of Load," WeldingJottrnal (Welding,ResearchSupplement),36. \1.r.. (
1 9 7 1 .2 3 1 s - 2 3 4 s .
(
5.29. Lorne J. Butler. Sbubendu Pal, asd Geoffrey L. Kulak. "Frcentricalls' Lo.rJc.:
welded connecions," Jotrnal of the stnrcttual Diuision,AscE, 99, ST5 tll.. (
L912),989-1005.
5.30. G. L' Kulak and P. A. Timnler. "Tests on Eccentrically Loaded Fillet Wcl,i-.."
(
Structural En$n€ring Report No. 124, Depaftnent of Civil Engineering.Un:- (
vcrsity of Alberta. Edmonton, Alberta December,198a (23 pp). 4572 Grade65
j.31. peter Swannell."Rational Design of Fillet weld Groups,,, (
Journal of rhe srrr..
turul Diuision,ASCE, 107,srs (May l98r),789-802. Disc. l0g, sT5 (Mar- t9rlr.
I 1 9 7 - 11 9 8 .
(
5.32. Peter Swannell. 'Weld Group Behavior," Journal of the Structural Dit.tsto,':. (
ASCE, Iffi, ST5 (May l98t), 803-815.
5.33. Vernon V. Neir'New Constitutive Law for Equal Leg Fillet Welds." Journd!,', (
Structural Enginetring,t11, 8, August 1985,174Z-1759. (
Raymond H. R. Tide. "Ecceatrically Loaded wetd Groups-AISC D.-siin
--,.3,1. I l0k

Tables." EngineeringJownal, AIsc, 17, 4 (4ft euarter 1980),90-95. (


5-35. Ravmond H. R- Tide. Disc. of *Rational Design of Fillet Weld Groupli' Jourr-,
of the Srructural Dtuision,Ascg 16, ST5 (May lgg2), 1197_1199.
(
5.36. G. Donald Brandr "A General Sotutioo for Eccentric Loads on Wcld (iroup.i-" (
EngineeringJournal, AISC, 19, 3 (3rd euarter l9g2), 150_159. Prob.5.1 (
(
(
(
'ir 5/WELDING PROBLEMS
(
( "WELDED
JOINTS," or LRFD N{anualt1.1?}section"WELDED 5.3. Deternrinethe sen'iceload cipacity I of the conncction-<hon'nri i:cn '.hc
( JolNTS.'l rhe givenjoints are (a) Square-grooveweld, completepene- submergedarc pr(rcess (SAW; is us:d. The load is 85-%livc kud a::d i59a
tration;.(b) Single-V-groove
rveld.completepenetration;(c) Single-v- dead load. Use (a) .q,-?6steel. and (b) A5i2 Grade 6-i srecl. .:rSSUrire
( groove rvcld, comptete penetration; and (c,) Double-v-groove rveld, appropriateciectro<iemateriai is used.
( completepenetration.
5.4. Specifythe fillet rveldsrequiredlo dci'elopthe strengthoi the conncstii)r'l
( 5.2. Specificallyidentify rhe A\\'S Di.l Joint Dcsignationfor each of the shou'n.State the maximum senice load 7" permitted to be carricd.Thc
following "prequalified" butt joints made by the shieldcdmetal arc load is 90% live load and 109cdead load. Specifl' the propcr fiux-elec-
( process(SMAW). Specifythe proper thicknessfor eachof the plates,or trode matcrial using the subme:qedarc process.
( determine the serviceload capacityassumingthe load is 85% live load Use (a) A572 Grade 42 steel,and (U) .4514steel.
and 15% dead load. Indicateany thickness-related limitations and draw
( t . the cross-sectionfor eachweld. Refcr to AwS Dl.L l2.z4l, AsD Manual
"WELDED JOINTS."
( [1.7] sectiorl or LRFD Manual ll.i7l section
"WELDED JOINTS." The given joints
are (a) Square-groove*-eld, n--f;ro
( complete penetration;'(b) Double-bevel-groove weld, completepenetra-
tion; (c) Double-bevel-groove weld. partial penetration;and (d) Sirgle-
(
V-groove rveld,partial penetration. 7
__'>

(
(
r-*'a
(
(
Prob.5.4
(
( A36
5.5. Specify the plate thickaessand rveld size to be used for the joints in the
( accompanyingfigure. The loads are 70% live load and 3A%dead load.
( State weld material to be used for the shielded metal arc process
(SMAW). Cgmpare A36 and A572 Grade 50 steels for each joinr.
( Indicate the preferreddesignfor eachjoint.
(
( , = ,', A572Grade5o

(c)
(
Prob. 5.2 175k
( 60k

(
' (
(
(a)

( T
Prob.5.5
(
(
R.-t"u n--]xe
( 5.6. For the joints in the accompanvingfigure.satisfythe requirenrenrs
stated
Prob. 5.3 in Prob. 5.5.
t l
5 /WELOING PROBLEMS 291 ( t

( ,
(a). Use A572 Grade 42 steel. ( :
(b) Use A572 Grade 65 steel. ( ,
(c) Use A572 Grade 42 steel,with fillet welds instead of groove weld.
(cf) Use A572 Grade 65 steel,with fillet welds instead of groove weld. ( t

( r
( '
(
(
Prob. 5.6
(
s.7. Design the reinforcedlap joint shorvnin the accompanyingfigure. Thc
plates are 7 in. wide of A36 steeland the SMAW processis used.Refcr
to AWS Joint DesignationBTC-P4.The given load is 25% deadload and
75%live load.

P.rg!,5.9

5.10.A 5x3*xI angleof A572Grade50 steelis connectedby its long leg to a


*-in. gussetplate. Develop the maximum serviceload capacity (25%
dead load;75% live load) of the angleand use a balancedfillet welded
connection even though AISC permits neglectingeccentricity in static
load cases.The SMAW processis to be used. State the service load
Prob. 5.7 capacity. Use the following arrangementsfor the design:
1a) fi-in. u,eldon toe and back, with none on end.
(b) l-in. weld on toe and ]-in. weld on back. end none on end.
5 8. Selecta pair of channetsand designthe fillet welds using lhe Str{A\\'
process.The loadingis 85% live load and 15%dead load. Compare for
(a) A36 steeland (b) A572 Grade 60 steel.

Prob.5.10

Prob. 5.8
5.11. Design a balancedconnectionfor two 7x4X: angtesconnectedby their
long legs to a |.in. gussetplate. Develop the maximum service load
5.9. Design the tensionplate attachedto the wide-flange(W) section as u'cll capacity \20% dead load; 80% live load) and state is value. A572 Grade
as the welds, assumingthe SMAW proc€ssis used.The load is 70€ live . 60 steel is used and welding is by the SMAW process.Detail the joint to
load and 30%deadload.. balance.theloads and still give the shortestpossibleoverlap.
(
, (
5 /WELD|NG d PROBLEMS
( FI
!a

( 5.12.Designthe rveldsindicatcdto developthe full strengthof rhc'angles


g
antl :i
( mirtimizeeccentricitv.Assumeserviceload is 20% dead load and 80%.
live load. Use the SAW weldingprocess.
( (a) Use '{36 steel. al ctz x 20.7

( (b) Use A572Grade 50 steel.


J
(c) Use A572 Grade65 steel.
( (d) Use 4'36 steel,but omit rveldon the end of angles. a!
( (e) use A572Grade65 steel,but omit rveldon the endsof angles.

(
( Prob.5.14
2 - 1 6 . . 1* *
( 5.15. For the connectionshou-n in the accompanyingfigure, what is the
T
( . maximum requireddesign strengtb +R"*? The load is 907olive load and
1070dead load. What weld size is indicated if 870 electrodesare used
( with the SMAW process?
(a) Use strengthanalysis(i.e.. locate the instantaneous
centerb"vtrial).
(
(b) Use AISC Manual tables, "ECCENTRIC LOADS ON WELD
( Prob.5.12
GROUPS."
(c) Use elastic(vector) method.
(
5.13.Assumea f-in.-rvideplate usedin a lap joint musr carry 30 kips dead
(
load and 115 kips live load, and a possibilityexistsof some accidental
( eccentricitythat cannot be computed. To insure a tighter joint, a
l|-in.-diam plug weld is to be used. Determine the thicknessof the
(
plate,the amountof lap, and the weld sizefor the bestjoint. Assumethe
( . gussetplate to which the 9-in. plate is weldeddoesnot control any of_t!-e-
design.Use A572 Grade50 steeland the SMAW process.
(
( o
{ 1 5 0m m )
(
( Prob.5.15
(
5.16. For the connectionin the ac@mpanying figure, satisfy the requirements
( of Prob. 5.15.
(
( + 6k {26 kN}

(
Prob.5.13
(
(
5.14. Determine the minimum length of slot in order to develop the full 6
{ 1 5 0m m }
( , strengthof a C12x20.7welded to a |-in. plate. Use the same sizEfiller
weld over the entire-length,and assumeit is to be placed by the sMAw
( process.Assumeserviceload is 35% deadload and 65%live load.
Prob. 5.16
(
294 5 /WELDING PROBLEMS 295

(
5.17. For the bracketshownin the accompanyingfigure,calculatethe seniec 5.19. Rdpeat Prob. 5.18,exceptuse |-in. fillet weld on the side and |-in. on
load capacity P (W% live load and 10%dead load) basedon rhe weltt. the end. The steelis 4,572Grade 50.. (
Neglect the returnsat endsand assumethe'SMAW processis to be used. (
5.20. Compute the service load capacity P for the welded bracket of the
(a) Use strengthanalysis(i.e.,locatethe instantaneous
centerby trialt. accompanying figure. The load is 70% live load and 30% dead toad.
(b) Use AISC Manual rables,"ECCENTRIC LOADS ON WELD (
Neglect the returnsat the outer ends of the C-shapedweldconfiguration.
, G RO UP S . ' '
The weld size is I in. and E70 electrodesare used in the shielded metal (
(c) Use elastic(vector)method.
arc process. (
(a) Use strength analysis(i.e., locate the instantaneouscenter by trial).
(b) Use AISC Manual tables, "ECCENTRIC LOADS ON-WELD (
GROUPS.''
(c) Use elastic (vector) rnethod- \
(
24_-* (
A36 neel ir li
t l I

I t l
It-'61ezo I r t
(
- tl .l r ll
9 " ir ir (
I
|
I
i l
l l
(
P r o b .5 . 1 7 I r t

il (
l l
t l
('
5.18. Compute the maximumacceptableserviceload P for the connectiono[ Prob.5.20
lhe accompanlingfigure.The load is 85% live load and 15%deadltud (
Ignore the eflect of returnsat the lov,erend of the connection. (
(a) Use strengthanalysis(i.e.,tocatethe instantaneous 5.21. Repeat Prob. 5.20 if the verticaldimensionof the weld configurationis
centerb1 tnalr. (
(b) Use AISC Manual tables,*ECCENTRIC LOADS ON WELI) 12 in. insteadof 8 in.
CROUPS.'' 5.22. Repeat Prob. 5.20 if the vertical dimensionof the weld configuration is 4
(c) Use elastic(vector)method. in. insteadof 8 in. , (
(
(

t-
l
(
(
t'-4"

I (

1_ (
(

(
Probs. 5.18 anct5.19
Prob.5.23 (
(
(
C
'{'
{ ' . + - . .

296 . 5/WELD|NG PROBLEI!,IS 297


( -
(
5.23. Computc the theoreticatweld size required for the bracket of the
( accompanyingfigure when the sMAw processis used.The load is 60%
live load and 40%deadload.Neglectthe returnsat the outer endsof the
( C-shapedrveldconfiguration.
436 steei

( (a) Use strengthanalysis(i.e.,locate the instantaneouscenter by trial).


(b) Use AISC Manual rables, "ECCENTRIC LOADS ON WELD p
' L- l2
( GROUPS.''
( (c) Use elastic(vector)method.

( 5.24. Repeat Prob. 5.23 if the vertical dimensionis 12 in. instead of 16 in.
Prob.5.28
T, 5.25. RepeatProb.5.23if the verticaldimensionis 8 in. insteadof 16 in.

( 5.26. Repeat Prob. 5.23 if the horizontaldimension is 4 in. instead of 16 in. 5.29. RepeatProb. 5.28if the serviceload is 40 kips.
( 5.27. Use the elastic (vector).method to derive a general expressionfor the 5.30. For the bracketof the accompanyingfigure, satisfythe requirementsof
required weld sizeon the seatangleof the accompanyingfigure in terms Prob. 5.28.Note that A572Grade 50 steelis usedinsteadof .436.
(
of the factored load {, the leg length L, and the eccentricitye of the
( applied load. Assume870 electrodeswith the SMAW processare used.
Use the following assumptions:
(
(a) Ignore the returnsat the top.
( (b) Use an averagereturn of L/12.
(c) Use a return equal to twice the weld size.
( If e: 2J in. and I = 6 ir., determinethe weld size neededto carry
( P : 38 kips (80% live load and 20o,odead load). For the rveld size
selected,check the capacity P using all three assumptions,and also
( compare uith the result using the AISC Manual, "SEATED BEAM
( CONNECTIONS.''
Prob.5.30
(
(
(
(
(
( Prob.5.27

(
5.28. For the bracket of the accompanyingfigure, determine the length I
( required rvhenusing *-in. fillet weld with the SMAW process.The load
( is 70% live load and 30% dead load. Verify your result using the
following procedures:
( (a) Strengthanalysis(i.e.,locatethe instantaneouscenter by trial).
(b) AISC Manual rables, "ECCENTRIC LOADS ON WELD
(
GROUPS.''
\ * (c) Elasric(vector)'method.
(
, (
F C
6.2 / EULERELASTTC
BUCKLINGAND HISTORTCAL
BACKGROUND 299
(

Chapter6 (
(
(
(
CornpressionMembers (

Partl: Columns (
(
\
(
(
:
(
(

6.1 GENERAL (
other, the sarnelogic is applied here to the pin-end column, which having zero (
In this chapter, memberssubjectedto axial compression'forces are r(r bc end rotational restraint representsthe member with leasl buckling strength.
treated. Referred to by various lersu, such as column, stanchion.posl. and At any location z, the bending moment M" on the member bent slightly (
strut. these membersare rarely if ever actually carrying only axial comprc\. about the x principal axis is (.
sion. However, whenever the loading is so arrangedthat either the entl M'= P! (6.2.1)
rotational restraint is negligibleor the loading is symmerricallyappliedfronr and since (
membersframing in at the column ends, and bending may be considcrcd d'y M, (
negligiblecompared to the direct compression,the member can safelr hc (6.2.2)
designedas a concentncallyloaded column.
E:-EI (
It is u'ell known from basic mechanicsof materialsthat only very sht''rr the differential equation becomes r
(
columns can be loaded to their yield stress; the usual situation is rhrr
d'y P
buckling.or suddenbendingas a resultof instability,occursprior to develop- (6.2.31 (
ing the full material strength of the member.Thus a sound knowledget''f dr'*EIY:o
(
compressionmember stability is necessaryfor thosedesigningin structur]l After letting k2 = P/EI, the solution of this second-orderlinear differential
steel. equation may be expressed
- g
f=Asinkz*Bcos&: (6.2.4) (
?-r*
ti -sc (
rr,
6.2 EULEREUTSTICBUCKLING i--'.
9.i.r' (
AND HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND
*--.-- (
+*-
Column buckling theory originated with Leonhard Euler in l?il.l [6.11.An
initially straight concenuically loaded rnernber,in which all fibers remarn
!- *-
(
elastic until buckling occurs, is slightly benr as shown in Fig. 6.!"1- Though (
Euler dealt with a member built-in at one end and simply supporrcdat thc' - Figure 6.2.1 Euler column. (
298
. (
(
6/COMPRESS:ON
MErilBEre_ PAF- C O L U M N S
3C1

Applying boundan' conditions,(a) : ' J a t : : 0 : a n d ( b ) 6.3 BASIC COLUMN STRENGTH


t. Y : 0 a t z : L .
one obtains for condition (a), ^B: 0; ald for condition(b;,
In order to determinea basic cclumn strengrhccrtain conriirions
0:As:r&l (6.2.s) ma.vbe
assumedfor the idealcolur:rn[6.7].\r'ith r.gurJro n]arerial.it may be assunr:d
Satisfactionof Eq. 6.2.5 may be acccrrplishedin three possiblervays; (l ) there are the same .onrpr.sii';e stresi-strainprope:ries
(a) thioughourthe
cons t antA : 0, i .e .,n o d e fl e c ti c r;(b ) i :t :0 , i.e.,no appl i edl oatl : section;(2) no initiai internalstressese.ristsuchas thosedue to coJirngafter
and (c) roiling and thosedue to *'elcling.R.egarding
kL :.lfz, the requirementfor buckling io occur. Thus shapeand end conditions.ir 1y1u.1,.
be assumed(3) the column is perfettly straighi and prismaric:(4) the load
/ r.''1'
P resultant acts through the centroidalaxis of the meinber until the member
: Ei begins to bend; (51 the end conditionsmust be determinareso that a definite
t;/ equivalentpinned length may be established.Further assumptionsregarding
buckling may be made,as (6) the small deflectiontheory of ordinary benciing
N2nzEI is applicableand shearmay be neglected;and (7) twisting or,Jistortionof rhe
r 7 z (6.2.6)
cross-sectiondoes not occur during bending.
once the foregoingassumptionshave been made, it is norv agreed
The fundamentalbuckling mode,a single-curvaturedeflection(y : A sinnz/L [6.g]
that the.strengthof a column may be expressed by
from F4. 6.2.4.), will occur when N : 1; rhus the Euler criiical load for
a
column with both endspinned is *" 2 F
"'
'Pc ,r ' r : = A - :- F I (6.3.1
t "'n s )
;:EI (KL/r)'^
p
. -cr (6.2.7)
1Z
where E,: Lanflentmodulusof elasticityat stresspu/A,
or in terms of averagecompressirestress.using I : A A, : grosscross-sectional areaof member
rr2 KL/r: effective(or equivalentpianed-end)sienderncss
ratio
P* nzE K - effectivelength factor (treatedin Sec.6.9)
F", : (6.2.8)
A, ( L /r)' L:. l eng t hof m em ber
r : radiusof gyration: ,iry4
Euler's approachrvasgeneraUyigao;ed for designbecausetest resultsdid. .I : moment of inertia
not agreewith it; columns of ordinar]' l*gth usedin designrverenot as srrong It is vrell known that long compressionmembersfail by elasticbuckling
as Eq. 6.2.7 would indicate. and that short stubby compressionmembersmay be loaded until the material
considdre' and Engesser 16.2,6.3] h 1gg9 independentlyrealized that yields or perhaps even into the strain-hardeningrange.However,in the vast
portions of usual length columtrs becoae inelastic prior to the occurrence majority of usual situationsfailure occursby bucklingafrcr a portion of the
of
buckling and that a value of E should be used that could arcount for someof cross-sectionhas yielded.This is known as inelasticbuckli;rg.
the compressedfibers being strainsd bel,ond the proportional timit. It was Actuaily, pure buckling under axial load occursonly ghen the aforemcn-
thrs consciously recognized that ia fact ordinary tength columns fail by tioned assumptions(1) through(7) apply.Columnsare ulually.an integralpart
inelastic buckling rather than by elastic buckling. of a structure and as such cannotbehaveentirelyindependenrty. ttt. practical
Complete understandingof the behavior of concentricallyloadedcolumns, use of thi term 'bucklingis that it is the boundarybetweenstableand unstable
however, was not achieved until 1946 r*'hen shanley deflectionsof a compressionmember,rather than the instantaneouscondition
16.4:6.51offered the
explanation that now seem.sobvious. He reasonedthaiit-was actually possible that occurs in the isolatedslenderelasticrod.
for a column to bend and still have inqeasing axial compression.bui tnat it As previously mentibned,for many years theoreticaldeterminationsof
legills to bend upon reaching rvhat is conmonly referred to as the buckling *Jl* strengthdid not agreewith test results.Test resulrsincludedeffectsof
load, which includesi.nelasticeffectsor socreor all fibers of the cross-section. initial crookednei;sof the member, accidentaleccentricityof load, end re-
These inelastic effects are discussedin deait in Sec.6.4. straint, iocal or lateral buckling. and residual stress.A typical cune of
An extensivehistorical revieq' of tbe development
---r---- of column
--'-"* theory
'.:. is observeCstrengths was as shcrvn in Fig. 5.3.1. Design formulas, therefore,
given by B. G. Johnstoa[6.6J. were based on such empirical results. Various straight-line and parabolic
ryE
gatf:!: ' .:. -
#s'.
j-r:*l":'
(
- PARTt: COLUMNS
6 / COI,{PeESSONMEMBERS 6.4 / tNEtASTtCBUCKLING 303
(
,,-,:...
.'.,-.'. (
i.t'
t
la" I
-:--
T "

m
(
':.... -' "E'
:._ 'Fc r = (
,-:.' A KLhr2
;, +
;:-
- J .Section A-A
\
::. I (
n=fm
LL!!JJ-_-T
e = sressat
tangenr
mo<rurus
load(uodeflectedf
(
l n r
lA l-change in rtresr

Figure6.3.'t Typicalrangeof colurnnsrengtbvs slendemess


KLlr
ratio.
h | | Vt
oE. V ldlz1
t ,/t
Y |
l-a-1
I

|
at tangenrmodulus
load (deflected)

e-$ainanEt€a!bucging
\
(
(
(
formulas have been used, as well as otber more complex expressions,in order I (
to fit the curve of test resultsin a reasonablyaccurate,yet practical manner.
As a general approach, Euler elastic buckling governs the strength for
large slendernessratios, yield strengrh p- : F,A. is used for short .olurnnr.
and a transition curye musr be used for ihelasficbuckling.
t\
t-l \
lt"'"" \ _
(
(
(
E,
Loaddeflaction
(
Stresgstrain
6.4' INELASTIC
BUCKLING Figure6.4.1 Engesser
originaltangentmodulus&eory, 1889. I
Since ordinary length columnsbuckle when some of their fibers are inelasric.
having a modulusof elasticitylessdran their initial elasticvalue,rhe logic of Euler'sequationto become (
Engesser,Considdre,and Shanleyis explainedin this section,generallyfollou'-
ozE, (
ing Bleich[6.9, pp. 8-20J. ?
--c': - 4: - (6.4.1)
At (Xt/r), I
where P, is the tangent modulus load.
. Baslc Tangent Modulus Theory (
This theory. holever, still did not agreewith test results, gving cornputed
loads lower than measuredultimate capacities.The principal assumption that (
Euler's theory penained only to situationswherecompressivestressbelorvthe
elastic limit acts uniformly over the uToSS-S€ction when unstableequilibrium caused this tangent modulus theory to be considered erroneous is that as the
occurs.Engesser[6.3] and Considdre[62] were the first to utili2e thJ possibil- member changesfrom a straight to bent form, no strein reversal takes place.
In 1895 Engesserchanged his theory, reasoning that during bending some (
ity of a variable modulus of elasticig. In EngesseCstangent modulus theor,r
the column remains straight up to the instant of failure and the modulusof fibers undergo increasedstrain (lowered tangent modulus) and some fibers are (
elasticity at failure is the tangent to the stress-straincun'e. The relationships unloaded (higher modulus at the reduced strain); therefore a combined value
should be used for the modulus. (
are shown in Fig. 6.4.1. The theory prescribed that at a certaiq suess.
: P^",/Ar,.themember could acquirean unstabledeflected
S, shapeand thar (
the deformation at 4, is governedby E, - df/dc. Thus Engessirmodified Double ModulusTheory
(
. To examinethe processof columnbendingat stresscsbeyondthe elasticlimig,
considerthe sectionof Fig 6.4.2from which Engessedsdouble modutus,or
'Scctions so markec "reduced" modulus, is dcvelopcd
lsay b. omitted rvithotrt loss of contiauity.
;r,- Thry concept had logic to it which was (
(
r
- (
,'(
6/ COMPRESSION - PARTt: COLUMNS
METJAERS BUCKLING
6.4/ TNELASTIC
(
(
and at thc loadcd fiber.
( Symmetrical
In planeof bending Ad:d, E,
. : - - (6.4.3)
\ ,a l(m:tt,
. .

Axis of zero strain due to u) z - Icz


( flexure, in an arbitrary
dellected posilion under A,dz
(
unstable equilbrium :d0 ( 6. 4. 4)
Loading fibers 4
(
Thus
( d0 d0
| -- r tr'tZ
) : E,dt (6.4.5)
./2(mar) | /tt,nt l
{ d- dt

( For small curvature,


Unloaclingfibers
( 1 M d0 d'y
( 6. 4. 6)
(
Figure6.4.2 Stressdistriburioail conditionof unstableeqrriri!6u* (doublemodulus
M:il:E:E
( thcory).
where E, : Engesser'sdouble modulus.
(
generally accepted but gave co{nputed strengthshigher than test values.Not The internal resistingmoment for the stresscondition of Fig. 6.4.2 g;ves
(
until Shanley's explanation *'as the inconsistencyresolved.
( At unstable equilibrium, the stressat the neutral axis (section1-l of Fig. M - - p y : I i ' t , t / r - 6 )M r I I i t ' t ) ' 2 + 6 ) d A , ( a . q - t )
( 6.4.2) remains as it was prior to the deflection 6 occurring.On the loading
fibers where strain is increasing, the stress increaseis proportional to E, : and from linear stressdistribution and Eq- 6-4-5,
( df/de , whereas oa the rrnls3ding fibers the decreasein itrain relieves the
(' elasticpart cf &e strain; tbus the stressdecreaseis proportional to the elastic
modulus ^8. '-..,-:. u,or#+,
fr=jfu^*,ft:
( As show:nin F€" 6.4-3, the strain on the cross-sectionwill be linear. At the'. (6.4.8)
extreme unloaded fiber, applying Hooke's Law the stressbecomes
(
Adz
f z : f z < ^ ^ rtfo; :r # t
( '.
fu'ar1 : (unitstrain)E: ]P (6.4.2)
ctz
( Thus Eq.6.4.7 becomes

( 6t rd. dzy
-py: E,# . s)dAz $ls)
!o'rr(rr-'6)da, u# I:'vr(vr+
(
(
I
'l
r"--l--" Force eqriitiU*.rmrequires
( (6.4.10)
('t'dAr:Il'n*,
(
which, using Eq.F.4.8,gives
(
( ^ d'y fa, ,. -d'Y 'ndA,
fdz
4A; J-rtd,4r:Ei J
(6.4.11)
( Figure 6.4.3 An elenent & along the axis of the column in the unstable equilibrium
( position. Using Eq. 6.4.11,it is seenthe termsinvolving 6 canceleachother in Eq. 6-4-g.
,'(
!::fi:
e"iiF
' *r*. 307
6.s/RESTDUALSTRESS (
306 - PAFTT
6,/ CO}$PMS$ON MEMBERS I: COLUMNS
(.'
decreaiing strain; thus P is incrlased by an amount dP (point B of Fig. (
thus giving
6.4.4a):As each incremen_t of curvature iakes place P will furthdr increaseas
d2y ,a, >
long as dC dT.T'Ite increased compressiveforce dC iscomputed using the (
- Py= E,?; ,d'y tt
('rlilt* E# fi'r:*, tang.nt modulus, E,, while in the region of strain reversalthe elastic modulus' (
E, is used to compute dT.The double modulus theory, which similarly treated
loading and unloading fiben, did not acc€pt dC > dT, but rather only (
ilt * r fafi*,7*P]': o
#fe,fi'fi
a:- 10
(6.4.12) consideredequilibrium positions near the perfectly straight one. (
L For practical purposesthe increaseof capacity from P, to P, (Fig. 6.4-aa)
can be n-eglectedfor design use. Therefore the tangent modulus load may be (
l-rluation 6.4.12 is obviously of the same form as &e eiastic buckling
treated as the critical load, Le., the load at which bending begins. ( ,
cquadon, f4.6.2.3. Thus for tbe double modulus theory,
(
P,,:ilt,("\il, +efo'fidA,l (6.4.r3) 6.5 RESIDUALSTRESS (
Residual stresses€lrestressesthat remain in a member after it has been-iormed \
Shanlay Concept - True Column Behavlor into a finished product. Such stressesresult from4lastic deformations, which
(
in structural stJel may result from several sources:(1) uneven cooling which
To undersulrrdthe actual behaviorof a column as.explainedby Shanley[6.aJ '-
occurs after hot r_ollingof stmctural shapes; (2) cold bending or cambering (
in 1946, consider the rectangular section of Fig. 6.4.4 subjected to axial -
during fabrication;-(3) punching of holes and cutting operatioas during
compression.For loads below the tangent modulus load {, the ideal column " fabrication; and (4) welding. Under ordinary conditions thoseresidual stresses (
remains pcrfcctly straight with zero deflection (point A af Fig. 6.4.4a).The
resulting from uneven cooling and welding are the most important- Actually (
load P, at point A may most coirectly be defined as follows [6.10J:"The
the important residual stressesdue to *'elding are really the result of uneven
tangent moduh.lsload is the smallestvalue of axial load at which bifurcation (
cooling.
of the eqrrilibrium positions c:tn occnr regardlessof *hether or not the
Tf,e mechanism of residual stressdue to uneven cooling is treated in the ( :
transitioa to tbe bent position requires an increase of axial load." Consider
WetdingHandbo.ok12.22,Chap. ?l and the effect of residual stresson compres-
that at onset of bending (infinitesimalsurvsture) there will be an infinitesimal (
sion structural members appears in the Guide to Stability Design Criteria for
increase in adal strain and stress A/r. By the time the curvature becomes
Metal Structures[6.8, PP. 33-451, prepared by the Structural Stability Re' (
finite, i.e., the point N movesto ,\, some strain reversal must occur if the
searchCouncil. This latier publication wiU be'extensivelyreferred to as the
column cross-sectionis to developa resistingmoment to maintain equilibrium (
with the momeot due to the external load P6. For small but finite valuesof ttT
f;$:i."ge or H-shaped sections, after hot rolling, the flanges, being (
cun'ature lb.eincrement of load representedby stresson the area of increasing
the thicker parta, cool more slowly than the web region. Furthermore the
strain exceeds the increment of load represeatedby stress on the area of
flange tips hiving greaterexposureto the air cool more rapidly than the region (
at tf,e junction of flaoge to web. Consequently, compressive_ residual stress
(the that cool fastest). (
exists .t fl"ug" tips and at mid-depth of the web regions '
I, ot'\- while tensile residual stress exists in the flange and the web at the regions
where they join. Figure 6.5.1 shows typical residual'stressdistribution on
(

't''E
t (
rolled beams. Considerablevariation can be expectedas the true pattern u-iil

,-il be a function of the dimensionsof the section.


At this point one migbt wonder whether the general column strength
equation (gq. e.:.t) discussedin the precerling section still is applicable-The
thiory is applicable but all fibers in tbe cross-sectioncannot be consideredas
(
(
(
[ i r iirdss;d tb the samelevel under tbe action of the compressiveserviceload- The (.'

{r)
I'
(b} (c)
. tangent modulus E,,on one fiber is-not the same as that on an-adjacentfiber-
In a rolled stil'shape the intluence of residual stress on the stress-strais -
curve is shown in Fig. 6.5.?- using avcrage suess on the-gross area as thc
( ,

iordinate. It is noted that residual suess in an elastic-plasdcnnaterialsuch a-s (


Figure 6.4.4 Sh"aley concept-truc 66trrmn bebavior.
( :

__.(

. t
6/COMPRE$SION MEMBERS-PA.BT t: COLUMNS 303

pression (-)
I
sai,35 ksi
t ( 2a0 [4Pa]
Tension (+) ..ension

saY20 ksi
Weldedrf (f i0 l'lPa) llelded box
coaiPression
Figure6.5.1 Tlpical
Figure6.5.3 Tlpical rcsidualstressdistributionin rveldedsbapes.

steel gives the same effect as that obtained for a material such as aluminum, stress
WelCingof built-upshapesis an evengreatercoiitributorto resiclual
which is not perfectly elastic, when'it contains no residual stress.Thus,
than coolingof hot-rolledH-shapes[6.13].The platesthemselves generallv
assumingttre tangent modulus concept applies, column stiength may be said
have little residualstressinitially becauseof relativell'uniform cooling aftcr
to be based on inelastic buckling becausethe averagestresi-strair cun.e is
rolling. Horvever.after the heat is applied to malie the welds.the subsequent
nonlinear when maximum column strengthis reached.
nonuniformcoolingand restraintagainstdistortioncausehigh residualstresses.
Whereasil, was once believedthe nonlinear portion of the averagestress-
Figure 6.5.3 shorvstypical residual stresspatterns on welded H and box
strain curve for axially loaded compressionmemberswas due endrelylo initial
built-up shapes.
curvature and accidental eccentricity,Huber and Beedle[6.1lJ have verified
Oire should note that compressiveresidualstressestvpicalll' occurringat
that residual stressis the primary causeand the other factorshave a relatively
flange tips are higher in welded than in rolled H-shapcdsections.Thus the
minor effect. Residual stressesat flange tips of rolled shapes have been rolicd
columnstrengthof suchrveldedshapeswill be lorverthan corresponding
qreasuredas high as 20 ksi (138 Mpa), a hi'gh percenrageof th, minimum
shapes.On the otherhand,the rveided-boxshape,ha'''ingtensileresidualstress
specified yield stress for steelssuch as A36. Residual strissesare esr.ntiuiiv
in the cornerregionsthat contributemost to the stiffnessas a column,t'ill be
independent of yield stress,depeirdinginstead on cross-sectionald.imension-s" ratio. Shernran16.14,
strongerthan a rolled shapehaving the sameslenderness
and configuration since those factors govern cooling rates
[6.12J. 6.i5] has studiedri:sidualstresses on rolled tubular nrembers.
( Having acceptedthat residual stressesexist, such information must be
used to obtain a column strengthcurve (averagestres.svs slenderncss ratio)
( earll;1950s.column design rvas
that can form the basisfor design. Until the
( basedon many formulas, all of which tried to empiricallyaccount for column

(
(
(
qlq

g,

FD
s behaviorexhibitedby tests.By clearlyindicatingtliai the tangentmodulusrvas
the proper criterion for strengthand by identifying the role of residualstress,
the Colutnn-ResearchCouncil (noiv Structural Stability ResearchCouncil
16.81)has made a significantcontribution.

(
(
|i{embers with
residual stress TT 2 3 INCLUDING STRESS
RESIDUAL
CURVES
OF COLUMNSTRENGTH
6.6* DEVELOPMENT

( Averagecompressivestrain
€ Shaded portion indicates
erea which has achieveda The following anal,vticalapproach,patternedafter Huber and Beedle[6.11]
( stress
- - - ' f
f
and Beedleand Tall [6.16],is intended to shorvthe logic to obtain a column
( Figure 6.5.2 Influence of residual stresson average stress-straincurve. strengthequarion.Column strengthcan be obtainedb1' tn'o generaimethods.
, (
310 MEMBERS_ PART I: COLUMNS
6,/ CCI..4PRESSION STRESS
6 6 / COLUMNSTRENGTHCUFVESINCLUDINGRESTDUAL 311 (
( t
(
r--'
I

One method is to usethe residualstressdistribution,either the actualvariarion :.


from measurementsor a matbematicalmodel, along with the stress-strain -:'- - l Axis of zero ruain due to bending
(asgmed to coincide with center of (
relationship for the maserial(say a smalt'test specimenof the steel). garity for infinit*imal bendingl
The other method is to determineexperimentally an averagestress-strain
..--. 5ott5= Erxd
0 = slrain sngla
(r
rclationshiph."-testingshort lengthsof rolled shapescontainingresidualstres.s. Oistanceto
( ,
extreme fiber
Column strength can then be determined from the test results using rhe
rangentmodulusof the experimentalcurve in combinationwith the appropri- (;
Figure 6.6.2 Stresson fiber at distance x from axis of zero strain due to bending.
ate slendernessratio. Knowledge of the residual stresspattern is not used in
*. ('
this secondapproach.
Yu and Tall [6.171have discussedthese approachesin detail. Johnsron (
From elementary bending theory, the radius of crrrvature is
[6.18] and Battermanand Johnston[6.19f bave treated the tangentmodulus -=-,
'a--

I (
applicationto inelasticbuckling of columns.
The following developmentis made with the objective of obtaining a
R:6 (
relationship between averageexternally applied stress and the slenderness -.
ratio. Thus the capacityof a membercan be obtainedby a simple multiplica- ij
I M M (
ion of safe stresstimes grossarea, without regard to what the actual stressis
o-i,: equivalent Ef
:=-
E'l
(6.6.3)
1 . , .Y ' t
at any point in the cross-sectionor what is tbe true fesidual stresspattern.
As a starting point consider steel which as a material is perfectly elastic Thql (
until a certain strain e.,,is achievedand then is plastic (i.e., constantstresswith _ . '. (
increasingstrain).A coupon cut from the web of a rolled shapeexhibitssuch .-' E' r:+:!n',*'* (
behavior,as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 6.6.1.The solid lines indicate the
behavior of an H-shapedrolled sectioniocluding residual stress.
To account for the effectsof early yielding due to residual stress,consider
-- E'- +l^r,,'* ( 6. 6. 4)
( :
(
one fiber at a distance x from the axis of zero strain due to bending (Fig. -:'
6.6.2\. The bending is taken as an infinitesimal amount consistent with
which may be called the effectiuemodulus and used in Eq- 6.4.1 as an (
equilibrium at the tangent modulusload. The bending moment contribution
equivalentvalue for 8,. (
from stresson the one fiber is
If the idealizedelastic-plastic.f* curve of Fig. 6.6.1a(dotted) is used (for
: Fr, E, : 0) the bending stiffnessof yielded parts (
d,V : (stress)(area)(moment
arm) : (0E,x)(ae)(r'l (6.6.1) f . F,. E, = E and for f
becomeszero: however, the iuskting strength will be the same as a column
which for the entire cross-sectionbecomes (
whosemomentof inertia, .[., is &e moment of inertia of the portion remaining
elastic.Equation 6.6.4then becomes I {
u : t^oe,xz
dA: of^E,x2dr4 (6.6.21
E t - I. (
E , : 7 [rl , r d , q : E ,+ (6.6.5)
f,Z E,
r (clastic part only) (
'.c ' =
a -

IKL/rl2
The stressat which the columq may begin to bend, from Eq. 6.3.1,is (
F
6

E
' J

Euler
(
-2t (6.6.6)
q,

g F e
'., = 713 (
r-7,
(
(6.6.?) (
€, Strain € KL/r
{l} (t,) (c) (,-
Figure 6 6.1 Comparisonof coupon *itb H-shaped rolled section containing residual In order for Eq. 6.6.?to be'uscful, the relationship between f and f' must be (
stress. established.
(
(
(
(
, ( +
312 G/COMPRESS|ON
MEMBERS-PART
t: COLUMNS i l
.f
1 6.6 / COLUMNSTRENGTHCURVESINCLUDINGRESIDUALSTRESS 313
( "
.
t
l

( I
..r
Case A. Buckllng about Weak Axls e
Case B. BucklingaboutStrongAiis
t
A reasonableassumptionr';ill be that the flangesbecomefully plasticbcfore Again. assunringrhc *'eb is clast.ic,but neglectingits contribution tot'erd thc
( the rvcb yields (seeFig. 6.6.3). moment of incrtia gii'cs approrirnatcly

( Let /c : proportion of the flangeremainingclastic: 2xJb : .4o/A 1 "(,J//2)-_


EI: = EL'l : Ek (6.6.13)
( I 2At(d/2)"
Then Eq. 6.6.5becomes
(
If the elastics'eb is included,
( (#) : uo,
E+:ut,(?:)' t6.6.8)
-lu - -fzu,(dt/a) + t*d37tzl (6.6.i1)
( "
- j
"L :
n l J I

I z A t ( a ' / q+) t * d 3 / 1l2


( if the rveb is neglectedin computing I. Apply'ing'the tangent nrodulus
+ A"./31
(
definition,
: n-ll2ke,
*. e"7t (6.6.15)

( E,:
nominalincrementalstress dP/A
:M:;
A"E
(6.6.9)
l
Using tangentmodulusdefinitionand Eq. 6.6.10,
( ' - E

(
E,A : ArE : (,q* * zkAl) E (6.6.10)
Z M r : +- A *
(
which, upon eliminatingthe zkAt term from Eq. 6.6.15,gives
( n'here An: web area - 2,4"/ll,
A7 = grossarea of one flange -F I : : l r , , q /e (6.6.16)
(
,{ : total gross area of section r L zer+A*/3 l-
( Thus
SolvingEq. 6.6.10for k and using Eq. 6.6.8in Eq. 6.6.7gives
*2Ek
( An Fn: (6.6.17)
r: !'A - ( 6 . 6 . 1)i. ( KL/ r f
( ,ul, 2Ar
( is the approximateequationusing Eq. 6.6.11for k, or mole exactlyusingEq'

(
(
:F.,:#:#l#-+)' (6.6J2)
6.6.16in Eq. 6.6.7gives

'c'
r
nzE ln,,e7r-2A"./31
r

(KL/r)zI zet + A*,/3 I


l (6.6.18)

( which includes the effect of the elastic web, for buckling with respectto the
weak axis (y-y). for buckling with respectto the strong axis (x-x).
( From lhr fot.going developmentit is apparent that two equationsare
necessaryto'properly determinecolumn strengthof l-shapedsections,,one for
(
strong-axisbuckiing-and one for weak-axisbuckling. Although the valueI"/l
( is noi itself a function of the residual stressdistribution provided that it
( satisfiesthe generalgeometricrequirementas shown in Fig. 6.6.3;neverthe-
less,the critiial stress{r, computedas the buckling load divided by the gross
( area,has a relatiOnshipwith KL/r that doesdependon residualstress-
( Note that if the jtress-straincurve for the materialis not elastic-plastic,
Figure 6.6.3 Portion of section tbat has i.e.,if E, is neitherE nor zero,then the more generalequation,Eq. 6.6.4,must
{ Yielded flange tips y'ielded. be usedinsteadof Eq. 6.6.5.

, (
(
INI-L\IL'I1r\7 faLsrvv'rL
STRENGT|I fluHvbb
6.6 / coLUMN
Fa
l: COLUMNS
MEMBEBS-PART
6/C0MPRESS[Oil
314
.1

r EXAMPLE 6.6.I O *td Fy


j
E s t a b l i s h t h e c o l u m n s r r e n g t h c u r v e ( F . T K L / r ) f o r w e a kksi
a x i s(690
b u c !\ll'at
klingtll ? zr"
a yietd stress of 100
;;'ti-rrr"nea ,..tion of ieet havlng
-q 't
in a coupon test (Fig' 6'6'ab)' antl s
exhibiring perfect elastic-plasticstrength d,

in Fig' 6'6'4a' Neglcet


;;;;; d. u.ry ,i*ptined residualstresspattern shown
the contribudon of the web'

Slenderne:oratio. KUr
SOI.(.J T I O I J
fiber is the same' Until a fibcr for Example6'6'1'
For any exrernalload the strain on every Figure6.6'5 Columnstrengthcurve
yield, the applied load is
,.o.h., the strain e, at first
p: Iyae-1e
J 11- WhenFrr:P/A>zF,/3'theflangetipshaveyielded'makingf'lessthan
I; thus '
After a portion has becomeplastic,the applied
load is r. (u/z\' 1
p - ( A - A , ) r r I* ^ ! * 7:T:E
(t"/t\ -
2F, trze "u
entire section remainselastic'
F*:T - ,
stKL/r\z
tn rhis problem for fl : P/A s2Fy/3 the @
and I,: /; thus'
E,: E,in which caseE'is EIr/l
KL
"E : zl.z (point2, Fig.6.6.5)
t r :- 2 0 '
'"' - =
I (xt1r\z
F,.
greaterthan 2F,'/3.When F",: P/A:
for averagestressinfinitesimally
KL __ F'(-ooo) : 65.4 (point 1, Fig. 6'6'5) nzE
r I ---
r V (2/3x1oo) F"r:Fr:
WtE

Y : $.g (point3, Fig.'0.0.:;


r---11--
rl
tdealelastic-plastic
areshorvnin Fig.6.6.5.If therehad
rl
p
whenthe totarload : Fya.Thcresults
'r
{
_.-Neglect F = 29,00Oksi
effect
:
beenno residualstressat fcr r,'
(200,000MPal
.l of web
l i E

I : g.5 (point4, Fig.6.6.5)

Ff!3
r EXAMPLE 6.6.2 morereelistic lineardistribution of
.+ ;r:,ffiilft".:ffin for.the
curve
srrength rn H-shaped
nf an
Fr13
+ buckrinsor
:',',1Hii..l:Jil:HiJ;#;s. i""'rl1'
- -r- ^-.:- L..^Lliic H-qhened
@-*'s
Mrt^\ and
r'ap"r /lr\ F,:
^-l (b) ksi (6e0
l(Yl ksi
F : 100 {690
i a r R..srdutl<trcssPrltettl (b) Coupon slrcssdraln
+ :::',ffi';[ffi::ilild;;: rzso iJr.'
diagnm

- =;=- urp"l Neglect
' t
lYr r ar. the effect of tbe web'
.A
+t
Figure6.6.4 Data for Branplc 6.6.1. *!

.::
3-
___*J
(
(
, ( q
. 6/coMpREsstON MEMBERS-eARTt: GoLUMNS .1F
316 6.6/COLUi,'1N STnENGTHCUFVESTNCLUDING
RESiDUALSTRESS
' i' l, 317
( ,
( Assumeno r:-r 'l
t, F
residualstress II
' .
y 1 v

( in rherveb . P r-----l
_|l Fyi3 t t

ldeal elasric.plastic t l
( fl
6 = 29,0@ ksi
\d:a
!---l
! -

|_
t-- {
\-'F{

( \ t--1

f\ E = x
7
tsl--l

( E t_a
H

A El _!_-_.{

Fr/3 t9
( Veries.
il
'.r I licsidualstresspJttcrn -. JL- dependrng
( tb) Coupon strcss-straind::gram (a) ElasllC CaSC on f
f <2Fyi3
Frguie6.6.6 Datafor F-:cample
6.6.2.
( | + Fy.'3

( t -2FY/3
( SOLUTION
For an averagesuperimposedstressf - P/A S 2F,/3 the entire section 2F/i3
(- remainselastic(Fig. 6.6.7a):thereforeE, : E, and
(
(
tr r
-c
2F..
3
:rlE
Q-|,.trNH
(KL /r)2 - " 1 lL---J I
2,,!
(
For an averagestressdue to applied load greater than zFy/3, part of the
- l rN
-ll H
( cross-sectionis plasticand part elastic,as in Fig. 6.6.Tb.Duriirg this stage,the
( changein srressis not the santeon all fibers, becausethe modulusof elasticityis
not the sameon all fibers.
(
nzEI"Tl (b) Elasto-plastic case
( ,Fr r : @ f > 2Fv13

( / = superimposed elasticlibers
stress,on

( ' Figure 6.6.7 Stress distribution with linear residual stress.


I:
_ 2(t/rz)(2x)tt : 8ri
( I 2(r/12)b3t 6t
triangleson the dotted triangleof Fig. 6.6.7b,
(
neglectingthe effectof the rveb, f-2F,/3
( _2F,,/3
b/2
( F*:-@F
Bn2E(xo/b\3
(u) (; +),
(
(
(
which gives {, as a function of two variables,xo/b and KL/r. An additional
relationship is required.The total load during the elasto-plasticstage can be
Solving foi /1

['-+]? (')
expressed UsingEq.(c) to elimina
," , {rJ^ Eq. (b) gives

+)(:-?)"J
(
( P"r: zfro,-,(:Xr- (b)
P n : z a-' {+[)r? - +]{}3))
[('-?)?
( _
which is the shadedarea of the stressdiagram in Fig. 6.6.7b.From sirnilar
r't

: A,F,['-;(+)'] ( d)
(
I

|
(,
-
a
\
318 6l COMPRES$ON - PAFITl: COLUMNS
MEMBERS 6.7/SSRC STRENGTH
CURVES 319

Thus If the rveb of the sectionwereto be included, I"/I could easilyinclude the

F-:4
P
-q['-i(?)'l (eI
web terms. Furthermore, Eq. (b) could also have included the web terms. Such
inclusion of the effect of the web bringi in the variable A*/At and in most
i
(,
casesthe effect is small.
l*;.-- Finaily, curves similar to thoseof Fig. 6.6.8 can be obtained by using an (,
#' -:
*'hich is used in combination with Eq.(a). Tbe results afe presentedin Fig. ;f average stress-strain curve for a short length of rolled shape as referred to
6.6.8. +. earlier in this section,in which caseEqs. 6.6.12and 6.6.18can be usedwith the (
#- E, obtained from the "cross-section"stress-straincurve. I (
::tt*-
.* {
Fo Fo
6.7 STRUCTURALSTABILITYRESEARCHCOUNCIL(SSRC))
for for STRENGTHCURVES I
: 36ksi : 100ksi KL
+
D
F", {"
(ksi)
Fy
(ksi) r
l.

Parabollc Equaton - BaslE tor Allowable Stress Deslgn t.

0.50 0.664, 24.0 t09.2 69.7 65.4 Based upon the methods distussedin Sec.6.6, column srength curyes can be
0.45 0.73 26.3 89.0 73.0 s3.4 ..obtained for weak- or strosg-axis buckling with various distributions of
0.?87 28.3 72.0 78.7 43.7 (,
0.40 rgsidual stress. For most prqctical situations it has been reported that an
0.35 0.837 30.2 57.0 83.7 34.2 assuired linear distribution of residual stress in the flanges results in a (
0.30 0.880 1t.7 4.1 88.0 26.s reasonableaveragecolumn curve [6.20].Furthermore,the developmentin'the
0.25 0.917 33.0 32.9 91.7 19.7 previous section (Eqs. 6.6.12and 6.6.17)showsthat for the same slenderness
0.20 0.947 34.1 23.2 94.7 13.9 ratio, H-shaped column sectionsallowed to bend in the weak direction can /
0.10 0.987 35.5 8.0 98.7 4.8 carry less load than columns permitted to bend only in the strong direction.
Compressiveresidual stresswhich is greatestat the flange tips accounts for
this strength difference. t

Typical column strength curves for parabolic and linear distribution of


residual stressacrossthe flangeare shown in Fig. 6.7.1.For structural carbon
steelsthe averagevalueof the rnarimum compressiveresidualstressis l2 to l3 I

ksi (83 to 90 MPa), correspondingroughly to 0.3^{,. For the high-strength


steelsresidual stresswill generaltybe a lower fractiori of the yield stress. I

Since 1960,structural steeldesignaccordingtorthe AISC Allowable Stress ({


Design Specifications has used the SSRC parabolic equation based on the one .
I
proposedby Bleich [6.9J.The SSRCparabolic curve is
.!€
il

; 5 0
r",:4['-
#(+)'J (6.7.1)
(
(

Equation 6.7.1is comparedin Fig. 6.7.1with other curvesthat distinguish


Include residual strcs, between residual stresspatten$ and axe.sof bending. The SSRC curve gives (
F, = 36 ksi fairly good agreementwith the weak axis curve for H-shaped sections,particu-
larly when it" is noted that parabolic residual stressis more representativeof \
the actual situation than linear residual stress. (
From Fig. 6.7.f one may note that to provide the samedegreeof safety for
KL,/r {Weak-axF rlendcrncrs ratio} (
all columns, diffeient strength curves would be required depending on rhe
Frgure6.6.8 Column strength clrwesshowing effcct of residual stress( E = 29,000ksi)' expected residual suessdistribution, the shapeof the section, and the axis of ('
Solution for Example 6.6.2. bending when the column buckles"
{

I.
(
\ (
6/COMPRESSIONMEMBERS
- PARTt: COLUTTNS
6.7 / SSACSTREI.iGTH
CURVES 321
(
(
Note that l" :
( : 4 when the parabola and the Euter hy'perbollit'ccoin,-.
tangentto eachother.Thus 4.6.7.4 appliesfor ,\. s,tI; fcr greatcrvalucs
( of tr., the Euler equationapplies,

( F n 1
r i for tr. > r'J ( 6 . 7 . 5)
tv A;
(
(
strength Equatlon - Basls lor Load and Reststance Factor Deslgn
( The parabolicequation,Eq. 6.7.4.providesa reasonableapproximationfor r,
(2) Weak axis.
( parabolic column strengthcun'e that prouidesa transitionbetu'eenelast;cbuckl:ngand
residualsiress
vielding,reflectingessentiallythe effect of residualstress.Traditronalil',ecci-
( dental eccentricity and initial crookednesswere accountedfor by using an
( increasedsafety factor as the slendernessincreased.Load and resistancefactor
designphilosophy providesfor a constantmargin of safety for all columns. If
( the strengthtruly varieswith slenderness, then the nominal strcngth P, shoulci
( account for it.

(
(
( o.5 1.0
Slenderness
lunction.l"
(
-: L R F D ,E q .6 . 7 . 7
( '
A , :
'.t
- l i -
'

r \ ;,E
h f

( Figure 6.7.1 Colunrn strengtbcurvesfor A S D ,E q . 6 . 7 . 9


sectionshaving
e compressj-b€.
( residualstressat flangetips.(Adaptedfrom _H-shaped
Ref.6.20,p. 39)
t i m e s1 . 6 7
-o 2 5 c-
I
( . 9

Note is made that Fig. 6.7.1introducesthe slendernessfunction .1,.,rvhich


( has beenadopted as the slenderness
3 2 0 u;
a/,
paramerer(insteadof KL/r)uy me AISC o
tlt
( Load and ResistanceFactor Design Specification.The slendernes,purur.t., -(!t L R F D .E q . 6 . 7 . 8
tr. is definedas .= 15 '=
( o O

4 F..
( tr2-
--c = (6.7.:)
A S D .E q . 6 . 7 . 1 0
times1.67
.Qr(Euler)
( I r'r
l - - l
\
( \ {xrt,)' I
( tr.:g
r
t| [ ,it-L
T (6.7.-1)
(
In terms of the slenderness
parameter1", the ssRC parabola becomes 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
(
Slenderness?alio,KL/ |
4, , 12.
( t - -
for 1,.s ,/T (0.r.+; Figure 6.7.2 Comparisoa of columa critical stress .[, for using LRFD Eqs. 6.7.7 ard
F r ' 4
( 6.7.8 witb 1.67 tirnes ASD Eqs. 6.?.9 and 6.7.10, for {, : 36 ksi.
U
s.5itar,

a
_9trigl-

322 - PAf;f l: COi-UI"{NS


MEMBERS
6 / COMPRESSICN :Fl:' CURVES
6.7/SSRCSTFENGTH 323
(
-:-
Bjorhovde,as reportedin the SSRC Guide [6.8], showedthat threecolumn ness increasesbecauseof initial out-of-straightness. The actual srength im'
strengthcurveswould be sufficieatto approximatethe strengthfor all practi- plied by Eq. 6.7.9 is that equationmultiplied by' 1.6? (the nominal factor of
cat shapes.Theseare referredto as SSRC Curves l, 2, and 3 and the details safety). Figure 6.7.2 compares 1.67F,using Eqs.6.7.9 and 6.?.10with {, using
are to be found in the SSRC Guide [6.8, pp. 59-621. Eqs.6.7.7 and 6.7.8.
ln the developmentof the load and resistanc€factor designspecificarion. The long column equation,Eq.6.7.10.is basicallythe Euler equation.For
the AISC SpecificationCommitteedecided to continue using only one column consistencywith traditionaldesign,the d of Eq. 6.7.10is multipliedby 1.67to
srrcngthcurve for steeldesign.An equation was establishedto fit closelythc obtain an expressionfor {, for long columns. Since Eq. 6.7-10is the Euler I
SSRC Curve 2 modified to reflect an initial out-of-straightnessof abour equarion divided by 1.92, multiplying b-v 1.67 givesthe Euler equation times
t/1 5 00. - ' (i.Ol /t 92). or 0.87 times the Euler equation.This gives essentially_ the long
The nominal strength P, of.rolled shapecompressionmembersis given hv column nominal buckling stress .Q, equation. Eq. 6.7.8, used in load and
ResistanceFactor Design.
Po: ArFo (6.7.6)
The establishment of an acceptablestugle equation of the critical stress Fo
t. For tr. < 1.5, has been the subject of somecontroversysince,as has been shown, the shape
of the cross-sectionand the method of manufacture(i.e.. hot-rolling or
Fn: (o.osarl;
r (6.7.7) welding) influence the strength..Furthermore.residual stress and out'of-
2. For l. > 1.5, straightnessare significant influencing parametersbul are not quantifiable.
..Anoiher major factor affectingcolumn strengthis end restraint.particularly in
I o.szz
I situations where the joints are not rigid; Bjorhovde [6.2U has provided
F.': ( 6 . 7 . )8
[*.-.|q exierisive rreatment relating to practical design situadons. Bjorhovde [6.22;
6;231also has reviewedthe entire subjectin the context of load and resistance
The reader may observein Fig. 6.?.2 the gomparisonbetweenthe ncs' factor design.
cun'es. Eqs. 6.?.7 and 6.7.8, and the strength .Q obtained by increasingthc More recently.Hall [6.24]hascompared<iatafrom physicaltestsand has
traditional allowablestressequationbv a factor of 1.67. In allowablestress l.- presentedstatisticallydevelopedexpressions for {.,. Though the actual AISC
design.ASD-E2 givesthe allowableaxial compressionstress4 as LRFD equationsare not referredto by Hall. Fig. 6.7.3is presentedhere to
KL
l. For- 1C",
f -
I A

l, - !rtt:t'1,
2C,'J' 1.4
' cr

T
L R F D f o r m u i a { € 2 - 2 )o r ( 8 2 - 3 )

Fo:
L (67.e)
5 3(KL/r) (KL/r)t 1.2
- + _ !

3 EC. 8C"' E': r.0


.
2. For
KL
;>
C,,
tt-
\
r{" o.g
I
*t
l2r2E 06
Fo :...'-..'............._^- (6.7.r0)
73(KL7r)' 0.4
\\
where
02
I 2r2E
c": I i
I t
-
n
( 6 . 7 . 1) l
r.8 2.0 2.2 2,1 2.6
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Y t t

The denominator of Eq. 6.7.9 is tbe safety factor that increasesas thr.' lc - Slenderness
Parameler (
slendernessratio increases.Putting part of the strength relationship into thc Figure 6.7.3 Comparison of LRFD equations for {' for columnssi& data from
safetl frctor hides the fact that the nominal strergth decreasesas the slender- physical tests. (Test data from Hdl [6.241)
(
' (
324 6/CorvrpREssroNMErviBEFS
-- pAsTI COrur"lf,JS
( 6 B / ' L O A D A N D R E S I S T A N CFEA C T O RD E S I G N 325

(
comparethe erperimenrar data[6.r4J*.irh thc LRFD cquarionfor
( {,. other
reccntproposlls for coltrlttttstrenqthcurvc.strave
hccn gi'en bv ltondal and
( Maqut-ri
[6.:6] and Rorrcr[6.25J. ai rvclias rhc tlrreeSSR(](.un.esl. 2. and 3
neniionedpr*iouslv [6.ti].Lui anclchen
( to.l7Jhavediscrr.rsed thc dcsignot
colum:rs*'ith inrperfcctionsusin_ea bea,;:_..iolunin(seeChap. i:1 approach.
(
Cotumns Having VaryingAxial Load, SteppeC
( Cotumns, and
Tapered Columns
( (L
special tre3lnli'nt is rcquired uhen the axial loacl
varics along the length 400
( and/or the nt.'mberis not prismaticover the cntirecolumn .:
length.The reader - r t

is referred ro Anderson and wood*,ard


( [6.2g] and castiglio'i [6.29] for q)
sir'ppedcolumns.Sh.rivastava i6.30] for coiumnshaving varf ing axial loarl. o
( Seidhu [6'3i] for columnsrvith * int.*r.dirte axial
toacl,unaimopoulos
JVV €
U

[5.32]for taperedbarsundcrsteppedaxialloads. ;
(
( 6.8 LOAD AI{D RESISTAI{CEFACTORDESIGN
(
The_siren-qth
requirementin road and resistancefactor design according
( LRFD-E2 ma1'be stated to
(
+ ,P, > Pu (6.g.1)
( rvhere f. : 0.85 n
o 20 .io 60 80 100 120 140 16c i60 zcn
( P" : nominalstrength: A"F,
c Slendernessratio.KL.,'r
4, : Eqs.6.7.7 ancJ6.7.E
( P, : factoredserviceload (seeSec.1.9) according to Load and
Figure 6.8.1 Critical column stresses F* versus KL/r
( Equations6.7.7 and 6.7.g for Rcsistance Factor Desig!, for various yield stresscs.
{, are appricablein design of ordinary...
( rolled H-shapeds:ction columns;horvever,*h.n
thin-rvalledplate elements
are usedin the cross-section, LRFD-E2 and LRFD-Appendix B provide for
( using a reduced efficiencyof the section. When Since Q : 1 for all rolled H-shapedsections(stanclardW. S, and M
a thin element exhibits shapes),the developmentof the logic behind the use of the Q factor is
instability(local buckling),such an erementdoes
( not carry its proportionate rcsen'edfor Sec.6.i8 in Part II on platebuckling'
shareof the load. This may occurwhen the width/thickneis
ratio iimits tr,' of The critical stress.f, equations,Eqs. 6.7.7 and 6.7.8,are shorvnin Fig.
( LRFD-Table 85.1 are exceeded.
6.8.1 for F,.- 36, 50, 60, 70, and 100 ksi. LRFD Specificationsection
( - _ LRFD Appendix B introducesa reductionfactor e into Eqs. 6.7.Tand rcfcrencesfor axial compressionare givenin Table 6-8-1-
6'7.8 $'hen the width/thickness limitarions of LRFD-Table
85.1 are nor
( satisfied.Thus. rvhenlocarbucklingof one or more prate t -
componentsor the
cross-section may occurprior to achievingthe overallbuckling strength Singly Symmetric Double Angles and Tees
( of the
member.the { in the .Q, equationsbelome,
,[o F,,, giving ror trie criticar Hot.rolled double anglesand tee sectionsusuallybucklein the flexuralmode
( stress4,, the following:
based on KL/r rvith respectto the x- or .).'-axis. However, since the shear
( l. For X;E < 1.5, with the centroid of the section,a
center (see Sec. 8.4) does not coincide
torsional effect is possible.Though the subject of torsion is not treateduntil
( 4r: (0.65g9^' .)0r (6.8.2) "COL-
Chaprer 8, the reader should note that the LRFD Manual tables
2. For x,tfj > 1.5,
( UMNS" giving design axial strength+.P" for doubleangJesand struc'.uraltees
/ 0.877\ include the effect of rhe flexural-torsionalbucklinglimit statein the calcula-
(
4 , : l - ^- -- .l n (6.8.3) tion of {,. Since torsional is
stiffness significantlyrelatedto the cube of the
( \ I' thicknessof the elemerts(flangesand rveb)this effectrviil only be significant
- PARTt: COLUMNS
MEMBERS
6,/ COMPRESSION 6.8/LOAD ANDRESTSTANCE
FACTORDESIGN (',
( t

_AISC SPECIFICATTON
TASLE 6.8.1 AXIAL COMPRESSION REFERENCES The'modified slendernessratio ( KL/r)^ is also dependenton the slip- (
resistanie of the connecdons.LRFD-E4 provides:
Speciticationseclions (
Toprc LRFD[1.1s] ASD[1 sJ l. For snug-tightbolted connections:
(
Local buckling limits for
" noncompact" stctions
Local buckling limi6 f61
85.1 85.1
I KL\
[;,|*=
(+)".t;)' (6.8.4) (
(
"compact" scctioos 85.r 85,1 For weldedconnectorsand f,orfully-tightenedboked connections: (
Slendernesslimits B7 B? g
Braced frarne, delinition C2,.L c2.1 For - < 50, (
ri
c2,.2 c2,.2

(+),.(;
Unbraccd frame, definitioo
e2, (
Ef fcctive lengtb facters C2 I KL\
Column formulas, basic E2 E2 - ro]
\2
(6.8.5) ( t
Built-up members EA v [;)^:
Slcndercompressionelements Appendix85.2 Appendix85.2 a (
Alignnrent chart Comrqentary
C2 .CommentaryC2 For - > 50,
ri ( ,
I KL\ I KL\ (
( 6. 8. 6)
t;l^: t;J. (
on sections having very thin components, such as light-gage sections.Thc
modification of tr. h the d equations to account for flexural-torsional I KL\ (''
where | - I : slenderness ratio of the built-up member acting as a unit
buckling is given in LMD-Appendix 83. \ r l o (for the /-axis in double angle members) ( ,
The compressionmember srergth of built-up sections,such as double
angle members,is also affected by the closenessof fastenersattaching thc : : largest slendernessratio of an individual component (for (
elements together and slip-resistanceof these connections.A double angle ri
the z-axisof a singleanglebf the double angle member) (
compressionchord member of a truss can only behave as a single element
compression member when the two angles are adequatelyattachedto each I KL\ (
other so that rvhenthe flexural buckliqg limit state is reachedtherewill be no
relative axial movement(sheardeformation)of one angle relativeto the other.
[;l- : ratio basedon the connec-
modified (increased)slenderness
tors (for double ang;lemembersthis replacesKL/r based (
on y-axis)
The effects of fastenerspacingand connection tigbtness (slip resistance)have (
been studied by Libove [6.39],Astaneh, Goel, and Hanson [6.40],and Zahn : distancebetweenconnectorsmeasuredalong memberlength
and Haaijer [6.41J.The LRFD-Ea design rules for built-up members are
r, : minimum radius of gyration of individual component (for
discussedin detail by Duan and Chen [6.82] as well as in Ref. 6.41. (
the e-axis of an angle)
The applicarion of the modified slendernessratio to the double angle (
member appliesonly when (KL/r)rexceeds (KL/r),', however,the modified (
Column Strength as Atfected by Connector Spaclng ratio should also be checkedwhen (KL/r), is the larger by only a small
When the controlling buckling mode "involves relative deformation that amount. In effect, the modified value alwaysreplaces the (KL/r), for the (
producesshear forcesin the connectorsbctween individual shapes,"a modi- double angle member. (
iied slendernessrario (KL/r)- is used.For the double angle section,this urll
be the casewhen the controlling flexural buckling occurs in the plane parallel (
Tubular Sectlons
to the outstanding legs (y-aris for LRFD Manual properties).When the !-*:
(
controlling fle.rural buckling limit state is basedon slendernessKL/r in the i_F_. The formulas for F., are applicable for tubular sections.Additional informa-
plane parallel to the back-to-backlegs (x-axis for LRFD Manual properties). r€lE tion on tubular compression members is available in the *'ork of Sherrnan (
the angles will move parallel to each other and the connectorswill not affect [6.14, 6.15,6.331,as well as Snyderand Lee [6.34,6.351,Chen and Ross [6.36J, ( , 1

the compressionstrength. and Ross,Chen, and Tall t6.371.For round columns,seeGalambos[6.381.


(
{
( t
(
(
328 Mntt,Ei:S_ pARi L CoLUr.rfJS
6,z CorrtpRES,s,oN
6 . 9 / E F F E C T i V EL E T i G T H
(
(
Non-Symmetrlcat
Sections In many situationsit is clifficult, or perhapsimpo.ssible,to adcquatcly
(
Non-svrnmctrical secrions,-suchls singrc angles. ancl sp:ciai ri-.rs
.r;ch ar evaluetethe degreeof moment restraint contributed by adjacent menrbers
( crudi[(]rIIrand Z-setions, reciuirespccial co:isiclcrationusing tiie
;:oi-isicns .rf framing into a colunrn,by a footins and soil under it. arr.i ii,C:c'.iilre i'i:li
LRFD-Appenr'lix E. The strength of douhlc anglc srruis ancj o::-:r
buii:-up interrction of all menrbcrsof a steclframc.
( sct'tions connectcd intermittcntlv b5' fastcncrs is affected by,,such Whetheror not thc degreeof end restraintcan be ascertainciia:curatelr',
f;sie;rer
( spacin-l as discusscd ebove. the designermust undcrstand tl':e concepts of bracedfranre and, unbruccd
Thc extensivc ireatmcnt of non-s)'mmetricalseciions i.s outsiCe rhe scope franrc.A nroreextensivetreatmentof framesis given in Chap. 14.
( of this rc.{r. The reader is rcfcrred to Kennedy and }furry
it.42.6.43j,
( \\'t'rolcockand Kiripornchai t6.441.El-Ta.,,cmand Gcel
t6.4j. s.+s;. Chuenmei Braced Frame
lf,.-171.and Srnith [6.a8]. For the desi,enof single-anglemembsr-s.i:e reaCer is
( Itlso rcferred to Specificatiott ior Aliowable Srress Desi;n r,f S:rgle-Angle A bracedfrarre. accordingto LRFD-C2.I, is one in which "laleral stability is
IlttnDcrs [6.S3]. The LRFD Specification adcquatell' trears s.:c: secrions: providedby diagonalbracing,shearwalls or equivalentmeans."The vertical
(
thus. iro special ruies are needed. bracing systemmust be "adequate, as determinep by structural analysis,to
( prevent buckling of the structureand maintain the lateral stability of the
structure,including overturning effectsof drift, under the effects of factored
(
6.9 EFFECTIVELENGTH loads. .. .". Note that a vertical column in a braced frame rvould have no
( sidewaysnrui'smentof its top relativeto its bottom.
Discussiono[ column strengthto this point has.assumed hin:ed e;:,;sri.hereno Figure 6.9.1illustrateseffectivelengths for columns in a braced frame.
( nloi'nentrotational restraintexists.Zero momentrestraintat rhe eids consti- Onceit hasbeendeterminedthat a frameis braced,the bracing is presumedto
( tutc's the s'eakcst situation for compressionmembersha',-ingAo trans.,.eise provide any neededlateral restraint,as in Fig. 6.9.2a and c; therefore,the
Illovementof one end relativeto the other. For suchpinned-endcolunns rhe
( equivalentpinned-endlength Kt is the actual length l: ihus .K : 1.0 as
( shi-rrvn in Fig.6.9.1a.The equivalentpinned-endlengthis referredro as rhe
ejfectiuelcncth.
( For most real situationsmomentrestraintat the ends doese.dstcausing
tl:r' points of zero inoment (inflection points) to move a',r.a).f:cn the re- t; I" i
={-{
(
strainedendsas shownin Fig.6.9.1b.c, and d rvherethe effeciir.eienerhsKL- l f
I t
\ . /
*t, I
( thi.-nare reduced. X I xt, zt
; 1
( ]] l_L
( l"
t///h
lp
t
tJi Braced trame.hinged base
( 1lrr unbraced lrarre. nrrlged base
T---
( l\l T_
I \-r
' I
( . i
Ii^J: \ l r
txt=*t
L
r
\ K t = 0.7L

i--r l"
n
I < 0.7L
I
( til 4
l '
l
I
I
-=-
l_
l

lt I I
-L
( , { ' t :
7m.
(
l" l" l q
( l" rlJ) Braced lrame. ttxecl base
End rotalions rbt End rotations ($ r jr
( unreslrained
One end Par"i:aliyres:ra:ned \
fullyrestrained restratned, other at eac:r en3
( unreslratned (dr Unbraced trame. trxed base
Figure6.9.1 Effccrive lengtb KL; no joint translation.
( Figure 6.9.2 Effective lengtb KL ior frames.
I
(
6/COMPRESSION I\,IEMBERS- PART t: COLUMNS (
( t

joints are assumednot to move laterally (at least in first order (


strucrurrl
analysis)and an individual colurnn may be designedas if isolaredonce thc
effective length factor K has beendetermined. (
From Figs' 6.9.1 and 6.9.2aand c, one may observethat end restrarnrin 9 l - (
braced frames alwal'Sreducesthe distancebetweeninflection points; thar is. c c q q o q o Q o o q o o E t b
q cl ci o = l's
El+
- oooo ciccinqi,o
reducesttre effectivelength KL f.romthe pinned-endcondition. The effecti'c 80\o('
o. (
l l , l , l| , l l l l I l , l ' | ' | ' l ' ' " I
length facror K *'ill alwaysbe lessthan unity. ( , t -i l-l
- t \ (
^ lht (
t
I
t
Unbraced Frame c () (
oo o o q q 14 I g_
cici rrt ! .d .i - 6E Q,
An unbracedframe, accordingto LRFD-C2.2, is one in which "lareral stabili^ .\P xtr c,
(
dependsupon the bendingstiffnessof rigidly connectedbeamsand columns.i. Y 8 ;c s! )
The buckling of an unbracedframe is one of sideswaywhere,for example.thc a'E \e ( i
t g T
op of a column movesto the side relative to rhe bottom. In Fig. 6.g.2i and tl 3 2 d
(
an unbracedframeis shownh4vingsideswaybuckling.The.buclled shapeand t5= 6
G,
therefore the effective length of the columns will deplnd on the stiffnesses.f e € (
the participating membersin flexure. The effecrive length KL may be ob- ' I
-- (:o TrrT-r-- IIllll'l'l I l ' 1 r
r
I tA (
tained by matching the buckled shape of a column with a portion of the 8 qq c q q q q q q
(.t
q c q q o 2
o
oo o o cr cots rl| tt F a\.
pinned-endcolumn buckled shape.As shown in Fig. 6.9.2, *l *itt alr*ars a4 N
ol')
(
exccedL. j
(.t (
To understandwhy the minimum value of K in an unbraced frame i'' tr
theoretically1.0. examinethe rectangularframe of Fig. 6.g.2d.The sriffesr ta (
g
situation would be when the beam is infinitely stiff, thit is, it cannot bentl.
a (
o
q)

o (
C'q C q q C ql q u! e. c? n -. oO (
oo ro .n t\. oo o o o o o o E
rJ'- qJ

'4!& ( f t 8 L , ! , ' , ! , 1 ,, 1 l l - L l l l , l , l , I , I I
c.)
(
{l,ttA

T_ rp ry'
) / t
I
c., (
' ! t

I | l //
1 l
l
l o o € ts <o ol3
6 -
- €
tu
(
t
L l
l
l
,
; o d o o o l i
.r,
(
II
I l lrr ;:
cl
(
LI I ' U I
-l._ i^ (J

"h p ;
KL-2L C:

"h Pari,at /X
t
restraint
,r"j,
ur-
S
I

c3
oO
(
(

\ ( l q5= 8IrT'NTTTrl
qeqqq q
l l l I I
qr9ul
l ' l ' I
q c?
l ' l i a
q
(
\ I c)o tnso Gt
c
oo o o I o
r
c
!
o
- c t
@ (
I U ) F
@

r.rr End fotai;on


:l
.9 (
rhr One encl rotation fu[y ( c f O n e € n d r 6 1 3 1 1 sp6a r t r a : : ; r e s : f. i . . i : 1 tt
lully reslra:ned restrainecl.olher Olhet end unrestrarned
+'i*-
(
unrestrarned ? -E-: t-

Figure 6.9.3 Effectir.elength KL; joint transt3gso possibte. __€': (


(
i*;a.

tjE'.--
-
331 (
( ,
(
'r I
1l
6/COMPRESS,Ci{ MEMBERS- PART l: COLULINS LENGTH
6 9 / EFFECTTVE 333
( I
(
The inflectionpoint rvouldthenbe at mid-hcightand thc'buckledshepc'*ould
t Ilobinsorr i6.521have giveir I( r'alues for the general case of an elastic
( bc as in Fig. 6.9.3.r. ro:.aticnlllyrestraincdcolunrn(both *'ith and rvithout sidesn'a1' elasticr,'-
T he pr ac t ic als i tu a ti o ni n a n i tn b ra c c dfi rms ' i s that d i s al ,r' .i .,\,:reater lr r r t l u. r . . ri; r ; : :
strni nt).S u' i tzkvl nd Wang[ 6. 53]havesunt m lr izt i buckli; : 1'
(
than unity.Frrrthernrore. thergis no sirnplc'r.,'ai' of obtrininqe vai'.r: ::.--::lan rvhicheffectii'elcngthscan bc obtaineCfor framesone-bayu'idcaii.l u- tc iii
( evalrurtingthe end restraint.LRFD-C:.3 rcquircsthlt .f, "shall bc j.icri:rined storieshigh.
( by structuralanalrsisand shallnot be icssthan unitr'." The nrost commonly used procedurefor obtaining effectivelength is t,
use the alignment charts originallv developedby O. J. Julan and L.' S.
( Larvrence,and presentcdin detail bl'T. C. Kavanagb[6.54].' The alignment
Alignment Charts for Evaluating Etfective Length Factor K chart rnethodusingFig. 6.9.4is also suggested by the LRFD Commentan'as
( "adequate" K
For trrdinary design. it is entirely impracticalto analyzean entire frarre to satisfyingthe "analysis" requirementof LRFD-C}.Z to get
( values.
dercrmineits buckling strengthand the effeciivelengthsfor the membeis.
\farious investigatorshave providedcharts to permit easydetenrnination For sirnplesituations,one may use Fig. 6.9.5frcrr the .SSRCGuidel6.SJ.
(
of frame buckling loads and effective lengths for comnronlr'€rrCourrt€red For braced framesit is ahvaysconsen'ativeto take the K factor as unity. and
( siruations.Effectii'e length factors K are given by Andersonanci\\'ood*'ard some interpolationis possiblefrom Fig. 6.9.5.For unbracedframes,except
perhaps for the flagpole-typesituation of Fig. 6.9.5, case (e), an arbitrary
( [6.:,S]for steppedcolumns,Sandhu[6.31]for columnsharing an intermediate
axill load, Lu [6.-19]for gabled frames, and Hassan[6.50Jfor .r:re-story, selectionof K is not satisfactoryfor design.
( onc-bavframes,heving verticalloadsapplied to the columnsat an inrermedi-
( ate point in addition to the load at the top. Galambos[6.51]has presented Adlustment of Allgnment Chart K Factors
thcrn for one- and two-story, one-bay-wideframes, and Gurfinliel and for lnelastic Column BehaYtor
(
The design of columns in ordinary construction iavolves slendernessratios
( KL/r in the inelasticbucklingrange(i.e., 1," < 1.5 or 4, > about 0.5F,).The
(b) rfr
inelasticbuckling strengthis given by Eq. 6.3.1,
( I

I
I il l l
I
I I
I
"r
I

( I t l
I

i n2F
t Y Y I
t r : t ' u t
l
[6.3.1
( ?'i l t 9 9
? r'r ( KL/ r ) z

tl lli i li
Euckled l l
l r rvhere E, is the tangent,modulusof elasticity at stress Po/Ae. When the
( shape of
column
r l
l l alignment chart is used to evaluate K there is an implicit assumptionthat
( sholn by
dashed
lr
t
ll t i elasticbucklingcontrols.When the column is inelasticand the beam is elastic,
line \ v I l t
( I t/ the adjustmentmay be made in'the restraintfactor G used in the alignment
* *
I T chart. The G factor would then become
A
(
( I I
I tI firf
I :
Ginerastic G.,*u"[A] (6.e.1)
I ffi:
( rvhere
TheoreticalK value 0.5 0.7 1.0 r.0 2.0 2.O
F t r Eq.6.82
( Recommended design values ni:en
0.6s 1.0 1.2 2.O n et 'cr.iaelastic
(6.e.2)
ideal condition! are aDDroxirir3!ec 0.80 2 .l 0 , " s r E
'/ I cr.clastic Eq.6.8.3
(
#' Rotation fixed, Translalion tixed

The procedureof using Eq. 6.9.2 and various simplifications for practica!
(
(
End
coriditions
code
Y
tr
Rotation free, Translation fixed

Rotation fixed, Translation free


use havebeen discussedby Yura [6.55].This provoked considerablediscussion
by Adams [6.56J,Johnston[6.57J,Disque[6.581,Smith [6.591,Matz [6.60J,and
( ? Flotation free. Transtaiionfree
Stockwell [6.611.The LRFD-Commentary C2 endorsesYura's procedure as

(
Figure 6.9.5 Effecti'.'e leagtb factors for cenually loaded colusrns nith vanous
'The derirarion rvas preseotedin Cetail in the 2nd edition (1980) of tbis tcxt (pp. 843-tl5l).
( idealizcdend conditcas. (Adapted from Ref. 6.8, p. 52)
, (
6 / COMPBESSIONMEMBERS- PART l: COLUMNS 6j0 / LRFDOF FOLLED SHAPES(W. S. AND M) 335 (
( ,
TABLE6.9.1 ADJUSTMENT&OFRESTMTNTFACTOR
G' TOACCOUNT
FORINELASTIC modifiedby Disque[6.581. The Yura-Disqueprocedurewaspresented in the (
_ FORA36STEEL
BUCKLING coatextof Allowable StressDesign where E/E could be approximated as
(
IJF:. For LRFD the numeratorof Eq.6.9.2may be taken P_dA, since if
^ E, F"r.,*r. LRFD Eq(E2-2) Eq.6.82 T
'":'
E F"r.*,. LRFD Eq(E2-3) Eq.6.8 3
proplrty designedthe strengthOP, *ilI approximatelyequal P". Note that Eq. (
6.9.2becomes (
KL
; F " ' &
T^
-
KL
r ^
F
Et O[fL.,0",,1,{,
,:E=;f&;14= --ffi (6e3) (
(
0.20 17. 8 35.4 o04 0.82 73.L 27.2 0.58
o.?2 19.6 35.3 0.05 0.84 74.9 26.8 0.60 LRFD F4(E2-3),Eq.6.8.3,is actually0.877timesthe Eulerequation,whichis (
o.24 21.4 35.1 0.06 0.86 76.7 26.4 0.62 closero g (i.e.,0.85)timesthat equation._Tbuq to usethe
it seemsrcason_able
0.26 23.2 35.0 0.07 0.88 78.5 26.0 0.64 load as the numeratorof F-q.6.9.2and (
0.28 25.A 0.90
noninal stressPJA, underfactored
34.8 0.09 80.2 25.6 0.66
0.30 26.7 34.7 0.10 0.92 82.0 25.3 Eq. 6,8.3 as the denominator. ( ,
0.68
0.32 28.s 34.5 0.11 0.94 83.8 24.9 0.70 Valuesof B, @q. 6.9.2)have been tabulated for A36 steelin Table6.9.1.
"Stiffness ReductionFactors"and also
0 .34 30.3 34.3 0.13 0,96 85.6 24.5 0.?1 The LRFD Manual tl.l7l calls these
0.36 32.t 34.r 0.14 0.98 87.4 24.1 0.73 i-:i- includes values for {, - 50 ksi.
0.38 33.9 33.9 0.15 1.m 89.2 23.7 ,i- \. For truss compr-essionmembers,end restraint may be present and joint
0.75
0.40 35.7 33.7 0.17 1.02 90.9 23.3 0.77 I : trarsladon is prevented so that K rnight logicaily be less than 1.0. Under
4.42 37.4 33.4 0.19 1.04 92.7 22.9 0.7E | =- static loading, stressesin all the members remain in the same proportion to
0.u 39.2 33.2 0.20 1.06 94.5 ?2.5 0 80 - - one another for various loads. If all members are designed for minimum
0.46 41. 0 32.9 022 1 .0 8 96.3 22.1 0.82 - weight they will achieveulrimslr capacity simultaneously under live load.
0.48 42.8 32.7 4.24 1.10 ],
98.1 21.7 0.83 Thus restraintoffered by membersframing at r^joint disappearsor at least is
0.50 M.6 32.4 0.26 t.L2 99.9 2t.3 .':
0.85
- greatly reduced.The SSRC,therefore,recortmends using K :1.0 for mem-
0.52 46.4 32.L 0.28 1.14 1 0 r.6 20.9 0.86
0.54 48.1 3 1 .9 o.29 1.16 103.4 20.5 0 ii7
: bers of a rnrssdesignedfor fixed-positionloading. When designingfor moving
;1-
0.56 49.9 3 r.6 0.31 1.18 1 0 5.2 20.1 0 8e load systemson tnrsses,K can be reducedto 0,85 becauseconditions causing
0 .58 51.7 31.3 0.33 1 .2 0 107.0 19.1 0.9'j maximum stressin the memberunder considerationwill not causemaximum
0.60 53. 5 31.0 0.35 1 .7 2 1 0 8.8 19.3 09l stressin the membersframingin to provide restraint [6.E]-,
0.62 55.3 30.6 0.37 L .2 1 1 1 0.6 18.9 0 q: When the adjacentmembersframing at the ends of a column are heavily
0.64 57.L 30.3 0.39 1.26 1L2.3 18.5 0.9i loaded compressionmembers,they may have a destabilizingeffect instead of
0.65 58.8 30.0 0.41 1.28 1 1 4.1 l E .l 0.94 stabilizing the memberbeing considered; in effect a negatiueG-factor. Bridge
0.68 60.6 29.7 o43 1.30 1 1 5.9 17.7 0 95 and Fraser [6.81] havc presenteda procedure to'account for such negative
0.70 62.4 29.3 0.46 1.32 tt7.7 t7.4 0 96 G-factors.
a.7z 64.2 29.0 0.48 1.34 119.5 17.0 0 9?
0.74 66.0 28.6 0.50 1.36 1 2 1.3 16.6 0.e7
0.76 67.8 78.3 4.52 1 .3 8 123.0 16.2 0.98 6.10 LOADAND RESISTANCE FACTORDESIGN
0.78 69.5 27.9 0.54 l.4i) 124.8 15.8 0.9s oF ROLLED SHAPES(W, S, AND M)
0.80 71. 3 27.5 0.56 L.42 t26.6 15.5 0.99 SUBJECTTO AXIALCOMPRESSION
t
*G defined in Fig. 6.9.4 and us€dwith Alignment
Charts (Fig. 6.9.a). t : -
r -:. In this sectionreferencenill be made to the LRFD Manual, Part I which givc$
i- --
a,.
properties of the rolled shapesand Part 2 which contains column load tables.
l

1 j . . - General Procedure
1,=
Whetber Load and ResistanceFactor Design or Allowable Stress Design is
: : i
t.!&:
:
usd, the sUengthof a compressionmember is based on its gross area lr. The
strcngth is always a function of the effective slendernessratio KL/r, and for
: E
t=f; --t -,
!:..
: i -
aSr
ri-;.
# - j
:-?'-.:--.
;J.-..
\
, r 6 'JPF€SSIC.
:COLUN,INS 6.1O/ LFFD OF ROLLED SliApES C'J.'.S, AND M) 337
(
( sltrpes,Q : 1.0, thus thc specialprc'.'isions of LRFD-Ap;cndi.x B arc'noi
( ffiu, onrhesecr,on
serected.
ilJft; "r'ffi;I;;rn{T,:k:::,fr; i nvol ved.Fror ir Fig. 6. 8. 1 one m i; hr esr im ar cF, , = }i ksi ( KI . / r =
-:).
rirdirect proccss unlesscolumn-ioad A l ternati vcl v.LRFD For m ula( E?- i. tcr LRFD "\ LllERiC, {L \ ', \ i- L; i. . ) '
tabr...iare
s'v s'
available.
sr' The gcncral proce-
( dure to satisfy Eq. 6.g.1is: TABLE 3-36 could he used.'fherec.uircdareamav then bc computcd.
( l- compure rhe factored service load
combinations,as discussed { u using
---' ail appropriate load
: -?:-:
in Sec.l.g. R e 'q u i r cAd6
n: L 1 1 . 9s qi n -
( 2. .Assum.".:ltl Q "F, . 0. 85( 27)
stress{, basedon an assumedKL/r.
( 3. Compurethe gross..u ..io required (c) Select a sccrion. Since buciuing in the ri.eak d;rection [based oil
noi-ir,1g.4,).
4' select a section. Note rh"ai the widthfttriitness (KL/r),|w'ill control the strengthfor \['shapes when Kl is the sames'ith
( I, limitations of
- LRFD-Table-B5.1 to preven-tlocal buckiinf respectto both x- and /-axes, the r"i3iitestsectionsfor this problem rvill be
rur, be sarisfied.This is
discussedin part II orthis chaprer,p;;;lily thosehaving the least r,/r,.. A high r, indicatesexcessivestrength*'ith respect
I
sec.6.16.
t' Basedon rhe largerof (KL/r\, o,r'1xt/rl, to the strong axis,* hich may be utilizedonly by proriding additionalbracing
( for the sectionserecrecr,
compute the critical stress.1" in the rveakdirection.
( {' lompure the-desigrr;t;;;rh"L a" : e,FnA" for rhe secrion. Using the Column Load Tablesin the LRFD Manual [1.17] Part 2, one
7. comparc e.p, with p-. tihcn',t. ,tr.rriittpronia.d might select a W8x48, the lightest W8 that has at least th- required area.
( does nor exceed
the strength requiredb1' more thrn a f.o; perc.nt Furthermore. the W8 sections have the lorvest ro/r, for a given area. Try
the design*,ourd be
( accepUble,othenviser€pi.,etStcps2 throughZ. W8x48 section.
- (d) Check the \\'8x48 section.A : l4.l sq in.
( -XAMPLE 6.TO.t
-c_tthe Jightest w section of A36 steel KL
( to sene as a pinned_endmain - : 92' F.r: 23.0ksi
"rember column r6.ft rong-g carry an-axiar It'
compressionload of 95 kips dead
( load-and-l00kips live roadin a biacedsrructure,
as shownin Fig. 6.i0.1. use Q,P n : Q , F, , Ar : 0. 85( 23. 0) 14.: 1 19'5( 14'1): 276kips
Load and ResisranceFactor Designand indicate
( the first three choices.
I e,Pn: 276 kipsJ > lP": 274 kips] oK
( SOLUTION "NUMERiCAL
(a) Obtain facrored loads. Note that LRFD Manual VALUES" TABLE 3-36providesa
( -1 tabulation of 0"4, for values of,KL/r.
pn: t.Z D + t.6 L : Since the iJesjgnstrength gP, exeeedsthe factored load {. and since no
1 .2 (9 5 )+ 1 .6(100): 274ki ps .r.
( (b) Estimate srendernessratio and obtain other section having this area has a lower rJr.r, the W8r48 is the lightest
esrimared .e,. since the as-
( sumptio_nof hinged .ld! is made, rh_eeffecti;. section available.Deepersectionswill be healier, as follorvs:
i;"g,h Kt equarsthe acruar
length L, i-e.,K:.1.0. consideringKL:
( 16 ft asi moderatetyrongrength,
the slendernessratio might be est]mated Area
at aboui 70 io g0. For roiled w F' Q,Pn
( Section (sq in.) KL/r, (ksi) (kips)

(
(
H;"ged\=Vl
I' W8x48
w10x49
wl2x50
14. 1
14.4
14.7
92
76
98
23.0
26.6
2r.7
276
326
27t
1st choice
2nd choice
NG l% short
(
w14x53 15.6 100 27.3 282 3rd choice
(
( i:5il,j t
5l

(
Hinsed4-l I E)(AMPLE 6.10.2
( Selectthe lightestW sectionof .436steelto seryeasa mainmember30 ft long
(
(
I, Figuie6.10.1 Example6.10.1
to carryan axialcompression load of 50 kipsdeadload and 110kipslive load
in a bracedstructure,asshownin Fig. 6.10.2.The memberis assumed pinned

(
7' 6 / COMPRESSTON MEMBERS - PART t: COLUMNS (
( ,
Potentialbuckled t ^ .#-.
to (Kt), : 30 ft. For equal strength with respect to
(KL)rtitut .orr.sponds (
il;iil;";, l" l" .5h., tbe x- ahd y-axes, (
:*:
,&*.
(KL), (KL),
'tl Assume hinged tco and - (
tl bottom lor x. and y.axis
rl bending rx fv
A36 tl (
tl
steel tl (KL). 30
v Assumehingedar mid.heighr Equivalent(Kt)n = : -; : l7-3 ft (
lt\
tl
lor y-axis bending only Ur; t.tJ
(
r5'-0 ll
ll Porential bucklecf For ( KL), : 17.3 ft, the W8x40 has a designstrengthg.P" of only 208 kipt;
tl
shape if K,L,lr, gorrerns therefore it is not acceptable. (
tt I

(c) Check of section. It is alwaysadvisable to make a final check of the (


I section:
apparentlyacceptable
(.'
lP W10x45, (KL/r)y = l5(12)/Z.At: 89.6, 0"4,: 20.1ksi
(rl
(
QrPn: QrF.rA,
Frgure0.10.2 Example6.t0.2.
(
: 20.1(13.3)= 267kips > 236kipsrequired OK
tUse (
W10x45. r
s-
at top and bottom and in addition hac weak direction (
supportat mid_height.
Use AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design., r EXAMPLE 6.103
Select the lightest W section of .4572 Grade 60 steel to serve as a main (
SOLUTIOA' member 22 ft long to carry an axial compressionload of 100 kips dead load (
(a) Obtain factoredloads. and 200 kips live load in a bracedstntcture,as shown in Fig. 6.f0.3. Assume
the member hinged at the top and fixed at the bottom for buckling in either (
p,: t . 2 D + t . 6 L : 1 . 2 ( 5 0 ) + 1 . 6 ( 1 1 0:) 2 3 6k i p s principal direction. Use AISC Load and ResisranceFactor Design. (
(b) Selecrfrom LRFD Column load Tables. SOLUTION (
The effectivelengthfactors
K for buckling in either the strong or the weak direction (a) Obtain factoredloads.
'1.0. equal unity; i.e.. (
K,. : K, : Sincethe AISC column Load rables are computedassuming
Po: l.zD + L.6L : 12(100) + 1.6(200): 440kips
enter rheserabteswith the effectivelengtir (
lf,i/lt,lfontrols, ai};.Thus
(
P " : 2 3 6k i p s ; (KL) r:.15 fr

starting$'iththeshallowW8 sections
andworking
s towardthedeeper
sections. --r
find

wl*f
Potenti8l
bucklec!
Potential
buchled II
e,p,: ?J!Ip, r,/r, : r.73 shape shape t
wl0x45 $"pn:?!l Hp, iyi, = 2.15 ir
(KL)/
if
(KL), n'-o'
W 12x 45 , f,
kips
e " p o :2 5 T i g i r: Z.OS 9OVernS 9Ovems I ou,
cnoceo
Sincctireacrualsupportconditionsare suchthat (Kl) I
2(KL)r.if r*/rr 2
2' rveaka'riscontrols and tabular loadsgive the *.tr., ,:
and \\'1lx-1j are obviouslyaccephble.
answer.Thus.wl0x45 eI l "l
Since r,f r,, for 1v8x40 is less than 2, strong (a) (b)
axis bending controts.Thc
strength may be obtained from thc tables
by Jnrering with-the equivalenr Figure 6.10.3 Exanple 6.103.
(
J j' v\riv,rnLoorUN MEMBEFiS_PART l: COLUMNS STR:SS
6.1I / ALLoWAELE OESTGN 34it
' ( ':

(
For equalstrengthaboureachaxis,
elemente given in ASD-B5.I. Table 6.8.1 gives ASD Specification section
( referencesfor memberssubject to axial'compression.
" : 37'8
( : l'8 (coincidentally
thesame.as
rv T K,)
. E)(AMPLE 6.II.T
( Check the adequacyof the Wl0x45 sectionfor the conditions of Fig. 6.10.2if
(d) selcctsecrionsfrom LRFD cotumnLoadrabres.
( the Allowable StressDesign were used.This is the ssction selectedby LRFD
Wllx72 : r,/r, < 1.8 Equivatent(KL) ,.= 37.g/1.?S
: 21.6ft in Example 6.10.2.A36 steel is used and the serviceloads are 50 kips dead
( load and 110 kips live load.
( Q,Pn= aaOkips OK
Wl4x74: r,/rr.> 1.8 (KL)" : 2l fr SOLUTION
( Q"Po- 387kips NG (a) Compute slendernessratios.
(e) Make finarcheckon wl2x72, I = s97ina.
{ At rhispoinr it may be (KLI, 1.0(30)12 (KL)r
notedthat the Yura-Disquemodification on G for inelasric'uucniing-touro _ - -l .2o J( 1-s ) 1 2- 8 e ' 6
( ha'e been made' The lorverthe slcnderness ratio ihe grearer*iii"u. tr,. rx t:83'3 ;:
reducrionon G. The foilowing*ilI 'tustrare the proceiure.
( compuie th.
slenderness
ratios. (b) Compute allowable stress{. Compare the KL/r with C. (Eq. 6.7.11)
( (KL),,: to determine whether the short or long column formula apphes:
( r,
S)rz
5.31-
: 85'4;
r yrx . = r r3.04
(1tP=82.e
fffi : 2r22g,oao
: 126
*= [6.z.ttJ
(
From Table 6.9.1, for the slenderness
ralio gj.4, find B,: 0.71. Now the \r J,
( elasticG value must be reduced;.thus,
Since the controlling KL/r of 89.6 is lessthan (,, the allowablestressis based
( on the parabolic equation for inelasticbuckling, Eq. 6.7.9.Thus, by calculation
or from ASD "NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE 3.
(
ri.T rrre
*jsnJ;;;;l; f;l:,::'::];;,
significantdifferencero +p" for-thisproblem.xt7,
wi,,ma,ce
(
(
(
0.4, : 2l "
.3 ksi from LRFD NU!\{ERICAL vALUEs"

Q , P n : Q , F , A r : 2 1 . 3 ( 2 1 . 1: 4
becomesg3.1.

) 4 9 k i p s> 4 l g k i p s
OK
TABLE 3-36
Fo:
5
- + -
l,-*#1,,
3(KL/r')' (KL/rlt
= 14.3ksi [6.7.91

(' U s eW l2x 72, A 36 . 3 8C" 8C:


t
( (c) Comparisonof stresses.
( 6.11 ALLOWABLE
STRESS
DESIGN P 160
f':4- l 2 ' 0 k s< i[ 4 : 1 4 ' 3 k s i l
( The safety requiremelllolaxiauy loadedcolumns m:
in Allowable StressDesign
(ASD) accordingro ASD-E2 may be stated
(
The W10x45 certainly is not overstressed;however, the serviceload stress/,
( foS F" (6.11.1) is low. If the next lighter W10 is checkedit rrill be found satisfactory. Check
Wl0x39:
( n'here ./o : sen'iceload compressionsress = p /A _
P: sen'ice load a:rial compressionforce t t'0Jti]12
( Lxt'1, = 90.9 gling Fo: 14.1ksi
A, - gross cross-sectionalarea of column ty 1.98
( 4, : allorvablestressat senice load : Eqs.6.7.9
or 6.7.10
( Equarions6-7.9and 6.?.10are usedfor-q-picatroued
P 160
w scctionssatisfyingrhe fo:
- - - - 13.9ksi< [4: la.l ksil oK
local buckling limirarions on widthrrthiito.r, As 11.5
( ratios for plate-;;;r;""
(
t (
340 6,/ COMPRESSIONMEMBERS_ PART I: COLUMNS (
6 1CILRFD OF RO|-LEDSr-rApES
(W. S. ANDM)
' t (

(b) select the section.For this problem there


are no AISC Column Load
Tables available for the direct selectlonof a section- get kips using 436 steel. In the plane perpendicular to the frame the system is
To an esrimateof the
reQuired section, use the Column Load Tables for braced.with supportsat top and bottom of a 21-ft heigbt-
F,: 50 ksi. Since the
member is fixed at one end, in accordancewith rig. : 0.g.
o.io.+- *;;.?
Se l e c t or ( K L) , : 0. 8 (2 2 ) :1 7 .6 ft a n d SALT]TION
(a) -Obtain factoredloads.
Required
e,pn=*[#] : 367kips P u : 1 . 2 D + 1 . 6 L : 1 . 2 ( 5 5 ) + r . 6 ( 2 2 0 ): 4 1 8k i p s

(b) Select a preliminary size as a basis for er.aluating the effective length
Try W10X49: e"Pn:369 kips for Fr: 50 ksi factors K. While it is rare that a frame member s'ould be designedas axially
Wl2X53i e,Pn: 390kips for loaded, it may occasionallybe proper for some interior members having
4, : 50 ksi symmetricalloading. Note is also made that the axidly loaded memberis one
boundary for the more typical beam-column interaction formula discussedin
There can be no assurance Chapter12.
lhat sectionsselectedusing the ratio 5a/60 wrll It is given that (Kr) ,: 2l ft for tbe plane perpendicular to the frame;
satisfy design requirements;hbwever,such a procedure q,ill
sene as a first thus, a preliminary member might be determined from interpolation in the
tri a l. Chec k W i0x 49 fo r p ,:4 4 0 k i p s w i th
4 :6 0 ksi . U si ng { .-e.l .Z ro LRFD Manual Column Load Tables,
obtain.l,-,
(K L) , : 21 f t Fi- ndWl2x72. e, Pn: 449 kips
KL
x" :- ,l-5_ : 17.6(12)r-?d--_
,, U7E as{Y i6oo :1-20 (c) Evaluate the effective length facror K. using I = 597 in.a for
w12x72. compute G,ooin accordancewith Fig. 6.9.4 and as discussedin
Then using Aisc "NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE LRFD Commentary C2.
4, obtain e,F,,/F,
L(EI/L)*ru".o, . 597/21
Q,F"r/F, : 0.465 G,oo : o'64
E@d; 2$82)/40:
f.4, : 0.465(60): 27.9ksi : 10 (accordingto LRFD Fig. C-C2.2)
Goo,,o,o

Q,Pn: Q,F..As: 27.9(14.4):400 kips usingFig'6'9'4'


rino r- : r.s
Thus, the W10x49 is not acceptable.
Check Wl0x54, ( K L l , : , . 8 ( 2 1:) 3 7 . 8f t
KL 0.8(/2)12
: :_ R? c
oz'); tr. : 1.19
ry Ls6 Potential buckled
i
+ shape if KrLr/r, governs
+rFrr/Fr: 0.468 *
It

't I \ .wtaxaz w14 X 82


Q , F , , : 0. 4 6 8 (6 0 :) 2 8 .1k s i
.t rrt-: I

Q , P n: e" F " ,A r: 2 8 .1 (1 5 .g:) 4 4 3k i p s > 440 ki ps


UseW10x54. ASTZGrade60.
OK ,\I
,,1 I
I
t
1
\
tr EXAMPLE 6.10.4
DesigncolurnnI of the unbraced
frameof Fig. 6.10.4as an axiallyloaded
compressionmembercarryinga deadloadof sI ups and a live load
of 220 Figure6.10.4 Unbraced frame for Exanrple6.10.4.
6 / COMPRESSION - PARTt: COLUMNS
MEMBERS
6. 12lSHEAREFFECT
345

In this case Allowable StressDesign is less conservativethan


Load and ils shou'nlater.;hearhasan insignificanteffecton reducing
Furthcrnr<rrc.
ResistanceFactor Design.
UseWl0x39. column strength for solid-rvebbed shapesand may .safelybe neglectcd- The
sheareffect should not. horvever,be neglectedfor latticedcolumns.
To include the effectof shear,the cun'aturedue to shearshouldbe addcd
to the buckling cun'ature to obtain the total cun'ature.It is rvellknos'n thrt
6.12* SHEAREFFECT dM- dy
V--=-:P; (6.12.1)
d + d -
u- ua
When built-up membersare connectedtogetherby meansof lacing bars,
the
objective is to make all of the componentsact as a unit. ns a compression after recognizingthat l/- : Py from Eq. 6.2.1(seeFig. 6.2.1).
member bends. a shearingcomponentof the axiat load arises.The magnitude The slope0. due to sheardeformationis
of the shear effect in reducingcolumn strengthis proportional ro the imount
shearstress P'tr'
of deformation that can be attributedto shear. 0: (6.12.2)
According to the ssRC Guide[6.g], shearin.columnsis causedby: shearmodulus AG

I' Lateral load, resultingfrorn rvind, earthquakegravity, or other cause. rvherefl, is a factor to correct for nonuniform stressacrossvariouscross-sec-
2. Slope, with respectto the line of thruit, Oue Uotir to unintentional tional shapes.The shearcontributionto cun'aturebecomes
initial curvature and added curva(ure developedduring the buckling de p,, dv PB,.d't
Process. : (6.11.3)
3. End eccentricity of load, introduced either by the end connectionsor dz AGE: AGdi
fabrication imperfections. The total curvatureis the sum of Eqs.6.2.3and 6.12.3,
Certainly the shearfrom lateral load must alwaysbe consideredin design. d'y P.v* PB,,dzy
-E =
Items 2 and 3 should at the leastbe estimated.AISC Specifications
[1.5,f .i5J d*: AG d*
require providing an arbitrary shearresistance(in addition to any computable
which gives
shear) of 2Vaof the compressivestrength of the member for lacing tars in
dlv Pl I l
Iatticed columns (seeFig. 6.12.1). - - - - - : -- ! -l---1..:O (6.12.4)
Solid-webbed sections.such as W shapes,have less shear deformaticjn-r' 4-z' EIlt-PP,iAG)'
than do latticed columns usinglacing bars and/or batten plates. '\
which is of the same forni as Eq. 6.2.3; thereforethe modifieCform of the
Eulercritical load is '

(
z p
'cr
:
nzEI
L2
1
p,.r?tt]
(6.12.s)
(
( Z l0l ;aG,
[,
-
LL AG-F l
(
(' 7 l0l sheareffect

(
7
7 l0i
pl
In accordancen'ith rhe previousdiscussionon basiccolumn strength.G and E
can be replacedby the tangentmodulusvalues,G, and E,, and E,/G,: 2(1 +
p), and L can be replacedby the effectivelength Kl. Further,combiningthe
(
(
7 sheareffect rvith KL gives
(b) (c)
Doubk-
id) P., '|E,
( lacing
Lacing
and
Battens !?',",u,.0 l
'
- - : - (6.12.6)
baltens
platcs A (a,.KL./r )-
( ^
Figure 6.12.1 Types of latricedcolumns.
( w here d,.: l I + 2( 1 + p) r 'P, , / ( KL/ r ) =. Thus t he shearef f ect m ay be

i (
i.q:l- -
'
--f- 5' MEMBERS u7
6.13/ DESIGNOF LATTICED (
tts.
-..
346 6 / CO|{PRESSION MEMBERS- PART l: COLUMNS ;***;'
i. "'|+'
+i-s (
I
accountedfor by an adjustmentto the effective length. For W shapeswhen Such effective length modification will rarelv effect the design of short (
bending about the weak "*is, F, averagesabout 2. Using F : 0.3 for steel.
rgy:
:ris.- colum* in braced systems.
s: (
typical valuesfor a are r*!"''
s- (
KL/r: 50 du : 1.01 :i+
6.13SDESIGNOF LATTICEDMEMBERS (
=i 70 : 1.005
2: Under most specifications,latticed members are designed according to de- (
: 106 : 1.003
*: railed empirical rules most of which are related to local buckling requirements.
-i --
(
For slendemessratios less than about 50, yielding controls, so-thai the shear
i€
Two examples follow that illustrate some of the provisions of t RFD-84
'effcct
on solid H-shaped columns is equivalent to an increase in effective
"+ib (simitar to ASD-E4) as well as generd proceduresfor built-up sections.The (
lcngth of lessthan 1%,whicb can be safely oeglected.
&t.
-=*h : ieader is referred to Blodgett [6.65]who has summarizedthe AISC prorisions
SF
along with other information concerning built-up section design.
(
"+.-
.T:.
(
Lattlced Columns '';;;.
-l:3

-*_ t EXAMPLE 6.13.I (


The lacingor batten platesusedto tie togetherthe main longitudinal compres-
€. Design a laced column as show4 in Fig. 6.13.1, consisting of four anglesto
sion elementsare themselvessubject to axial deformatiori. For instance,from --E:.'
,q-.-
carr)' 100 kips dead load and 4?5 kips live load axial compression,r*'ith an (
all will be welded and use
Fig. 6.12.2a,the lengtheningof the diagoaal gives a slope yr over the panel . effective length KL of,30 ft. Assume connections \'
length a and from Fig. 6.lZ.2b the shortening of the horizontal bars gives a .-4172 Grade 50 steel.
-
-.;l'
slope y2 over panel length a. Becausethe lacing elementsare relatively small (
::._.J:..

in cross.sestion,the stiffnessof such membersto resistthe transverseshearis SOLUTION (


considerablyless than for solid-webbedmembers.Detailed treatment of the ,.;. (a) Establishthe depth fi of section.The radius of gyrationof a four angle
- i .

columns with lacing, battens,or perforated plates is available in the S.SRC column dependsonly on ft and essentiall!'is independentof thickness.Thus (
Guide [6.8f and elsewhere16.62-6.eL selectingtr establishesthe slenderness ratio. and vice versa.Appendix Table
(
The Structural Stability ResearchCouncil [6.8] reports the suggestionof
Bleich[6.9]that "a conservadve estimateof the influenceof 60o or 45o lacing, (
as generallyspecifiedin bridgedesignpractice,can be madeby modifying the
effectivelength factor" K to a new factot arK, as follows:
KL
For - > 40, or=@ (6.r2.7)
r 1.48"
I
(
(

KL
For -
r

< 40, a" = 1.1 (6.12.8)


r=ft
'.txsx's/s
(
(
I I (
u_J
I ,=ro".l
(

t--' l- 6r

i.'-u- (c)
(
(
KV
| ) i,""sc L*ing bar (
I t
FDl /
(
l* t' CEEEE:t
I

(a) Effect of hngthening


ofdiagonal bars.
v . v
( b ) Effect of shortening
(a)
l" (b)
(d) (
(
of horizontal bars.
(.
Figure 6.12.2 Shear deformation ia laced colunn. Figure 6.13.1 Details of Exanrple6.13.1.
(
(
(
{
('
MEMBERS 349
OFLATTTCED
6.13/ DESIGN
- PARTt: COLUMNS
6/@MPRESSION MEMBERS

( "The inclination of
Al shows the relationshipsbetweenthe radius of gyration and the geometryof (c) Design single lacing. Accordiirg to LRFD-p4,
( lacing bars to the aiis of thi membershall preferablybe not lessthan 60o
for
the cross-seclion.Thus from text Appendix Table A1,
( singlelacing...."
r = 0.42h For { l OO. (Fig. 6. 13. 1b) b: , 20 - 2( 3') : 14 in. , assum inguse of
KL 360 857 distanceberweensiandard gagelines for bolts. This would be approximately
Approximate- = - center-to-center of rvelded connection.Thus
r 0.42h h
Lt = 2b tan30" : 2(1a)0'577: 16'2 in' Use 16 in'
P,,: 1.2(100)
+ 1.6(475) : 880 kips
"When the distance
One might prefer to use 15 in. since LRFD-E4 states,
berrveerthe linesof rvelds... is more than 15 in., the lacingshallpreferablY
Required be doubleor be madeof angles-"
area* For a singleangle'
h Approx. F", O.4rt AI L, - 16 r at iof or l
(in.) KL/r (ksi) (ksi) (sq in.) Angles : 16. ' ^ '.o[ slender
r v ' !4<- 4l I ness oK
r; 0.978 overallmember
24 35;t 45.5 38.7 22.7 "Lacing shall be proportioned to p-rovidea
L6x6xl A:23.0 According to LRFD-E4,
L5x5x* A:23.44 shearingsiiength normal to the axis of the member equal to 2% of the
22 39.0 M.7 38.0 23.1 Sameasabove compressive designstrengthof the member-"
2l 40.8 M.3 37.6 23.4 L5x5xi V : 0'02(880): 17'6 kips (8'8 kips per side)
20 42.9 43.7 37.2 LJ. I L5x5x*
The force in one bar is
rAlso from LRFD " NUMERICAL VALUES" P ,: V/ cos€ = V/ cos30o: 8'8/ 0'866: 10'2kips
TABLE 3-50.
*Required A, : PJ(Q"F",).
L s vo for singlelacing
The 20-in. section is preferred,since the floor area occupied is likely more
important than the additional 0.44 sq in. of cross-section.Investigate 4- -,*.
t -
rr
ri-:rl
fw
*:0.288t (Fig.6.13.1d)
L 5 x5 x f , as s um ingQ : 1 .0 , UA , Y b t
. 16.1
I,: Ir: + [ t : . 0 + 5 . 8 6 ( 1 0 . -0 1 . 4 8 ) t ]: 1 7 5 6i n . a : 0 . 3 9 7 i n . U s er t i n '
rmin - =+
0.288(140)
1756 L 16.1
F o r r : r t i n . , - : o . t r r 1 o o r t 1: l 2 s
fr: ly: : 8.66in. (Approx 0.42(:0) : 8.40 in.)
2y44
KL 1.0(30)12 ..NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE 346, q,F", : 13.0ksi.
- : 41.6i From LRFD
; ,* Q"F",:37.5ksi (TABLE3-50)
' - 10- 2
' Requir edn : 0'78 sq in'
Q,Po: Q,F,,A'= 37.5(23.44)
:878 kips= (Pu: 880kips) OK f f i:
( 0. 78
Use4-L5x5x* with lr : 20in. W i d t hb : : : 1 . 7 8i n '
( 0.4375
(b) Local buckling control. For Q : 1.0 to apply, angJesraust satisfy
be
( width/thickness limits of LRFD-B5.1 to prevenr local buckling. In this case, Sinceno holesare requiredfor connectors,tensionon net sectionneednot
investigatedfor this design.
( s 1 t76
fb t . |' [ m : 1 0 ' 7 JI oK U sebars * x 11.
( i ': ffi: (d) D.rtg" rhe platesat ends (LRFD-E4,par.7). The tie platesshould
(Fig'
( Developmentof AISC limits appearsin Chapter 6, Part II oa plaie srrengrh. .*t.nd alonglhe lenlth of the membera distanceequal to the distanceb

( .-{
-
6.19/ oESIGNOF LArncED MEi'r8€RS 351
Fs - PARTl: COLUMNS
MEMBERS (
350 6 / COMPRESSION
(
shape,
(a) selecr trial section.using text ApPendix Table Al for a box {
6.13.1)from the end of the member.use a length of 14 in.
r = A.40h
b 1 4 (
-t -> - : - : 0 . 2 8 i n . KL 360 900
50 50 - = -
r 0.4h h
Lte tie plates* x 14 x l'-8".
Area= 4ht
I

(e) Examine the effect of shear on the effective length, Eqs- 6.12.1 or
6 . i2 . 8 .
KL Required
r
= 41.6) 40, UseEq.6.12.7
h Approx. Fn 0 4,t
Area'
At
Plate
Thickness
i
(ksi) (ksi) (sq in-) (in-)
(in.) KL/r

43.7 37.2 23.7 0.28


300/(4L6)2 : 1.08 27 42.9

2l I

Thus the effectivelength should have been increased8% due to shear. The b
-(solid plate) = :67 > : 4l.l I |.iG
negtectof end restraintProbablYis, in most cases,equal io about the same t 5/16 I
!
increasein effectiveiength-
"'18 41.6 35.4 24.9 0.35
50
56.3 39.7 33.7 26.1 0.41
r EXA:IIPLE 6.13.2 l6
26.9 0.45
Redesignthe column of Example6.13.1usinga weldedperforatedbox shape 15 60 38.4 32.7
in Example6'13'1'
1Fig.Oll3.2).The factoredload P, is 880kips as computed
tAlso from LRFD "NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE 3-50.
SOLUTION tRequired A, = PJ(+,F",)
One important advantageof a welded shapeis the number of individual
componentsin the shapeis minimized..Four platescan be usedfor this welded are probably ac-
Without performations,2PLs- rtx16 and 2PLs- *I!
shaje. whereasa bolted or riveted sectionrequiresfour anglesin addition to ratiosin accordance with LRFD-B5-l.
ceptable,satisfyingb/r
plates. r*'here acc€ssis re-
Usually, ho*Juei, such shapesar9 used on bridges
quired for maintenanceso that perforationsmay be desirable'
or less of total
Perforated Assume perforationsto Ue b in. wide (frequently one-half
=
width) and /r 18 in. '

f,r
t t l l
Net areaavailable= 2(l8X*) + Z(tr - 8Xl) :24j5 sq in'

t t + *[trz)' - (8)'J]: 1564


in'{
r, = 2(18Xrt)(a-zu)'
l0l
t l
Y-

- ll14 in.a
1,,= fr(18)'(*)+ 2(exl)(8.?s)2
lol .,j-o Solid
plaie

tfim- : 6 . 7 1 i n .
lni
i
I
t -
f
l Y "- \ 2435
t t Perforated
glate
[:t
l,l

l0l l-
I
1.0(30)12
u""__, iE-
i r !
i e..--: =,
= 53.7; g.F",- 34.4ksi (TABLE 3-50)

:= '= < (P" : 880 kipt) NG


.:-€
E Q,Po= Q"FuAs= 34.4(74.?5) 852kips
Figure 6.i3.2 Derails of F:ample 6.f3'1
l,*t

Er-
ffi*-
: (
'(-
352 G/coMpREsstoN MEMBERS-PARTt: GoLUMNS
(
(
(
Trv 2PLs- *xt8 and 2H-s- jxtZ (perforated): PARTII: PLATES
A , : 27.0sq in. Iy: 1775in.a
(
I r : 1744in.a r, : 6 .60i n.
(
KL 1.0(30)12
- : : 54.6;
( r 6j0 0.4,: 34.2ksi(TABLE3-50)
( q P , : + ,F,,Ar: 34.2(27.0)
: 933kips> (&: 880kips) OK
( ( b) Chec kproportioning
of plares(LRFD-E4).
( l. Circck b/r ratio for entireperforated
plate:
( b 1 7 1 3 1 7 \
- : - : = : 3 - 1> l = - = : 54.Ei OX
( u.) _
\ i,4 r6.s t
( l. Clrcckb/t ratiofor unstiffened portionwithinhole:
( b .1.5
: - 9 > t 7 6 : 1 0 .\7 1
( ; 0J l; Or
\ lt' I
( 3. Chcckproportions of access holes(LRFD-E4): TO STABILITYOF PLATES
6.14* INTRODUCTION
( Lengthof hole
........=....--.--\-
j Lengthof hole : :
\\'idth of hole 2(8) 16 in. max All column secrionswhetherrolled shapesor built-up sectic!:sare composed
( has been given
of plate elements.Up to this point in the chapterconsideratio:r
dista-nce
( i clear distance\ - i ,Transverse \ only to rhe possibility of buckling of the member based on the slendcrness
= t^".t-':" ty5s
( \ b.t*..n hotes
I I\ -nllttttwelds lI
or connectlng
It may be, however,that a local buckling will
ratio for the entire cross-section.
occur first in one of the plate elementsthat make uP the cross-section. Such'
Clear spacing betn.eenholes : 17 in. min.
( locai buckling meansthat the buckledelementwill no longer take its propor-
L,'se2PLs- |x l8 (solid) and 2PLs-* x t; (perforated)rvith holes tionate shareof any additiona!load the column is to carry; in otiier words, the
( is reduced.
efficiencyof the crosS-section
E The theory of bendingof platesand elasticstability of platesare subjects
(
that shouldbe studiedin depthby the advancedstudentin strucluralengineer-
( ing. The brief treatmentthat followsis intendedto give the reaCerthe general
( idea of plate buckling necessary to properly use and understa::dcurrent steel
specifications. The general approach and terminology foilorv that of
( Timoshenko[6.66,6.671.
( Before ong'can treat the stability problem, the differenrial equation for
bending of plaresis required,just as the differentialequalicn for the bending
( of a beam, Eq. 6.2.2,was used in the slendercolumn stabilil' treatment in
( Sec.6.2.

(
Ditlerential Equatlon for Bending of Homogeneous Plates
(
First, the strains will be obtainedin terms of displaceme:iis.Let h: plate
( thickness and t/, u, and ru equal the displacementsin ihe x. ''. and z
directions,respec'.ively.Referringto Fig. 6.1a.1,consideran ele::'ie::tof a plate
(
,,,
J3J
-
a
354 lN PARTil: PLATES
6/COMPRESION MEMBERS TOSTABILIWOF PTATES
6.14 ,/ INTRODUCTION
( t
-
{\.'
{
/-
\
Ya,
6X ('
(\
(\.

Figure 6.14.3 Deforoation of plate elemeat perpeodicular to the xy plane. (


Figure6.14.1 Plateclement,coordinate
systemdefinition.
(
dxdy*,and assumeno stretchingof the neutral plane at z:0. Exarnininga for x-direction bending, y-direction bending, and twisting (
slice dx dy dz of the plate elementlocated at a distance z from the neutral 0u 02w
(6.la3a) (
plane shows,in Fig. 6.14.2,the coordinateunit strains €arey, and the shearing -s x : - : 'ax2
- 7 -

0x
strain y,r. Thus (

u*
0u
- u
' \.
_ y:
3 - :
0u
-,7 A2w
(6.14.3b) ('
I

0u 0y
Tdx /'
":#:
0u
a-
(6'1a'1a)
.
, 0u
1' xr- v : _ +
0x x:-'l#.#):-"# (6ra3c) I

/
-y (6.14.1b)
0y Next, making use of Hooke's Law expressingstrains in terms of the
(
Au 0u
'fry:Yr+Yz=E* stressesor,or, normal slressesin the x' and y-directions, and rr.,.,the shear (
t
(6.1a.1c) stress.
U,
l . (
Expressingthe displacementsin the plane of the plate in terms of the lateral r (6.1a.4a)
cr: Irotl /a'

deflection w, 6 sho*r in Fig.6.14.3,and recognizingthat positiveslopeglves . E L O , -


a negativedisplacementu or u, one establishes l r . (.-
cr: + o rrl (6.r4.4b) .
0w 0w EI-Fo'
-u=tE; -u:ta, (
(6.14.2) 'f r'Y/G (6.14.4c)
xY: r {
Substitutionof Eqs.6.14-2into Eqs.6.14.1givesstrainsin tenns of cuRra{ures where F : Poissonfsratio (see Sec. 2.6) and G = shear modulus.of elasticity.
For any stress condition, such as o, that gives pure sbear on an
element rotated 45" to the x-axis, the wirrk done by the equivalentsystemsof
Fig. 6.14.4must be a constant:

!o#,- Iof,: trrt (6.14.5)

f r a -d v
f"
?r'-F-Ei
. o' n
l l
-o'-
Y
u r?# a,
o y -
,,=*i{=y, +
Frgure6.14.2 Deformations of plate dcocot in xy ptaoe.
l-'
(b) Figurs6.14.4 F4uivalentsystcms
-
.
( t
:
( : - €
356 6/COMPRESS|ON MEMBERStN PART pLAifS
ti_
.H
.l
61a T TNTRODUCT|ON
TOSTABIL|W
OFPLATES 357

a I
SubstitutingEqs.6.11.4into Eq. 6.14.5 :t
gives :l- r Note that plate bending involves double curvature (a dish-shapedcleflec-
(
. .t : tion surface for the plate). The narrou'er and longer in plan a plate is. the nrore
o'
( , - 12 the bending causescun'3ture to be one directional. A beam is a speciai caseof
ll6y* lto,- or): :
E(or ; a plate since it has a narrow uidth and long span. For beams the Pciss,,.n's
a It o, - - or, maximun t = or; thus ratio (p) effect is neglected. Fcr instance. if the menrber i5 n31s1-r\\' in the
\ t-direction and long in the x-direction, Eq. 6.14.8a for the plate l\'culd become
1 i - a
I

a + p+ p* r): I
- Et3 d2w
;(l c t
I

-F
i
M,: (6.14.e)
(
G-
E I 12
2 ( 1+ p y (6.14.6) ,l where the partial derivativesdisappearbecauserc is no longera function of -r'.
C Soli'ing Eqs' 6'14'4 for stressesin ternis
t
If Eq. 6.14.9is multiplied b1'the riidth b to changefrom rnomentpcr unit
of srrainsand substitutingEqs.
6-14.3for the strainsgive stresses
in terms of cun.atures. width in the y-direction to total moment. Eq. 6.14.9rvould be the differential
( equation for beams,
, -zE i A2n
02w\
(
6': l;-rl;= - t-,; T I (6.7a.7a) dlw
r-p-ld-x oy- ! r t^_- - EI - - ( 6 . 1 4 . 1) 0
| dx'
( -z E
i d tn . -r" 6 t * \
J,. : ;---- i F=- _ l where I : t3b/12.
( I -P-1 ci-r-
- . a l (6.14.7b)
dl,- | In theoryof piates.the sign conventionis that M, is the bendingmoment
^ t

( . d-u' caused by slresseso, acting in the x-direction. In beam theory'.the usual


iry: -2zG-
(ou.tc) practice is to have the subscript on M refer to the axis of zero stressin
( ox d\.
bending; that is, the neutral axis.Thus, for the span in the x-direction and the
Next it is necessary to reratecun'aruresand bendingmoments.
( Referring width in the y-directionas assumedfor F4.6.14.10,lLl) (insteadof i/,) would
to Fig' 6'14'5, and usingrhe right'hand rule
for posiiiue rwist, it is seenthat have beenusedin beamtheory,sincethe y-axis is the neutralaxis about s'hich
the momenrsper unit width arJ
( bending occurs.
To continue the derivation of the plate bending differential equation.
(
M*: I-'lr'o'd'
: i1\r(# 2rt'
d
.' 7Vl
\
( 6 . l a . 8 a-)- ' consider the equilibrium of all forces and momenls acting on the plate
( element.Moment summationabout the x- and y-axesand forcesummationin
( tr{,:
I'::r,",a,:ffi(r#.TF) 02w\
(6.14.8b)
the z-directiongives three equations.Figure 6.14.6is a free body of the plate
elementshowing only the forcesinvolved with momentsabout the 1'-axis.
(
( -
Mxt'- +zcttt
!::r',rzdz: # (6.14.8c) Q'dY
o dxdy

( tI
( r-o'
( 1 M,d.x

r-
I
t f"'l,dY
( 1

( f-
2 ,/ (o,.* o)o,
(
/ aM_\
( a v 1 a * zi
\",,'ff
( Figure 6'14'5 A ptate elementin bending Figure 6.14.6 Free-body forces involi'cd in rotatioa about .tre y-axis. (Fo;ces involved
$cre thai forces on faces at x : 0 aad
t,.
( 1'-0notshown.i in rotation about tbe .r-axrsnot shcen.)
358 o/COMPRESSIONMEMBERSlN PAF|Tlt PLATES TC 3Tr.3lLlw c; PI-ATES
6.14/ |NTRODUCTIOiJ
7

Taking momentsabout the y-axis gves


aM, aM.,
+ -lut4+rfrdr*
dxdy -:rbdr
ry f 6dydx
-tt'z,or.h+) q-a**,01$:c
'*o(
* ,ol*
Neglecting infinitesimals of higher order and dividin g by dxay givei
0M, , aM..--
oJ
Q': o (6.r4.11)
Figure 6.14.7 Uniformly compressedplate'
,,; ro""'; :*
for momeno

W.+-Q':a (6.14.12) element of Fig. 6.14.7b gves

0w I i N' \ -[0n 02w \


Force equilibrium in the z-direction gives
N,d,; - * a.)rl a, * E dxl: edxdv
aQ, ao.. [n -
. * (6.r4.13)
ox 6*q:o 0N,0w 0N', dt'\
and substitutioninto Eq.
- l| * , #0 ? w + + # *W)** : q d x d(v6 ' 1 4 ' 1 7 )
Using Eqs. 6.la.l1 and 6.14.12 for Q, and Q' ;i
6.14.13gives
I

orM,* !,M, *ro'*,, _ _ which upon neglectingthe higher-orderinfinitesimal terms gives


(6.14.14)
T"T*"@--q 02w'
q - -N,F (6.r4.18)
Defining D: EttAl2(f - p2)J and substituting Eq. 6.f4.8 into Eq.
6.14.14givesthe differentialequationfor bending of homogeneousplates,
The differential equadon' Eq- 6.14'15, then becomes
I Alw 0'w d o ru\
'[;f +2 (6'14'15) Taw , N, 02w
*ry* 8]-t law Ttw
(t . 611 i1e )
Equation 6.14.15,if written for a beam of width D, is the differential
#+rft+#=-;E
equationfor load, x and ;"
which is a partial differential equationwhere w is a function of both
.*pt.ri.d as the product of an x function ( X) and a
The deflecrion w can be
afi : eo (6.14-16) y fun.tioo (Y). Further, buckling may be assumed to give sinusoidal variation

where gb is the load per unit length along the span of the beam. in the x-direction. Thus
w - X(x)r(y) (6.14.?0)

Buckllng of Unltormly Compre$ed Plate


Letdng
The following approachis essentiallythat of Timoshenko[6.67]as modified b1'
Gerstle [6.681.Realizing that 4 is a general term representing the uansverse
x(')- sinry
o
load component causing plate bendin& it is desired to find the trausverse
component of compressiveforce il, wben the plate is deflected into a slightly where the X function satisfiesthe zcro deflection and zcro moment conditions
into Eq'
buckled position. Taking summation of forces in the zdirection on the plate of simple support at x : 0 and x = a, Substitution of Eq. 6.14'20
(
( TOSrABl[rry OF PLATES
6.14/ INTRODUCTTON 361
6/COITPRESSION tN PARTil: pt_ATES
MEMBERS
(
( Using the lowestvalueof B(b/z) and substitutinginto p as definedbelo*'
6.14.19gives,after cancellingthe common term sinnrrx/a,
( Eq. 6.14.22gives
d4y
Imo\o__ -[mT\2d2Y
t | , ; ) w * +Nf,[1-mJz 1 z' _ -
(
(
(
t;)Y-
d4Y
- r \t ;m)nW
*:
\ 2 d. z y [[^"\o _ ;N[,;1lm n * 1 (61421)
+(+t' - -
2

T [(;) ]":o

(
( an ordinary fourth-order homogeneousdifferential equation.
The solution may be expressedin the form ;t;l :Ir'-
N, 1ntr12 l"'
lT)'1'
Y : C, sinh ay + C, coshay + C, sin By + Cocos p; (6.14.22) ,to m'r12
( |
where * ;l
I',.: olt=^r,
(
( " : l ii(^"\, lW;*=
t;, *V;lr;f a n dP : lyti- l - al + ti^l-l D:r2[1a
A',:7[;E*^;l
b12
(6.r4.21)
\ J V D \ a l
(
Thus the entire plate deflectionequationis
( Since N, : {,t and D : Et3/112(l - p2;1,the elasticbuckling unit stress
| . mnx\.
ru : rint, dy + C, coshdy + C, sin By + Crcosp7.1 may be expressedas
( lsin ; J(C,
( (6.11.23) nzE
F"r: k ( 6. 14. 28)
which must satisfy boundary conditions. Assuming the x-axis as an axis of 12(1 - p')(b/t)'
(
symmetry through lhe plate, i.e., identical support conditions aiong the two
( edgesparallelto the directionof loading,the odd function coefficientsC, and rvherefor the specificcasetreatedhere
( C. must be zero. Thus
ll a bl'
k:l-:*nt-l (6.14.?e)
( w : (C z c o s h a y* C o c o s B y ,i
) n^" (5.14-2l.) Lm b a l
a
( Usingsimplesuppcrtconditionsat y : b/2 andy - -b/2, reqoi:esthar at'" The buckling coefficient k is a function of the type of stress(in this case
( y: +b/2, uniform compressionon two oppositeedges)and the edgesupport conditions
I b b\ mix (in this casesimple support on four edges),in addition to the aspectratio a/b
( = 0: + CocosBTJ sin-; which appearsdirectly in the equation.
.w
larcosha7 The equation for plate buckling, Eq.6.14.28,is entirely generalin termsof
( rcJ4'25)
02w b b\ mrx
: 0 : | Czdzcoshc
^ ^
- Co7'cosF, tt;
k and the developmentleading up to it for this one casemay be considercd
( Ay, I i. illustrative of the procedure.The integern indicatesthe number of half-rvaves
,|
( For a solutionother thanC, = C4:0 it is necessary that occur in the x direction at buckling. Figure 6.14.8showsthat there is a
for the determinant
of the coefficients
to be zero.Thus minimum value of k for any given number of half-waves,i.e., the weakest
( condition. Ii is noted that this weakestsituation occurswhen the length is an
even multiple of width, and that multiple equalsthe number of half-waves.
( (o'+ F2)cosh
"f,*, UX:o (6.14.26) Thus, setting a/b : n gives k : 4. Further, as m becomeslarger the li
( Sincea2 + -B2 unless1ty'- 0(atrivialsolution),ildsince cosha(b/z) > 1, equation becomesflatter and approachesa constant value of 4 for latge a/b
the only way Eq. 6.14.26can be satisfiedin the real problem is for ratio. This givesfor the elasticbuckling stressequationof plate elementsunder
(
uniform compressionalong two edgesand simply suPportedalong the two
( b edgesparallel to the load,
cos8, :0
( Therefore 4n2E
F,, ( 6. 14. 30)
b 7 l 3n 5r 12( 1- p2\ ( b/ t ) 2
( B r :7 , ,T ' T,
etc.
' (
(

fl
(
G/COMPRESSTON tN pAFtTil: pt-ATES
MEMBERS
( 6 16/AISC W|DTH^H|CKNESS
LIMITSTO ytELDSTRESS
ACHIEVE
(
Low b/t
( Fr,/ F, may become greater than unity. For plates wirhourresidualstrcss
I (referring to Fig. 6.15.4)three regionsmust be considcredfor csrablishing
(

i7
ID
strength; elasticbuckling (Eulerhyperbola),yielding(segmenrsAB, A'B,ltntl
( clE -**'?,oon;"u'nn'
A" B), and st,rainhardening.
o SimPle
suPPorr lf Fn/Fy is defined as7/\, Eq.6.14.28for platesthen becomes
(
$E ffi-
Risidstraisht - p2)
I . : ;b Vl F,(12x1
< ;
(
Straight line indicates
strength
W (6.r5.1)
( uniform stressprior to r =rhickness nzEk
buclrine iT-i
ffi-Trm
(
Average axial strain
lt"l
Laj
It is observedfrom Fig. 6.15.athat. s'hen comparedrvith columns(cun'e a),
plates (curvesb and c) achievea strainhardeningconditionat relativelvhigher
( values of 1,.. In the earlier discussionon columnsthe value of tr. at u'hich
Figure 6.1S.3 Behavior of plate under edgecompression. strain hardening commences(tr0) was assumedto be zero becauseof its
(
relatively small value. The I'aluesof l,o for columnsand platesunder uniform
( edge compression for Fr: 36 ksi (2a8 MPa) are given as follows from Haaijer
reached.Further increasein load can be achievedbut the portion
of the plate and Thiirlimann [6.70]:
( farthest from its side supports will deflect out of irs original plane.
This
out-of-planedeflectioncausesthe stressdisrributionto be nonuniform
( even
though the load is applied through endswhich are rigid and perfectly
straight. Columns lo : 0.173 (KL/r: 15.7)
( Figure 6.15.3showsthat plate strengthunder edie compression
consisrsof Long hinged flan l,o : Q.{-Sj (b/t : 8.15)
the sum of two components;(1) elasticor inelasticb-ucklingstress
( by Eq' 6'14.28,and (2) post-bucklingstrength.Also one shouldnote
represented Fixed flanges tro: 0.461( b/ t : 14. 3)
post-bucklingstrength as the width-to-thicknessratio b/t becomes
the higher Hinged webs tro- 0'588(b/t : 32.3)
( larger.For Fixed webs tro: 0.579(b/t : 42.0)
low valuesof b/t, not,only will post-bucklingsrrengthvanish.but the
( enrire
plate may have yielded and reachedthe rtrJin-huti.ning
condition, so that
(
From the above,the importantfactordeterminingtro is rvhetherthe plate
( \ J
--
element is supported along one or both edgesparallel to loading.*'hilc the
(b) Plate o-- t-
degree of rotational restrdint along the loaded edge (simply supportedor
$-
( .\:
.. rf

fixed) has essentiallynoeffect.Thus curvesb and c of Fig.6.15.4eachcan


(c) Plate *.-*
(, \_\ representtwo cases,rvherepoint l' hasbeentaken at Ic : 0.46and point l"
at I. : 0.58.
( Since plates as well as rolled shapescontain residual strcss the true
Yietding
( I
strength should be represented by a transitioncurve,Fig.6.15..1.betrveenthe
Euler curry'eand the point at which strain hardeningcommences.
( When consideringinelasticbehavior,the modulus of elasticityused for
( calculating strain in the directionof maximumstresso, shouldbe the tangent
modulus Er. Eiamination of Eq. 6.14.4ashowsthat foi inelasticstrainsin the
( x-direction but elastic strain in the -v-direction,E cannot be factorcdout.
( Bieich [6.9] has shown the solution for this caseof using different E valuss,
and suggestsarbitrarily using ,lqIE as a multiplier for Eq.6.14.28.
( 0 3 r.0 1.2 In summar.v. the strength of plates under edge compressionmay be
( ^._rlE=
b.m41::6
T Y--;€k-
governed by (1) strain hardening,low valuesof tr"; (2) yielding. ar A. : say
0.5 to 0.6; (3) inelastic buckling, representedby the transition cun'e (some
( . fibers elastic and some yielded);(4) elasticbuckling represented by the Euler
Figure6.15.4 Plate buckliag compared with columa lgsk'ting.
(Adapted fror Ref. hyperbola, at tr. about 1.4; and (5) post-bucklingstrengthrvith strcssredisrri-
( 6.70).
bution and large deformation,say for 1,. greaterthan 1.5.
1 (
366 6/'CCM!:fiESS:Ol.l MEMBERSlN PART lt: PI-ATES 6.16 / AISCW|DTHTFi|CKNESS
L|MTTS yrELDSTRESS
TO ACHTFVE 367 (

..()
Strain hardening (
Elastic buckling (
- 12 Ek - 1
( )
Fr(l2X1 - p'XO/t)" E
Transition i (
..E1,.'
Fp ! t
4 T----l----r---- (
t = Thicknes
Post-buckting (
nreng0
(a) Unstifened elemcnt (b) Stiflened element
(plate supported along
troroo (
(plate with onc edge free)
all four edges) Io 0.7 1.0
(
Frgure6.16.1 Buckleddeflectionof unrformlycompressed x. = gFrE
plates. ( ,
Figure 6.16.2 Dimensionlessrepresentatioaof plate suength in edgecompression-
For design purpos€s,performancecriteria must be establishedto decide
what range of l. valuesmay be acceptablein design arid how conservative
(and simple) or liberal (and relativelycomplicated)should be the specification \ -
expressionsfor plate strength. pl.qqeswith large b/t ratio exceedsbuckling strength, i.e., they exhibit post-
buckling strengrh.Thus strength for plales may be shown in a dimensionless'
fashion as in Fig.'6.16.2.
6.16 AISC WTDTH
/TFilCKNESSLTMITS)\, TO ACHTEVE To establishdesignrequirements,the desiredpeiformancemust be ascer-
YIELDSTRESSWITHOUTLOCALPLATEIIUCKLING tained. The local buckling of a column componentmay logically be prevented
prior to achievingfull strengthof the column basedon its overall slendernss
For a better understandingof the background for these requirementsthe ratio KL/r. The performancerequirementwould then be
reader is inr"ited to delve into the subject of plate stability and strength as
1, (6.r6.1)
introduced in Secs.6.14 and 6.15. However,it may be sufficient for manr.
purposesmerely to understandthat componentssuch as flanges,webs,angles. component overall
and cover plates, rvhich are combined to form a column section may them- element, column
selvesbuckle locally prior to the entire section achievingits maximum capac- i.e.,plate
ity. Typical elementsare shown in Fig 6.15.1. The buckled deflection of
uniformly comPressedplatesis shown in Fig. 6.15.1where two categoriesare meaning that acceptable b/t ratios would vary pepending on the overall
apParent: (1) "unstiffened" plate elementshaving oae free edge parallel to slendernessratio of the column. If post-bucklingstrengthwere considere{ the
loading; and (2) "stiffened" plate elements supported along both edges relationship would be additionally complicated.
parallel to loading. For many years the AISI Specification[.12J for cold-formed steel has
Plates in compressionbehaveess€ntiallythe same as columns and the used the approachof Eq. 6.16.1,and also included treatmentof post-buckling
basic elastic buckling expressioncorresponding to the Euler equation for strength.AISC (LRFD and ASD-Appendix B) also includessimilar provisions
coiumns has been derivedas F4. 6.L4.28, to consider post-bucklingstrength.Once buckling of a compressionelement
has occurred, the efficiencyof the elementto carry load is reduced.
trzE Design limits are generallysimplified to assurethe compressionelenent
F.o: k
12(1- pr)(b/t)' Io.ra.zaJ will reacb yield stress {, without local buckling occurring, even though t?te
u'here k is a constantdependingon tlpe of stress,edgeconditions,and length slendernessratio of a columg may prevent the element from reaching yield
to width ratio; p is Poisson'sratio, and b/t is the width/thickness ratio (sec srress.The width/thickness (b/t) ratios tr to prevent local buckling until the
Fig. 6.16.1).Typical & valuesarc given in Fig. 6.15.2. yield stressis reachedare the tr, valuesof LRFD and ASD'85.
It is known that for low b/t vdueg strain hardening is achievedr*irhout The requiiement to achieveyield stresswithout local buckling is
buckling occurring, for medium values of b/t residualittrss and imperfec- kn2E
tions give rise to inelastic buckling r?rcs€nted by a transition curv., "od fo, Fo- >4, (6.162)
large h/t buckling occurs in accordancewith fq. e.tA.Z8. Actual strengrh for 12(1 - p2)(b/t\'
6/COMPRESSIONMEMBERS
tN PARTil: pLATES YIELDSTRESS 369
TC ACHIEVE
LIMITS
6.16,/AtscWIDTH^HiCKNESS

TABLE6'16-1 Alsc WIDTH/THICKNESS


RATrotr, Lrr,4rrs RATIOi, t-tt',ttttpcVALUESFOR PLATEELEN4Et'lTS'
FoRPLATEELEMENTS TABLE 6.16.2 WTDTH/THICKNESS
SUBJECT TOUNIFORI1
COMPRESSIONA TO REACHYIELD STRESSIN AXIAL COI'.4PR=SSiON
Buckling LRFDand LRiD-85.1 anj riSf,-B5 1
Structural c o e f f i c i e n lks b/t ASD.B5
r,,!<il
t
\ ' \ - ' t
f

elements (Fig.6.15 2) Eq.6.t6.a F,(osi) Fy(ksi) rnn


Fy(MPa)
(l) (2) (3) (4) Si:u:iural elements
(5) (6)

Unstiffencd: Unstilfened: 't.6


(a) Singleangles r2.7 11.7 I0.7 9. 8 9.4
(a) Singleangles 0.425 2340/t1 zq{ry,1476/t4 2w/uT 15.8 11.7 13.4 12.3 11.8 9.5
(b) Flanges
19.6 18.0 16. 4 I _5.S I?-7
(c) Stemsof tccs 2r.2
(b) Flanges o.7ob noo/il zoooti4es/iT 2s0/ri\
(c) Stcrnsof tces 1.277 4\so/tT qooa4l 127
/\E J J 5 / \ t t .
Stiffened:
Stiffened: (a) Uaiforrn thickncssflanges,as for tubular sections
42.L 37'6 33.7 32. 1 25. 1
(a) Uniform thickness LRFD-B5.II 46j
ASD-Bs.l 39.7 36.7 33'7 30.7 29.5 23.8
flanges,such as
_c nt
tubular sections 75N/! F, 239/,,iF,
62s/{\ plates
(b) Perforated
LRFD-B5.1+67: 56.0 50.1 41.8 42.7 33.1
(b) Perforated
ASD-85.1 52.8 48.9 44.E 40.9 39.3 31.1
covcr plates 6.97't 9460/.;E rc,w/{\ tn 7,1r,t$ r J / \ t ' l
(c) Ofiers 42.2 39.0 35.8 5.!. t 31.4 25.3
(c) Others 5.0' 8010/!,F 8crr/u4 2517,;q664/,,7
'esD'Taute .ASD-Table B5.l does not use the symbol tr, for "noncompact" Iimit'
B5.r does not usesymbol tr, for ..noncompact,,limit.
ontuitratity iAssumes rolled shapeswith residualstress4 : 10 kii'
selectedto be about mid-way between simply supported and fixcd
along
( tbe supported edge.
"Edge for rcsidual
( restraint estimated at about { fi-xcd(/c : 4.0 for simple support,
and /< - 6.97 the deviation betrveen F, and the transition cun'e u'hich accounts
for fixed-see Fig. 6.15.2). Thus tr. - 0'7 is taken as a ralional value' u'hich
stress and imperfcctioni'
(' dconsidcr
full fixity-use of net plate width will proride adequatereserve. gives for b/t
-__i.
"Hoilow
( scctionsgenerally receivenegligrbletorsioaal resrraint by the thin supporting '..
(6.16.4)
edges;thus a coefficicnt somewhatlessthan g000 is used. s120tr. : 3580
( 'zzt7,lrJf.,
for LRFD-BS
?<
various
( sttt
T rt|- for LRFD-nS where F,, is in psi. Tatle 6.16.1shows rvidth/thicknessratios for
The coefficientsused by AISC since i969
where F) : lO ksi (for rolled sbapes) situationsof uniiorm compression.
( than is justificd' The original
: 16.5 ksi (for weldedsbapes) tend to imply greater ui.uru.y in criteria
( coefficientswere established using F, in psi; after someroundingthey formed
the basis of the fgOf ntSC Speciiicltion. The presentvaluesere obtaincdb;"
( UsingF : 0.3 for sreel,and E : 29,000,000 dividing bV /itl00 so that ^{,.can be used in ksi'
psi and .E in psi, for
( Tabld 6:16.2givesevaluatedlimits I, from LRFD and ASD'B5'1*

(
b
- < 5120
I
,IT (6.16.3)-
severaldifferent yleld stresses.Note is made that for (a; and (b) cases
..stiffenbd" "lemJnts.the LRFD ,\, limits havethe residualstressf deductcd
ttnder
a
V 4,ort shapes,tensile
( from F), under the root sign. For rolled and welded box
which is representedby point ,4 at tr. : 1.0 on Fig. 6.16.2,a point lying above in sec. 6.5.This means
residualstresses are inducedat the cornersasdiscussed
( the transitioncurve.Thus a reducedvalue of 1,. should be used to the tensile stresses must be
minimize that ,*.hencompressive externalloadsare applied
striss P/Asis F, on the element it is
( reducedtozero; thus.whenthe nominal

( 'For SI,
with {. in I{Pa (6.16.3) "no:':cornpact"limii'
.ASD.85.l docs not usc lhe symbolsl' forwidth,/thickncssratio or I' for
(
, (
DEFOFMATION rtt I
1 . . 6.17 /Atsc WIDTH/THICKNESSLIMITS:TO ACHIEVEPISSTIC
F' 370 . 6 Z COIiIPNESSION IN PARTII: PISTES
MEMBERS (
(
FoF PLATEELEMENTS
TABLEG17.1 wlDTHnHlcKNEssRATIOAeLlMlrS
actually (F, - 4) at the important regions near the supports. Since the PUNSTIiSTMIN IN AXIALCOMPRESSION
rO ACaOT"TN.,TODATE (
superimposedstresslevel is actuallylessthan {,, the limit tr, can be permitted Stitlenedelements
larger, For unstiffened elements,the stressat the free edgeis predominant and
unstrfleneq ebments (
Fr LRFDand AS}B5.1 LRFDand ASDBS.l
Fy
residual stressis generallylow or cornpressive;thus no reduction 4 is used for (MPa) ( E q .6 . 1 7 . 3 ) (Eq 6.176) (
(ks.)
such elements-
31.7 (
36 250 10.8
2W 10.0 29.3 (
LIMITreTO ACHIEVE 42
6.17 AISCWIDTH/THICKNESS 45 310 9.7 28.3
stqN rFtcANT PLASTICDEFORMATION 50 340 9.2 26.9 (
380 8.8 25.6
55 2S.5- (
Sometimesplate elementsof the cross-sationmust not buckle until they have 60 410 8.4
undergone significant compressivestrain exceedingthe strain €y at fkst yield, &1 73.6
65 450 (
that is, strain into the plastic region,as shown in Fig. 6.17.1.The lower the
width/thickness ratio the greater the compressivestrain r that can be ab-
(
sorbed u"ithout buckling. In axially loadedcolumnsthere would be no"needfor
tions tr ^ areintendedto achievecompression plasticstrainabout7 to 9 times (
the ability to undergo plasticsrain becausethe overall strengthof the column the strainn.r.rrury ro reich srrainhardening.Thus,the
..-;;;t";;;;:;;ir (
based on its KL/r would not requireplastic deformatioit. However in beams. elementlimit tr, is
Jnstiffenedcompression
as discussedin Chapter 7, the flangestnight be required to undergo significant ( ,
plastic strain without hauing local buckling occur.
Referring to Fig. 6.16.2,1" must be restrictednot to exceedtr' if strain
_sr
b 6 5 (6.17.3)i
(
hardening is to be reachedwithout plate buckling. From Fig. 6.15.a. tr. should (
not exceed about 0.45 for unstiffened compressionelements and 0.58 for Eq. 6'16'4with tr. : 0'58 gives
For stiffenedelemenrs.
(
stiffened compressionelements.
For unstiffenedelemenr, Eq. 6.f6.4 with tr. : 0.46 gives
b k t-T
- <2965 or e3'7V ( 6. 17. 4)
(
t 4,* 1'*'
b k k (
- < 2350 - restraintas the
when k = 4, the minimumvalueassumingedgerotational
or 74.3 (6.17.1)
t psl
F/, {"*- valuesfor CasesA
between
hingedconditiont*i"^1v thg k lies somewhere (
When k : Q.425(its leastvalue),Eq. 6.U.1 gives "nOC of Fig.6.15.2)'fu.6'17'4gives (
b
- (- :
48.5
(6.17e
b 187
6 1 7 s )(
I /{,, ksi
;=ffi ( ,
compressionele-
Since residual stress effects disappear in the plastic range and material LRFD and ASD-85.1 prescnbethe limit for the stiffened
imperfections have less effect, Eq. 6.17.2 is an overly severe limitation. ment as
Furthermore, the strain at onsetof strain hardeningis 15 to 20 times e, and b 190 (
- 1 :
* (6.17.6)'
that amount of plastic strain is not necessaryeven for achieving the plastic
t /{,, ksi (
moment strength discussedin Chapter 7. The LRFD and ASD-B5.l limita-
elementsand Eq' 6'17'6 (
A tabulationof the limits, Eq. 6.1?.3for unstiffened
discussionsrelative
for stiffeneAel.m.nrr, upp.,,i in Table 6.17.1.Additional (
(
I b 171
Stress r Plastic I Srrain
'For SI, *ith 4' in MPa -s (6.1?.3) (
i- teg'ot-hardening t ,IF,
: l (
Figure6.17.1 Plasticand strain-bardec.ng b 500 (6.r?.6)
-5
regioosof stress-suainrelatioushipfor (
steel
I
/4,,
(
l5F

E*:-:
372 o/coMpREsSONturgl,raEns
tNpARTtr:pLATES FOR STRENGTHOF PLATEELEMENTS
6 l8lAISC PROVISTONS

to local buckling limitationsro devetopplastic


strengrhare gi'en by Lay I6.Tu capacitycould be written (Fig. 6.18.1d),
and McDerrnort 16.72l.
P n : t bf u"s: Asr o, , f ^, s( unst if f eneci
elem ent ) ( 6. 1S. 3)

The AISC and the AISI [.12f havechosento treat thin elementsaccording. t()
6.18SAISC PROVISIONSTO ACCOUNT Eqs.6.18.2and 6.18.3,althoughactuallyeitherequationcould havebecnuse.j
BUCKLTNG -
FOR THE
ANDPOST-BUCkUTC
Siner,rcilii for either t1'peof elcment.Becauseof the large post-bucklingstrengthof tlru
OF PLATEELEMENTS stiffenedelement.one can imaginethat it ftas buckledand part of the elemcnt
is no longer active.On the otherhand, the urrstiffenedelement,u'ith relativelv
'{s discussedin Secs-6.15 and 6.16, prate little post-bucklingstrengthmay be thoughtof as not buckling becauseof the
"'tiffened" erementsin compression,either
Qr "unstiffened" (seefig. o.to.t), have strength use of a reducedstress.
after bucklinghas
r'ccurr€d,i.e.. post-bucklingstrength.stiffened
eremenl have a rarge post_
bucklingstrengthrvhileunstiffeneJelements have oJy u fittle. However,since Effect on Overall Column Strength
rhc strengrhof such erementscan be evaruated,
the;;l; good reasonto provide
for its use as has been done the sp.ecdication For design. it is desiredto use gross section properties;thus for stiffeneci
in 1o, ti, Design of cold-Formed
siee/ srructurol M embers[l.lz], firsi intioduced'in elements
1946.
From Fig' 6.18.1ait is apparentthat the nomiaal srrengthp^ot
. astiffened A^, ,
elementmight be expressed as D
t n (6.ts.+I
Agrorrr-.

r,: t d, (6.i8.1)
fouf(..) and for unsriffenedelements,
involving an integration of a nonirniforn stress f
distribution; or alternatively, - (6.18.s)
an "effecrivewidth" concept(Fig. 6.1s.rb) may P^ : 7 f^rrArror, Qrf*r.Auo*
be used: ./mlr

P,: tbrf^_: A"fff*o, (stiffenedelement) (o.rs.z) where Q" and Q, may be thoughtof as shape,or form. factors.
A cornpressionsystemcomposedof both stiffenedand unstiffenedcle-
n'here bu: effectivewidth over which the maximum stress
may be consid- ments rvould be treatedas unstiffenedfor establishingthe stress,f",r; then the
ered uniform and give the correct totar capacity. - -*; effectivewidth for the stiffenedelementsis determinedusing.f... : /u,r.Thut
Figure 6'18.1cshows that Eq. 6.18.1is equally valid '\ the total capacity rvouldbe
for the unstiffened
elementexceptthat the stressdistributionis not sy'mmetrical Pr : f t sA"t t (6.18.6)
about the center
of the element.If a reducedstress
faue<./.* is ur.J, the unstiffenedelement which gives
f ^. . ^ A^, ,
P, : #(,f.* ) ;-( l*,o*) : e,Q of^,*1r,.,,,, (6.18.7)
lmax d gross
flx)

From fus. 6.18.4,6.1.8.5,and 6.18.7,it is clear that the effectof premature


local buckling before the strengthof the overall column has been achievedis
to multiply.the-maximumachievablestressby the form factorsQ.Neglecting
the possibility of strain hardening,the maximum stressis the yield stress.
which is thereforeto be multipliedby Q.

FactorDesign. For the equationsused in LRFD, I.


I-ood and Resistance
wili becc.,rnetr.y?. and the short column equation becomesEq. 6.8.2, as
(a) (b)
follorr's:
Stiffenedelemenr
Unstiffencd element Fortr,iO.1.5;
Figure6'18'1 Plate elementsunder axial compression,
tion and ao equivalent system.
showing actual stressdistribu-
4,: (0.6580r'.)0r, [6.8.2]
JF!. .

374 6/COMPRESSION MEMBERSlN PART il: PI-ATES 6.18/ AISCPROVISTONS OF PI-ATEEL€i''ENTS


FORSTRENGTH 375 (
.:.. _ (
AllowableStressDesign. For the basic SSRC parabola used in ASD, Eq. 4 (
6.?.1 for short columnsbecomes:
, 3 r.34- 0.00447{l\A ,o, (
KL -:ji.

For - s C.; (
r
O =JIffi lar
f:

(
F,,-eF,['-
#(*i'] (6.18.s) -'
a'
i

tf (
-.
\-
0.65
o.so mfu,-, with k - 0.425
(
where Q : Q,Q.. From Eq.6.18.8,when Fn: QF,/z the sleriderness
ratio is
{$4 l o 7 6 i ' \ (
*"
2 r2 E G Yt-G i_g=ry1
cr= (6.18.e) -#..=
.
(
QF,,
( ,
:li: Ao.oo= €
gt
Whenever )\d{0 > 1.5 in LRFD, or KL/r t C. in ASD, the effect of
Iocal buckling on overall column strengthis negligible;thus, for more slender
.:i]F

:ire:-l
*--.
.g\- ^.-#(?)a=
UE
I rc,

columns the Euler equationis tbe basisof strength, #.:- \.


:-.-..r-.
unstiffenedcompressionelement (single angle) with
Sincethe form factor Q is used to accountfor the reduction in efficiency
.*. f-igure 6.1g.2 Plate streng& tor
"oo'.
insteadof modifying the cross-sectional
of the cross-section properties,whether -:E-
"ag. hinged -O rfrJ otber free. (LRFD-Aipendix B5.3.a and ASD-Appendix
* 85.2.a).
or not Q is lessthan unity the nominal strengthP; is computedas the product -:!

of 4, times A r, and the radiusof gyration r is that of the grosssectionin the


will
computationof KL/r. always /ess than {r. This meanslocal buckling of an unstiffenedelement
..:_4.

of the cross-sectiononly when 4r.pr"r. for the plate


reduce the efficiency
-Gl
element is less than {r.-1,,.r,.
Form Factor O, tor Unstttfened Elements Thus, in general,for columns "

Referringback to Fig. 6.16.2,one may note that when Q is lessthan 1.0 it :-.- F-.,pl"re 4r,pt",.
-
, (6.r8.10)
meansthat 1,. > X0. A transitionparabolacould have been usedto compute : 'Q': F,
f'*,",n'
the reducedstress.For simplificationa straight line has been used for singJe
anglesas shown by CurveA in Fig 6.18.2.The straightline usestr": 0.7 as and for compressionflangesof beams,
r€
the maximum for which Fo = Fr, and takes the proportional limit trorooat F -,pt"t 4t'ptot.
F ---T- - (6.18.1i)
,/7, approximatelythe sarneas for overall column buckling. However, bbcause vr:,
t cr, bea.ar llang,e '
of somepost-bucUingstrengththe theoreticalEuler-typecune (Curve C) has f.;
Y

been raised to give the AISC cuwe (Curve B). Many different expressions - 7

could havebeenusedu'ith the samelogicalresults. 3*'s Form Factor O, for Stlttened Elements
LRFD-Appendix 85.3.a aud ASD-Appendix 85.2.a give.similar stress
€-+ The concept of using an effective width over which stress may be considered
reduction equations for unstiffenedflanges anll the stems of tees.Theseother von Kirrmirn
rmiform, even thougfi it it actually nonuniform, w&sdevelopedby
-i5

equadonsare approxirnatelyproportionalto rlk, as may be noted by reference Winter's equatio!, the format oi
to Eq. 6.16.4and Table 6.16.1.The table contains the k valuesused for the t6.731and larer rJdifi.d by Winter t6.741.
.€=-
_d-

which has been used by the AISI Specification[1.12] since 1946, is


other unstiffenedcases. qL
'€
The limiting proportions for channels and tees given in LRFD and 'trt:
'-E-
b,
' r /tTl
; - 0 . 4 7 s[ F 1 (618r3]
ASD-Appendix B, Table 4'-85.1,are to precludetorsionalbuckling asa failure
rnode.This conceptis discussedin Sec.8.11.
.'.+. +: f, @1 ,I
,'*F-'
Although 8, hus been defined to this point as F"r/Fr, when overall
where l: PJA,, stressacting on the element(/r., of Fig. 6.18.1)
buckling of a column occurs(bas€don its KL/r) the averagestressPrlA, is
b/t : actual width/thickness ratio
-
EDGECOMPRESSION 363
(
362 6 / COhIPRESSIONMEMBERS lN PAFif ll: PLATES OFPISTESUNDERUNIFORI-J
615 / STRENGTH
( l

(
7.4
(
(

-m
6.0

|.-D-1
t .
l l
I
I 'I I-n-,I , +LJL-'
(
(
4.0

3.0
m = l m=2 m=3 m - 4
ffi, (

0 1 ? 3 4 (a) Elements suPPortedalong (b) Elemcnts supponed along (


two edges(stiffenedclements) one edge (unstiffened elements)
a/b (
'
Figure 6.14.8 Buckling coefficient for uniformly compressed plate-simple support Figure 6.15.1 Stiffened and unstiffened compression eleocnts.
( t
longitudinal edges (Eq. 6.14.29).
(
6.15T STRENGTHOF PLATESUNDER UNIFORM (
EDGE COMPRESSION
-5\
I-;_-l
ri,eo I
fI "
s.s. I
l
I (
Sincerolled shapes,as well as built-up shapes,are composedof plate elements, f ixed (
the column strength of the section based on its overall slendernessratio can
only be achievedif the plate elementsdo not buckle locally. Local buckling of
r*t
I s.s. I
t-r-l
I lree I (
plate elementscan causeprematurefailure of the entire section,or at the least i l--a--j
I (
II I s.s.
it r*'ill causestressesto becomenonuniform and reduce the'overall strength. r -'-r-
J c | -
In Sec.6.14 the basicapproacbto elasticstabilityof plateswasdeveloped.
i -{ (
The theoreticalelastic buckling stressfor a plate was shor+nto be expressible
.,o
i-
tr. F
{
.
t
i Type ol
(
- - - Loaded edges lixed
as gpport
C ' F
- Load€d edF: simPlY along (
12E € l
g,lpported unloaded
F.r: 't
Q i
\
[6.14.28] I 8- edges (
r2(l - p')(b/t)' : l
I A (
where k is a constant dependingon type of stress,edge support conditions, t t -
c n l
and length to width ratio (aspect ratio) of the plate, E the modulus of I (
6 l-.
elasticity, p Poisson'sratio, and b/t tbe width/thickness ratio. I

In generaf plate compressionelementscan be sepatatedinto two cate- I (


: .:: I
I
\ \ --^
gories: (1) stiffened elements;those supported along two edgesparallel to the i
I \ ,A-
- --- (
direction of compressivestress;and (2) unstiffenedelements;thosesupported t-,. = 4.00
along one edge and free on &e other edge parallel to direction of compressive r * . 1\ (
stress.Refer to Fig. 6.15.1for typical examplesof thesetwo situations. : i ? (
For the elementsshown in Fig. 6.15.1 various degreesof edge rotation
.t:
\ \
restraint are present.Figure 6.15.2showsthe variation in k with aspectratio l1: (
t s,'
a/b for most of the idealized edge conditions, i.e., clamped (fixed), simply i =::.
(
it ,=,.l
supported,and free. t +
Actual plate strength in compressionis dependenton many of tbe same l ' -** .
l
(
2 3
facterrsthat affect overall column strength,particularly residual stress.Figure l:' (
t *' AsDectratio. a/D Ln^=0'425
6.15.3 shows typical behavior of a compressedplate loaded to its ultirnate L:-

losd. Assuming ideal elastic-plasticmaterial containing no residual stressthe I.::- plates' (


Figure 6.'15.2 Elastic buckliai coefficients for compressioo in flat rcctangular
stress distribution remains uniform until the elastic buckling slress F- is l€. (Adapted froar Gerard and Becker[6.690.
IF+F ( '
l1F
G*'
!fif-
(
frs =
qf:
( t
(
, {
( 6/COMPRESSTON 377
tN pARTil: PLATES
MEMBERS 61e / A|SC PROVTSTONS
FOR STRENGfi OF PISTE ELEMENTS
(
( The folu and constantsof the equationwere essentially and the designrequirementis that
determinedto agree
( with experimentalresults.
SubstiruringE :29,000 ksi gives Pu: Q"(\r..',"r) A g (6.1s.1r)
(
bE 324[ 81 I S ubsti tuti ngE q. 6.18. 17int o Eq. 6. i8. 16sho'*sihat
( - = - 1 1-. 0 -- l (6.18.13) (6.1s.1s)
t ,/f L- (b/t),/| J f : Q,F-,.e,t"',
(
Experiencewith light gagesteelshowedthat the coefficientof the and from Eq. 6.18.11,
( secondterm
(6.is.1e)
i' Eq. 6.18.13could be reduced.since 1962 the equationused
by both the 4r.pt",": 0r4r..oi-t-o
I
irlSl Specification[1.12] and the AISC Specificaiionhas
1\

been essenrially Thus,


unchanged- In LRFD-Appendix85.3.bare giuenthe following:
( (6.1s.20)
f = 8,QrF.r.coluaa
( l" For flangesof squareand rectangularsectionsof uniform thickness:
Note that p,fr.columnit F- in LRFD-AppendLxB5.3.c.In other rvords,*'hen

(
(
;=7["-&J
br' 326| 64.9
(6.18.14)-
Q < 7, 4, it redefinedas QF", in the LRFD Specification.
Finally, Qo as definedby Eq. 6.18.4is

( 2" Far other uniformly compressedelements: e o : !A" - : ybt [o.rs.+]


( uou

(
( +:#1"-d,#l (6.18.15) where Adt: lsror. - I(b - bu)t-

Design Properties
( The differencebetweenEqs. 6.18.14and 6.1g.15can be expiainedpartly
by the difference in the assumedrotational restraint (moment along tbe In computing the nominal strength,the ioilosing rules apPl)' in accordancc
( supportededges,Fig. 6.18.1b). *'ith LRFD-Appendix B5.3.c.
( Additional discussionof the effective width for stiffened elemenrs'fi--' For axial compression:
compressionis available in the work of Korol and sherbourne '\
( 16.75,6.761, l. Use gross areaAr'for { : FoAs.
Dawson and walk er 16.771, and Abdel-sayed t6.7sl. sharp 16.7g)ias consia- 2. Use gross area to compute radius of gyration r for KL/r.
( ered stiffened elementshaving one edge stiffened uy a iii. Kalyanaraman,
Pekoz' and Winter [6.80] havi proposld an effecrive width For flexure:
expressionfor
( unstiffen'edelemints.
l. Use reduced section properties for beams rvith flanges containing
( Since a column cross-sectionmay include unstiffened elements rvhich
stiffened elements.
under presentdesignproceduresutilize reducedaveragestressrather than an
( effectivewidth, the controliing stresson unstiffened il.rnrnt, is used as the Since the strengths of beams do not include Q factors relating to thin
applicable maximum stressacting on the stiffened elements.Thus the stress compressione-lements, it is appropriateto use section propertiesbasedon
(
/is effective afea,
(
( f:+ (6.18.16)
For beam-columns:
l. Use gross area for P".
2. Use reducgdsectionpropertiesfor flexure involving stiffenedcomPres-
( sion elementsfor i{n, and Mnr.
( 3. Use Qo and Q, for determining P^-
4. For {; basea on lateral-torsionalbuckling of beamsas discussedin
( Chaptir 9, the maximum value of Fo is Q,Fn rvhen unstiffened
rFor SI wirh in MPa
/
": ttj[t--gl
( t ,/f L- Qtifi l (6.{8.14) compressionelementsare involved.

| (
(
378 6/COMPRES.SION tN PARTit: pt-ATFS
MEMBERS 6.19/ DESIGNOF I,4EMBERS
ASAFFECTES
3Y LOCAL6UCXI.II.IC 379
(

Etfecllve Wldth in Allowable Stress Deslgn braced in the plane of the truss every z ft, bur onty at rhe ends (
in t'he,
transversedirection. Assume the two anglesare attachedtogetherwith (
in Altowable StressDesign,the nominal strength { would havero be divided fully-
tightened bolts and the spacingof connectorsis closeenough that
by a factor of safety rc give the allowable load P. Dfviding rhe nominal the double (
angle member reachesits maximum axial load strength.f N.g.ct
strengrhgiven by Eq. 6.18.2by the factor of safetyFS. gives any contri-
bution to lateral support from the roofing. Complute the
maximum axial \
P, f^^' ryrvice compressionload this member can.be permitted to carry. The service
r: =ao-r13- (6.18.21) load is 30%dead load and 70% graity live load. Use A5?2 Grade (
FS 50 steeiand
Load and ResisranceFactor Design. (
The term (l^JFs) may be thoughr of as the allowable itress .e. The
important conclusion here is tbat &e effective width 6, to be uied in SOLUTION (
computing the allorvable capacity at service load is the same b, wed in (a) Check local buckling. The 8-in. legs of this double (
angle member are
comPutingstrengthP,. lf Eqs.6.18.14or 6.18.15were useddirectly,the service unstiffened compression elemens. Chec[ whether or not *iatnTtnickness
load stress/ would have to first be multiplied by the factor FS. Instead. ratio l, exceedstr, of LRFD-B5, (
ASD-Appendix Bl.2.b changesthe formula by replacing/ with 1.65/, thus (
grving for Eq. 6.18.14,
( r : i : # : 1 6 . 0>) ( ^ , : (
bE
- =
2s3|
- 50.3 I #:#=ro.?)
t /r[t'o wl (6.18.22)
"flnce I > 1,, local buckling
will control and the sectionefficiencyis reduced.
(
(
Using LRFD-Appendix 85.3.a,the reductionfactor
which is ASD-Appendix B Formula (.4-85-7). e, i,
(
Q,: 1.340
- o.oo447(l
),,r''/ (
6.19 DESIGNOF COMPRESSION \ r /v
MEMBERS
AS AFFECTED
BY LOCALBUCKLINGPROVISIONS {
: 1.340- 0.0044?(16)fi0 :0.834
(
Design of single and double angle struts, structural tees, welded built-up (b) compute designstrengthe,pn.For axial compression,properties
I-shapes.and most other built-up sections,includ.ingbox-type sections,in- of (
the grosssection are used.From ttre RlsC Manual properties
voh'es the close attention to width/thickness limitations lo preuent local of sinlle angles
and propertiesof double-anglestrutswith short tegsuack-to_back, (
buckling. Rolled w, s, and M shapes have proportions suih 'that local
buckling will not occur (that is, O : 1.0)prior to achievingthe strengthof the A , : 1 1 . 5s qi n . (
section based on the overall slendernessrritio KL/r. t (
The following examplesillustate situations.wbere < 1.0. /, : 1.08in. r" : 4.00in. for f -in. gusset
ptate
o
(
r EXAMPLE 6.19.I Assuming r( = 1.0 for truss membersas discussedin sec. 6.9.
A double anglecompressionchord memberfor the truss of Fig. 6.19.1consists
(KL), r.!(tltr:r, (KL), (
of 2-L8x4x|, having short legs back-to-back.The 2g-ft-longmember is _ _ lg(x)rz - 84
rx 1.08 ry 4.oo- (
using LRFD-Formula(A-85-il), Eq.6.g.2,wirh A" givenby Eq. 6.7.3,
-y:
2 L 8 x o l* J 0 . 8 5 9i n . (
-
tor gross
s€clion
tr.-+{E:*lm:1., [6.7.31 \
1
iin. Wset olate (
Section A-A
'Thc possible (
reduction in sreogth '.tsritrg to tbe connection
rigure 6.19.1 Example6.19.1. between rhe two anglcs was
discusscd in Scc.6.8 and is oovercd is LRFDEA.
(
(
(
C
{' d
( MEMBERSiTpAnr tl: pt-ATES
6/COMPRESS|ON fr OF IJ-MBERS
6.19/ DESIGN BYLOCALBUCKLING 381
AS A,FFECTED
( I:_l
',1
- - l

( which g*e$
,l
-:l
( )\,\f0 : 1.11rfi83T
: 1.014
< 1.5 I
a
( Forx,{0 < 1.5; ,l
,l
( t
4,: (o.ossc^'.)gF [6.s.2] ,t
'I
(
4, : (0.65go.ttqt.trl';10.g34)50 : 27.1ksi =' i l
( I
Q , F , , : 0 . 8 5 ( 2 7 . 1 :) 2 3 . 1k s i
(
e , P n : + , F n A s : 2 3 . 1 ( 1 1 . 5: ) 2 6 5k i p s *
( : l i l

P u : 1 . 2 P o+ l . 6 P L : 1 . 2 ( 0 . 3 P+) t . 6 ( 0 . 7 P ): 1 . 4 8 p
( Figure6.19.2 Example6.19.2.
Q r P n :P r : 1 . 4 8 P
. (
P : 265/1.48 : 179kips (maximumserviceload capacity) E "NUIt{ERICAL VALUES" TABLE 3-50,
( (c) Selectsection.From LRFD
E E}LTMPLE 6.19,2 :
estimateQ,I-,,= 19.3(60/50) 23 ksi-
( Design a double angle compressionmember for use as a spreaderstrut for
( hoisting large loads, as shown in Fig. 6.19.2.The lifted toia ii 60 tons, of R e q u i rAerd= = 1 6 .s3qi n .
which 55 tons is live load includingimpact.The remainderis dead load. Use h #:
( - 6Oksi and Load and ResistanceFactor Design.
4 Try L8x8Xi, r*,,, : 2.49in.. I s : \9.2sq in.. KL/r : 96.4-Thisis a larger
( areathan seemingll;needed: however,the next lighterangle(A:15.5 sq.in.)
SOLUTION =
( (a) Computefactoredload {. At 4 to 1 slopeof cable the compressive r,,.illnot be adequate.The estirnated9.{, obtainedby increasingthe F, 59
ksi valuein theiatio of the;ield stresses is for
probably'high KL/r over 100.
( Ioad in the strut is 120 tons (240 kips).
r t 7 g \ / 7 6 i 6
( : 376
Pu:r.r(fr +1.6(fr)t*oy : : 12.8J
, l,^,: : ^n.rj\
)t*ol kips [r: ; o; E: 7ffi-
(
(b) Estimatethe slenderness : 0.E97
(
ratio. AssumeK:
6.19.2b,use text AppendixTable A,1to estimater,
1.0 and referringto Fig. e: :1.340 - o.oa447(12.8)'60
( '
rx = 0'29h
t r . : 1 . 4 0 ; X , t f T: 1 . 3 2 < 1 . 5
( rY= 0'24b Thus the short column streogtbformula. Eq. 6.8.2,controls.Evaluating.
( If 8-in. legsare used, r, = 0.29(8): 2.32 in. F" , :2 5. 9 ksi: +F", : 22'0 ksi
( . 2) : 423 kips > {
,Q,P n= Q "F, , As: 22- 0( 19 oK
KL 1 .0 (2 0 )1 2
Estimate-=--:--:104
( r 2 .3 IJse 2-L8x8Xf horvever.the-
. Note that the strengthis excessive;
(
( 'This load does
not agree witb that given in the LRFD Manual "COLUMNS" tables f,or e,pn. E EXAMPLE 6.19.3
Selectthe thinnest 12x12 structural tube to carry an axial compressionof 60
Those tabular loads are for a particular number of bols attaching tbe two angles togetber
( (LRFD-E/) and also include flexura!-torsional buckling io accordance with LRFD-Appendix E.
The ma:rimum O.P" including flexural-tonional buckling is 260 kips; about 2% lower rhan kips dead load and 260 kips live load. The effectivelength KL is 18 ft and the
( ccmputcd above. For hot-rolled sections,the authors do nor beleve il necessaryto include'this member is part of a braced svstem'Use {' : 65 ksi and Load and Resistance
effect. When very thin sections,such as cold-formed light-gage sections, are uscd flexura!-torsibnal Factor Design' Note that rvhile ushg F, : 65 ksi illustratesprocedure'Grade
C buckling nrusr be evaluated. 50 is the maximum for structural tubes under ASTM A500.
t ' ( '
r>"
3Bz MEMBERS
6/COMPRESSTON lN PAFTT
ll: PLATES
C
6.19/ OEStcNOFMEMBERS
AS AFFECTED
By LOCALBUCKLTNG
(
- (
SOLUTION unstiffenedelements Q,:l.A; thus Q : Qo.Try f- 0.g5(53.6)- 45.6 ksi as
(a) Compute.factoredload P". obtained from the first estimateof KL/r.'- (
Pu : 1.2(60)+ 1.6(260)- 488 kips (
jb,: 326
- : 1 1 . |0 - $a.g
--:l:37.7
1
(b) obtain estimare of required area use text Appendix Table Al ro t ,lqs.6
L-'- (u.o|,tg 1 (
estimate radius of gyration, (
Thus local buckling will control the section efficienry for all four sides of the
r = 0 .4 h= 0 .a (1 2 ): 4 .8 i n . (
tube. The effectiveareais
Using Eq. 6.E.2for {, with first trial g - 1,
KL : u.6_4+_+)r
Acf,: ( ,

ry3 :4s; & - 53.6


ksi (
r 4.8
(
= ll.6 - 4(44.0- 3?.?X0.25)z
:10.0 sg in.
RequiA
r erd: (
h: 6ffi:e.tsqin. A-,, 10.0 (
Try 12x12xf strucrurattube (Fig. 6.19.3): '..
eo:-:Ti;:0.865
dgross
(
A , : 11.6sq in. r, : ry: 4.78in.
Recomputethe KI./r valuefor the trial section, (
(c) Compute' strength of selectedsection. Check b/t on stiffened ele-
ments. The width b is the flat width measuredbetween the "roots of the KL : gP (
flanges" where the outside radius at the @rtrers is twice the thickness.
: 45.2i \,{O - 0.633
r 4.18 (
(
Using {, from LRFD-Appendix 85.3.c.
F - 55.0ksi; 0.f.- : 46.7 ksi
\
Local buckling *'ilI reduce the efficiencyof this section.Compute the reduc- (
tion factor Qo in accordancewith LRFD-Appendix B5.3.a. The effective Since 46.7 ksi is not much different from the trial value of 45.6 ksi. another (
'*'idth/thicknessrario is trial is not made.Thus,
(
u, -, 326| 649 I S,P, = 46.7(11.6)- 542 kips t (p" .= 4gg.kips) OK
t TLt.o-Wl t6.18.141 (
IIsellxl2X| structural
tube, Fr: 6|ksi.
'function (
where f: Q]d which is a of Q). For rhis section having no
(
For design, in addition to the propenies of rolled structural tubing
Stif{ened
available in the AISC Manual, there is available the Manual of Cold Formed (
ccrnpression WeldedStructural Steel.Tubing,tcontnining column and beam ioad tables.
elernents (
k""-''l
,Fr=it
I EXAMPLE 6.19.4
Determine the nominal aJdal compression strength .q, for the nonstandard (
shapeof Fig. 6.19.4for an effectiveleagth KL q,ral to-g ft. Use : 100 ksi
LILJJJ and Load and ResistanceFactor Design. {, (
(
{a) Gn-ri rctira (b) Effectivcsecrion
'First Editioq l9?4, Publisbodby th Weldcd
(
SrcclTubc Instirurc, Ine., Srncnrat Tube Divisioa,
Frgur€6.19.3 F-xacple5.19.3. 522WesgateTorrr, Clcvelard,Ohiort4ll6. (
(
( -
\
',(
GrICOMPRESSION IJEMBERS lN PART ll: PLATES 385
SELECTEDREFERENCES
(
(
"NUMERICAL VALUES"TABLE4, find coefficient
0.696for
Unsriffened From LRFD
( elernents :
A I. 0.69;thus
( '"
t--10----r
- /\ : 68ksi
-], -TT- L-n- ]x ro .'_
/ \ , lu.
Q.4, : o.6g6Q\: o-696(0.978)100
( I
rr Z b,. 326 57.2
ir' ll-n-]r Stiffened/
-r'i------r
rt i O, -:- - : ! 1 .|0 - - - - - - - - - - - I-!:: 3 - ? . 3
( t t l
.--aI- _ _ = \ ! element ll - r /68 L t#.0)i68 J
!
|
\e._ixro rJ^______1 .
( - - .25\2: 12.08sqin-
(a) Cross scction (b) Effectivc secti<.rn
A"n : 12.?5 (u.o 33.3X0
( A.,, 12.0it
Figure6.19.4 Example6.19.4.
Q o : ff, :
( gros'' m:0'9'io
( : 0.93is
SOLUTION The new valueof +.4, for Q: Q,Qo: 0.978(0.948)
( In axial compression this section contains unstiffened compressioaele-
:0-676
^;,f0 : 0.70116-93
ments (flanges) and a stiffened compressionelement(rhe web). Unstiffened
( : 65-3ksi
elements must be treated first so that the effective stress level mav be . 0.4,:01Q2Q4 : 0.102(0.93)100
( determined.
(a) Propertiesof the grosssection. : 832kiPs
Q,P,: Q,F,Ar: 65.3(12.75)
i
(
.Ir: negligrble(web) + 2(*X0.5)(10)3 (flanges): 83.4in.a
P^: 832/9,: 832/0.85: 978kips
(
( ,{ : 11(0.25)+ 2(5.0) : t2.75 sq in.
SELECTEDREFERENCES
( rr: ,{ I/F : { $ .4 fl L 7 5 :2 .56i n.
6.1. L. Euler. De Curuis Elasticis, Additamentum I, Meihodus Inueniendi Lineas
( (b) Unstiffened elemenrs,LRFD-85.1: CuraasMaximi Minimiue Propietate Gaudentes. Lausanneand Gcneva,174"1(pp.
267-765); and "Surle Forcesdes Colonnes,"lrfemoiresde l'AcadenzieRoyaledes
: b,t: s"#:
( I .0 -\
'
lo.oj | - 9s
= \
e.5l --'.,. Scienceset Bellesl*ttres, Vol. 13, Berlin, 1759; En#sb translation of the lettcr
"Euler's ClassicPaper'On the Strength of Columns',"
( l,r, t^, u;;- by J. A. Van den BroBk,
A ntericanJ ourn:alol Physia, 15 (January-February 1947),309-318.
( i i l! "Resistance des pitces comprimies," Congris International des
Thus, since l t tr, the local buckling limit state causesreduced efficiency; \--a
_,'l 6.2. A. Considdre.
( Q" < 1.0: :l Procidbsde Construclion,Paris, 1891,3,37L.
"Ueber die Knickfestigkeit gcrader Slabe," Zeitschrift desArchitek'
:i 6.3. F. Engesser.
"Die
( .". I
ten-und Ingenieur-Vereins zu Hannouer,35 (1889), 455 and 462; also
Q,:1.41s - 0.00437(i)tq LRFDFormula
(A-B5-3) ' -
: - l
a
t Ifuickfestigkeit gerader Stabe." Zentralblatt der Bawenraltung. Berlin (Dcccmbcr
=,:i
(
:-i 5, 1891),483.
(
(
: 1.415- 0.00437(roy/Ioo
(c) Stiffenedelement,LRFD-85.1:
: 0.978
:l I
6.4. F. R. Shanley.
"The Column Paradox," Journal ol the Aeronaurical Sciences,13,
12 (Dccember 1946),678.
6.5. F. R.'Shanley.
"Inelastic Column Theory," Jounzal of the Aeronautical Scicnces,
14, 5 (May 1947),26L-264.
I
: ;b : 1 1 . 0: *'o)'
- t

.^r l- : 2s3 \ "Column Buckling Theory: Historic Higblights," Journal of


(
lI u2s : 2ssl = lI 6.6. Bruce G. Johnston.
( [^' ffi .': .
:4. l

i
StructuralEngineering,10, 9 (September1983),?A86'2096; Disc. by T- H. Lin,
ZiaPta"taq,'and B. G. Johnston,110,8 (August 1984),1930-1933.
:Ei
Thus Qo < 1.0. The stress/ that acts on the stiffened elementis "A Sun'ey of Progress,l944-5L," Bulletin No. 1, Column
( f.{, u-here 6.7. Bruce G. Joh4ston.
{, includesQ, that is, Eq.6.8.2.A first trial may be madeassumin! b: e,, ;:, ResearchCouncil, January 1952.
( th at is , Q " : 1. 0. .;: 6.8: TbeodoreV. Galambos,ed.Guideto StabilityDesignCriteria ior lv{etal Stnrctures,
,?.:i 4th ed. New York: Johir Wiley & Sons,1988.
( i : l
: 37.5 : 0.6e
. ^,,/O:0.?01/6e?8-
:1?
--r*:i 6.9. Friedricb Bleicb. BucklingStrengthof Metal Structures.New York: lv{cGraw-Hill
( +: # a;I Book Compuy, Inc., 1952.

F (
;1'l
-.: "I
t - ' I

q " i
F

a'>' (
3g6 6/CC|ioRESION MEMBERS
rN PAFT il: pl_ATES
SELECTEDREFERENCES387 (
(-
6.10. Bruce G, Johnston. ..lu6kting Bebavior Above the Tangent Modulus
Load,,, 5.30.Suresh C. Shrivastava-"Elasds luskling of a Colurnn Uoder Varying Axial
Journal af rhe Engineering Mechania Diuision, ASCE, 87, EM6 (December 196l). (
;1 Force," EngineeringJournal, AISC, 18,'l lFirst Quaner 1980), 19-21.
7g-gg.
6.1t ' A- W. Huber and L. S. Beedle." Residual Stressand the CompressiveStreogrb
6.31.Balbir S. Sandhu. "Effective Length of Colurnns wi& Intersrediate Axial Load," ( .
of .., EngineeringJournal, AISC,9, 3 (October 1972),154-156.
Steel," 9VetdingJowna!, December 1954, 5g9s_614s.
6.12. C. H. Yang. L. S. Beedle,and B. G. Johnctou. ..Residual Stressand tbe yield =_
:.4 6.32.John C. Ermopoulos. "Buckfing of Tapered Bars Under Stepped Alial Loads," (
.-. Journal ol StrucruralEngineering,ASCE, ll2, 6 (Juae 1986), 134f.-L354.
strength of Steel gsamq," welding Journa!, April 1952, 205s-229s. 4.,.. (
6-13. N. R- Nagaraja Rao, F. R Btuar, and L. Tall. "Residual Strcssesio Welded 6.33.D. R. Sherman. TentatiaeCriteria for StrzrctwatApplicatiotts ol Steel Tubing and
Shapes," l*'eldingJounal,Iuly 1964,295s-306s.
Prpe.Washington,D.C.: American lron and Steel Institute, 1976. (
. *,: 6.34.Julian Snyder and Seng-Lip Lee. "Buckling of Elastic-Plastic Tubular Columns,"
6.14' Donald R Sherman. "Residual Stress Measurement in Tubular Members,,. sf:
iF. -
( ,
Journal of the stntctural Diuision,AscE 95, sr4 (April 1969), 63s-.6/l7.
_*,. Jountal of the Structural Diuision,ASCE 94, STI (January 1968), 153-173.
6-15. Donald R Sbermao. "Residual Stresscsaad Tubular Compression Memb€rs,,' *,, 6.35.Seng-Lip Lee and Julial Snyder. 'Stability of Straio-Hardening Tubular
* (
Columns," Journal of thc Structural Diokion, ASCE 94, ST3 (March 1968),
Journat o{ the stnrcturar Ditision, AscE yt, sr3 (March tl7t1, g9l_904.
6.16. Lynn S- Bcedle and Lamben TalL "Basic Column Strength,"
a:l 683-707. (
Journal of the , + - 6.36.Wai F. Chen and David A. Ross. "Tests of Fabricated Tub.ular Columns."
strucrura! Diaision, AscE 86, sr7 (July 1960), 139-123. Also 2nraruo|rio^. ..: ( . ,
ASCE, tTt (L962),part II, l3g_179. Journal of the StrucruralDiuision,ASCE lO3, ST3 (March 1977),6f9-634.
6'17' Ching K. Yu aod Lambert Talt. "significance and Application of n 6.37.David A. Ross, Wai Fab Chen, and Lambcrt Tall. "Fabricated Tubular Steel (
Stub Column Columns," Jouraal ol the Structwal Diuision, ASCE" 106, ST1 (January 1980),
Test Resulrs," JoutrTal of the Stnrctwal Diuision,4Ste, yl, ST7 (July
l97l). '€- 265-282. (
1841-1861.
.:f \
\
.' - A ? e Theodore V. Galambos. "Strengtb of Round Steel Columns," tournal of the
6.18. Bruce G. Johnston...Inelastic Buckliag Gradient," Journal of the v..JY|

Engineeing -aa
.' SrrucruralDiuision,ASCE"91, STI (February 1965),121-140. (
Mechanie Dicision,ASCE 90, EM6 @ecembu 1964), 3l_47.
6.19. Richard H- Batterman and Bruce g. J6hnst6n. "Behavior : 6 . 3 9 .Charles Libove. "Sparsely Connected BuiIt'-Up Colunns," Journol ol Stntctural (
and Maximum Strength + Engineering. ASCE llt,3 (Marcb 1985),ffi-627.
of Metal coluons," Journat of the Stntctwsl Diuision, AscE, 93,
1967),205-230.
srz (Atril
.. 6.40. Abohassan Astaneh-Asl, Subbash C. Goel, and Robert D. Hanson. "Cyclic (
6.20. Bruce G- Johnston, ed. strzctural subility Researchcouncil, Out-of-Plane Buckling of Double-Angle Bracing," Journal of Structwal Engineer-
cuide to stabilut i n g , A S C E ,l l l , 5 ( M a y 1 9 8 5 )1, 1 3 5 - 1 1 5 3 . (
Design Crircria for Metal Stntctures,3rd ed, New York: Jonn Witey a
S.*. fr... . 6 . 4 1 .Cynthia l. Za}.o and Geerhard Haaijer. "Effect of Connector Spacingon Double
t976. (
5'21' Reidar Bjorbor;de. "Effect of End Restraint on Column Angle CompressiveStrength," Moteriab and Member Behaaior, Proceedingsof
Strength-practical
Applications." EngrneeringJournal,AISC,22, I (First StructuresCongress'87,Orlando, FL, Augrrst 17-20,1987, pp. 199-212. (
6'22. Reidar Bjorbovde- "The Safety of Stcel Colu-ns," iournal
euarter 19g-4),l_13. 6 .42 John B. Kennedy and Madugula K. S. Murty. "guskling of Steel.Angleand Tee
"y ti" Stntuurai Struts," Jaurnal ol the Sttzctural Dioision, ASCE 98, STll (November 1972), (
Diuision, ASCE tOd, ST3 (Marcb lg7g), 63_477.
6.23. Reidar Bjorbovde. 'Colnmns: From Theory to practice,,' 2507-2522 (
AISC, 26, I (Firsr euarter lggg), zl-3/..
EngineeringJounal. 6.43 John B. Kennedy and Madugula IC S. Murty. "luskling of Angles: State of the
$.1{. [ann H. ry| 'hopoced Art," Journal of the Structwal Diubion, ASCE, 16, ST9 (September 1982), (
Steel-Cotpo Strength Criteria," Jownal of rhe
structural Dteyly' 1967-1980. Disc., Joumal ol Strucnrul Engircering, ASCE, 109, 8 (August 1983).
sr4 (April 19El), ug-676. Disc. by Bruce G. John-ston. /
l(D: 2075-2029.
l€, sr4 (April 1982),956-95?; by Zu-yan shen and Le-wu Lu, l(8,
1982),1680-1681;by author, 108,SnZ (Decemberl9g2), 2gi3_2g55.
sn 1lut.' 44 Scott T. Woolcock and Sritawat Kitipornchai. "Design of Single Angle Web
6.4.
6.25. J. Michael Rotter. "Multiple Struts in Trusses,"Journol of Stntctwal Engineering, ASCE, ll2, 6 (June l9E6).
Colurnn fuwss by Modifying Factors,,, fourzail o.f
the structwar Dicision,AscE l(8, sr7 (July rtg2), 1665-1669. 1327-r345. (
6'16' JacqueRondal and ReoE Maquoi. "single Equation for 45. Adel A. El-Tayem and SubhashC. Goel. "Effetive Length Factor for Design of
6..45
SSRC Column.Stren-.,r X-bracing Systems," Engineering Journal, AISC, U, 4 (Fint Quarter 1986), (
curvss," Journol of the strucwal Diaision, AscE 16, srl (January
lgly;. 4L-45.
2$-25A.
6'27 E' I{' Lui *d y- F--Chen. 'Simplified 46. Subhasb C. Goel and Adel A El-Tayeo- -Cyclic Load Behavior of Angle
Approach to the Analysis and Design of
columns nirb lrperfectious,- Engineeringlownal,Alsc, zz, i X-Bracing," Journal of Structural Engineering, ASC$ ll2, ll (November 1986), (
lsecond euarrer 2528-2539.
le84).99_t1?.
6ls' John P' Andersoa and James H. Woodsard. "Calculation 6 . 4 7 .Guo Chueomei. "Elastoplastic Buckling of Single Angle Columns.- fourna! of \
of Effective Lengdis Stnrturol Engineering, ASCE 110,6 (Junc 1984), 139f-f395.
and Effective SlendernessRatios of Stepped Colunos," (
AISC,9, 3 (Ocrobcr ln2),lj?_166.
EngineeringJourn;!. 6.48. F-rling A. Smith- "Buckliag of Four Equal-Leg Angle Cruciform Columns,"
6.29- carlo A. cas.iglionl_*stcpped columns: Jouraal of StntcturalEngineering,ASCE, lUr,2 (February 1983).439-450. (
A sinprified Design Method," Eng-
neeringJownal, AISC, ?A, I (First 6.49. LeWu Lu. "Effective Length of Columns in.Gable Franes," EngineeringJwr-
auancr 19g6);l_g. nof, AISC,2, I (January1965),6-7.
(
(
(
(
':!
( - t

388 6/coMpRESStoN MEMBERs


tN nARTl: pLATES t
( -rI
I PROBLEMS 389
''' I

i
(
6:5o. Kamal Hassan-"on thc Determination of Buckl;-a3Lcngth :l
' t
"FlengeLocalBucklingin Wirlc-Fla:rgc
( of Frame Cotumns,,, I 6.1i. \Ia;<.*:llG. Lar'. Shapcs."Jo:trnc!o,fthc

(
Publications, International Association for Bddge and Structural
2&II, 1968,91-iOl (in German).
Eng,incering, :J
'l 6.?3. John F. lvfcDcrmott.
ASCE.91,5T6 (Deccnrbcr
S:ruc;uralDit'isiort.
"Locel Pla.stic
1965).95-116.
Bucklingc'i A514Stccll"lcmbcrs,"Jr,it,''rr.;,
6.51. Theodore v. Galambos. "lnfluence of partial Base Fixity
on Freme stability,,, the SrrucruralDit'ision,ASCE,95.ST9 (Septcmber 19i.9).133r 1S5i'
( Journal of the structurar Diuision,ASCE, g6, sr5 (lr{ay 1960),g5-iOg.
' iI "Thc Strcngthol Th:;
6'52' German Gurfinkel and Arthur R. Robinson. "Buckling 6.73. Theodorevon Karmirn.E. E. Sechlcr.and L. H. Donnell.
( of Elastically Restrained (19i2). 53.
Columns," Journal of the Stntctural Diukion. ASCE" 9t, STO(December
1965),
i
a
Plates in Compression." ASME.
Transacriorrs. 3{. AP\{-54-5
"strength of Thin ComprcssionFlangcs."Transactiots'ASCE. ll2
i59-183. { 6.i4, G. \\'inter.
( I
6.53. Harold s*'itzky and ping chun w-g. ..Desigl and I 00917).527-576.
Analysis of Fra"nes for :
! "strength Prcdictionsof Piatcs
( srabiliry," Jottrnal of the structural biuirion,- ASCE, gs,'sig 6.7-<.Roberi lr{. Korol and ArchibaldN. Shcrbourne.
i^rril 1969),
695-713. i
I in Uruadal Compression,"Jountal of the StructuralDicision,ASCE, 98, ST9
( 6'54. Thomas C. Kavanagb. "Effective I
(Septeinber1972), 1965-1986.
Length of Framed Columns,,, Transactions, !

I
"Post-Buckling of Axially
ASCE, 127 (1962),Parr II, 81-i01. 6.76. Arcb.ibald N. Sherbourne.andRobert lvI. Korol.
I

( It
6-55. Joseph A. Yura. "The Effective Length of Cciur::rs in Unbraced I CompressedPlates,"Journalof the StructuralDitision,ASCE, 98, ST10(October
Fra:res,,, ,
(.' EngineeringJournal, 19 ,tTt.2223-2234.
rysc, 8, 2 (April 1971), i7-42; Disc., 9, 3 (octob er L972), iI "Post-Buckling of Geometrically
167-168. ' l
6.77. Ralpb G. Dawson and Alastair C. Walker.
( 6'56. Peter F. Adams. Discussionof "The Effective Length of Columns :
in Unbraced
r l Imperfect Plates," Journal of the Structural Dit,ision.ASCE, 98, ST1 (January
-. I
Frar'es," by Josepb A. yur4 EngineeringJournat, AISC, 9, I (January I i 9 7 2 ) .7 5 - 9 4 .
( rgTz), I "EffectiveWidth of Thin Platesin Compression,"Jourtul
40_41. I 5.78. Geor3eAbdel-Sayed.
( 6.57. Bruce G, Johnston. Discussion of "The Effective Length
6f fetrrmns in Uo- of the SrructuralDiaision,ASCE, 95, ST10(October1969),2183-2203.
braced Frames," by JosepbA. Yura, EngineeringJourna!, AISC,9, "Longitudinal Stiffcnersfor CompressionN{embcrs,"Jounnl
( 1 (January 6.79. Maunce L. Sharp.
t97Z),46. of the Structura!Dicision,ASCE. 92, ST5 (October1966)'i87-2li'
6.58. Robert O. Disque. "Inelastic K-factor f6s eelrrmn Desig,o,,, "Unstiffened Comprcs-
( EngineeringJournal, 6-80. v- Kalyanaraman,TeomanPckoz,Itd Georgewinter'
AISC, 10, 2 (Secondeuarter 1973),33_35. AscE, 103, sT9 (Scptcmber
sion Elemen15,"Jounnl ol the StructuralDiuision,
( 6.59. C. V. Smith,Jr...On InelasticColumn S,'s!ting,,, EngineeingJournal,AISC,
13, 19'17 1833-1848.
).
3 (Third Quarter 1976),96-gg; Disc., 14, 1(Ftst till1,4,1_4g. "Improvcd G-Factor lrlethod for
(- e.rarter 5.81. Russe:l Q. Bridge and Donald J. Frascr.
6.60. CharlesA. Matz. Discussionof ,.On InelasticCo:uir Buckling,,,b-v
Ir., Eng,;neering
C. V. Smith, Evaluating Effective Lengths of Columns," Journcl cl Structural Engineering.
( Jountal, AISC, 14, 1 (First eurter Lg77), 47:4g.
6'61. Frank W. Stockwell,Jr. "Gitder StiffnessDisriburioa for 1 1 3 .5 ( J u n e1 9 8 7 )1, 3 4 1 - 1 3 5 6 .
Unbraced Co!umns,,. "Dcsign Rulesof Built-Up \{cmbers in Load and
( EngineeringJournal, AIsc, 13, 3 (Third 6.82. Lian Duan and Wai-FabChen.
euaner 1976),g2-g5. ... Factor Design,"Journalof Structural Engineering,ll4,ll (Novcmbcr
6.62. cyrus omid'varan. "Discrete Analysis of Latticed colurnn s,,, Resisia.ace
( Jourvat of the 19831.25u-2554.
StructuralDiuision, ASCE,94, STI (January 196g), i19_132.
6'63. Fuag J. Lin, Ernst C. Glauser, and Bruce G. Johaston. "Behavior 6.83. A|SC . Specilicationfor AllowableStressDesi-en
of Single-Angle Cliicago:
lLfenibers.
( of Laced and
American Instituteof Steel Construction,1989.
Battened Structurai Members," Journal of the Srruuural Diuisibn,ASCA
%. ST?
( (July i970), L377-t40I.
6.64. Bruce G' Johnston-"Spaced Steel Columns," Journal of the
Structural Diuision,
( ASCE, 97, ST5 (May t9T1),1465-1479.
( 6.6s.lmer w. Blodgett. Design of lltetded sructures. clevelanc, ohio: James F.
Lincola Arc Weldiag Foundation. 1966. PROBLEMS
( 6'66' S. Timoshenko and S. Woinowsky-Krieger. Tneory of plates
and Shells,2nded.
t -

New York: McGraw-Hill Book Compan,y,Inc.. tq5l All problems are to be done accordingto the AISC Load and Resistance
@p.79_g2).
( 6'67. StephenP. Timoshenko and JamesM. Gere. Theory.i1-nastic Factor Design or AllorvableStrcssDesign,as indicatedby the i;rstructor-All
itobiliry,2nd ed.
( New York: McGraw-Hill Book compily, Inc., 196r (pp. 3r9-32g,
351-356).
given loads are serv'iceloads unlessotherwiseindicated.For each problem'
6'68' Kurt H. Gerstle- Basic StructuralDesign. Ne* York: McGraw-Hill
Bcok Com- draw the potential buckled shapeon a figure shorvingthe column and its
( pey, Inc., 1967(pp. 88-90). resrrainrsfor both x and y principaldirections.A final checkof strength(for
6.69. George Gerard aad Herbert Becker. Handbook of Structural LRFD) or stress(for ASD) must be shownin all designproblems.
( Stability, Part
I-Buckling of Flat plates, Tech- Note 3g71, XarionA Advisory
Committee for
. Aeronautics, Wa5hington,D.C., July 1957. the lightestW scctionto
by the instructor.select'fhe
( 6.1. For ihe caseassigned
6.70. Geerh-6 fiaerjer and Bruno Thiirlirna,.,r,...On Inelastic Buckling indicated. mernberis part of a
in Steel," load
carl,' an axial compression as
( Transactions, ASCE, t25 (1960),309_344.
bracedframe.Assumethe memberas pinnedat the top and bottoln.
(
PROBLEIiS (
390 MEMBERS
6./COMPRESSION lN PAFf ll: P|-{TES 511

( t

1* 6.6. Select the most economicalW section to carry an axial comprcssion load
PD PL ::: of'50 kips dead load and 100 kips live load. The member has (Kl), :
Dead Live Member (KL\, : 18 ft and is part of a braced system.Assume that relative costs
load load length Steel of various steelsare as follows: A36, 1.0; A572 Grade 50, 1.14; A572
Case (kips) (kips) (ft) grade Grade 60, 1.20.
6.7. Redesign the column of Prob. 6.6 assuming additionat weak direcrion
t
I 2A 80 22 A36
)) support at mid-height.
2 20 80 A57?Grade 50
3 20 EO t4 A36 ' 6.8. Select the lightest W section to carry an axial compression load of 6O
4 2A 80 t4 A572Grade 50 kips dead load and 250 kips live load. The member is part of.a braced
5 @ 40 22 A36 frame and is assumedto be pinned at the top and bottom of is 3O ft
6 60 40 l4 A36 length, and in addition has lateral support in the weak direction at 14 ft
1
2A 80 t4 A572Grade 60 from the bottom. Use (a) ,4,36steel; (b) 4,= 50 ksi; (c) f." : 65 ksi-
I 20 80 l4 A572Grade 65 6.9. Select rhe lightest W section to carry an axial compression of 90 kips
dead load and 320 kips live load. The memberis part of a braced frame.
The idealized suppon conditions are that tbe member is hinged in both
6.2. Selectthe lightestW sectionto carry a compressiveload of 200 kips dead '\\ principal directions at the top of a 30 ft height; supported in the weak
load and 625 kips live load. The effectivelength KL is 25 ft. Use A36 or .'.- direction at 14 and 22 ft from the bottom; atrd fixed in both directions at
^572 Crade 50, whicheveris more economical,if the Grade 50 costsT% : 50 ksi; (c) : 60 ksi.
. the bottom. Use (a) A36 steel; (b) 4 4.
more per pound
6.10. Selectthe lightest W sectionfor the column shown in the accompanying
6.3. Compute the maximum sen'iceaxial compressionload permitted on the figure. The loading is 30 kips dead load and 120 kips gravity live load.
built-up cross-sectionof the accompanyingfigure. The load is 30%dead The member is built into a wall so that it may be considered as
load and 7a% five load. The steel used is A5T2 Grade 50, and the continuouslybracedin the weak direction. Note:Not all of the available
effectivelengthsare(KL)r: 14 ft and (KL),: 42 ft. W sectionsare included in the AISC Manual Column Load Tables. Use
(a) ,{36 steel; (b) F' : 50 ksi; (c) f.' = 60 ksi.
I r lA

"l
8 -
-;::-
ti "l
it^
l i J r" ' r" ^
I
ll4
tl I
I I
Conrider hinged with
t t
r*pect to strong axis
bending
- .\ lo

Prob.6.3

6.4. For the data of Prob. 6.1, considerthe memberto be fixed at the bottom
and hinged at the top and part of a bracedsystem.Selecttbe lighrestW
'l "l
section for the caseassigned. P rob.6.10
6.5. Selectthe lightest W section to serveas an axially loaded column 28 fr
long. in a braced framg with additional lateral support in rhe weak 6.11. Redesignthe column of hob.6.2 assumingthere is no residual stresscr
direction at mid-height.The load to be carried is 65 kips dead load and accidental escentricity such that tbe column buckling strength may be
150 kips live load. Assume&e top and bottom of the column are hinged. representedby Euler's equation, Eq. 6.e8, using KL f,ar L.It designiag
(a) Use ,{36 and indicate first and seond choices. using LRFD philosophy,use S" : 0.85 and tbe load factor combinadcns
(b) use A572 Grade 60, indicaring first and second in LRFD'A4.I. lf using ASD philosophy, usc the dcoominator c;f
choices.
(
ET
t

392. .- o/CoMpREsstoN MEMBERS


tN PARTil: pt-ATES
;( PROBLEMS

i
ASD-Formula (E2-l) as the Facrorof Safety.Use : 50 ksi and take
{. and use the factoredload cornbinationin LRFD-A+.1. If ASD philoso-
,( note that {, cannot exceed

k'
r {.
6.12. Use the tangentmodulusrheoryto computethe column strengthrcla-
tionship (averageunit stress4, on gto.i area versus slendernessratio
phy is used,use the denominatorof ASD-Formula(E2-1) as the F:t.1cr
ard
of Safety.Use {,: 50 ksi. (c) Solveusing the AISC Specificatiertr
comparewith tangentmodulustheory result.
I KL/r). Draw the diagramto scaleand obtain any
4, valuesby scaling 6.1a.Follow the same requirementsas for Prob. 6.13 to constructa column
{ from your diagram.The steelhas : 50 ksi but thJ stress-srraincurve
strength curve. This time the residual stress distribution is linearly
I {.
r
II
for the material is as shown in the accompanyingfigure. Assume no varying as shorvn in the accompanyingfigure. For (b) and (c) use the
residual stress.Using your ^f, cun'e, selectthe lightest W secrionfor the
t
r loading and support conditionsof Prob. 6.2.
loading and supportconditionsof prob. 6.2.lf LRFD pbilosophyis used
"7*'
I

I
( use f. : 0.85 and userhe factoredroad combinationof LRFD-A4.l. If
''f_ffi,
r H

ir
t\
!
ASD philosophf is used,usedenominatorof ASD-Formula(82-i) as rhe
Factor of Safetv. [l- - - - fl
l L _ __ L _ _ _ _I l
t I
b/2
A
;s
\
)Comptess'on
Ir I
i( i-lx/
\{

r
I
Fv

2Fyt3
6 = 29,000ksi
E = 29.000ksi
t ] t J'f._l__H
l l l
I euo.
irress, o.4F,J--J-)-9.4P,
l/'
Fv /3 fi
Ii
r
I Prob. 6.14
r
I' P r ob. 6. 12
I
v'
I
6.15.RepeatProb.6.14,exceptfor (b) and (c) usingthe loadingand support
conditionsof Prob.6.13.
l),"
l. 6.13. using the tangent modulus theory: (a) construct a column strength
I
6.16. Design an interior column (use W shape)for a multistory rigid frame.
(4,: P,/Ar versusKL/r) for an H-shapeci
K .
section.Assumeweak axis
bending(KL/r), controlsand neglectthe effectof the rveb.Assumethe
No bracingis providedin rhe planeof the frame.In the planeperpendic'
ular to the frame,bracing is providedat top, bottom, and mid-hei-ehtof
lr idealized stress-strainrelationshipshorvnin the accompanyingfiguraii
columns and simple flexible beam-to-columnconnectionsare uscd.The
( to be used for each fiber of the cross-section,and the residuui rtt.rt'
axial compressive load is 400 kips deadload and 1100krps live load.and
distribution in the flangeis as shorvn. (b) Selectrhe lightest W sectionto
bending moinentsare neglected.Use A572 Grade 50 steel.
( carry a dead load of 100kips and a live load of 200 kips with an effective
length $L of 30 ft. Use your constructedcun'e as rhe relationship
( between -Q, and KL/r.If the LRFD philosophyis useduse : 0.g5
d
( t zs
I -,-Serne
12'-A designcolumn
( wi6x89 I z.Vi16 x 83 {5earn)
Tension

*\
Compression
( Neglect \ / Designth:s
\ / . 12'_O

fl nt I COlumn
( \ Ffi-_It
( Stress
|
| ;
lF===\__=l | | l
H l l I

I Il--40'-0 .c,-,
r
L oa'-o
l
.'
U
I
(
U--r I r_J b/4
Prob.6.16
( --l
t
t l t t l
i

I l- Fr,3'+Fri3
I
i
6.17. An axial compressionload consistingof 100 kips deadload and 400 kips
I
,I
( ResiOuats:ress
I
live load is to be carriedb1'a column having an effectivelength KL : 28
.4
I
t
( Prob.6.13 !
I ft. Use either A,36or A5?2 Grade 50 steel,whicheveris more economi-
I

( I
I
+:]. I
(

.(
cat. if rhe A5?2 steetcosts9![ more 0., Ooundof fabricated*ect thun
of'the truss the chord is braced by_adjoining web membersrhat frame in (
436. sarisfl' rhe widrh/rhicknesslimirs tr, of LRFD or AsD-85.1.
at 5-ft inten'als. Perpendicularto the plane of the truss, the chord is
{a) Design a rolled W section (
braced at l0 ft by a system of literal purlin supporrs. Use the mosr
{b) Design rhe lighresrwerdedl-strapedsecrionusing'rhreeplates.
(c) Design a wetded laced (single lacing) column-conritrint of ftrur economicalof A36 or A572 Grade 65 steelsif Grade 65 cosrs72% more (
angles. than A36.
(
(d) Design a welded box wirh solid plares. 6.26. Compute the serviceaxial compressiveload permitted on a l0x10x I
(e) Design a weldedbox having r$o perforatedplares. (
slructuraltube havingan effectivelength KL - 8 fr. The load is 60% live
_.
load. tJse (a) .436 steel; (b) 4 - 60 ksi; (c) : 100 ksi. (
6-18' Design as in Prob. 6.'17,exccpt the axial load is 190 kips ilead load and 4,
210 kips live load and KL - 32 ft. 6.27. Compute the serviceaxial compressiveload permirted on a l2x8xl I
structural tube having an effective length (RL)r: 7 ft for weak aris
6.19. Compute the rnaximumserviceload (25%dead load and 75%live load) (
bending,and (KL),: l0 frfor-srong axis bending The load is 359E
acceptablefor a structuraltee WT12x38 when used in a truss location
dead load and 65% live load. Use (a) 4,36 steel; (b) q, : 65 ksi; (c) ('
r*'hercit is braccdin the planeof the trussat 20-ft inten'ats
and bracerJ F, = 90 ksi'
irans'erse ro rhe plane of the trussat lo-fr intervals.Apply the pro'i- .
(
sionsof LRFD or ASD-Appendi.rB if necessary. 6.28. Redesignthe column of Prob. 6.1, selectinga structuraltube insteadof a
use r"i eio steer:(b)
= 50 ksi; (c) - 65 ksi. W section. {
4 4 'b.29.
6.20. Selecl the tightestdorlle angtecompressionmember ro carry t l0 Redesignthe columnof Prob. 6.6, selectinga structuraltube insteadof a ('
kips "''
dead load and 130 kips live load. The effecrive lengrh it = 20 fr. W section.
('
.Assumethe backsof the angleszueseparatedby a 6.30.Redesignthe columntrf Prob.6.7, selectinga st,ructural
|in. gussetplare. tube insteadof a
(
Indicate the orientationof the aoglelegs(i.e..shorro, iong iegsback-to- W section.
back)- If anglesare selectedfor uil rfrt-.riteels, indicate rhe economical
6.31. Compute the serviceaxial compressiveload permitted on the nonstan- (
choice if relativecosrsare A36 (1.0), = 50 (1.0?),and
4 {,,'r : 60 (1.10}. dard l-shapedsectionshown in the accompanyingfigure if rhe load is
Use (a) A36 steel; (b) (
4,- 50 ksi; (i) Fr: 60 ksi. 30% dead load and 70% live load. The effectivelengrh(KL),, : 12 fr
6.21- Designas in 6.20,exceprrhe membermusrcany 40 kips deadload and ( KL't'-: 6 ft. Use (a) A36 sreel; F) f., : 60 ksi; (c) f., : 100ksi. (,'
f1ob,
and 140 kips live load, and KL: 16 ft.
(
6'22. Designas in.Prob.6.20, exceptthe membermustcarn'30 kips deadload
and 50 kips live load, and KL = 12 fr. l . o (
a "

6.23. Design a top chord memberfor a roof truss ro carry 40 kips dead (
load.
E0 kips live load,-and 40 kips *ind load acting simultaneously. (
Assume " tz
this loading combination govemsthe design.fn. member is braced i
in (
the plane oj rh9 rruss by adjoining rveb membersconnectingin at
interr'als-The chordis bracedtransuerse
5-fr ar t Prob.6.31
to the ptaneof the trussat l6-fr (
iaren'als-)teglecrbendingdue ro roof loads. (N'ote:Referto LRFD_A4.I
or ASD-A52.) (
6.32. Repeat Prob. 6.31 except use the nonstandard tee section of rhe accom-
(a) Design a double anglemembermnnected to (
|-in. gusserplares. panying figure.
(b) Design a srructuralree. ! :_'

!5
I
('
6'24. Selectthe lighteststructural tee(\yD for useas a rop chord t:-
compression i = (
member to carry 35 kips dedil toad and 100 tips tive load. Neglecr
L - .

bending- The member has a 9-fi effectire length ior bucuing in eirher i-- (
t!:e .r-x or ).--r plane. Use (a) A36 steel; :---
fb) q = j0 ksi srcel: (c)
F, = 65 ksi steet. ! =
Ji-
l---
(
H.-

6'25' sclcct the lighreststructural tec (\\tr) ro serve l-;


t _ Prob.6.32 (
as the compressionchord .€
i

of a truss .o carry 40 kips dead lord and 45 kips I.!


live load. In the prane ta (
r-
F
I t--
(
F
.-( :{
-
{\
.*t
(
€ 7.2/SrMpLEEENDTNG SHAPES
OFSyMlrErRrCAL 397
g

Chapter7 {. I

;i
,:.1
(

-f
. t+
Bearns:l-aterally$upported I
I

i
I

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Beams,includingopen-web joists,cbannels. shapes,along*'ith
and W (w'ide-flange)
tubularcolumns.(Photoby C. G. Salmon)
A beam is generallyconsideredto be any member subjectedprincipally to
transversegravity loading.The term trans!€rseloadingis takento includeend
rnoments.Thus beatnsin a structuremay also be referredto as girders(usually
has provided an interestinghistory of beam design accordingto various
the most important beams which are frequently at rvide spacing); joists
editionsof the AISC Specification.
(usually less important beams which are closely spaced,frequently rvith
truss-type webs); purlins (roof beams spanning betrveentrusses); stringers
(longitudinal bridge beamsspanning betrveenfloor beams); girls (horizontal..
rvall beamsservingprincipallyto resistbendingdue to wind on the sideof an SHAPES
7.2 SIMPLEBENDINGOF SYMMETRICAL
industrial building; frequently supporring corrugated siding); and linrels
(memberssupportinga wall over window or door openings).Other terms,such The most common designsituationsinvolve selectionof rolled n'ide-flange
as header,trirnmer,and rafter,are sometimesused,but beamidentificationbv shapesfrom the AISC tables,rvhichoften becomesroutine and may lead the
theseterms is not generallyapplied. designerinto overconfidence in treatmentof beams.It is rvell knorvn that the
A beam is a combinationof a tensionelementand a compression element. flexure formula ( f : IIc// ) is-applicableto ordinary situations.The siresses
The concepts of tension membersand compressionmembersare now com- on the common sectionsof Fig. ?.2.1may be computedby the simple flerure
bined in the treatmentas a beam. In ihis chapter,the compressionelement formula rvhen loads are acting in one of the principal directions.When an1'
(one flange) that is integrallybraced perpendicularr,o rrs plane through its and loadedthroughthe shearcenter
sectionrvith at leastone axisof syrTrmetr.v
attachmentto the stabletensionflange by meansof the rveb,is assumedatso is subjectedto'a bendingmoment in an arbitrary direction,the componenis
to be braced laterally in the direction perpendicularro the plane of the web. {
Thus overall buckling of the compression flange as a coiumn cannot occur _T
prior to its full participationto develop rhe moment strengthof the section. C,

While it is likely true that most beams used in practical situations are )
adequatelybracedlaterallyso that such stability need not be considered,the
--q I,
percentageof stable situations is probably not as high as assumed.The
S, . I,lc, S, = lrlc, S, = l,lc,
important trearmentof lateralstability is found in Chapier 9. GalamDos
[7.1]
Figure 7.2.1 Elastic sectionmodulus expressionsfor symmetricalsbapcs.
JYO I

\
-( 398 7 /9EAuS: LAT€RALLY
SUPPOffTED STABLEBEAMS
7.3/BEHAVIOROF I-ATERALLY 399
(
( M,. and M,,, in the principal directions,can be obtained and the stress l.- Plasticreeion-l
I
( computedas
F,
Ic,
( '1 =EM " S + M- " , (7.2.r)
g,

(
'*'hereS is the sectionmodultu,defined as the moment of inertia / divided by "
( rhe distance c from the centerof gavity to the extremefiber. The subscriptsx
(, t'
e .
Strain.c

( and I indicate the axis about which the moment of inertia is computed and diagam for most structuralsteels.
Figure7.3.2 51tg55-5g'ain
from which the distancec is measured(see Fig. 7.2.1).For memberswithout
( ar least one axis of symmetrythe readeris referred to sec. 7.10.
strength Mn is thereforereferredto as the plasticmomentM, andis computed
(
( Mo: Frl^y&4: FrZ (7.3.2)
7.3 BEHAVIOROF LATERALLYSTABLEBEAMS
( where Z : Il'dA may be called the plastic mudulus'
When beams have adequatelateral stability of the compressionflange, the
( only stability limit state that might limit moment strength'is local buckling in It will be observld that the ratio MJM, is a property of the cross-sec-
This ratio is
compressionof the flange and/or web plate elements'makingup the cross-sec- .3ional shape and is independent of tbi miterial properties.
(- referred to as the shoPefactor I'
tion.
( The stressdistribution on a typical wide-flangeshapesubjectedto increas- , Mo-- z (7.3.3)
ing bendingmomentis shownin Fig. 7.3.1.At bendingmomentin the service ', -M- : , .s
(
load range the sectionis elasticas in Fig. 7.3.1a,and the elasticcondition
(x-x) the shape
( exists until the stressat the extreme fiber reachesthe yield stress {,, (Fie. For wide-flange(W) shapesin flexure about the strong axis
aboui 1.09 to about 1.18 with the usual value-being about
7.3.1b).Once the straine reachese, (Fig.7.3.2),increasing'strain inducesno factor rangesiro*
( strength.Mo of' W
increase in stress.This elastic-plasticstress-strainbehavior is the accepted_ 1.12. One may conservadvelysay the plastic moment
idealization for structural steelshaving yield stressesof about {,. : 65 ksi 10% greater than the strength
( sectionsbent about their trtong axis is at least
(a48 MPa) and less. fiber just reachesthe yield stress$.
( {,. when rhe exrreme r .r .. -, t
When the yield stressis reachedat the extremefiber (Fig. ?.3.1b),the Design procedureshave long recognizedthat beamsdo exhibit the behav-
plastifica-
( nominal moment strength M" is referred to as the yield momentM, and is ior discussedabove. Extensivetesting has adequatelyverified that
computedas tion of the entire cross-sectiondoes occur [?'2] (assuming lateral-torsional
( 6'
Mn: Mr= SrF, (7.3.1) buckling as treated in Chapter 9 and local buckling as treatedin Chapter
( Part II, do not occur)- t
When the condition of Fig. 7.3.1dis reached,every fiber has a strain equal to
( or grearerthan c ,: Fr./'Er,i.e.,it is in the plasticrange.The nominal moment r EXAMPLE 73.7
d'
( Determine the shapefactor for a recrangularbeam of width D and depth

( f 1F, f=F, f=F, f-F, SOLUTION


(
c_rF Refening to Fig. 7.3.3q the momeat M, at first yield is
il
lt Mr: Itr*
( .-rj--
( l l
un1
2v
t-Frh, = Fri
l--
( --i

+t<Mr M. M, ll, <lL,l <&lo M


--
fr'lo
(
bd2
(
(a) (b) (c) td) yr- 2 f4n2F_
jrro+ - FrT
Figure 7.3.1 Stressdistribution at differcat stagesof loading. to
(
(
t (
_
' t
f

{I ( ,
7,2BEAMS:LATERALLY
SUPPORTED .l 7.4i L
.
'.tE (
.:l
I ' I
F , F

T-f-ll!_Eg g! re
li liltrY
t i - li lr Ey #
:r , M Yn t
n
u ii
i hi . '. ,i ,
J = u a ! , - tLt - - t
l--- , -] *w = factored service load
, 5 l r e s 5 , w -h e n ( b ) S t r e s s w h e n ( c ) ! . / s e c i i ; o n . : i m
(/.r\a c.-^--...r^-
t/t=M, M=Mo .-,rl,,l.Jo,"n ,i
ffi rtl (
1 s i i""'5t
\ P t a're hci n g e "-fltl
,, LJI!
(
i --.-.
( ,
I Factored i/ ii,,
momenl
Fronr Fig. 7.3.3b, ii w-12
-"^- (
8-
(a) ( b )f ' t o n
MPo : { t a n- - - - : z [ u " F , b y d y : o , u o ' I
1ut: to 4 t ?:^..-^ 1. a n r^-ri^ L ^L-.-:^-
beharior.
Figure 7.3.4 Plastic (
The shapefactor is then

t : # * 1.5 ,
I diagramafter a plastichingehas occurredrvill no longcr
e
rl r'
i the elasricbendingmomentdiagram.
rvhich illustrates that there iS a greater reservebeyond firsr As discussedby Yura.
f.ield in the i
bendingof a rectangular
section
thin in un l-rttup.J;;;i;" i."atg lu"r,'ii, ,t i adequate s'ith I
resis.tance
..?.''r'.r;i;;;;Jiiliil,"i;';i';:1fiiffil il i
, I
(chapter
;il;;i;1.r.1"s 6r.t":II)toach
weak axis ( y- y) is essentiallya rectangularsection(two recrangJes
-'-c-- separat;; the actuallimit statewill s
i
i sitrnflangelocal buckling.or u'cb localbuckling,thoughin the plasticrange.
('
Thus. prJ.,entionof failureby anv of theseinstabiiityInodesuntil adcquate
Once the plastic momentstrengthM, hasbeen reacheci.rhe sectioncan rotation d,, has occurred. reqr
t
offer no additional resistanceto-rotad5n, behaving as a liing. Uur^'rt-]iif., '.1 htcral *ppott.-on the s'
d;;';-^-pirit, iiigrli'i-^,",,.riii ratioof therveb.
on rheacpitrTtnickness
determinatebeam, suih as a simply supportedone, having on. plastichinge
------J
. I
I

-.-|
form will makethestructure
unstable;
onerealhingeat eachendandu prurfr.
hingein the midspanregionwill createan unsrablesituation.knorvnas a I 7.4 lATFIAllI-lgt
I
collapsentech'anistitIn general,any combinarion of three hing.r, ,..ui'o? LOAD AND RESISTA
.l
p l a s t i c , i n a s p a n r v i l t r e s u l t i n a c o l l a p s e m e c h a n i s m . : " | =
Referring to Fig. 7.3.4, one may note that the angle of rotation d ;='i The strength-requiremer
(: o:?:lt":ll_tt,t]11tic from load.M un_rit
the exiremefiberr.*rr.t ,., to LRFD'F2 r
according
F :.:ir.r
M,. then.becomespartially I
1, inelasticuntil the plastic moment Mn is
reached.Once the plastichingehas occurredand the M-0 cun'e has bec5me :I
II
horizontal, deflection of the beam (rotation of the plastified .tos-r*i"nj .,
I rvhere e,, : resistance(
increasesrvithout restraint.At the collapsecondition the elasticArfor*uiion
. I M :
M,: nominal m
nominalmoment strength
due to bending on the segmentsbetweenthe endsand midspanis negligible (
"iri',u : factoredsen'iceload moment(seeSec.1.9)
comparedto the ro{ation0, occurringat the plastichinge.Ti.rut.the Jnaivsis
" l /
may
rntltt
treat rthe
?rpol ha
collapse situation
^^tl^--o -ie..^el:- ^^
as
. ..
two rigid bodies haring an ungulo,
;
:;rt
I

,A-__-^r c,-^a:.
compact sections
disconrinuity
0, at rnidspan.
As will be showrilaterin sec.t0.2.ir i, ";i;l;;
statically determinatesituationsthat one can expect every point uton!
;l
e irr.
- - l::t:l l I The nominal - ' strengrh
"-----.,--' ,tr
' -n '--
ffactored
actorerl moment
m oment dia-gram
d irorern tto
n h beo n proportional
rnnarria-^t o^ .L^ ^r^-r:-
to the elastic momenraiaio* ' -r r ---
LRFD-Appcndix Fl ma
Redistribution
. vof
. the
! r . v rmoments
r r v r r r v r r l J 'occurs
LLur' during
u r r n g rloading be1'ond
D g Y o n o ttne
-l I
u oaqing JasUc
ne e lasttc *'l i ,, r
e in ttsttal staticallv indeterrrri^ara cirr.arl^-^. eL^. :^ ^r- r t. -''i Ivfn: M, \1.q.4
:*i.
(\ '*
s,{ I \ ./

.;€. ' af . /'


(
I
t( 7 / BEAMS:LATERALLYSUPPORTED
7.4 / LATERALLYSUPPORTEDBEAMS- LRFD
'i , (

( TABLE7'4'2 WIDTH/TIIICKNESS "LOAD FACTORDESIGNSELECTION


LtMlrs treFoR "coMpAcr sEcTroN,,. BEAMS ,. I frOMLRFD tAbIC
SCICCT TABLE'':
TO ACHIEVESIGNIFICANT
PUiSrrCSTRAIN
( 1r-NrbANDASDBs)
Unstiffenedetemenls Try \\'12x21'. Z*: 29.3in.l
( Sliffenedelements Si;ifened e:sments
(Uniformcompression) (Uniformcompressron) (Bending) "conlpact
Check section"linritstr, {Table7.4.2):
F
( v bt 65
(ksi) -D( - . .1. 9. :0 hc 640
o , =E : t x 4 . 0 3 , t 6 5 \
{x: jL
_ ? _

( 't
lrv tw
,F, : 4 l I . i r -" : - : : i o . R l o r c
\ Zrr 2(0.425) J \ i{" I
( 36 10.8 3 1 .7 107
( 42 10.0 29.3 t n - \ 1 6 4 0 \
l r : jt * ' : 4 1 . 8.1 l r " : T :
98.8 1o7l oK
45 9.7 28.3 95.4 /
( 50 9.2 26.9 \ \' Vrr I
90.5
)) 8.8 25.6
( 60 8.4
86,3 Note that the value h,/t, used is that tabulatedin the LRFD Manual. If
24.5 _82.6
65 8'l r computedas (d -2k * r adius ot 0. 25) , / t , , h, / t n, : 41- 6. Use of t he LRFD
( 23.6 79.4 Manual valuesof the property h,/ t * is thereforerecommended.
( 'Plasric analysis is- Checkthe strength:Correct the factoredmoment lL'["to includethe bearn
resrricted by LRFD-AS and ASD-Fl.l ro steels baving rveight.
( 4 s 65 ksi (a50 MPa).
,r; : I .2(0.222)+ 1.6(0.8): 1.55kips/ft
(
and ResistanceFactor Design,and selectfor the follorving JI , : 76(1.55/l .52) - 77.3ft-kiPs
( e steels:
' ---' ----:
A36; AS72
Grade50; and A572Grade65.
Lf n : M o : Z,F, : 29.3(36)/tZ : 87.9 ft-kips
(
SOLUTION QnMn: 9r ( 87. 9): 0. 90( 37. 9): ?9. 1 f t 'kips ) M , oK
( (a) Compure rhe factoredload M".
UseW12x22, F,,: 36 ksi,
( B, : 1.2w, * 1.6rv.: 1.2(0.2)+ i.6(0.g) : l.S}kips/ft
(c) A572 Grade50 steel.
( Mu: wuL27g: 1.52(20)' /g:76 ft-kips (not includingbeamw'eiglrr)
( z': +:
Required,
."l^'--'-' : 2o'3
^t:11?l' in'3
(b) 436 stee!.Assume"compact section"sincethe vast
majority of ,oilej +ar,, 0'90(50)
( sectionssatisfy I s l, for both the flange and the web. The aesi,en "LOAD FACTOR DESIGN SELECTION TABLE
strength Selectfrom LRFD table
QtM'.is
( : )- ^, - r ' r - F
2," I
QtMn : euMp: e6ZrF,
( Try N{14x18: Z, : 24.9in.3
The designrequirementis
( - Check"compact section"limits tro (Table 1.1-2):
RequiredQtM,: Mu
b, 4.00
( : 7' 4 < 9 ' 2 OK
Required . . - t r n orn" : Zrt: 2(0270)
( z.: *: =t:ll=t].= 28.1in.3
QtF, 0.90(36)
h-
( tr*.b:i:60.3<90.5 OK
(
Check the strength:
(
M u : 76(1.54/7.52): 77.1ft-kips
(
(
t : r Mn: Mo: Z,Fr: 24.9(50)/tz : 104ft-kiPs
utL2
-3-
(
Figure7.4.1 Example7.4.1. QuM,: 9o(i04) : 0.90(104): 93.4 ft-kips > lIu OK

,.(
'7 .5/ LATERALLY BEA'{S-': ASO
SUFPORTED ( '
-*...' 406 7 /BEAMS: TATERALLY
SUPPORTED
( '
buckling would be the correct value of M,. Continuing the check' (
The section is significantty stronger than necessarybut is the lightest section
having the required M,. = 77.r ft'kips
Mu: 76(1.54/1.52) (
lse'Mtqxt8,- 4,.: 50'lsi.
M, = 92'5ft-kiP ( ,
(d) .4572Crade 65 steel.
:83-3 ft-kips) Mu
: 0.90(92.5) (
QoMo= 6o(92.5) OK
' z,' = !:
Required : ::!!.:!-: 15.6in.3
t- (
Qf, 0.90(65) UseWl2x74, Fn.: 65ksi.

Selectfrom LRFD table"LOAD FACTORDESIGNSELECTIONTABLE':


BEAMS-
7.5 I.ATERA!.LYSUPPORTED
Try Wl2Xl4: Z, = 17.4in.3 ALLOWABLESTRESSDESIGN
Check"compactsection"limits tr, (Table7.4.2): In accordancewith the philosophy of Allowable StressDesign.described in
3.e7 Secs.1.8 and'1.9, Eq. 1.8.8givesthe structuralsafety requireme$t,as follows:
t r * r . = 4i = M = 8 . 8 > 8 . 1
.Nc
[1.8.81
..-.-.
+>Eei
t r * . b :+ : 5 4 ' 3 < 7 g ' 4 O K whichcan be expressed

{h:*)='
lw
. ;
In this case the controlling limit state is local buckling of the flange. When
_*,. (7.5.1)
tr, t l t tro, as above,the sectionis classifiedas "noncompact". {=
-*
Check the strength.The strengthis obtained by interpolation between Mo 7
*
tnd M, using Eq.7.a.4. Fint tfor the flange musr be obtained (from Tabli +
* where Mr: nominal moment strength
1.4.7)as 19.0,which exceedsbr/Zt, of 8.8 and the sectionis "noncompact": &.
!E t/Q: overload factors divided by undprstrengthfactor
* FS : \.67 : nominal safety factor in beam design
:G M : serviceload bending moment
TF
G
* "stress" forfnat, divide both sides by the section
3*r To obtain Eq. 7.5.1 in
modulus S; thus,

M n :M p -( M , - * ) ( H ) = r , [t.a.al =(a:#')
(r,=f) (7.5.2)

Next r!/, and M, areneeded:


Compac't$ec{lons
Mo - Z,Fr: 17.4(65)/tZ:94.2 ft-kips
As discussedin Secs.?.3and7.4,the nominalstrengthof suchsectionsis the
M, - S,(4, - 4.) : 14.9(65- r0)/rl: 68.3ft-kips plasticmomentstrengthMr. fuuadons7.3.2and7.3.3showthat M, may be
expressedin termsof the shapefactor {, asfollows:
Thenfrom 8q.7.4.4, Mr= ZFr= tSF, (7.5.3)

M.: e4.2- (s4.2- 6s.3)(**=*) : nr., rt-kips In order to compute and compare stresses,a value of the shape factcr f must
be chosen when in faet each rolled section has a different value. For strong
rrhichis 0.98Mo.If in additionthewebbad l, > tr r tro, rhenilf" wouldalso axis bending of l-sbapedsectionsa value of 1.10was seleted. Substituting F4.
haveto be computedfrom Eq. 7.4.4usingtr, \, and l,o valuesfor thc web, ?.5.3 with t - l.l0 into F5 on tbe right side of Eq. 7.5.2 and usiog FS * l-67
The lower of the strengthsrelating to flangelocat buikling and web local grves the allowable stressF6.
1

(
7/BEAMS: LATERALLY
SUPPORTED 7.5/ I-ATERALLYSUPtrOffTEDBEA,\IS- ASD
(
( l. For l-shuped sections
bendingaboutthe x_x axis: Partially compacl
AsD.Fl.2
(
ts4
r;: (FS : 1.10S,i": o'66F, (7.s.4)
( (*fr, Axis of
bending
( In order for sectionsto qualify as "compacl" the width/thickness ratios S-
for t,-* t
the flange and u'eb musr not exceedthe ;compact" limits of ASD-Table
(
(the tro valuesof Table 7.4.2).
B5.l LA
I H
( bt
2. For l-shaped sections
bendingaboutthey_y axis:
( Partially compacl
fa: 0.754, (7.5.5) ASD-F2.2

For bendingabout the rveakaxis the shapefactor { is 1.5 for rectangular ,.


--1? Ax:s of
( sectionsas shorvnin Example7.3.1.In order not to haveserviceload stresses ll
tt
O€rlClng

( approachtoo closeto the yield stress,the allowablestress^F,for such sections


Fp F
I
ASD
Appendir B b'EFd-r-
is permitted higher than 0166.(,,but not futly in proportion tl the shapefactor.
( only the flange need satisfy"compacr" limits ol ruutr 7.4.2.
65 95
( lb/7tii{4r
Noncompact Sections r
( "compact
Figure 7.5.1 Allowable stress on H- or l-shaped sections qualiflin-g as.
When the rvidth/thickness ratios exceedthe "compact" limits (referred to in
( :I seldons" except for an excessirewidth-to-thicknessratio at tbe urtiffencd comprcs'
limits) of ASD-TableB5.l but do noi exceedrhe ..noncompacr" :l sion flange element.
(
!R.FD T l,
lintits of that table, the nominal strengthwill not reach Mo. As discussedin -:l
Sec.6.16. the "noncompact" limits of ASD-Table5.1 are intended to assure fl
T I
( the section of reachingthe yield stress^{,,at the exkeme fiber. Thus, if the I: I{
"noncompacr" E EXAMPLE 7.5.I
( limits of ASD-TableB5.1(refenedto in Sec.7.4 as I, limits) =. 1
.--t Redesigr the beam of Example7.4.I using Allowable StressDesign with A36
are exoctly met. the nominal strength \iln is the yield moment Mr. The =l steel.
( allorvablestress^F,from 4.7.5.2 then becomes -'-' l
r_<. __t|l
'--
( ' . \ ::J I
SOLUTION
( 4:&:*:0.604, ) :.'=l
(z.s.e .,EI (a) A36 steel.gssume "compact section" since nearly ail sectionssatisfy
-:l the width/thickness limits tro; thus, the allowable stressFu n'ould be
( .-,':
I Fr,: A.66F:.
( Partially Compact Sections II
--+.
I

When the width/thicknessratiosexceedthe "compact"limits but are lessthan '*l


( - 1 Note that rounded values (i.e., 0.66 times 36 : 23.8 ksi: use 24 ksi) are
the "noncompact" limits of ASD-TableB5.1the strengthlies betweenM, and
--..1
acceptedvaluesin accordancewith ASD-"NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE
. . ? i

( M r; theref.ore,the designermay linearly inteqpolatebetweenthoselimits. Note -r.i. 1. The superimposedserviceload (1 ktp/ft) bending moment is
that the "noncompacr" limits of ASD-Tabre5.1 (seeTable 6.16.1)are some-
t
.F*i ' '-
( j'i .- M : w L 2 / g : 1. A ( Z q z / g : 5 0 f t - k i p s
what more conservative(i.e.,Iorver)rhan the 1,, limits of LRFD-Table B5.1, -.11.
i

''+ i
( though the purpose is the same.The allorvablestressrelationship is shown in _'i: i

F ig. 7. 5. 1. *i M 50(12)
( ':s.i
RequiredS, : -- :25in.'
O i
€i
( '.: i

Slender Sections -..i-;


..ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN SELECTION
( j,s l Select from ASD MANuA}
When the width/thickness ratios exceedthe "noncompact" limits of ASD-
TABLE," the lightest sectionhaving at least S' : 25 in.3:
( Table B5.1, the sectionsare referred to as "slender" and must be treated in ii
accordancewith ASD-AppendixB. tr
E- TryW72x22: S* : 25.4in.3
( ";
i ( ';l:'
':{-j
s-
410 7/BEAMS:ISTERALLY *,
'tr-
lFIt
" SUPPORTED 7.6/AEFLECTTON 411 I

-;
.i ( '
Check "compact" limits (trr) of ASD-TableB5.l: (
j :

'; (
! =:g :4.7 < lo.8 (Tabte
\ ' g v ' w "i.4.2\
' oK Consrant /
Ztt 2(0.425) :f'
(
-;-.
!:

;;;&-
Ma
l r Figure 7.6.1 Typical bending moment (
d 12.31 '?f L/24-.L/2 diagram for unifornrly loaded beam.
- : 47'3 < 107 (Table7 '4'2) oK
4*i I

om (
L :-::
3-

membermay be expressed
as (
Note that ASD usesoverall depth d whereasLRFD uses rhe unsupported
height h, of, the web even though the limit is the same. .4i.. WL3 (
Check the flexural stress: s
,:.:E-.
A,n*: F,
U
(7.6.1)
(
fi
:_
M : l.0ZZ(Z[2/8 : 5t.t ft-kips (includingbeamweight) where W : total seruiceload on the span ( ,
E_-
L : span length
M = E : modulusof elasticity(29,000ksi or 200,000MPa for steel) (
51.1(12) *
fu:T :)aiksi=tFu=2aksil sayOK / : momentof inertia
s, 25.4 - 3\ (
.:.r.
B1 : coefficientwhich dependsupon the degreeof fixity at supports,
the variation in moment of inertia along lhe span, and the (
UseWl2x22, 4 : 36ksi. I
,iI''
distribution of loading. (For a simply supported beam, B, :
5/384; other valuesare availablein the LRFD or ASD Manual (
:: section.''BEAM DIACRAMS AND FORMULAS.") (
-€;
For continuousbeams,the midspandeflectionin the commonsituationof (
7.6 DEFLECTION a uniform loading on a prismaticbeam with unequalend moments(seeFig.
7.6.1)may be expressed'as (
As beamsare used on long spans(i.e., as the ratio of the span length to the _- (
depth of the section becomeslarge) or shallower sections'of higi-strength J - ; . f . ^:. - y l M ,y-
-mtdspan o . l ' ( M " +M r ) l (7.6.2\
steelsare used,deflection restrictionsmay control the design 4gEI (
Excessivedeflection of a floor or roof system may cause damage Equation 7.6.2 will give satisfactoryresultswhen consideredto be the maxi-
to (
attachednonstructuralelementssuch as partitions, may impair the usefulness mum deflection for nearl-vall practical loadingsfor beams having uniform
of the structure by, for instance,distorting door jambs so that doors will
not momentof inertia.Equation7.6.2maybe verifiedby the useof a method such (
open and close, or may cause "bouncy" floon. These are all seruiceabilitl. as conjugatebeam. (
requirements, in many caseshaving no correlation with the strengti For uniformly loadedsimply supportedbeamd,Eq. ?.6.1becomes
of rbe
floor system. t'' (
An excellentappraisalof serviceabilityof structureshas been performed SwLa
A
-trrar : - (7.6.3) (
by ar: .{'scE Ad Hoc committee [7.43J.Galambosand Ellingwood 3g4EI
[7.4] have
discussedgeneralserviceabilitylimit s!3res,and Elling*.ooa nhich upon substitutionof M : wLz/8, f - Mc/1, and c : d/2, gives (
12.+1-hai pro
vided guidelinesfor steel structures.Excessivedeflection is also indicative i ^ t
r*
of i g (
possiblevibration and noise transmissionproblems.wright and walker ifr 70fL2
[?.61. A
-mar
- (7.6.4)
Ir{urray 17.7,7.81,and Ellingwood and Tallin ig 48Ed (
[7.5] have rreatedvibration of
floor svstemsand the relatedhuman response. .:t;

;;i*
.*+ Equation 7.6.4can be usedas a good approximationfor any simply supported (
On roofs a major deflection-relatedproblem is the ponding of warer; this
is specrficallykeated later in this section, F beamas long as the marimum stressoccursnear midspan.Refer to Table 7.6.1
for typical values. (
ti*
Numerous structuralanalysismethodsare availablefor computing L{5.
deflec-
tions on uniform and variable momcnt of inertia sectionsin {
staticaiy d.,.r-
ntinate and indeterminatestructures,Deflectionof stepped (
beamshas been r.€d. 'Scc Chu-Kir Wang and CharlesG. Salmos, ReinforcedConrrete Desiglt,4th cd. (Harper & Ron'.
treatedby Yamamoto[7.4t.tn gineral, the maximumdellection l*
in an elastic Publishers.Ncw.York. l9$5). p. 490.
t'-:
tF- (
C:

;&
; rJi
(
.#i
(
(
( *€
412 . 7 / BEAMS:LATEMLLv suppoRTED ?*
; t 7.6 /D9FLECTION 413
( FI
( TABLE 7.6.1 DEFLECTIONRELATIONSHIPS
ACCOFDINGTO EO. 7.6.4
3
ET
--t
-l Floor beanrsand girders.subjecito shockor vibratory loads.supporting
( L/d L/d
;l
{ largeopenareasfreeof partitionsor othersourcesof damping:
l*u, L/ d (f : 22 kst) (l: -rl
30 ksi)
( L
=20 (7.6.1)
( L/360 38i/! t7.6 12.9 Z
L/30A 4u/f 2T.L 15.5 Roof purlins.fully stressed.
exceptflat roofs:
( L/240 580/f 26.3 19.3
L/200 6e5/l 3 1 .6 23.2 L 1000
( - (7.6.8)
d {,ksi
(
Assunringthe senic-eload stress/ equalsthe ASD allorvablestress0.66f,
l
ASD-L3.l states,"Beamsand girderssupportingfloors for "compact sections".the ASD-Commentarysuggestions of coefficients800
and roofs shallbe
( proportioned rvith due regardio the deflectionprod-uced and 1000correspondto L/d valuesof 528/f and 660/f, respectivell'. Using
by designloads.',In
addition, live load deflectionu'hereplastered..iling, are these L/d valuesin Eq. 7.6.4 would give simply supportedbeam limits of
( supportedis limited
to L/360 about L/260 and L/270.
( For the L/360limitation . F,q.7.6.4.using E : 29,000ksi becomes On continuousspansit is. of course,the actual deflectionthat is of
importance,not the L/d ratio. For continuousbeamdeflection,a comparison
( L 48(29,000) 38i '7.6.2
--]--_-=- of Eqs. and 7.6.4shorvsthat Eq.7.6.4can also be usedfor continuous
d - (10)360/ (7.6.5)' beamsif the stress/ is computedusingthe equivalentbendingmomenl
( f
( t r { , : M , - 0 . 1 ( M ,+ M u ) (7.6.e)
where/ is in ksi.
( on the other hand LRFD-L3 containsthe more generalstatement,..De_ I EL{}IPLE 7.6.1
formations in structuralmembersand structuralsystemsdue Selectthe lightestW sectionto carry a uniform deadload of 0.5 kip/tt and a
( to senice loads
shal! not impair the seniceability of the structuie." Further, live load of 1.0 kip/tt on a simply supportedspanof 42 ft. Adequatelateral
LRFD-L sa_v-s
( Iimiting valuesto ensureseniceability"shall be chosenrvith supportis provided.The live load deflectionis limited to L//360. Use A572
due regard to the
rntendedfunction of the structure." Grade 50 and Load and Resistance Factor Design.
( When consideringdeflections, it shouldbe remembered that the deadload.
deflectionsusuallycan be accountedfor during construction
( by either camber- .,. SOLUTION
ing (negativebendrng)or thickeningthe slablr floor topping. (a) Computerhe factoredmoment Mu.Estimating lhe beam rveightat
It is only the
( deflectionthat occursdue to loadsappliedafter construction 7A b/ft:
is-completedthat
may crack ceilings,partitions,or walls.
( 11,, : 7.7*'o * 1.6tr,r.
Specification requiremenb for limiting deflecdonsare
meager because
( there is no singleor standardvaluefor the iolerabledeflection.
Th; acceptable 1.2(0.5 + 0.07 est) + 1.6(1.0) : 2.28 kips/f t
amount must of necessitydepend on the type and arrangement
( being supported.
of materials M, -- w,L2/8 : 2.28(42)'/8 : 504 ft-kips
( a guide only, ASD-commenrary L3.1 suggeststhe following (b) ComputerequiredplasticmodulusZ* to satisfystrengthrequirement.
.,^_1r limita-
tro n s : Assumingcdmpactsection,the designstrengthQuM^is
( Floor beamsand girders,fully stressed:
( et,trt,-- etMp: erZ,F,
L 800
-
( d .{,, ksi {7.6.6) t,: +:
Required :1X('?: 134
0.90(50)
in.3
?tF,
(
Selectfrom LRFD table"LOAD FACTOR DESIGN SELECTION TABLE":
(
L 2667 Try W24x55: Z,: \34in.a
( 'For SI.
for/ in MPa.
v:

a J { /.o.)) The sectionis compactfor 4 : 50 ksi.


( 4\.

' ( F
*
'f
\ &;
p'.. 414 7,r8€AMS I-ATERALI-Y
SUPPORTED (
7.6/DEFLECTTON 4 1 5
(
(c) Compute required moment of inertia I" to satisfy the deflecrionlimit. (
The senice load lnoment instead of tbe factored moment must k used since (
deflection is of coscsrn when the structure is being used,not *'hen failure is *-
imminent. Tha sen'ice live load monetrt is *-
.s' (
#
*. (
M = wL2/8 ,= l.o(42\'lg: z2l ft-kips
;.:-
di

:s-- (
SwLa 5ML2
o:lrFili #:
*c- (
4F,EI +-

rG (
5ML2 s(221)(42)'(rea) *
R e .c u i r e d f : - - : 1724 tn.a st
iit. (
48EA (42/360)
48(2e000) .r
;*-
(
Sclectfrom LRFD table *MOMENT OF INERTIA SELECTION TABLE':
-l;
(
Try W24x68: /, : 1830in.a Figure 7.6.2 Flat roof arraogeoent for ponding analysis.(From Ref. 7.10) (
ia-l
g.
\.
Note that the secrion required to control deflection is'larger than the section (
rcquired for sreng$r; i.e., deflection controls.
(d)- Check the W24x68 section: continuesuntil either (1) the succeedingdeflectionincrementsbecomesmaller i
and equilibrium is reached;or (2) succeedingdeflection incrementsare in-
(
wu: t . 2( 0 .5 + 0 .0 6 3 )+ 1 .6 (1 .0 ): 2 .2 8 ktps/ft creasing,the systembecomesunstable,and collapseoccurs.This retention of
water which results solely from the deflectionof flat roof frarning is what is \
M u: 503 f t-k i p s referred to as pondiag. From a serviceabilitystandpoint, this ponding of water
(
is a major reason for splitting of roof membranes,resulting in costly replace.
M n: Mr: Z ,F , - 1 7 7 (5 0/1
) 2 :7 3 8 ft-ki ps ment of both the membraneand the insulation.. (
To prevent ponding of water accumulatedon flat roofs. the 1963 AISC
Qo.Vn= 9r(738) - 0.90(?38): 60a ft-kips 7 Mu OK Specification required supporringmembersto sarisfy rhe limiration
(

L (
As expected. the strength considerablyexceedsthe required suength..Check 600
_ < _ (7.6.10)
deflection: d- (
fo
M(serr,ricelive load) : 221ft-kips (
where /u is the computed serviceload bendinr rooi in ksi. using Eq. ?.6.4,
sMLz 5(22r)(442n28 this would correspondroughly to a deflection limitation of L/249 on a simply (
^
A : .::- : 1.32in. < tl - L : l.4o i!.) oK supported span.
4SEr 48(2e000)1830 (
\ 360 Avoidance of ponding is much more complex than indicated by the above
limitation. Marino [7.101has provided an extensivetreatment that forms the (
Note that the live load defletion and the limit are quite close(within 6%) but
the strength condderably exceedsthe requiremelt (32% greater); that is,
deflection cantrols.
e
)i:.,
basis for the AISC provisionsof LRFD and ASD-K2. The flat roof is treated
as a two-way systemof secondarymembers(say,purlins) elasticallysupported
(
s
s by primary members (say, girders) which are rigidly supported by walls or (
Lise W24x68. f." .= 50 ksi.

F columns, as shown in Fig.7.6.2.


LRFD and ASD-K2 give a simple but conscrvativecriterion
(
(
Pondlng ol Water on Flat Roots
\\'hen members of a flat roof systemdeflect,a bowl-shapedvolume is created
u hich is capable of retaining water. As water begins to accilmulate, deflection
E
E and
Ce+0.2q.s0.25 (7.6.11)
(
(
increases to prot{de an increascd votumetric capacity. This cyclical process E (7.6.12)

E (
(
(
(
( 416 7/BEAMS: LATERALLY
suppoRTED
7.6/OEFLECT|OT{ 417
(
( 32L,Lf,
--
rvhere Cr: Given:
( l07Ip
32SL:
W24x84. Ip:2370in.4
( _.s
a - o
l07I, f o : 22.5ksi (totat senice load strcs.
( Lr: lengthof primarymember,ft
L" : length of secondarymember.ft 24H6, I , : 462(72)
/30 : 185in.a
*
(
S: spacingof secondarymember,ft
( .I, : moment of inertiaof primary member,in.a 7, : 30 ksi (serviceload stress)
( { : moment of inertiaof secondarymember,in.a
.fr: Assume that 60% of the total serviceload is acting at the onset of pondrng
moment of inertia of steeldeck supportedon secondarymem-
( Check the adequacyof the system.
bers,in.a per ft

( The criterion co + 0.9-q< 0.25 assumesthe supporting members SOLUTI ON


to be
essentiallyfully stressedbefore onset of ponding. The tirms (a) Check the girder.The live load stress/o is
( c, and c,
indicate the relarivestiffnessesof the primary and sicondary suppod rl.rr.*r,
( respectively. The right handsideof Eq.7.6.11is a StressIndex f representing f o : 0 . 6 ( 2 2 . 5:) 1 3 . 5k s i
the ratio of the increasein stressas a rlsult of pondedwater to the
( allorvablestress.For instance,assumingthat ihe stressin a member
serv.ice
load 0'8{ - 'fo 0 . 8 ( 3 6-) l 3 . s
support- U : stressindex : = j .l -1
( ing pondedwarercould be permittedtJincreasero 0.s4, from 0.6{
oi o.oo^r.,, fo 13.5
the StressIndexesU would be
(
( (J-
0.8fl.
t
- 0.66F
; -- n V? ' lLtL L
q:lm:o-le
o.66Fy
( 32(6)(3s)4
0.8n - 0.6F q: :0.16
( IJ: --!: 0.33 ,o,G$i
0S\
(
A StressIndex U of.0-25is a reasonablelower limit for that quantity. cp + 0.9c , : 0. 19+ 0. 9( 0. 16): 0. 33 > 0. 25
Design
( aids appear in the LRFD and ASD-comrnentariesFigs. c-Ki.l
uni c-rz.z; This appearsinadequateby this conservativecheck. Using LRFD or ASD
( these.showEq. 7-6-11to be conservative, the more so rvhenstresses at onsetof CommentaryFig. C-K2.1gives:
ponding are lorv.Burgettt7.1Uhasprovidedgraphsfor a fast
checkusingEqs.
( 7'6'11 and7.6.72-More recently,Ruddy illustraredthe procedurefor For Un: 1.13 and C, : 0.16
17.121has
( a concretefloor over metal deckingand supportedby steelbeamsanOgrrders.
Equation 7.6-12pertainsto roof decking thar ii supportedon secondary Find allorvable Cp = 0.40 > 0.19 OK
( members. since this contributes little to ponding, it may be treated
as a
one-way systemin the mannerpresentedby Chinn Thus the girder is OK.
( t7.131.tiyh.n roof decking (b) Clleck.thejoisr.
rs th_e-secondarymember, then it should be treated u..oioiog ,o eq. zi.rr.
( More elaboratemathematicaltreatment of ponding iri ue.n given
Salamaand Moody l7.r4J,Sawyer[7.15,7.16],cirinn, Mansouri,
by /o : 0.6(30): 18.0ksi
( uni Adams
17.l7l,Avenr and Stewart[7.i9], and Avenr [7.19]. o'84':- /o 0 . 8 ( s 0-) 1 8 . 0
( index-
4 : stress {
E EXAMPLE7.6.2 Jo 18.0
( A flat roof for an industrial building has bays 45 ft x 35 ft. Wirhout
regard to
( ponding, the girders have beenselectedas W24x84 (436
steel) and the 3oists 'Computcd from "STANDARD
spanning35 ft are 24H6 (maximumserviceload stress: 30 ksii and LOAD TABLE" in Snndartl SpecificationsLoad Tables &
( - spdcedat rVeight Tablestor SteelJoi,sts& Joist Girders [.13]. Nore tbar the J-. LJ-, and DLJ-Scriesjoisrs
6 ft center-to-center.
*'ere dropped as indusrry standardsin 1978.
( -iR
- .,:.:
- (
{+
I

I
I
418 7/BEAlrxS:LATEFALLY
SUPPORTED 7 7/SHEARONROLL€DBEAMS 419 (
I

(
-('
By accurately checking using LRFD or ASD commentary Fig. C-K2.2, Subtracting
F or U ,: 1 .2 2 a n d C p : AJ g (
Find allowable Q = 0.35 > 0.16 OK
dc,: fi a* (7.7.2)
(
Thus both mernberssatisfypondingprovisions.When the stressindex is above 'dMv (
LRFD or ASD-K2 will be grosslyconserva-
about 0.5, the simple expressions
dI: Q.7.3) (
tlve. i

7.7 SHEAROH ROLLEDBEAMS fY, dM v dM fh


(7.7.4) ,
dC'- I ;dt4- , I ydA
- J y r _ , J y r (
Whereaslong beamsmay be governedby deflection and medium length beams
are usually controlled by flexural strengtt\ short-span beamsmay be governed
Substituting Eq. 7.7.4into Eq. 7.7.1 and solving for the shearstressu gives (
by shear.
To review the developmentof the shear stress equation for symmetrical
sections,considerthe slice dz of the bearnof Fig. 7.7.1u shown as a free body
in Fig. 7.7.lb.If the unit shearstressu at a section y, ffom the neutral axis is
i:#(ilfi- -
(7.7.5)
(
(,
desired, it is observedfrom Fig. 7.7.1cthat ' (
;-a$d upon recognizingthat V : dM/dz, ild letting
dC' - ut dz (7.7.r) (
The hohzontal forces arising from beoding moment are
a: llaa (

c,: Iltae (
the familiarequation (
c,+dc,: I"(f +df)d.n , : r yIt ( 7 : 1 . 6(\
(
is obtained where Q is the first moment of area about the x-axis of the (!
f f+61
cross-sectionalarea between the e'xtremefiber at h (Fig. 7.7.1b) and the
particular location at y' at which the shearstressis to be determined. (
Under usual proceduresof steeldesign,the phearstressis computedas the /\
ayerage vafue over the gross area of the web neglecting the effect of any
fastenerholes; thus (
V V (
f": 0 '7'7\
T,: dr* /
(b)
Note that large holescut in a beam web to permit passageof pipes and ducts (
require special considerationand their effect rnay not be neglected. (
The following exampleillustrates that in an l-shaped beam most of the
shear is canied by the web. (
(
I EXAMPLE 7.7.I
Determine the elasticshearstressdistribution on a W24x94 beam subjectedto (
(c)
a service load shear force of 200 kips. Also computc the portion of the sbear (
Figure 7.7.1 Flexurat strcsses involvcd in dcrivatiou of shear stress equation. caried by the flange and tbat canied by the web. (See Fig.7.7.2).
(
(
(
(
{
7 / B€AMS:LATERALLY
SUPPORTED 7.7/SHEARONROLLEDBEAMS 121
(
(
(
0.875 V,of the sectionis basedon ouerailshearf ielding of the u'eb.Thus.
-e.6s-l
-rl
I
l/n: rrA* {?.-.Sr
(
w24 X 94 s l where r, : shearyield stressof the web steel
( l -27s.in.' 24.31
areaof the rveb: dt * f.orrolled beams
o.azs An :
II d: overalldepth for rolled beams
( _r
l*, : web thickness
( '
(a) (b) Shear siress According to the "energy of distortion" theory (see Sec.2.6), the shear
( Figure 7.7-2 Example 7.7.1. yield stress { equals the tension-compressionyield stress-{. divided b1' r'T
u'henshearsiressactsalone(pureshear).gi"i:rg fron Eq. 2.6.:.
(
rr: 0.58F, lt r
( SOLUTION
(a) Stressat junctionof flangeandrveb. Thus, it is logical for LRFD-FZ.Z to use z" : 0.6.(. F4uation7.?-8i:ren
( becomes
Z: 200kips Vn: 0.6FrA- l , . . v l
(
Q : 9.06s(0.875)(12.1s5
- 0.43?s): 92.9in.3 Equation 7.7.9implies that h/t, ratios do not exceed
(:
( r :
2oo(e2.e)
= 13.4ksi (rveb), u : 0.76ksi (flange)
h r c -
_ : lg71/ =_ t /...IU)
2700(0J6 t* fr-
I/
(
(b) Stressat neutralaxis. where k : buckling coefficientfor plate element subjectto sheara!o;:e:to
( be taken as 5.0 for beamswithout transversestiffeners
Q : 92.9+ (12.155- 0.375)2(0.515)(0.s)
: 92.9+ 32.8: 125.7in.3
Frn: yield stressof the web
(
200(72s.7) of Eq. 7.7.10appearsin Chapter11 (Sec.11.8)on ri.:te
( ': : 1 8 ' 1k s i The development
tToo(oslt girders. Flowever,typical of plates as developedin Chaptcr 6 the iiu;ri:;:g
( strengthdependson a slenderness ratio; in this caseh/t* as shorvni;: Fi3.
. (c) Shear carried by flangesand rveb. Using an approximatelinear
variation, 7.7.3.From that figureone may note that marimum shearstrengthis a';ail:':le
(
when h/t* doesnot exceed69.7 (for 4,36 steel).The h/t* hmits belo*' r'.hj:h
( z(flanges)= 2(+X0.76)(0.875)(e.065)
: 6 kips Eq. 7.7.9 is appligable for roiled beams s;ithout stiffeners are give:r in
Table 7.7.1.
( Iz(web): 200- 6 - 194kips
( In this ase,97% of the shearis carriedby the web. TABLE 7.7.1 |'4AXIMUMlt / l* LIMITS!'/HEN STIFFE}{ERSARE NOT USED
(BASEDON LRFD-F2.2AND ASD-F4}
(d) Averageshearstress/, on web.
( ,y Fv h/t-" h/t*t
v 200
rf u. . - - : tr60ksi (ksi) (MPa) LRFD-F2.2 ASD'F4
(
dtn 24.31(0.515)
( which is 11.6%belorv the maximumvalue. 36 ' 248 69.7 63.3
42 290 64.5 58.6
( 56.6
45 310 62.3
( Nominal Shear Strength { in Rolled Beams 50 345 59.1 )5. t
60 414 54.0 49.1
( As shown by Example7.7.7,theweb is the elementthat primarily carries the 47.t
65 M8 51. 9
shear in l-sbaped sections.This is true also for the web (or webs) of "singly or 100 689 41. 8 38.0 For rolled seciions
( doubly symmetrical beams ... subjectto shearin the plane of symmetry, and
-for
(. channelssubject to shearin the web." (LRFD-F2.) *Equation 7.7.I0
, As long as the web is stable,that is, instability resulting from shear srress
'h/r*limit : laOT (Sec. 11.8) for derivation.
( or a combination of shear and bending stresscannot occur, the shear strength u,fl tsl ; see Chap. 11
!"r
)
7 / BEAMS:LATERALLY
SUPPOHTED (
7.7/ SHFj.RON ROLLEDBSAME 428
(

where .fo : service load averageshear stress : V/A. \


I
F,.= 36 ksi I/: serviceload shearforce
\
A-: area of the web : dl* for rolled beams
1
lnelasticbuckling (
I in shear Fo : allowable shear stressat serviceload : 0.404. for beamswithout
- r\r transversestiffenersand not exceedingh/t-limits glven in Table (
t-
6 r\r
t8 es.z{ 7.7.1
-cr
-.<
i
Tabl€7.7.1 (
(,r_
16 G'
g Equation 7.1.12 may be obtained from the strength relationship reforr4ulated
g 1 4 lpo 3 as Eq. 1.8.8, (
tn

3 1 2
No Ir >'l<'
&=ro, (
E
o
Etifi€ners
used ll.8.sl
ii 10 (
e It y /Q the nominal total factor of safety is taken as the traditional ASD
5 8 Elasticbuckling (
z in shear value of 1.67, Ro is Vn f,or shear,and the nght hand side is.the total $ervice
load shear 4 then Eq. 1.8.8becomes
,n I.
-u ', (7.7,13)
1.61
\
.-Dividing both sidesby the web area A., after noting that Yn= A.6F.A*,
41rd
100 200 (
reversingthe sidesof the equation glves
h
w€b srenderness,
L
(
(7.7,14)
Figure 7.7.3 Noninal shear stress V,/A,
w i t hout transverse stiffeners.
vs web slenderness h/t* tor A36 steel beams {r,:;)=(e- #:0364,)
Traditional allowable stressdesign has used two-thirds of the yield stressas (
the allowable value (2/3 of 0.6{r); thus, the allowable shearstress{, is taken
as 0.40{.. (
The reader may note that the LRFD h/t- limits for use of maximurn (
shear strength are somewhathigher than the ASD limits for use of ma,timurn
Load and ReslstaneeFactorDeslgntor ShearIn RottedBeams i", allowable stress.This results from 6n approximation in k used for LRFD;
(
philosophically there is no difference.Rolled beamswill generallysatisfythe
The shearstretgthrequirement
to LRFD-F2maybe srated
in load andresisuncefactordesignaccord.ing lt:,: lower limit.
(
(
li ! EXAMPLE 7.7.2
(\
eVn 2 Vu (7.7.11) t;
Selectthe lightest W sectionof A36 steelto carry a live load of 19 Hps,/fr and
t; dead load of 1 ktp/tt (in addition to the weight of the beam). The sirnply \
*'here 0 : 0.90 l: supported span is 5 ft. Lateral bracing is adequate for lateral stability. Use
/" : nominal strength in shear ls Load and ResistanceFactor Design.
: A.6Fy-A, (i.e., Eq. 7.7.9)for beamswithout transversestiffeners
and not exc€edingi/l- tirnil5 given in Table 7.7.1.
V,: taetoredserviceload shear(seeSec. 1.9)
i;
lf.
SOLWION
Since the loading is heavy and the span is short, the designer should
(

If" investigate shear as well as flexure.


i"# (a) Compute factored loads Mu and Vu. (
ir \
Allowable Stress Deslgn for Shear ln Rolled Beamg
The safety requirementfor shearin Allowable StressDesign(ASD) according
H
L+
wu= l-Zws f 1.6w,
'- r.2(1) + 1.6(19) : 32.0 kips/ft (
EF
to ASD-F4 may be stated Mn= wL218'= tz.o(s)'/8 : loo ft-kips
F v"- wL/2 - 32.0(5)/2- 80kips
(

&
l,s F, (7.7.12) (
loadsttrc bcatrlweightwill havelittle effct.
With thesebeatysuperimposed (
(
{
(
L

(
. 7.8/CONCENTRATED
LOADSAppLrEDTO ROLLED
BEAMS 425
(
( (b) select a section for flexure.Assume"compact section,,;
then.
( erMn _ Qt,Mp: euZrF,
( The designre4uirementis that
etMn: M,; thus,
T- i \-c't;cr
( rtfu N + 5&--l
100(12) , -i L seclicrr
R e q u i re dZ r: :-: -- : 37.0i n.3 lV + 2.5k , ' w l i
( Q$, o.eo(36) i l i
f ,--i \-r

( TryW12x26fTomLRFD..LOAD
FAcToRDESIGNSELECTION T-
TABLE,,
as the lightest beam having Z,> 37.0in.3.
( B I /V; bearinglengh
(c) Check shear. rk =. distancef rom outer faceof flangeto web

( ru_l toe of fiitet (property givenin AISC Manual

Q,,v,: o,(0.6.q,.)1', rvith dimensionsof rolled sections)


F = concertratedtoad to be transmittedto girder
( : 0.e0(0.6x36) : 54.6kips
(12.22)(A.n) Figure7.8.1 Localwebyieldingconsiderations
for s5hsli5hingbearinglength.
( Since vu: 80 kips exceedi.the shearstrengthprovidedby w12x
26, the
sectionis not adequate.
Therequiredrveburri ,A. ro, shearis As in most compression-related
( situations there are two possibilities:
yielding'or instability. The recent AISC Specificationsconsider the t\\,o
( Required An: -L: : 4.rzsqin. categories:(a) local rvebyielding and (b) web crippling.
*-=
( 0,(0.64,) 0.e0(21.6) Referringto Fig. 7.8.1,the concentratedreaction R acting on a beam is
Frcm the bending-loTnt requirement, the nextheaviersectionsare deeper, assumedcritical at the toe of the fillet (a distance k from the face of the
( suchas W14 or w16. If a W16 is selected, beam).The load is assumedto distributealong the web of a beamat a slopeof
its web thickness
requiredwill be
( 4.12/16: 0.26ir. Try Wl6X31,Z,: 54.0in.3For shear, 2.5 to 1. Prior to the 1986LRFD Specificationthe disrribution'*'astaken at
45o. The AISC Specifications of 1978and earlieru'erebasedon the rvork of
( Quvn: 0.90(0.6x36x1s.88) (0.zts): 84.9kips Lyse and Godfrey lT.20l.Investigators [7.21,7.221sincethat time haveshou'n
*'hich exceedsthe factoredshearZ,: g0.1kips (includingbeam the 45" slope to be very conservative; the load actually spreadsout over a
( weight)and
is acceptable. distance(tf + 5k) to (N + 7k) tor an interior load rather than rhe distance
( ' .-.-.:
Nore that the h/t * ratio canqotexceedthe valuein Table7.7.1. (f + 2k) formerly used.
( The transmissionof concentratedloads in beam-to-columncannectionsis
L,: unsupported height,? I3.6Zs treated in Chapter 13 and concentratedloads on plate girders and related
( t*. @:ffi:495 designof bearingstiffenersis treatedin Chapter11.
( This is less than the limit value of 69.7and confirms the use
of Eq. 7.7.9 for
the nominal strength v, in shear. The deailed discussion Load and Reslstance Factor Design
( of the use of
intermediate stiffeners when h/tn exceeds the value from Table 7.7.I appears
in Chapter 11 on plategirders.l.iotethat thevalue for The requirementof LRFD-K1.3 may be srated
( h/t* tabulatedin the
LRFD Manual for the w16x31 is 51.6 based on an underesrimate
of the O R O> R ' (7.8.1)
( radius at the junction of flange to web; when the larger
tabulated value is where f :-resistance(strengthreduction)factor
available it should preferably be used.
( R, * nominal reactionstrength
t/seW16x31,4 : 36ksi. R, : factoredreaction
E
(
( 7.8 CONCENTRATED
LOADSAPPLIEDTO ROLLEDBEAMS Load and ResistanceFactor Design- Local Web yielding
( The nominal reactionstrengthRn basedon the yield strengthat the toe of the
wben concentratedloads are applied to beams,beam fillet on a rolled beam is as follows:
( bearing at supports,and
reactions of beam flanges at connectionsto columns, a localied
yietaing from 1. For interior loads rvherethe concentratedload is applied at a distance
(. higb compressive srress followed by inerastic buckling
in the ,u.u ?rgioi from the end of the memberthat is grearerthan the depth of the member.
adjacent to the toe of a fillet occursin the vicinity of concentrated
( loads.This
entire behaviorrvas formerly combinedunder thJ category..rveb
I
crippling.,, Rn:(5k+ N)F',,tn (7.8.2)
(
F

F TO ROLLEDBEAMS
LOADSAPPLIED
7.8/ CONCENTRATED 427
7 / BEAMSI-ATERALLY
SUPPORTED
T.
:l

,
a-'
(
2. For end reactiotts, Load bnd ReslstanceFactor Deslgn- Web Crlppllng
loadsa newSpecification i
R,: ( 2 . 5 k+ N ) F y * , t * (7.8.3) To control the stabilityof the web at'concentrated
provision has been uiA.A in LRFD-Kl.4 which is basedon the work of (
The
iloberts t7.231. nominal reaction based
strength on this stabilitycriterion
n,here k : distancefrom outer facr-of flange to web toe of fiilet (
is:
N : length of bearing
F,* : specifiedminimum yield stressof the web t. For interiorloads,

The
l*, :
strength
web thickness
reduction factor 0 for local web yielding is 1.0;
:- .
this reflects the
traditional lower total safety factor used to control local web yielding than
t
L
.'(#)(;)"1
R ": t 3 5 1 3 l 1
tm
V t
( 7. 8. 8)
(.

used for overall strengthof a member. (

.,(;)(;)"1
2. For end reactions'

Altowabte Stregs Deslgn - Local Web Yleldlng


Rn: U8'3F [Tq (7.8.e) (
Reformulating the strengthrelationshiP,Eq. 7.8.1,as Eq. 1.8.8, V't (
D \
oRo l-
t t Q , : : .: { : R I (7.8.4) .y,.here rr: flange.thicknessthrough which the concentratedload is trans- (
Y \-' | mitted
(
j r/ : overall depth of beam
where Q, : sen'iceloads The strengthreductionfactor g is 0.75.
y : averageoverloadfactor (
R = total serviceload
FS and dividing Eq. 7.8.4 by the
Allowable Stress Deslgn - Web Crlppllng r
Letdng the combinedsafety factor t/Q:
reac-
critical area r{. gives For altowable stressdesign,ASD-KI.4 giriesthe allowable serviceload (
tion R as 0.5 of R, from Eqs.7-8-8and 7.8-9.
I

#h=(;:1) ( 7 . 8 . )5

:
r EXANIPLE 7.8.I
Determine the sizeof bearingplate required for an end reactionof 10
kips
(

on a W10x26 beam of A36 steel.The beam (


Subsrituting(5k + N)t*. and (2.5/<+ ff)t', for A,, for the interior and end . i l
dead load and 20 kips live load
:3000 psi'
situadons,respecdvely,and taking FS - 1.50 give the ASD-KI.3 limitations: rests on a concretewall having a 28-day compressivestrength li (
Use Load and ResistanceFactor Design.
t. For interior loads. (
R SOLUTIOi,I
< 0-664, (7.8.6) \
/.: (a) Compute factoredreactiooR, and required R,'
11, * 51; r (
I
I
Ru: 1. 2( lo) + 1. 6( 20)= 44 kiPs
2. For end reactions, I (
li RequiredRo : RJ+: 44/1.0 = 44 kiPs
R tl ' .; ri
f": .,1673;1 < 0.664, (7.8.7) I -
t: 1b; Determine plan dimensionsfor bearingplate.The
bearinglength must
(local web yielding) or Eq' (
I
satisiy the more ,.u.t. requirement of Eq. 7.8-3
tt
7.8.8iweb crippling). Solving the simpler Eq. ?.8.3 for the required bearing
In .{SD the length .\ of bearing is not to be taken less than k for end
reacrions;such a limitation does not appearin LRFD. The 1989ASD-KI.3
E
k length N gives
(
(
alloqrble stress for this limit state has been reducedto 0.66{ from the
tradirional value of 0.75{: somewhatoffsetting the increasein bearinglength F-
-F,.r,- z.s*
N : lR" -': -'-\' - 2.5in.
- 2.5(0.875) (
g
36(0.260)
from the traditional(IV + 2k) to (N + 5/c) for an interiorbearinglocation. (
!-{t_

F (
*
r
I

{' 7/BEAI{S: LATERALLY


SUppOfrTED
( 7.9/HOLES til BEAMS

( €
:l
beam.Thefactoredmoment:ld is
cantilever
( il
( p(n/z' t < ) 2 r i t . 4 7 ( 3- t . E ; s ) 2 ; r -
Mu: _ 3.rl .\. (ai
( 2 2
For a rectangularsection,the bendingstrengthrequirementis
(
Figure7.8.2 Example7.8.1. (trt
( QT,I,> M U
{
-
where f : 0.90 and M,: Mo ZFr. For a rectangularsect,ionof u'idth A'
(
(
Try a 3-in' bearia{ Plate-As a prrcdcal marter,3 in. should
minrlnlm bearing length unlesscrearances
be consideredas
requirea lesserrength.
Before checkiag Eq- 7.9.g(web crippring),investigate
rheiequirement for
:l and thicknessr (seeExample7.3.1),

Z: Nt2/4 (.)
( bearing on the concrere.The nominatuian"i'srrengt; p, To satisfyEq. (b) above,eZF,,: 3.32N; thus,
of .onrrrt. i, given
( by LRFD-J9 as i
0. 90Nt 2F. .
Pp - 0.85f!Ar :3.32N
( 4
where A, is the area of steelconcentricallybearing and for F, : 36 ksi, the required thicknessbecomes
( on a concretesupport.The
requirement is thlt.+P, ) Ro (i.e.. rhe iactorediearing
road). The srrengrh
( reduction factor g for bearingis 0.60.Thus, solving for
area A, gives
the required bearing : rffi
Required, - 0.64
- in. user : i ir.
( y 0.e0(36)
**utt=tl "' RJo 4/0'60 U sebeari ngpl a t e,
i x 5 x 0'- 6, , . E
( Required A,'t :- --Tfl -: -: = 28'8sqin'
(
0s5/J oF
solving for the bearing plate thicknessin general,equating 6Mn to trIu,
For a 3-in. bearinglength,the widrh B (seeFig. 2.g.2)would
( havero be 9.6 in.
since the beam flarge width is on-lys.77 in., a-width'g Ntz p(.n/z - *)'t'i
smalrerthan 9.6 in. is , 4 - f -
(' desirable- A 4-i!. rengthiequires a width of 7.2 in. Try a ptate_r ' 4 -
' 2
in. x 7.5 in. (1, : !:"*g
30 sq in.).
( Now check Eq. 7.8.9(web crippling)on the W10x26:
K e q u t r e dI :
i z p ( B / z- 0 2 (7.8.10)
( i' t,! .:
Of ..

[ ,( - I - \ i 0 ' 2 6 0 \ ' ' t l . F ( 0 ' a 0: I 54'8


t ' ,

( R , , : 6 8 ( 0 .'-'
2 6 0 *)' . 't
3 . . ^ kiPs
..
L' 1033 lt n* / lV tr*
( 7.9 HOLES IN BEAMS
the design strengrheR,, : 0.?5(54.g): 4l.l kips. Since
TT this is lessthan
( the factored load : 44 kips, the bearing tengttr'tr
{" ,nur, be increased.A
5-in. bearing length /f gives 0R,,: 44.2-kips-rvhich Flange Holes
( exceedsR, and is
acceptable.
For tension rnembers the effect of fastener holes has been discussed in
( Use bearingplate. fy'- 5 in.x B = 6 in.
Chapter 3, wh"ereholesare deductedand net sectionis used.For compression
( 1"; O"t. ess.The uniform (assumed)bearing members, since the fastenersoccupy most of the space in the hole, the
prgssureunder factored load is fastenersare assumedin designto completelyfill the holes and a deduction for
( holes is not made.
( Uniform bearingpressure When the nominal strength Mn reache.s the plastic moment Mo, certunly
'p : *: 1.47ksi
5(6) tension flange holes reduce that strength; however, there qiit bi a shift in
( neutral axis associatedwith a loss of strength at one flange. an effect that
' The critical sec.rionfor bending is taken
at the toe of the flange,to-web somewhatcounteractsthe effect of holes.Traditional designhas neglectedthe
( fillet, a distance & from the mid-thicknessof trr. *.u,
and the beam-frangeis
assumednot to panicipate-The bendingmomentis effect of holes when holes do not representa significatrl proportion of rhe
( treatedas that acting on a flange area.When the nominal moment strengrh M, is iimited to less LhanM,
, (
P THEORY
7.10/ GEI\ERALFLEXURAL 431 (
430 7.' SEAMS:LATERALLY
SUPPOffiED
(

Mandel, Brennan,Wasil, and Antoni [7.281.Cooper and Snell


Leffler 17..271,
(
bv sometlpe of instabilitythe effectof holesis reduced.
[7.301,Chan and Redwood[7.31,7.371, Wang,Snell,and Cooper[7.331,Larson (
Traditionally, AISC Specificationshave required deduction for flange
holes onlr u.hen the area of holesexceedsl5%'of the grossflange,and then and Shah 17.341, Cooper,Snell,aad Knostman [7.35],Redwood,Baranda,and
Daly [7.36]. Redwoodand Uenoyal7.37l,Daugherty[?.381.and Narayanan (
i,nlr thc' area in excessof 15%is deducted.No shift in neutralaxis is to be
made even though correctlyonly the tension flange holes are to be deducted.
i;."
and Der-Avanessian[?.391.Design tables for rectangular holes have been (
L-RFD-Bi continuesthis practice. given by Redwood[7.401,and a designexampleis presentedby Kussman and
I-lorvr'€r'er. Cooper [7.4U. (
AsD-810 requiresuseof grosssectionprovided that
(
0.5F,A7, > 0.6FyAft (7.e.1)
THEORY
7.10 GENERALFLEXURAL (
whcre .4,n : net flange atea
(r'
A,." : gross flange area Thus far considerationhas been grveo onlyto"syrnmetrical shapes loaded
symmetrically for which f : Mc/I is correct for computing elastic flexural (
I'iquetion7.9.1meansthat the net flangeareamust exceed0.74and 0.92of the stress. The following developmenttreats the general bending'of arbitrary
gtt)ss flange area for ,{36 and A572 Grade 50, respectively.in order to use prismatic beams,i.e.,beamshavingany-cross-sectional shapewith no variation (
gr()ssarca.That is allowingholesup to 25.5%insteadof lt% ro be ignoredfor ?' along the length.They are also itssumedto be free from twisting. (
r\36: ho*'*er, it allowsonly 8% holesto be ignoredin A,572Grade 50. when .\\ Consider the straight uniform cross-sectionbeam of Fig. 7.10.1 acted
L,q. 7.9.i is not satisfied,the fracture limit state governs;in such a casesome upop by pure moment applied in tbe plane ABCD which makes the angle 1 (
deduction for holesseemsappropriate.When the fracture limit state governs. with the x; plane. The momerts are representedby vectors norrnal to the (
,{SD-BI0 states "flexural propertiesshall be basedon an effectivetension plane of action (positive rnoment defined by using right-hand rule for
flanee arel .-{7.,as follows: rotation).
Examinenext a portion of the beamof length z as shownin Fig. 7.10.2a, (,
At,=#n,^ (7.e.2\ To satisfy equilibrium on the free body of Fig. 7.10.2arequires

14:0, (7.10.1)
Frrr A36 steel. Eq. 7.9.2allowsuseof an effectiveflange area3496higher than l^odA-o (
the computcd net area; however,for A572 Grade 50 the effecriveflange area
EMt : o, * (7.10.2) (
can be taken only 8% higherthan the computednet area.Logicallythe effect
of holes should dependon the likelihood of the teosilefracture through such
Y'=In'o (
holes being rhe conrrollingLimitstate.
LMr: a' Mr: I^to* (7:10.3)
(
Other specificationsfollow the more consen'ativeproceduresthat have
been used for many years.The American Associationof State Highrvay and (
Transportation officials (AASHTO) tl.3l and the American Railway Engr-
n!-erinsAssociation(AREA) [1.4] use the net section(holesdeductedfrom
8, (
Planeof
hoth flanges)for computingtensionflange suess,and use gtosssection(no (
M, = Mcast
holes from either flange)for computingcompressionstress. M, = MsinY:.
Examples of procedure for considering fastener holes appear in the
(
Chapter 13 sectionon beam and girder splices. (
(
Web Holes
(
The AISC Specifications [1.5,1.151permit neglectof fastenerholeslocatedin
the r"'eb. largely for the same rs$ons fastenerholes in the flange may be ('
neglected.Lerge holescut into beam webs are entirely anothermatter. These (
SccrionA-4
holes require special analysis and usually wi[ have to be reinforced by
attaching ertra plate material,often including stilfeners,around the sidesof (
the hole. Treatment of this is outside the scope of this text; however,the
rr'adermsv refer to the work of Bower [i.24,7.2s,7.26,and 7.291,Frost and Figure 7.10.1 Prismatic beam under pure bcnding.
{
(

t
i
L-'
t' 432 7/BEAMS:LATERALLYSUPPORTED
:'
7.r 0 / GENERALFLEXURALTHEORY
i(

and the angle y must be suchthat


,/^
''=l'
tanT: r:_1..'r.o\
Mv I',

As a practicalmatter it would be unlikely that an unsymmetricalbeam s:iiL.'n


would be located in a plane making the angle 7 '*'ith the xz plane a::d hasc
bending occur in the yz piane.Equation?.10.9also shows that if a seci..n is
used with at least one axis of symmetry(for which IF),&4:1",:0).
,/ txn y : co, y : 90o, meaningthe loading and the bending both occur l-a the
.l'z plane.
An important conclusionhere is that onlf if .f..,..: 0 does the beeding
occur in the plane of loading.For example,on unsymmetricalshapessuch a-s
anglesor zeesloaded in the x; or y: plane, the plane of loadiqg and the plane
(b) of bendingwill be different.
Figure ZJA.Z Free body of a portion
of a.beam having length z.
Bending in the xz Plane Only
It is to be noted from Fig. 7.r0.2b If bendingoccursin the xz planethe stresso is then proportional to -:- Thus
that the moments M, and M, are
positive in accordance with .the both
customary convention of callirig positive
bending thar which.:ryr:r compressiol o=knx (7_i0.10)
in ,tr i;; ;;rtion of the beam.Also,
the subscriprsfor M designa*ih. a,..s
about*iirn-arndiag occurs;i.e.,the
directionof the momentvector. and from Eqs.7.10.i through7.10.3are obtained:

k ',J IA r d A : 0 ( ? _ 1 0 . 1) 1
Bendingin the yz plane Only
If bendingoccursin theyz prane,the
stresso is thenproportionarto y. d; which meansy must be a centroidalaxis. Also,

,
o:ktY (7.10.4) il|, - nrl^r, d,A: kzl,, i7.i0.12)
UsingEqs.7.10.1through
7.10.3
gives
Mr: *rln, dA : k2l, (7.10.13)
krIydA:o (7.10.s)
. f
and
,, ,r,
t a n Y= : (7.i0.14)
M,: 4 : Mv Ir'
fny,dA krr, (7.10.6)
In the iase where/,,,':0, tany:0, i.e., the loading and bendi::3both
Mr: Orlo*rdA: krI,, occur in the xz plane.
(7.10.7)

From the first of the above expression Bending in Neitherxz Noryz Planes
s, Ie! dA :0, meaning x must be a
centroidal axis. The srressruy ih.n
ue coffitrd *' This is the realisiic casewhen consideringunsymmetricalsectionsin ilerure.
Since it is assumedall stresses are within the elastic limit. the total strass o is
M'! Mrl
o: --_ or the sum of the stresses due to bendingin eachof the xs and ;'z ptanes.Thus
'Tr 1,,
(?.10.8)
o:kr]'*krx ( 7 . 1 0 . 1) 5
(
4U 7 / BEAl.lS: LATERALLY SUPPORTED 7.10 / GENERAL FLEXURAL IHEORY 43s
(
and From Fig. ?.10.1.SectionA-A, it is seenthat at any point on the neutral axis.
(
tan d - - x/r'. Dividing both numerator and denominator of the right side of {.
Mr.: k rl , + k z l ,, (7.10.16)
Eq. 7.10.21by .'1l,.gives
Mr: krl,, + kzly (7.10.17) M',
- r' x Y (t
Solving Eql 7.10.16and 7.10.17for &, and k, and substituringinro Eq. Mr''
7 .1 0 . 15giv es tan!:T (7.ro.72\ (
^ l
.I . x -
. (7.10.18) Mr.r, (
(,
which is the generalflexureequation.Tbe assumpdonsinherent in Eq. Z.l0.lg Substitutionof 4.7.10.20 into Eq. 7.10.22gives
(
are (a) a straight beam: (b) constantcross-secdon;(c)-x- and y-'*.r.r. I

mutually perpendicularcentroidalaxes;and (d) that stressis proportional to tana -I'tan''r-I" (7.r0.23)


Ir- Irrtany
strain and the maximum valueis within rhe proportional limit.
(,
When investigatinga s€ction with one axis of I,r: 0; Eq.
symmetry,
Prlnclpal Ares 7.10.23then becomes

The principal axesare mutually perpendicularceniroidal axes for which


the tand : ( 7. 10. 24)
moment of inenia is either a maximum or minimum. Furthermore,these
axes 7r*, (
are the only mutually perpendicularaxesfor which the product of inertia
/,,.
is zero. When a sectionhas an axis of symmetry. that axis is a principal r EXAMPLE 7.IO.I
"*i
and Eq. 7.10.18becomes A W18x50 used as a beam is subjectedto loads inclined at 50 from the (
M, !r{, vertical axis as shown in Fig. 7.10.3.Locate the inclination of the neutral axis.
O: (7.10.1e) (
T'* T' SOLUTION
{'
when there is no axis of symmetry,Eq. ?.10.19can sdlt be used I, : 800 in.a; /r : 40.1 in.o
if the
principal axes are locatedand the quantities !t{,, M,-, 1,, Ir, -r, and y {
are all
corrected so as to refer to the principal ares. Usuutty-suit transfonnations I
tan 85o : tany {..
offer no advantageover direct useof Eq. 7.10.13. I

Using Eq. 7.10.24,


l * (
l

I' zm'l
InctlnaUon of the Neutral Arts ta nd : : : 0. 573 I
; ; t anY m t anS5o
\\'hen the loads acting on a flexural member passtluough the
centroid of the (
cross-section a : 29. 8o( 29"50') I
but are inclinedwith respectto either of the principal axes,the (
stressesmay be determinedby usingEq. 7.10.19or Eq. z.to.tq. Horvever,nore
should be made that the neutrat axis is not nec€ssarilyperpendicular
to the
plane of loading.As shownfrom Eqs.7.10.9and 7.10.i4 and
Fig. 7.10.1, a = 29"5Cf plirne of
1 . ,
lording
M- (
t a n.y : - : (7.10.20)
tr{, \ {
Sincethe stressalong the neutral axis is equal to zero, o may
x
_l_ (
be set equal l

to zer oin E q. 7. 10.1 8W


. i th o :0 , s o l v i n gfo r _ x /y gi ves
(
I
?"
:* (
(7.10.21) Figure 7.10.3 Biaxially loaded bcam of
.-+ Example 7.10.1.

& (
I

w-
(
(
(
(
436 7/,BEAMS: LATERALLvsuppoRTED .s
"J
iaI
7.ro / GENERALFLEXURALTHEORY 437

E EXAMPLE7.T0.2 +t
(
computethe maximumflexural .g Stressat point C:
suessin a 6 x 4 x angrewith -=l
( verticallydownwardwhenr.*i* |. therongreg .?i

' ,3g lt
roaaec;;i bi vup/fton a simpry - l,ee)- ( -6.08x-0.e87)]
7s[6.27(
portedspanof l0 fi sup_ - f {
Geerie. z.rO.il.
( -comp-. ,r, u"ru. assumingrheangreis JC

ffH'f:il i:nii fi;j.: invoi'e.t;;;il,#i "u,"i".a


:. 1
7-
( il;i;; ;naing ; lI : 75(-0.256) = - 19.2ksi (compression)
( ;..'lt (b) Angle free to bend in any direction.Use alternatemethodsug-rested
SOLUTION i

' , by Gaylord and Gaylord 17.421(pp. 1a3-147).Compurerhe srressesassuming


( free to bend in any direction. first that the beam bendsonly in the yz plane. Convenientlylet ilf* : i6g
using Eq. 7.10.18with AISC
o-og,iltgle in.-kips. Then, accordingto Eq. 7.10.9,Mr: jt{,1,,/1, must also be acting
( l .i (Fig. 7.10.5a)if bendingis to occuronly in.the r': piane.
I, = 7 7 .4 i n .a , Ir: 6 .27 i n.a
r f
( :l
. - !

1,, : [01:3-oo
- 1.ee)
( -0-e87
+ 0.25) :, :t '
( + 3.5(2.2s- -
0.e87x 1.9e
+ 0.25)J
0.50 ','!#
M, = !00 in.'kiPs . - 33 84 rn..krps M, = 66. 16 in..krps
: [ ( - 4 . 4 7 ) + ( _ 7 . 6 9 ) J 0 . 5 0 :_ 6 . 0 8 i n . a
(
I I neutral
I Loading
I direction
( M,: c[-== I Try=-oe6ex
*(0.5X10)2= 6.25ft_kips: 75 in._kips r-T?i
-<-f +I
: l+y- I t-F-

( M.r: 0
lll M' = r ol 7o- 4( - 6 o e l Ltl
fJ r u ,= o
( Stressat point l: AB t = -349rn..krps
Al,
( YlI,l' 1,,.t) 6.2s(12)16.27
r, A-- - - d : 7 _ : ( + 4.aD_ (_ 6.08)
( _ 0.e87)J (a) Bcnding in vertical plane (b) Bending in horizonral (c) Gcnerat
( - 1o.oa;2
17.4(6.27)
plane bending
Figure 7.10.5 Solution by superpositionof bending in the vertical and horizonral
( 7s(1e.i4) planes.
: : 75(0.265)
: + 19.9ksi (tension)
( =i-
Sincethe real loadinghasonly M,, M, must be removedby applicarionof
( Stress
at point B: an equal and oppositemoment,further cbnsideringthat bendingoccursonh'
( 75[6.27
( + 4.01)_ (_ 6.08) in the xz plane. This means, according to Eq. 7.10.14, the iimultaneous
( _ 0.487)J applicationof M,: MrI,r/f, (seeFig. Z.l0.5b).
fs:
( 72.1 Bendingin vtirtical.plinei
: 75(0.308)= +23.1ksi (rension)
(
M^, : 7 s . o #
f : 113.4in.-kips
( \ 66.76I
( ii3'4(4'01)
f ^t t, : Jf a
at. : = 2 6 . 1k s i ( t e n s i o n )
( 9.? kipltt tin.L beamr,rn) =_i ' '-. -
n-4

( f c'. : 1 1 3 ' i ! ' 9 9 ) = 1 3 . 0 k s i( c o m p r e s s i o n )


77.4
( l---rq-o--l Bendingin horizonral plane:
( M,, : - 113.4(-6.Ag)/17.4 : 39.6in.-kips
( 3e.6(0.987)
8,
.fn.: frr: - 6.2ksi (compression)
( I ""
Figure2.10.4 Data for Example 'n'ujo,'jt1'
7-10.2 fa. : : 3.1ksi (compression)
6.21
(
t (
7,, 3EAMS.
LATERALLY
SUPPORTED 7 11 i BIAXTALBENDINGOF SYMMETRTCAL
SECTICNS

{
Total stressesin generalbending: Nominal Strength I

f^: *26.1-6.2: + 1 9 . 9 k s i (tension) The nominal strengthof a sectionsubject to biaxial bending is not readily
determined.Such strengthwill certainly depend on the proportions of the
f s: * 2 6 . 1- 3 . 1 : + 2 3 . 0k s i (tension) sectionand the relativemagnitudesof the apptied moments M, and M,.. The
- 1 3 . 0 - 6 . 2 = - 1 9 . 2 k s i (eompressionl useoi an interactionequationsuchas used for beam-columnsis not believed
fc : adequatelyconservativefor caseswhere there is no axial compressionor
"rhich asreer'riththe values,19.9,23.r,and r9.2 ksi,respecdvely. rension.The AISC ASD Specificationhas traditionally limited the combined
ascomputed stressaccordingto Eq.7.11.1to a maximumof 0.60f,. This effectivelyimplies
h1' thc generalformula.
The generalequation for stressat any point is seenro be that the nominal strengthof the section under combined M, and M,. is
reached*'hen the extremefiber stressreachesthe yield stress d. Thus, the
1 1 3 .4 -v 3 9 .6 x entirecross-sectionwill be elastic;no credit is then given to any ability of the
i:fi- 6.n cross-secrionto undergoplasticdeformation.Certainly this approachis con-
sen'ative.
u lrcretf { : 0. the neutralaxis is y - - 0.969x. Follo*ing the aboveapproach,the elastic stressequation,Eq. 7.11.1.
'fhis
superimpositionmethod permrts the designerto visualizervhat is could be usedu,ith nominalmaximumstrengthmomenls, Mn, and Mn,.,and
taking place. [f attachedconstructionconstrainsan undymmetricalsectionto a maximum srress{.. Thus, the nominal strength could be assumedto be
bcnd in the vertical plane, the restrainingmoment'capacitycan be computed ''.
reachedu'hen
h y us ingE q. 7. 10. 9 . Mn' Mrt
r ( 7 . 1 1. 2 )
1c1.{ngle restrainedto bend in the verticalplane: - ' - f .
''
St Sr

L : fs: = +17.3ksi (rension) An alternativewould requirea more complex interactionrelationship.


#
such as pro"'idedin LRFD-AppendixH3. For biaxially bendingof l-shaped
"(:=t:n') members.interactionequationsare provided that are influencedby the cross'
f, : = - 8.6ksi (compression) sectionalparameterb1/d (i.e.,flangewidth to overall depth).
17.4
Llnlcssthe horizontalconstraints
actuall!'.act,
the rensile
stress
at poinrB is Load and Reslstance Factor Design
undercstimated br' 25? and thecompressive
- stressar C is underesiimater3
' bv e'rYv'vdrrrrrsl

IterhodI. LRFD-H2 usesthe combinedstressapproachof Eq. 7.ll.l


55a2.

Frequentlydesignersassumef : M),/l is applicablewithout considering


recognizingthat the safety provisions include an overload effect and an
*'hether or not adequatehorizontalrestraintsare pres.nt. Although
usually understrengtheffect. Tlte requiredMn, equals tlre factored load Mn, divided I
somedegreeof restraintis present,careshouldbe exercisedwheniniestigating by the strengthreductionfactorg. Substitutionfor Mn, and Mn,in Eq. 7.11.2
unsvmmet'ricalbeams.Neglectof the lateral(horizontal)componentis
i,nuyi gives !
c'n the unsafeside.
t L{ n, M u,.
- \ f
- -' ( 7 . 1 1 .)i
Q aS, 0r S,
7.11 BIAXIALBENDINGOF SYMMETRICAL
SECTIONS where0r,: 0.90.
For designuse,multiply Eq. 7.11.3by S' and divide by F,, giving
Fle-rurll siresseson sectionswith at leastone axis of symmetryand
thr<''rrq.hthe centroid may be computedusing Eq. 7.r0.1i, whicti when
ficti r,. ei'"emaximumstresso becomes
loaded
modi- ,.=#.k(i) (7.11.4)

Mr M,
(t:-+-- For selecringstandardrolled shapesone finds that for a given depth of
( 7 . 1 .I l )
sr S' secrionthe ratio .S*/S, is relativelyc,onstant.A typical range of such values
appearsin Table 7.11.1.The lightest sections in any depth will be thc
nherc s, : I,/(d/21 and s,: Ir/(b/2) arethe sectionmodurusvarues. narro\\estones and thus havethe higher valuesof S,/Sr.
(
( 7 / BEAMS:LATERALLY
SUPPORTED 7.11 / BIAXIALBENDINGOF SYMMETRICALSECTTONS 441
(
( TABLE 7.11.1 TYPTCALS,/ STVALUES
in Chapter 12 on beam-columns.It is ahvaysconsen'ativeto take C,,, and C,,,,
( Shape Deprh d(in.) cqual to 1.0, rvhich is [o assume the bending moment is constant alons t]rc
S,/SY
( span.
M 6,9 5-7 3, For bt/d < 0.3.
( M 10,l2 8-11

\ffi,| .\8"",J='
M 1 4 ,1 6 1l-12 ( c ^ , l t ! " , \ t o . I c ^ , . l t l u r \ t o_
( Light W and M 4-8
(7.11.7)
3
( w 8 ,1 0 3-4
w 12 3-6
w 14(up to 84tb/tt) where0,r: 0.90 for Eqs.7.11.5through7.71-7-
? 4-8
w 14(over84lb/tt) 2t-3 The above equationsapply to braced frame (see Section 6.9) beams.
( w 1 6 ,1 9 , 2 1 5-9 laterallysupportedor not. The first equation,Eq. 7.11.5,appliesto sections
( w 24,27
w
6-10 having relativelywide flangesas comparedto overalldepth; therefore.lateral
30,33,36 7-t2
(. S , supportis not of concern.Inelasticbehavioris presumedcapablecf occurring;
6 -8
b 1 0 -i 8
d
thui, M,.. and Mn,. are to be taken as the plastic moment strengths.This
( 0.75d "compact" for local buckling.
C uptoT impliesthat the sectionsare
t.5d
( C 8-'10 Fci Eqs.7.77.6and 7.11.?,trlo, and I[n,. are to be determinedthe same
1.25d
C 1 2 , 1 5" d as the nominal strengthfor any uniaxiallyloadedbeam: the maximum values
(, are the plastic momentsfor all qualifyinglaterallybracedcompactsections.
(
An alrernatemerhodis suggested by Gayrordand Gaylord[7.a\(p. 16g), Allowable Stress Design
( for usewith l-shapedsectionr1w, M, and s[nr.
quuntityE/q, is computed D i vi di ngthe fa ct orof saf et yl/ Q : 1. 67 f r om bot h sidesof Eq. i. 11. 3 gives
( approximately using the beam propertiesneglectinj
e Ge ,"eb irr.'rt. This gives, the relaiionshipbet*,eenthe serviceload combinedstressf , and the alloivable
using br: flangervidth and d: depth.
( stressFo,
('
(
* :
I,tb/z)
E U/z)ry-w:
_ zqt?/\2\t/z) _ 3d
u, (7.1T,5)
\
(":t.?)
= : ffi: o.6oF,
\4 I
l F . , \ (7.11.8)

( which is suggestedto be increasedto 3.5d/q


to accountfor a greatererror in and the designformat,similarto Eq. 7.71.4becomes
the numerator than in the denominatorresurting
from the negrectof rveb.
( ilfr t'fE\
( Method 2. The inreraction equadons from s, Fb r, \s"/
(7.11.e)
LRFD-Appendix H3 are as
follorvs:
(
l. For 0.5 < b/d < t.0, I EXAMPLE 7.II.I
(
Select the Jightest W or M section to carry service dead load moments
( ( Y " t l ' ' o* \|; n' , /, \ ' u - . M,:13 ft.ki ps and M , : 5 f t - kips,and live load m om ent st r [ , : 45 f t - kips
la,tr,_J =t (7.11.5) -:€
an-dM,, : 20 ft-kips. Considerthat adequatelateral bracing is provided.Use
(
steelhaving .F,.: 50 ksi. Use Load and ResistanceFactor Design'
( 2. For 0.3 < bt/d < 0.5.
SOLUTION
( 4+ u,ro
( c^,ru",\o E/d (a) Compuie factoredloads M,, and Mu,-
( * (r:ry,,\o.o* =, (7.u.6)
\ euu,, I qrv4", \ I M ,, : 1.2(i5) + 1.6(45): 90 ft-kips
( -q

where Qo,' and C^, aremomentgradient -.'s. M u, .: i. 2( 5) + 1. 6( 20): 38 f t - kips


terms rvhosederivarionis discussea
( ,
t-
( '.is?i

-:::
-
BEFERENCES
SELECTED
442 TIBEAMS. LATERALLY
SUPPORT€D (
l

(b) Using\tethod l, determine


requiredsectionmodulusS, and select .Investigatethe Wl0x49 selectedin part (b),
'
Equation
section. 7.11.4gives ComPuteb1/d:10.00/9.98 = 1-00
e0(12)I S\ 38(12)
Required *
t' = ono(50) Since0.5 < b,/d < 1.0 is nearlysatisfied,useF4. 7.11.5.The nominal moment
o *tso) t r" I strengths M,', and Mn, arethe plastic moment strengthsfor unia.rdalbending.

> 24 + 10S./S,. Mn.,: Mr,: z'Fr: 60'4(50)/12 : 252 ft-kiPs


(.'
From Table 7.ll.l the ratio S,/S, can be expectedto be on the order of 3 to Mn, : M or : zr F, = 28'3( 50) / t z : 118f t - kiPs (
4; thus S. = 54 to 64 in.3
"ALLOWABLE Substitution into Eq. 7.11.5using Qu: 0.90 gives
It will be handy hereto usethe ASD Manual [1.7] table,
STRESSDESIC).J SELECTION TABLE," to arrive at W16x40, E : 64.7
in.r For rhis heam, = 64.7 and it is apparent that the beam is / 90 \ ''t t 38 \ 'n < 1
E/S, /8.25, | | +l--l
inadequate.Continuingin the sametable,it is noted that the lightestW shapes \ o . r o l zls' z ; \ o . e o ( 1 1 8 ) ,
(boldf:rcet)'pe) are inadequatcup to about W21x62, which has S,/Su = 9.
Thus, 60 lblfr seemsto be the weightrange. ( 0 . 3 9 ? ) t '+6( 0 . 3 5 8 ) t ' 6 : o - 4 2 < I
Using only the LRFD Manual[1.17],one must uss the plasticmodulusZ,
table.'LOAD FACTOR DESICN SELECTION,TABLE."The sectionmod- :\ By this criterion the member is considerablyoverdesigned;select u tigh,.,
ulus S, may be approximatelyconvertedto Z, by rnultiplyingby the average ..-.-section.Try W10x39'
shapefactor l.l2 (seeSec.7.3).For this casethe initial trial S, valuesof 54 to
s0 38 \ t ' ' :o'77
64 would'havebecomeZ,= 6l to72 in.3 and the samestartingsectionof
l /
*to.*m5\t'o
<I
Wl6x40 *'ould havebeenobtained. I
Iusotust J
T r y W l0x 60:
Even though the criterion still indicatesthis sectionis stronger than necessar)'.
S,/S":66.7/23.0:2.9
the next lightest (W10x33) gives1.06 for the criterion.
U seW 10x39, Fy: 50ksi.
Require dS. = 2 4 + 1 0 (2 .9 ): 5 3 i n .3 < 66.?i n.3 OK
For \V10x.19.
S./S" = 54.6/18.7:2.92 SELECTEDREFERENCES
"History of SteelBeam Design," Engineeringf ournal, AISC. 14.
RequiredS. : 24 + 70(2.92)= 53.0in.l < 54.6in.3 OK ?.1. T. V. Galambos.
4 (Fourtb Quarter 1977),141-147. r
?.2. Joint Committee of Welding ResearchCouocil and tbe American Society of Cirnl
dt
1
d U s eW 1 0 x 4 9 ,F , : 5 0 k s i . I 1:-
3i
l:"
Engineers.Commentaryon Plutic Designin Steel,2nd ed., ASCE Ma-nuai and
If one had assumeda 10-in.depthas desirableand used8q.7.17.4with a i {

;!

fl coefficientof 3.5 insteadof 3. I; Rcpors on PracticeNo. 41, New York. 1971. ''Th'
7.3. Joseph A. Yura, Tbeodore V. Galambos,and Mayasandra K. Ravindra
E I re.
t .
Bending Resistanceof Steel Beans," Journal ol the Structural Diuision, ASCI:
N;

fl

a
RequiredS, : 24 + 10(3.Sd/bt) t: 104,ST9 (September1978),1355-1370.
"serviceability Lirc'it Stetes:
f, For WlO sections.d/b, is eitherI or 1.25. t; ?.4. Tbeodore V. Galambos and Bruce Ellingwood.
;
I
l :
Deflection," Jowaal o! Structural EngineerinS,ASCE ll2, I (Jaouary 1986)'
H
n RequiredS, = 24 * 35 : 59 in.3 l_r 67-U.
"structural Serviceability: Floor Vibra'
g li 7.5. Brucc Ellingwood and Andrew Tdlin.
s'hich rvould also have requireda check of two sections.The more general ASCE, ll0, 2 (February 1984)' 4Of - 418'
Engineering, I

E tions," Journal of Structural


iltt approrch using tlpical S.,/S" valuesse€msmost usefulunlessa specrficdepth Disc.,lll, 5 (MaY 1985),1158-116l.
H a = "Vibration and Deflection of Sterl t
is desired. 7.6. Richard N. Wrig,bt and William }L Walker.
H
tf (c) Use lvtethod 2 and see if a lighter section will be acceptable.Since
t*
H Bridges," EngineedngJounul, AISC, 9, I (January 1972), 20-31'
"Desigp to Prevent Floor Vibrations," EngineeringJournal,
tr
}F

there is likelv to be someinelasticdeforrnationcapability of l-shapedsections, ?.7. Tbomas M. Murray.


AISC, 12, 3 (Third Quarter 1975)'82-87.
Method I is expectedto be conservative. H
H
a
1
, (' - 444. 7/BEAMS: LATERAT_LY
SUPPOBTED PROBLEMS 445

( . \
7'8' Thomas M' Murray.''Acceptability
( Criterion for occupaarlodueed Floor vibra- with Web Holes," Journalol the StrucrwalDiuision,ASCE 97, ST11 (Novembcr
1ions," EngineeringJournaf, AIsc; lg, 2 (second euarter 19gl), 62-70. 1971),210'l-2728.Disc.,99, 5T6 (June1973),1312-1315.
( 7'9' Y' EugeneYamamoto. "Deflections "Tests on Beamst'itli Rcinfqrccd Wcb
of SteppedBeLs and Girders, Engineering
Jaurnal, AISC, 22, 2 (Second 7.30. petei B. Cooper and Robert R. Snell.
euarrer 19g5); 57_62. Openines." iournal o{ tlit Structura!.Dit:ision,ASCE. 98, ST3 (N{arch 1972).
( 7'10' Frank J. Myi]or
-'-pondins oi Tn,o-wayJ Roof Systems,,,
AISC, 3, 3 (July 1966), J EngineeringJcurnar, 6ir-63:
( 93_100. "stressesin Beams *ith Circuiar
7'11. Lewis B. Burgeil. "Fast 7.31. Peter \\'. Chan and Richard G. Rcdwood.
check for ponding,,, Engineering
o. Journar,AISC, 10, 1 of the Structural Diuisioti. ASCE, l0O' STI
(First Quarrer 1973),26_2g. Eccentric Web Holes," Journal
( (January'1974), 23L-248.
7.12- John L. Ruddy- "psading
of ConcreteDeck Floors,,,EngineeringJournar,Alsc, "Design Aidcs for Beamswith Circular
( 23, 3 (Third euarter 19g6),107_115. 7.32. Richard G. Reawoodand PeterW. Cban.
7.13. James chinn- "Failure__of Eccentric Web Holes," Jountal of the Structural Diuision, ASCE, 100, ST2
( simply-Supported Flat Roofs by ponding of Rain,,,
EngineeringJounnl, AISC, Z, i (February 1974),2974A3.
6p;t1lOS;, 3g_41. "strength of Beams
7.14. A. E. Salama and M. L. lv{oody.1.Ao"lyri, ?.33. Tsong-ltliin Wang. Robert R. Snell. and Peter B. Cooper.
( of Beams and plates for ponding ASCE. lOt.
Dit:ision,
Loads," Journal of the Stuctural Dicision, ASCE, with EccentricRe-inforcedHoles," Journal of the Srruuural
93, ST1 (February Lg67), ST9 (September 1975),1783-1800-
( 109-126. "Plastic Design of Web Opeaings in Stccl
?'15' D' A. sawyer. "Ponding'6f ?.34. Mafl/in A. Larson and Kirit N. Shah.
( Rainwater on Flexibre Roof Systems,,,Journaro! the Diuision, ASCE 102, ST5 (\Iai' 1976)'
Beans." Journal of the Structural
Strucrural Diuision, ASCE, 93, STl. (February Lg67), LZZ_L47.
7'i6' D' A' Sawyer."Roof'Structure Roof-Drainaie r031-1041.
( Int#ction," Jourval of the Struc- Robert R. Sneil, and Harry D. Knostman.
"Fallure Tesls on
tural Diuision, ASCE" g{, ST1 (J-anuart196gj, 175_i9g. - Petei B. Cooper,
7.35.
( 7.17- James chinn, Abdurwahab H. Mansouri,,ana Beamsnith dcccntric Web Holes," Journa!of the StructuralDit'ision, ASCE' 103.
starey F. Adams. ..ponding of ST9 (September1977)r, 1731-1738.
Liquids on Flat Roofs," Journal of the Struaura! "Tests of Thin-
( Diuision,ASCE,g5, ST5 (May 7.36. Richard G. Redwood, Hernan Baranda,and Michael J. Dall'.
1969),797_907. Dit'isiort.
Webbed Beams *'ith Unreinforced Holes," Journal of the Snuctural
( 7'18' R' Richard Avent and \Yilliao G. stewan. "Rainwater ponding
Roof Systems,"Journat of rhe structurar Diuision,
oo Beam-Girder ASCE, lM, ST3 (March 1978)' 5'17-595.
AscE, ror] "'- "Critical Loads for Webs with
( 1975),l9l3-L927
srg iseptember
\v-r 7.3?. Richard G. Redwood and Minoru Uenoya.
_ Holes," Journal of the Structural Diuision,ASCE, 105, ST10 (October i979).
7'19' R' Richard Avcnt. "Deflection and_ponding
( of Steel Joists,,,Journar o! thg
Structural Diuisiott, ASCE, 102, ST7 (July lgZE), 1399_1410
i zasl-zool.
"Elastic Deformation of Beams with Web Openings."
7.70- r- Lyse and H_Jj_Godfrey. ,'Investigaiioo 7.38. Briac K. Daughcrty.
( of'web Buckling in steel Beams,,, Jounzalof the itructural Diuision,ASCE 106, ST1 (january 1980)' 301--312'
Transactionr,ASCF" 100 (1935), 675_106. "Design of
( 7-2L. J. D. Graham, A. N. Sherbourne,R* N. Khabbaz,
,.-._. 7.39. Rangachari Narayanan and Norire Gara-Verni Der-Avanessian,
and c. D. Jensen, vrerded,'. - Slender Webs Having Rectangular Holes," Jourual of Structural Engineering,
Interior Beam'to'column connectiorts. New York:
( American Institute oi iiJ ASCE, lll, 4 (APril 1985),777-787.
Construction, Inc., 1959.
.;:. B. G. Johnston and G- G. Kubo. '.!9b_crippling ?.40. R. G. Redrvood.-"Tablesfor Plastic Design of Beamswith Rectangular Holes."
( at seat Angre supports,',Frirz EngineeringJournal, AISC, 9, I (Jaouary1972),7-19'
Laborarory,Report No. r92A2, Lehigb univJrsit!, "Design Exannplefor Beams with
'l'23' Bethtehem,pa-, r94r. 7.41. Richard L. Kussman and Peter B. Cooper.
( T"M' Roberts. "slender Plate Girders Subjectei,o 2 (SecondQuartcr i976)' 48-56'
eag. Loading,,,proceedings web Openings,"EngineeringJournal' AISC' 13'
of the lwtitution of ciuir Engineers,part2,-September
( 'i 19gr,71. 7.42. E. H. Gayloid, Jr., and C. N. Gaylord. Design ol SteetStructures'Nes'York:
John E' Bower. "Elastic StressesAround Holis il Wide-Flange
cf the structurar Diuision,ASCE, 92, sr2(April iloc;, g5-10r.
Bearns,,, Journal lv{cGraw-Hill Book Company,Inc., 1957,Cbap' 5'
( "Fxperimental 7.43. Ad Hoc Committee on ServiceabiliryResearcb,Committee on Researchof the
7'2it John E' Bower. Stressesin-wide-Flange Beams with Holes,', "structural Serviceability:A Critical Appraisal and Research
( Strucrural Division.
Journalof thestructurar
Diuision,AscE
92,sr5 ro.tou?,inue,iilrsu. Needs."-Jountal of Stuctural Engineering,ASCE ll2, 12 (December 1986)'
7.26. John E. Bower.."urtimate Strengtb of Beams
( nitb RectangurarHoles,,,Journar 2646-2664.
of the structurar Diuision, ASCE" 94, 5T6 (June 196g), "Sen'iceability Guidelinesfor Steel Structures," Engineering
r3r5-r332. ?.44. Bruce Ellingwood.
( 7'27' Ronald w' Frost and Robert E. Leffler. "Farigue
Tesa of Beamswith Rectangu- Jaurnal,AISC, 26, I (1st Quarter1989)'1-8.
Iar web Hores," Journa! of the structurar D"iuision,
AscE, 97, srz february
( 1971),509_527.
7.28. lames A. Mandel, Paul J. Brennan, Benjamin
( "Stress A. Wasil, and CharlesM. Antoni. PROBLEMS
Distribution in Castellated Be"--s," Journal
of the -"
structural
--r*ru' v-
Diuision,
( ASCE, m, Sn (July f 97l). Lg47_L967.
7-]9. Jotn E. Bower, Chairman, subcommittee All problems are to be done accordingto the AISC Load and Resistance
(
on Beams with web opeaingsbf &e
Task Committee on Frexurar Members. ..sugg.rt.c Factor Design or AllowableStressDesign.as indicatedb1"the instructor.All
Design Guides for Beams given loads are serviceloads unlessothenviseindicated. For all problems
(
\
446 7/8EAMS: LATERALLY
SUPPORTED
C
PROBLEMS 447
( i
- (
assume adequate lateral suppart of thg compressionflange such that lateral 80% live load. For the case (or cases) assigned by the instructor.
stability does not control. Assume all standard sections are equally readily determinethe maximum service'loadW that can be permitted to be (
availablein the indicatedgradeof steel(eventhoughacruallyrhey are not). A carried. (
figure showing span and loading is required,and a final checkof strength(for
LRFD) or stress(for ASD) is required. (
wD wr.
7.1. For the case(or cases)assignedby the insrructor.selectthe lightestW Flange Web (
Span
section to carry a uniformly distributed dead load w5 in addition to the plates plare length Steel (
beam weight. and a uniformly distributed live load w2 as indlcated.The Case (in.) (in.) (ft) grade
member is simply supponedand deflection is not of ion..rn. (
I l/2 x t2 3/8 x 24 28 A36 (
2 t/2 x t4 3/8 x 30 28 A572Grade50
wD wL 3 3/4 x 12 3/8 x 24 28 ( t
A607Grade70
Dead Live Span 4 3i4 x t8 l/2 x 30 28 A572Grade65 (
load load length Steel
Case (kip/tt) (ktp/tt) (fr) grade (
7.3. Repeat Prob. 7.1 (cases1 to 4 as assigned)additionally assumingthe live
load deflection may not exceed L/360 (not "n Alsc SpeJification (
I 0.2 0.8 3s A36
') -- - . requirernent).
4.2 0.8 35 A57ZGrade 50 (
J
t
0.2 0.8 ' 3 5 A572Grade65 7.4. Repeat Prob. 7.1 (cases5 to 8 as assigned)irdditionally assumingthe live
4 load deflection may not exceed L/3oo (not an Alsc SpeJificarion (
0.2 0.8 35 A5l4 Crade100
5 0.2 0.E 55 A 36 requirement). ( l

6 0.2 0.8 55 A572Grade 50 7.5. For the case(or cases)assignedby the instructor, select the lightesr W
7 (
4.2 0.8 55 A572Grade65 sectionto carr)'a uniformly distributeddead load w, in additiJn to the
8 0.2 0.8 55 .4514Grade100 beam weight.and a uniformly distributedlive load i, u, indicated.The (
9 0.4 1.6 30 A 36 memberis simplv supportedand deflectionis not of ioncern.
l0 0.4 1.6 (
30 A572Grade65
il 0.8 3.2 30 A36 (
t2 0.8 3.2 30 A57?Grade65 vr'D wL
l3 0.4 1.4 Dead Live Span (
60 A36
t4 0.4 1.4 60 A572Grade 50 load load leleth Steei (
l5 0.4 1.4 60 A572Grade65 (kiplft) (lrop/tt) (fr) grade
(
I 2.0 18.0 436 (
7-2. A simply supported welded l-section beam carriesa concentratedload 2 2.0 18.0 A572Grade.50
W at midspan(seeaccompasyingfigure).The load is 20%dead load and 2.0 18.0 ( ,
J
4572Gradet:0
4 2.0 18.0 A5l4 Gradei00 (
) 8.0 12.0 A36
6 8.0 12.0 A572Grade50 (
tlx rz 7 8.0 12.0 A572Grade65 ( t
t$x zo f-29._o_l
7.6. A w24x94
(
+T on a 6-ft span (seeaccompanyingfigure) underpins a
column that brings 80 kips dead load and iOO tipi liie load to iis top ( '
flange at a location 2.5 ft from rhe left suppor; The column bearing
plate is 12 in. measured along the beanr, "nd- thr bearing plates at the
( )
Prob. 7.2. Case I (tor oth€r case3see tabt€)
end supporrs arc each 8 in. Invesrigate this beam of .{36 steel for (a) ( '
(
,,)
C
( 448 7/BEAMS LATEMLLY SUPPORTED PROBLEMS 449
(
(
(c) Repeat(b) but usemethoddescribedin ExampleT-10.2(b).
( (d) If your instructorspecificallyassignsand discussesthis parr. tocare
principalarcs.transformthe momentinto compcnents.l/j and .1/,1
(
about the principalaxes.computemomenisof ineriia /.1and 1.1u itir
( respectto theseaxes.and use-/: M;/Si + Mi/Si.
(e) Stateconclusions.
(
(
( za, zl, zt.r
( lx'34.4 in-'
Prob. 7.6 Iy = 12'9 in.t
(
( *t7-o--J
z
(
I
Iv
flexure' (b) shear.and (c) satisfactorytransmission
of the reactionsand
( concenrratedload (i:e.. local web yielding and rveb crippling).Specify
( changes(if any) requiredro sarisfyttre'ntsc Specification.
P r o b .7 . 1 0
( 7-7. A W16x77 sectionof A36'steelis to serveon a l0-ft simply supported
span. The wall bearinglength is 10 in. what maximum itorly moving
(
concentratedserviceload (25%deadload; 75Volive load) may be carried? -T
( 2.42"
7'8' Determinethe sizebearingplate requiredfor an end reactionof 11 kips
( - 1 "
dead load and 44 kips li'e load on a wl4x53 beamof A572Grade 60 a

I
steel.The beam restson a 4-in.-thickconcrete*'all (fi:3500 I
( psi).. 4.58"
Specifythicknessin multiplesof I in. and the lengthand widrh to rvhole
- \\
( inches.
( 7'9' (LRFD only) For a W12x87 of ,{36 steel,calculatethe designshear Prob.7.11

( strength Qv_n,and the bearing lengrh N required u.hen the deiign end
reactionQR,equalsthedesignshearstrength.
( c a* r r . s . r - l
7 .10 t hr ough7. 1 3
(
For the section shown in the accompanyingfigure, assumeuniform
( loading in the plane of rhe web (yz plane)roi a iimply supportedspan w t 6x 5 0
of 12 ft and neglectany torsionaleffects.Assumetheserviceload aciing
(
is 20Vodead load and 80% live load, and that the limit starefor LRFD
P r o b .7 . 1 2
( occursrvhenthe maximumstressreachesthe yield stress at one point.
L
For ASD this meansrhe allowablestressis O.OO4.. {.'
( (a) Determine the maximum uniform serviceload assumingbending
B

( occurs in the plane of loading(y: plane).


(b) Use the loading determinedin (a) to compurethe flexural stress c 1 0x t 5 . 3
( at
points designatedby letters.assumingthebeam is free to berid and
( * not restrainedto bend in the y; plane.use the flexureformuia.Eq. D
7.10.18. r-axsxI Prob.7.'13
(
( I
.+
J
a
450 7 / BEAMS '.ATERALLY SUPPORTED (
( ,

7.14.
-rhe
giren S x 6 x I angle is positionedwith irs long leg pointing
do*'ns'ard and used as a simplv supportedbeam of l2-ft span.The
uniform de",.lload is 0.1 kiplft (includingangleweight)and gravitylive
ChapterI (

Ioad is (J.5kip.,'ft.The horizontalleg is to be restrainedby attachments


trr nrakc thc angle bend verticallr',Assumingthe attachmentto the
horiz"ontal lee is simplysupported,for u'harserviceload lateralbending
nt()mentmust the connectionbe designed? Consideronly the unsymmet-
Torsion
rrealscctir:ncffcct and negiectan)' torsion.Assumelhe controllinglimit
:relc is rhe achievement of vield stress{ at the extremefibdr.

Determrnelateral
bendrngmoment
capacrtyrequired.
I I- = 44.3 in'
'
anole ,
lr=21'7no
I",T DrJoertresl
= -18.33 in.'
I - | 1,,
I
I rry - 0 .i angie.L8
^
-
l
2

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Prob 7 '14
In structural design,torsionalmoment may on occasion be a significant force
for rvhich provision must be made. The most efficient shape for carrying a
7 .1 5.S elc c t he lr c hte s W
t 8 s e c ti o no f 4 3 6 s te e lto useas a purl i n on a roof torque is a hollow circular shaft; extensive treatment of torsion and torsion
-.krped30' to the horizontal.The spanis 2l ft. the load is uniform0.13 combined with bending and axial force is to be found in most texts on
kipz'ft de:d load plus the purlin u'eightand 0.24 kip/tt snow load. mechanicsof materials[8.1].
I-ateralstahilin'is assuredb1'attachmentof the roofingto rhecompres- Frequently torsion is a secondary,though not nec€ssarilya minor effect
.ion flang.. .{\iume the load acts throughthe beamcentroid.thereare that must be consideredin combination with other types of behavior.The
no sas rt-tl:. :nd bia.rialbcndinentustbe assumed. Any torsionaleffect shapesthat make good columnsand beams,,i.e., those that have their material
c.in bc rc-r:rcdbv the roofingand thereforeit can be neglected. distributed as far from their centroidsas practicable, are not equally efficient
7 .1 6.S elec t he iigh re s w
r s e c ti o nro c a rrymo me n ts,M,:145 ft-ki ps(15% in resisting torsion. lt is found that thin-wall circular and box sectionsare
dead load and 85%live load) and the lateralmoment'-M/resistedby one stronger torsionally than sectionswith the same area arranged as channel,I,
flange is -:{-tft-kips (20% dead load and 80% live load). To selectthe tee, angle,or zeeshapes.
heamassuitc.1l, = i.ll, anCthat torsionis neglected. Use A572Grade When a simple circular solid shaft is tuisted, the shearingstressat any
:0 steelanciassumelateralstabilitl'doesnot govern. point on a transversecross-sectionvaries directly as the distance from the
center of the shaft. Thus, during twisting the cross-sectionwhich is initialll,
7 .1 7.S elec t he iiehre s W
t s e c ri o nro c a rry L 4 ,:2 7 5 ft-ki ps(30%deadl oad planar remainsa planeand rotatesonly about the axis of the shaft.
and 70Q lire load) and lateralmoment ,\y',resistedby one flangeis 100 In 1853 the French engineerAdh€mar Jean Barrd de Saint-Venanrpre-
ft-kips (10? dead load and 80c[ live load).To selectthe beamassume sented to the French Academyof Sciencesthe classical torsion theory that
.1f, = 2.1/.. L'se A572 Crade 50 steeland assumelateralstabilitydoes
forms the basis for present-dayanalysis.' Saint-Venant showed that when a
n()t COnlrOi.
noncircular bar is tnisted, a transverse scction that was planar prior to
7.18. Repeat Piob.7.17 but selecta combination wide flange section and
ch3nnel as found in the LRFD lv{anual[l.l7l under "CON{BINATION
SECTIO\S." 'For a summ-ar-v of Saint-Vcoant'ssort, sce Isaac Todbuntr "nd Kart Pcarson A Hbtory o! thc
Theory of Elauicitlt and S the Srrngth ol Muerials, Vol. lL lEgl (rcprintcd by Dover hrblica-
tions, Inc., Nes York 1960.pp. 17-51).

451
(
(
452 8/TORS|ON
8.2/puRE TORSTON
OF HOMOGENEOUS
SECTTONS 453
(
(
twisting does lol remain plane after twisting. The original cross-section

h
plane
( surface becomes a warped surface.In toriion problems it is necessary
to
recognize the out-of-plane, or warping effect, in addition to the
( rotation, or
pure twisting, effect.t
( - In this chapter primary emphasisis given to the rzucgnition of torsionon
the usual structural members,such aJ l-shaped, chan-nel,angle,
( -approximated and zee
sections; how the torsional stressesmay be and horv such
( members may be selectedto resisttorsional effecis.
Also included is a brief treatmentof torsional stiffnessand the computa-
( tion of torsional stresseson closed thin-wall sections as well as (b)
torsional I
( b uc k line. a,
I
( I ?
8.2 PURETORSTON
OF HOMOGENEOUS
SECTIONS v
(
( A review of shear stressunder pure torsion and of torsional
stiffnessseemsa '
desirable beginning prior to consideringstructuraishapes (a)
( in locationsrvhere
the rvarping of the cross-sectionis restrained.
Figure8.2.1 Torsionof a prismatic
shaft.
( Consider a torsional moment ?'acting on a solid shaft
of homogeneous
material and uniform cross-section, as shonn in Fig. g.z.r. Assumeno out-of-
( plane warping, or at teast that out-of-planr *urpiig
has negligible effecr on Thus as shown in Fig. 8.2.1b,the elementaltorque is
( the angle of twist g- This assumption-will ue neariy
correct so long as the
cross-sectionis small compared to the length of rhe dT: rudA: rycdA: r'(de/dz)Cdr| (8.2.4)
shaft and also thar no
( significant reentrant cornersexist. It is furiher assumedthat The total resistingmomentfor equilibrium is
no distortion of
the cross-section
( _occursduring twisting. The rate of rwist (trvist per unit
length) may therefore be expressedas
(
( 0 : rateof twist :
dQ
-.-'.
f:
l^,,#o*
(8.2.1). and sincedQ/dz and G'are constantsat any section,
dt
(
(
which can be thought of as torsionalcurvature(rate of
it is tbe relative rotation of the cross-sections
changeof angle).Since r-#ofur'dA:ot# (8.2.s)
at z and z * dz that causes
( slrain, the magnitude of displacementat a given point is proportional rvhereJ : Inr2 dA.Equation 8.2.5may be thoughtof as analogousto flexure,
ro the
distance.r from the center of twist. The strat *gl. y, or unit i.e., bending moment M equalsrigidity E/ times curvature, dzy/d22. Herc
shearsrain, at
( any element r from the centeris torsional moment I equalstorsional rigidity GJ times torsionalcurvature(rate
( of changeof angle).
ydz: rde Shear.stress
may then be computedusing Eqs. 8.2.2and 8.2.3,
( .t:r(d+/dz):rg
(8.2.2) d6
( o ='{G: ,;G (8.2.6)
using the shearmodulusG, Hooke'slaw gr'es the unit shearstressu as
( and
u:.tG (8.2.3) .': d + T
( - : -
dz GJ
( which gives
tTtfoughout
chapters 8 and 9. the symbol e is used for rhe angle of twist,
( and ,nouio not be
confused sith the resistance factor o used for Load and Resistarce Tr
factor g in these chapters is used subscripted;6u ro ind:care
Factor Desigp. The resisrance (8.2.7)
( beadins,. -.* J
-t;

t ( '-#.
l - -

454 B,, TOtrSICN 8 3 / SHEARSIRESSESDUE TO SENDING C


( ,

T h u s a s l o n g a s t h e a s s u m p t i t ; n so f this developnrcnt rcasonabll' apply. and the torsionel constant ,I ma-"-be erpresscd as
(
torsional shear stressis proportional to the radial distance frrrm the center of (
1 -'l;.,bt1 (8 . 2 . 1 3 )
tu ist.
u'here the values of A-, and /t' ma-r-be found in Table 8.2.1. (
Circular Sections (
T A B L E8 . 2 . 1 V A i U E SO Fk . A N Dk , F O RE O SI 2 l 2 A N DA 2 1 3
For the spccific case of the circular section of diameter /. no rrarping of the (
:cctions ()ccur\ (i.r,'.n . o a s s u m p t i o ni s r e q u i r e d ) a n d 7 : p o l a r m o m e n t o f hit 1.0 1.1 1.5 2.0 7.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 T-
(
i n c r t i a : T r t a . , / 3 ? .T h u s . f o r m a x i m u m s h e a rs t r e s sa t r : t / 2 . kr 4.sl .t 5? 4.0'7 3.88 3.75 3.55 3.44 3.(X)
c.rl
l6T (
fr, o.l4l 0.166 0.196 0.229 A.2490.263 0.281 0.291 0.333
'm&r (8 . 2 . 8 )
, f ,I ?

(
Rectangular Sections l-shaped, Channel, and Tee Sections.
(
I'hc anall'sisa' applied to rectanglesbecomescomplex since the shearstressis As w'ill be obsen'edfrom a studl'of Table 8.2.1 the valuesof kr and k.
affcctcd bv rrarping. though essentiall-r'the
angle of twist is unaffected. become nearly'constantfor largeratios h/t. Thus the torsionalconstantsfor (
As an "rpproximation. consider the element of Fig. tf.2.2 subjected to sections composed of thin rectanglesmay be computed as the sum of the (
s h e a r .i n u h i c h ..valuesfor the individualcomponents. Suchan approachwill give an approxi-
d+ mation rvhich neglectsthe contributionin the fillet region u'herethe cornpo- (
'l: I-- (82.e) nents are joined. For most common structuralshapesthis approximatirrn
a: (
causeslittle error. thus
For a thin rectangle. end effects.the shearstressma\ beexpressed
neglecting
y = f {ar3 {8.2.14)
(
a-\
dO where b is the long dimensionand I the thin dimensionof the rectangular (
u : lG : tG_:_ (8.2.r0)
elements.
d: (
r ) r u s i n g F - q .S . 1 . 5 . More accurateexpressions for variousstructuralshapeshave been dc'r'el-
'lt oped bv Llse and Johnston[8.41.Changand Johnston[8.5J.Kubo. Johnstott, (
t t

. J ( 8 . 2 .11) and Ene;*[8.6].and El Daruish and Johnston[tt.7]. (


ln addition to the torsionalpropertiesin the AISC Manuals.torsion:rl
F r o m t h e t h e o r v o f e l a s t i c i t l ' [ 8 . 1 - 8 . 3 ] . t h e m a x i m u m s h e a r s t r e s sc m a r designaid publicationsare availableby AISC [8.8].Hotchkiss[8.9J,and Heins (
occurs at the midpoint of the long side of a rectangleand acts parallel to it. and K uo [8.10]. (
The magnitude is a function of the ratio b/r (length/*'idtht lnd may be
expressedas (
k,r (
'man (E.2.i2) DUETO BENDINGOF
8.3 SHEARSTRESSES
fu:
THIN.WALLOPENCROSS.SECTIONS
(
S h e a rs l f a r n : c h a n g e I n
Before treating the computationof stresses due to torsion of thin-wall oprn
lrrrs angre : sections restrained from u'arping. a review of shear stress resulting fr.rm (
'=rH(;)=#" general flexure s'ill be developed.Recognitionof a torsion situation preccde,s
(
concernabout calculationof resultingstresses. Extensivetreatmentof thin-uall
membersof open cross-section is givenby Timoshenko[8.1U. (
Referring to the generalthin-wallsectionof Fig. 8.3.1.where.r and .r'are
(
s )
centroidal axes. considerequilibrium of the element t dsdz acted upon .h1
flexural stress o- and shear stress r, both of which result from bending (
Figure8.2.2 Torsion of a rectangularsection- mornent. The shearslressr multiplied by the thickness t may be termed tlre
(
(
r
\
el
'
j :

(" 4s6 a/ToRStoN 457

fl
8.4 / SHEARCENTER
r
( . + :

?. Assttntemanrcnt is applied in the xz plane only, i.e..


-g:! lf,:O. The
( flexural stressdue to bcnding as given by 8q.7.10.18 is

(
(
",:ffi(-/,.,r'+/'x) [ 7 . i o1 s ]

( Taking 0o-/0:, recognizingthat V,: 0iV,/0:. and integraiingto get the


shearflow rr, givesin a mannersimilar to Eq. 8.3.5,
(
( ,,:ffi,1r.,|'ra,
- r./ 'r a'] (8.3.6)
da,
( + -=- dz
'3. ltfontentsappliedin bothyz and xz planes.If shear stressesare desired
( the,vcan be computedby superimposingthe resultsfrom Eqs. 8.3.5and 8.3.6.
( It is to be observedfrom Fig. 8.3.1b that equilibrium requiresthat the
shear V, in the ;' direction equal the componentsof. rt in the y direction
( summedover the entire section.Similarly /* equals the summationof rl
Figure
8.3.1 ,rr.rrl]oa thin-*ailopensecrio",,o O.l'ol,rr.
( components in the ,r direction.Rotationalequilibriummust alsobe satisfied:
the momentabout the centroidof the sectionis (seeFig. 8.3.lbl
( shearflow rt. Forceequilibriumin the z directionrequires
( 0(rt) '
[" ftt) r as
0o-
( " dsdz+t=-dzds:0 (8.3.1)
os dz rvhichwill be zero in somecases,rt".n as l-shapedand Z-shapedsections).If
( such rotationalequilibriumis automaticallysatisfiedrvhen the flexuralshears
0(rt) act through the centroid, then no torsion will occur simultaneously*'ith
( : - ' 80.o , (8.3.2) bending.
ar
( ' * - z '

l. Assume nloment is applied in the yz plane only, i.e., M, - 0 . T h e ' I


( \ ;'. 8.4 S H E A R C E N TER
flexural stress due to bending, as given by Eq. 7.10.18, is
( , M where no torsion occurs
The shearcenter is the location in a cross-section
' o- : (Iry - I,rr) Iz.ro.ra]
( *r
IJ, 'x] when flexural shearsait in planes passing through that location. In other
words.loadsapplied throughthe shear centerrvill causeno torsionalstresses
( to develop,i.e.,
0o, 0M,/Az
( -+(Iry- I,r*) (8.3.3)
:
Irr")rcts o
0z frlu- r,u ( 8 . 4 . )i
(
-center
( Recognizingthar v,: 0M,/02, and substitutingEq. 8.3.3into Eq. g.3.2gives Since the sheai does not necessarilycoincidewith the centroid of the
- tVr. section,it is necessaryto be able to locatethe shearcenterin order to evaluate
( ?rt
_ - I"*) (8.3.4) the torsional stress.For l-shaped and Z-shapedsections.the shear center
os I*1, - ,rr(Irl coincideswith the centroid,but for channelsand anglesit does not.
(
::i _ Referringto Fig. 8.3.1b,considerthe shearsV, and 2,. acting at distances
( Integrating to find at at a distances from a free edgegives the shearflow rl from the centroid .l'o'andx0, respectively,suchthat the torsionalmomentu'ith
as respectto the centroidis the sameas l(rt )rds integratedfrom zero to r; thus
(
( * ,,: ffift,frr a,- r,,l'*ta,f (8.3.5) f'
V' , x o - V , y o : | ( r t ) r d s
JO
(8.4.2)
(
r (
d a 'SHEhRCENTER (
458 8 , , /T O R S I O N
( '

arc soLL|Tl().\' (
ln other sords. the torsional moment is ( Vrx,,- l'.-t,,) r'r'henthe loads
plancs passing rhrough the centroid but is zero if thc loads are in It is 111hc noterJrhat many practicalcasescan he sr'rlvcdn'ithout usingthe (
applie<i in
prriing rhrough rhe shear center. i.e.. the point s'ltosc coordinatcs generalformulas.Eqs. 8.4.3and 8.4.4.Sincethe shearccnter locationis a
piin., be takenthrougha ( ,
are .r().li|. ircrblem in cquilihrium.momentsmav most convenientlv
point that climinatesthe greatest number of Thus.
forces' letting /. : 0 and
li is ob.crred rhai rhe location of shear ccnter is independcnt of the equilibriumequa-
( '
raking momentsahout point I of Fig. 8.4.1a.change. the
rnagnitudc t)r t\pc of loading. but is dependent onlv tln the cros:-sectional
tion. Eq. tt-r
l{.4.2,. (
configuratittn.
ftl tlc.rermine rhc shear center location. first let one of the shears hc z-ero. {a} (
l'rQ: Vth:
say l, : 0: then from F,q.8.4-2, ["(rt)t,a.,
(
u'hcre according to Eq. 8.3.5.
(8.4.3) \
- ! r : - | fv ". rt Ot t ) r d s -vt -,ut'
-' ,' -: Itr ," (b)
j:J""ut: (
where lccording to Eq. t1.3.6. L
is performed
thelengrhs atongrrhichintegration (
l" secrions.
F.r rhescrhin-u'all
tt' ' :- I r - . f ' v t d sl./'*r,r,
-
is nreasurcdat mid-thickness. (.
7il, L"'J,,.''"" ] : - hl? where t : li. $lUes
Suhstituting Eq.(b) into Eq. (a). and using .!'
(
Alternatelv.letting v, : o givesfrom Eq' 8'a'2'
l r n
.r,,: li l(ttlrtls {rt.4.4)
t,Q:
I:+elr,/'s'r''
(c) (
,
I
J()
(
V , I, h : 7 n l. t.l::n:
: t''t : (
u'hereaccordingto Eq. ti.3-5. ,, l, -t/,
(
''=ffi[r'/r'a'-
1.,/'.rr*l Thus thc :hear center lot-ationaltlng the -t'aris is
(

r E K d] I P LE 8. { .1
,r=ry
41,
(d) (
l-ocatethe shcarcenterfor the channelsectionof Fig.8'4'l' (
mc:.rsurcdin the ptrsitive.r directionto the left of the channelseb'
For the shearcenterCoordinate measuredalt-,flgthe.r'-aris.apply I'. anrl (
V. :
tet I , 0. ancl because of symmet \ V, must act ct .l' : 0 for equilibrium'T'r ( ,
2
t-l let l; be applied at the distance.t,,helos' the r-axis and take
.-. demonsrrate.
\ 'i:o' moments:.rboutpoint l. Sarisffing equilibrium. I
R eactrve
\
--1
forces
i h (
t:[; - 'b) : )r.ji { r')
y=z Io,;, ( ,
z

u'hereaccordingto Eq. 8'3.6. (


Y=1
I ,,: * ['.,,,t, (fi (
I,' Jo
(
To i l l ustraten u m e r i c a l luy s. eb : 4 i n . . f t : l l i n ' . a n d t : 1 . . in which
v . Y (
w l

2 casethe centroidof the channel(rgfer to Fig. 8.4.1c)is located


t
2(4){l) (
E.e.* zb(h/2\t*:
Y
:
ta) (b) x =
fr: (eTffi 12+r.o) o'8in' (
Figure8.4.1 Channel.ofExampleE.4.1. ( ,
( ,
( ;
(
( 460 8/TORSION 8 5/TORSTONALSTRESSEStN |-SHAPEDSTEELSECTTONS 461
(
( Then,s:ir+3.2in.
(
/.": Ii(a)'z- 20(0.8)']r* : 2e.87t*
( :I
I

il
-v'{t-??"
rI: '
-vrln

znil{
t.-
f t(' - , 3'2)
tu :
2s.87\2 '-"1
I
I
_'lz -+ ,/
,Shear
cenler

(
Qhnrr

centet
i
I
I
t1
:l
Centroirl ,

I
Substitutionof rr inro Eq.(e) gives -+> --JiL-.,
( 7u
I
T=Ph T=Pe
( -v*lt' T=Pli+qi

n'\t - ' o \) : r o
lh
- 3.zslnot (a) (b) (c)
( J ot n " ' [ t I Figure B 5.1 Common torsional loadings.
( -V,h i
A
r lr
s-\l + v,h
( , : J t ^ 8lis\ 3e- 3.2- ll
) ,l Torsion nra,vbe categorizedinto tn'o 11n.rr pure torsion.or as it is often
/10
( called,Sainl-Venant'storsion,and rvarpingtorsion.Pure torsionassumesthat
Thus it is shorvn that yo is zero. The shearcenter mav aiso be located as planeprior to applicationof torsionremainsa planeand onl.v
a cross-sectional
( follorvs. First compute, by integratingover each stress disrribution of Fig. elenrentrotation occursduring torsion.A circular shaft subjectedto torsionis
( 8.4.1,the shearforcesactingin eachof the componentelerilenrsof the section. a situationrvherepure torsion existsas the only t1pe. Warping torsion is the
Then the shearcenteris locatedsuch that V, or V, counteractail of the shear out-of-planeeffect that arisesrvhenthe fla.lgesare laterallydisplacedduring
( trvisting.analogousto bendingfrom lareraliyapplied loads.
forces acting on the componentsto produ.. .quilibrium. In solving for the
shear center location, the solution may be made as illusrrared, and then 1. Puretorsion(Saint-Venant'storsiort).Just as flexuralcun'ature(change
(
checkedby verifying rhar the forcesare in equilibrium. in slopeper unit length)can be expressed as lI/EI: d2y/d22,i.e.,moment
( I divided by flexural rigidity equals flexural curvature. in puie torsion the
torsionalmoment M divided by the torsionalrigidity GJ equaisthe torsional
(
8.5 TORSIONALSTRESSESIN I.SHAPEDSTEEL SECTIONS curvature(changein angle of trvist O per unit length). Recallingpreviously
(' derived Eq. 8.2.5 for f, rvhichnorv becomesihe component M, due to pure
The strucl,uralengineermust recognizea torsionsituationa::d be able to appl_V. torsion.
(
approximatedesign methodsand perform a stressanalysis nhen necessary. d6
( even though only occasionallywill torsion be severeenoug} ro control the J f", : G J ,:
d (8 . s .)1
design of a 'section.Rolled steel sectionsunder uniform and nonuniform
( ivhere ll,: pure torsionalrnoment(Saint-Venanttorsion;
torsion have'been studied analytically and experimeriuily b-r*many inves-
( tigators. G: she ar m odulusof elasr icir i': E/ 12( 1+ p) 1. in r er m s of t he
The developmentin this sectionis similar to that of Timoshenko tension-compression modulus of elasticity E and Poisson's
( [8.11], ratio p
Lyse and Johnston[8.4],Kubo, Johnsron,and Eney [9.6],Goldberg
[g.i2J.and
( Chu and Johnson [8.13].Discussionsof someof rhe pracdcal u.pi.6, along "/ = torsionalconstant(seeSec.8.2)
with solutions for variousloading and support cases.are gir-enby Hotchkiss In accordincervith Eq. 8.2.7.stressdue to t/, is proportionalto the distance
(
[8.9]and Johnston[8.1aJ;charrsfor designare availablein ibe han-dbookfrom from the centerof trvist.
( AISC [8.8Jand in the paperby Johnston[8.14];and desiga rablesusing the
B 2. lVarpingtorsion.A beamsubjectedto torsion M,.as in Fig.8.5.2.rvill
modified flexure analogymethod developedby the authors :ue presentedin have its compression flangebent in one directionlateralll'u'hile its tension
( Sec-8.6. Lin [8.15.8.16]has givenadditionaland expandedg ,-uiu. tables. flangeis bent in the other.Wheneverthe cross-section is such that it rvould
( Application of load in a planeother than the one rhrougb the shearcenter rvarp(becomea nonplanarsection)if not restrained.rhe restrainedsystemhas
(see Fig. 8.5.1) rvill cause the member to trvist unlers .*re*al restraints sl.resses
induced.The torsionalsituationof Fig. 8.5.2illustratesa beamthat is
( prevent such trvisting.The torsionai stressdue to trvisting consistqof both preventedfrom t*'isting at eachend but the rcp flangedeflecrslaterallyby an
( shearand flexural stresses.Thesestresses must be superimfosed on the shear amount ur. This latcralflangebendingcausesflexuralriormalstresses (tcnsion
and flexural stressesthat existin the absenceof torsitn. and compression) as u'ell as shearstresses
( acrossthe flangervidth.
' (
(
8,'TCRSION A 5 ,'TORSIONALSTRESSESIN I.SHAPEDSTEELSECTIONS
(
are (
directly.'pr()porrionalto the lateral deflection. Torsion houndan' conditions
--v analogous to latcral bcnding boundarv conditions' (
4{ D f f e r e n r i a r i n g t h r e e t i m e s u i t h r e s p e c tt o : i n E q . 8 . 5 . 2 g i v e s
'-11 -/ (
r
h , .
a ,
, l ,ltu, le rd''O
( 8 . 5 . )3 (

JIW ;ht: l2l;f


_ -
a.-,.r.-'.t r't.. t._ ,'h

'
6:-qr,,;l'let
I
For onc flange thc curvature relationship is
(
ggclr6n A 4 dlu, - Ml
,
I i.r,sl,ng f)rEvetrte(l rl l" s ei(:
(8.s.4) (
Frgure 8.5 2 Torsion of an I'shaped section.
T: '\
of \
$.here,[/, is the lareralhendingmoment on one flange. /., is the moment
flange about the of the beam.and the minus sign arises
inerfia for one .r'-axis
'l'hus
trrrrioo nrar bc thought of as being composedof tu'o parts: (1) from positireL,cndingas shownin Fig. tt.5.2.Also. sinceF: d.ll/d:. (
rotation of elemcnts.the pure torsion part. and (2) translationproducing -Vl
dtu,
latcrulbcnding.thc uarpingpart. (8.5.6)
3. Diffvrentiul equationfor torsion on I- anclchannel-shuped sec'tions.Con- *T:1
siderthe deflectedpositionof a flangecenterline. as in Fig. 8.5.2,uhere a, is
rhc lareraldeflecrionof one of the flangesat a sectiona distance: from the Using Eqs.tt.5.3and 8.5.6gives
cnd of thc menrbcr:Q is the tlrist angleat the samesection.andL/,(Fig.8.5.3t t t,rr+ ft
is thc horizontalshearforcedevelopedin the flangeat that sectiondue to vt: - u,,Gl Ul
( 8 . 5 . )7
larcral bending.Ir is noted that an important assumptionis that the u'eb
remainsa planeduringrotation.so that the flangesdeflectlaterallvan equal Referringto Fig. S.5.3.the torsionalmoment componcnt l/". causing
amounr.Thus ir is assumedthe web is thick enoughcomparedto the flanges equalsthe flangeshearforce tinresthe moment
lateralbendingof the flanges.
so rhat it docsnot bcndduringtwistingas a resultof high torsionalresistance arm ir. This no
assumes shear to warpingis sontributedbv the s'eb.
resistance (
of rhc flangcs.Exceptfor thin-u'ebplategirders.it hasbeensho*n [8.6.8.17J
ft:rJg (
rhar assunringnO lateralbendingin the $'eb.i.e..no effecton the n'arping
l/*: V,h= -EIt ( 8 . 5 . )8
rorsit)oc()mponent. is suificientlYcorrectfor practicalpurposes. Sincerarell Z art (
arc thin-ueb plate girdersused u'ithout stiffeners.and certainll'not u'hen
,ltQ (
torsionalstressexists.suchcasesare not of practicalimportance. : _EC";T (8.5.e)
From eeometry. a:-
h n.hereC^: I,lt:12. ottenreferredto as the v'urpingrcrsionul('onsla,tt. (.
ui: Ql (8.s.1)
The toral torsionalmomentis composedof the sum of the rotationalpart.
.1/..and the l ateralb endingpar t . r U*. uhich
. f r om Eqs. 8- 5. 1lnd 8'5'9git e (
for smallvaluesof +. For understanding of torsionon I- and channel-shaped
do ,J3o (
Eq. 8.5.2is the singlemost importantrelationship.
secrions. The tu'istangleis
M , : M , * M ^ . =G J ; - E C . T T (8.5.10)
(
d: d:-

the differentialequationfor torsion.The torsionalmoment Jt- dependson the (


loading an,Jin uiual situationswill be a polynomialin ;. Espressionsfor the
(
torsion constanl J and warping constant C* for vrrious shapesare to be
found in text. APPendixTable A2. (
by EC*''
Rewrite Eq. 8.5.10,'dividing
(
dt+ GI d+ - I{,
: _ (8.s.1
)I (
Figure 8.5.3 Warping shearforceon l-shaped EC-,dz EC.
d,t
section. (
(
(
(

k (
164 B/roRSloN
-:
lNI-SHAPED
&slroRslorual srRESsEs SECTIONS
STEEL

( \
Lerting\2: GJ/EC. (r :\/a of Torsio-n
Anarysis of steerMembers[g.gD,
( and for thehomogeneous
solution
of Eq.9.5.11
tet g, : Ae^,,
( ,Jtg Torsionatty simPly st PPorted
,.dQ
( *t-^'E:o (s.5.12)
which upon substitutionof the homogeneous
solutiongives
( (a) Distributionoi
tolal tonional momenl'
( Ae^=(nf-Fm):0 (8.s.13) ,U: = .lfr +.1!..
which requires causingsheerln flenge
( n r ( m 2- t r ' ) : 0 ; .'.m:0, rn: *l
( Thus -'----l ,r:.rdQ -(b) Distributionoi Portion
of tonionsl nonent .lfr
( Q n : A f\' + Are -^' * A t (8.5.14) due to Sainr'Venant
tonion (Pure torsion)
which upon using the hyperbolicfunction identities and regrouping
( the
constantsmay be expressed
as
(
Qn: A sinhtr: + B coshtrz + C (8.5.15) M* = -Ee-d3? (c) Distribution of iNttion
dz' of torsion:i r.1oilcnl .lI*
( due lo $3rplng torsion

( 1 at midsPan:
tr:-: Figure 8.5.4 Case of Example -8.5.1'-Concentrated torsional moment
( g
tJrsionatly simply supported.(Adapted from Ref' 8'9)

(
The complete
, ( M,: f (z) The other constant C, may be combinedwith C of Eq' 8'5'15'
Let Qo: .ft(:), andsubstitute solut,ionfor this loading is therefore
i
intoEq.g.5.11,
grving
i ( T
(b)
( d t f, ( t ) , . ,d f, ( r ) e : A s i n h t r z * B c o s h t rCz +* m z
(s-i:16)
( - \ Thinking
wheretermson theleft-handsidemustbe pairedwith termson the right consider the boundary conditions for torsional simple suPport'
proportional t-o 'l), simple
( side
Rarely rvill /t(z) be requiredro contain higher than second-degreet.i*r. of the lateral bending of the flange (since f is
deflection at each end' or for
support conditions mean zero moment and
(
E EXAMPLE 8.5.I torsion,
( g:o at ;:0 and z:L
!9v9lol the expressionsfor the twist angle g, as well as the first, second,and
( third derivatives,for the caseof concenrratedtorsional moment applied
at d2o
midspan rvhenthe endsare torsionallysimply supported,using the diiierential -=:6":0 at z:0 and z:L
( equation. dz'
thus' usingzero
( In this.ur.'i1,r-Oifferentialequationis discontinuousat L/2;
SOLUTION ?t z:0
s l o p e o ft h e f l a n g ea t L / Z , i . . . , O ' : ' 0 ' a l o r ' g w i t h g : 0 a n d 0 " : 0
( Referringto Fig. 8.5.4.it is apparentthat il[, is constant and equal
to wili permit solution for the three constanl'sof Eq' (b)'
T/2. Thus let
( Fromg:0atz:0'
(c)
( Qr: C, * Czz (any polynomial) (u) O:B+C
Using Eq. 8.5.11gives
( U s i n gQ " : 0 a t z = 0 ,
( -*c,:-+(;)'
,,:* trz
+" : A* sinhtrz + Btr2cosh
(d)
( A = B
i, (
8 5 .'TORSIONAL STRESSESIN I.SF"APEDSTEEL SECTIONS 467
81TOtrSlC,\l

Thus from Eq. tct. ''-ffi /flTTTTnT'^ dlTh(


c:0
Usingf':0at::L/2. F=
t--!
?--l
H
0 : J t r c o s h tLr r , 2 +- L ' (c)
=:
T t
t : - i I Sarnt.Venanl tor'ron Flexure,
M,
I
3GJtrcosh
^I-/21 lot5lon.
M*

Finall,v.Eq.{b} becomcs (b) (ct

T I sinhtr-- 1 of shearstressin l-shaped


F:gure8.5.5 Directionand distribution sections.
I : - ( f)
2t,'lr [l: .'.t h At, J
Also mated as acringat the mid-u'idthof the flange, takeQ, (seeFig.8.5.6)as
T f coshA: I bt,lb\
7,=-ll
6 - - | (e) Q 1 :A i : ; t a l
zGJL- coshx L/2 l
fA t -sinhtr: I SubstitutingQ r and l/, from Eq. tt.5,7into Eq. 8.5.llt gives
'6" l-------:-"1 (h)
'
zGJI coshl\L/2 ]
b:h d3o
?"lt [ -cosh tr: I t'*:E16;,,. {n.5.tet
e. ,,, = zGJ It4 (i)
t.mn I taking the absolutevalue.
Thus the solution of the differential equation is illustrated. The strcst The normal stress(tensionor compression)due to lateral bending of
equations making use of the derivativesare developedin the nert section. I llanges (i.e.. warping of the cross-scction as shou'n in Fig. tt.5.7)ma1 he
erpressedas
4. Torsioncrl.rtrts.se.r.
Thc shear stress r,, resulting from the Saint-\ enant . ,\y',_r
torsion ild is computed in accordanceu'ith the form of Eq.8.l.ll.
l
rht
: - : - ( 8 . 5 . 2)0
tl

,,:Y J
[ 4 . :r.r ] s hich is distributedlinearlyacrossthe flangewidth as shou'nin Fig. 8.5.7.The
bending moment Ili. the lateral moment acting on one flange. m?)' ii-
and usingEq. 8.5.1gives h;, substi t ut ingEq. 8. 5. 2int o 8q. 8. 5. 4 and not ing t hat I , h: 72 1'
t' rbrai ned
do s'arping torsionalconstantC..
cr: Gtf ( 8 . 5. 1 7)
__ih\./t+ EC.d2g
ttt:etr\ll;,'= ( E . 5 . 2) 1
whosedistribution is shownin Fig. 8.5.5a. h d-t
The shear stress or that results from warping variesparabolicallvacross
the width of the rectangularflange as shorvn in Fig. 8.5.5band mav be
computedas
VrQr
t t a : - (8.s.18)
Ittt

where Qt: statical momenl of area about the ;.sair.


The negligible shearcarricd by the web is not ctrnsidered.For maximum Frgure8.5.6 Dirnensionsfor computa-
shear stress u.., which actually acts at the face of web but may be approri- tioo of staticalmomentof areUQr.
(
( STEELSECTIONS
tN I-SHAPED
STRESSES
8.5/TORSIONAL
B/TORS|ON
(
(
(
= =-=---=:=-1':== = =':
Counterclockrvis€
( rotation

(
w r 8x 7 l
(
w 1 8X 7 l
(
( I roration I ,o'4' .l
( Figure8.5.8 Data for Example8.5.2.
Figure8.5.7 \\'arping of cross-section.
(
Reca[ing from Eq. 8.5.11,
( The minus sign is droppedbincetensionoccurson one sidervhilecompression
occurson the other. GJ 3.391
( |- : :0.01668
(
The maximum stressoccursat x :.b/r2, which when usedwith Eq. g.5.21 E* 2.6(4685) S g
givesfor Eq. 8.5.20.
(
(
t,(:)#(+)
rn*: E -2fE ( 1+ P \ : 2 ' 6
= forP:6'3
E
( rbh d2a btl
fo*,:
4 f
(8.5.22) r -- ^t\-
.t t E
! Y .q
v ' -.' '8 . 2 . 1 4
( 3
In a sumtnary,three kinds of stresses arise in any l-shapedor channel : 3'3ein'a
( + (18.47- 1.620)(0.4e5)3j
: 1121t.035X0.810)3
sectiondue to torsionalloading:(a) shearstresses u, in rveband flangesdue to
( rotat.ionof the elementsof the cross-section (Saint-Venanttorsionalmorq-e!-t,. (1S.47
r,h2 (z.ois)3(0.8i0) - 0.810)2
M"); (b) shear stressesu,., in the flanges due to lateral bending 1*'arpin! .\ - b ' - :
. 1i 2
( torsionalmoment, M,.): and (c) normalstresses (tensionand compiessionj1o*
L I L

: 3.48 and C* : 4700


due to lateral bending of the flanges(lateral bending moment on-flange.M)-. The above values.of J and c* comparewith J
(
given in the AISC Manuals[1.?,f .i7] computedfor rectangularflangesusing
junction
( a more exacrexpressionfor i including the effect of ihe fillets at the
E EXAMPLE 8.5.2 give slightly different values for
of flange to *rb. Though different soulces
( A W18x71 beam ona24ft simply supportedspan is loaded with a concen- values are satisfactory- for design pur-
these torsional *nrt-ir, any of the
trated load of 20 kips ar midspan. The ends of the member are simply
( supported rvith respectto torsional restraint(i.e., 0 : 0) and the concenuated
poses.
Ioad acts with a 2-in. eccentricityfrom the plane of the web (seeFig. g.5.g).
values':;t:iil
rherunction
(
(
Compute combinedbendingand torsionalstresses. )yst.s=4.80
( SOLUTION sinh lz coshtrz
tre
The differential equation solution for this type of loading and end
( restraint.uaso6tainedin Example8.5.1.The solution as obtainedis
0.1L 0.480 0.499 1.118
( T I sinh],2 I a.2L 0.960 1.116 1.498
'
v : -..r&
- - -.]-----:
a3L 1.Ml 1.994 2.231.
( TGJ^L cosh
)\L/zJ I

3.489
a.4L 1..927 3.343
( In accordancervith the derivation(seeFig. 9.5.a),?. is the applied toisional 5.477 5.567
0.5t 2.402
moment.
( T : 20(2) : 40 in.-kips
47O 8,/ TORSTON 8.s/TOFISTONAL
STRESSES
rN|-SHAPED SECTTONS 471
STEEL

(a) Puretorsion(Saint-Venant
torsion).UsingEq.8.5.17, * ti ctri s a maxi mu mat z - L/ 2and zer oat z: 0. Thus
u" - GI dQ/dz q( 2. 6) ( 7. 635X17. 660)
[ s. 4t 7 I
de T / coshAz \ / r * ( f l a n g e rs:a tL / 2 \=
ffilrrrJ-8.agksi
E- rcllr- *tbqzJ
(c) Ordinary flexure. Maximum normal stressis
T' *thl''\ 4' coshrz\
*r :
,. ' -
f., = f., -
2/ \ s.s67I 2(3.3e)
\' S156]. PL 20(24X12)
fr(at:= L/2): ;: = ll.34ksi
The shear stressu, is a maximum al z = 0 and zero at z : L/2: 6:

ar; = o): tl9'119)


r,(nange ft - 4)
2 1 3 .3 9 )\' 5 .56i I
=3,gzksi--- The shear stressesdue to flexure are conslant from z :0
computed by
to L/2 and are

vQ 100 o
arz :o) : 3.e2*ffi: 2.40
4(web ksi o : -

It 11701 1l7t

(b) Lateral bending of flanges(warping torsion).tise eq. 8.5.19for shear


stressin flanges. 1 For maximum flange shear stress,taking the more correct value at the face of
.the-web rather than the value at mid-width of the flange,
d3E
_bzh
a.: EVfr ; 7 . 6 3 5- 0 . 4 9 5\ . . / 17.660t.
o:t ? , ( o . 8 r o,) t J : 2 5 . s 3 i n . . '
dty tfl2 -cosh le
= / \ F
E zcJ\*tt Wr) $. 25.s3
e
*€.
at z :0) =
u(flange : 0.27ksi
I frifulI6.I
o':
T bzh/ -coshlz \ +
s
+
; 4 . , 1 6 | 1, t t h q r ] s
g
This shearstressacts at mid-widthof the flange,and the maximumvalue jF

TASLE8.5.1 SUMIUARY
F FOREXAMPLE
OFSTRESSES 8.5.2
occursat r - L/2 whllethe minirnumvalueis at e : 0, **
= Support Miclspan
40 I (?.635)217.660
\ * Typeof Stress (z: 0) (z -rL / 2)
arz = L/2')=
u.(flange : o.zzrsi $
t6mt t t-J
Normal stress:
Verticd bending /u 0 11.34
at z - 0) : O.rr3$ : 0.05ksi
u.(flange Torsional bending, /u, 0 8.49
19"83kti
For normal stressin flangesdue to warping,us€ F4. 8.5.22: Shear stress,web:
Ebh dza Saint-Vcnant lorsion, u, 2.& 0
f.
tbt
Vertical b€nding, u t.25 r.25
4 iltz
3.65ksi
d'O MI [ -sinh trz ] Shcarstress,fl-aage:
- : - l - l

4tz \GJ Lcosh\L/21 Saint-Veaanttorsion,u, 3.92 0


Warpingtorsioo,u, 0.05 4.27
. M(2.6)IDft[ sinhlz I Vcrtical bcnding u 0.27 0.n .
' os 4.24tsi
8./ [ cosh)\L/2 ]

-T-- -i

i
t /
i
(
a .
t :
(
TOBSIONANDPLANEBENDiNG
8.6/ANALOGYBETWEEN 473 t:

( 472 8/TOrctON t i
i.i

t
( l:.
F
F:

For maximum rveb shear stress, r EXAMPLE 8.6.I E:


( on the WlSx?l beam of Example8.5.2and Fig- 8-5-S
Computethe stresses I
I

( | 1 7.6 6 0\ 1 6 .8 5 0 / 16.850
\ using thc flexuralanalogyrather than the differentialequationsolution.
Q : 7 . 6 3 5 ( 0 . 8 1 0, ) l (0.4es)t
( )- , _ ,|:rz.tsin.'
SOLUTION
( 72.18 The substitutesystemis as shown in Fig. 8.6.2a.The lateral bending
u(web at e : 0) : = 1.25ksi momentis then
( '(0j9,,
Mt: \(L/2): 1 . 1 3 ( 1 2:) 1 3 . 0f t ' k i P s
(
A summary of stressessho*'ing combinationsis givenin Table 8.5.1.
( acting on one flange.Trvicethe moment acting on lhe entire sectiongives
( 2(13'6Xi2)
f. : z l v l t - : 2 0 . 6k s i
( q 15.8
( 8.6 ANALOGYBETWEEN
TORSION
AND PLANEBENDING
For torsionalshearstress,since,t/- : T/2: 20 in.-kips,
( Becausethe differentialequationsolutionis time consuming,and really suited
onll' for anall'sis.design of a beam to include torsion is most conveniently M,t 20(0.8i0)
( r,: : 4 . 7 8k s i ( f l a n g e )
donc b1' making the analog.vbetweentorsionand ordinarybending. T: .,--
( Consider that the applied torsional momenr T of Fig. 8.6.1 can be
'
converted into a couple Po times ft. The force Po can then be treated as a / 0. 495\
( u,: 4'78[** : z'lz rsi (rveb)
lateral load acting on the flangeof a beam. J
( The substitutesystemwill have constantshearover one-halfthe span,a
diagram as given in Fig. 8.5.4a.The true distributionof lateral shearrvhich For lateralbendingflangeshearstress.
( contributesto lateral deflectionis only that part due to warping as shorvnin
( Fig. 8.5.4c.Thus the substitutesystemoverestimates the lateralshearforceand vrQf - 1'13(5'90)
-" =
,. : 0.27ksi
consequentlyoverestiioatesthe lateral bending moment M, which causes. Ilt (30.0)0.810
( normal stresses(tensionand compression).
( In most practical design situations when it is desirable to include the whereQ7 : (7.635/2)(g.810nt,.U$
lO>: 5.90in-3
effect of torsion. the compressivenormal stressdue to the warping component
( is the quantity of most importance. The shear stresscontributions are nor-
(' mall1.'not of significance.
T = 4U'k
(
( PH

( I
I
(
h
I
P,=I
I
I t_
( :.
PH

( r-r't- ?F

-. 1 ,l I
( ffiry I
' ) ,
rn
';_ (a) Flexure analogyshear (b) Warping torsion sheat
( , '.
. _;'i.:+ Figure 8.6.2 Cornparisonof lateral shear on flange due to warping torsion with that
( from simple lateral flexure analogy.
Figure 8.6.1 Analogy bets'een flexure and torsion. .f

'1,

r ( ,g
:!L' 2
"*Er
':fi:-----
r..:t-

ftF-''
E:. '' ANDPLANEBENDING
TORSTON
8 6 /ANALOGYBETWEEN 475
474 6,/ rORSlCi{
{ .
;
l

a;-
t :
The results of the two methods are compared as follows: Thus the modified flexure analogy gives j

Flexural Differential
Mth:r(+) ( 8. 6. 4) (
Type of Stress Aoalogy F4uation
( '
for the case-ofFig. 8.6.1.
|,iormal stressE ft, + fr.: 11.3 + 20.6 - 31.9 ksi 19.83ksi Tables 8.6.1 through 8.6.5 give "exact" values for B for severalcommon t

Web shearstress- a * o, - 1.25 + 2.92 : 4.17 ksi 3.65ksi loadingand restraintconditions.For other casesTable I of Ref. 8.9(whereM,
Flange shear strcss - c' * u, + o.. - A.27 + 4.78 + A.27 : 5.32 kti . 4.24ksi equals !v!,h above)or the curves of. TorsionAnalysis of SteelMenfiers [8.81 t

may be used.In Tables 8.6.3and 8.6.4, rr is the applied torsional loading per
unit length(sa:-.in.-kips/ft).
It is apparent that use of the flexure analogy without modification is a
vcn'corls€n'etiveapproach.In somesituationsit is so excessively conserv'ative
I EKAMPLE 8.6.2
as to be practicallvuseless. Furthermore,the most important designitem. the
Recomputethe stresses due to torsionon the beamof Example8.6.1,usingthe
latcral hending normai stressfu. is overestimated by the greatestamount. I
modified flexuralanalogymethodurilizing the F valuesfroni Table 8.6.1.
The relaticnship betweenthe flexural analogy and the true torsion prob- :
lcrn is best illustratedby referringto Fig. 8.5.4a.Note.that the full torsional \+.
+.
shear resultin! kom M, and M- is analogousto the lateral flexure problem. SOLUTION
Figure 8.5.4b shows the portion of the shear that goes into rotation of flexure analogygives
?

clements.*'hile Fig. 8.5.4cshows the portion contributing to lateral flange ' M{: 13'6ft-kiPs
bending If one could correctly assesshow the shear due to warping torsion
compareswith the lateral flexure situation. design for torsion could be greatly as previouslycomputed.
:i'a:
simpl i fied l*'ithout beinggrosslycons€rvative. .*. trL : 4.80 (as computedin Example8.5.2)
Figure 8-6.2b shows the accurate variation of V, for the problem of *i..

T From Table 8.6.1at a = 0.5, F = 0.41, i.e., use about 4l percentof the
Example8.5.1,computedaccordingto Eq. 8.5.7,whereupon a

flexure analogl'value.Thus the modified flexure analogy gives


T I coshl,: \ Mt: 13. 6( 0. 41): 5- 58f t - kiPs
l rr . - _ - ! . - . - l (8.6.1)
2h \ coshl\L/z I zM, 2(5.58)12
rf ron,:
'* * = *+ : 8.48ksi
q 15. 8
in n'hich the shearfrom the lareralbending analogy, T/zh, is modified by the
hyperbolicfunction. which comparesfavorablywith /r* - 8.49 ksi ai computed by the differential
The lateral bending momentcan thus be expressedfor this problbln as equationsolution using trL : 4.80. For this casethat exactly fits a table case,
"exact" value obtained from the {
the p modified flexure analogy is the
T IL\ differentiaiequationsolutionvalue. E
M r :p n \ z l (8.6.2)

or, in general.the changein lateralmomentbetweenthe supportand location OF TORSIONALLOADING


8.7 PRACTICAL
SITUATIONS
of zero shearis

- There are relatively few occasionsin actual practice where ihe torsional load
^ Mf : p x (areaunder flexureanalogysheardiagram) (8.6.3) can'ca.usesignificanr twisting and frequently these situations arisc during
construction. In most building construction the mem_bersare lateraily re-
u'herep is a reduction facror that dependson trt. strained by artaehmentsalgirg the length of the member and thmeforc they are
It is to be noted that if Eq. 8.62 is multiplied by i, and the concentrard not free to twist. Even though torsional loading.existg it may be self-limiting
moment I is thought of as a concentratedload, the analogousmoment Mi becausethe rotation cannot excccd the end slope of ,rhe uansversc attached
(sometimesreferred to as birnomentlequalsp times thc simple beammoment. members.
(
.€l
( .476 8/TORS|ON =l 8 7 /PRACTTCALSTTUATTONS
OF TORSTONAL
LOADTNG 477
(,, . - t
-. , l I

TABLE8.6.r p VALUESCONCENTRATED
( LOAD.TORSIONAL
SII'PLESUPPOFTT
TABLE 8.6.3 f VALUES UNlFORtvlLOAD TORSIOI{ALSilJi--LESUPPORT
(
Illh - fr1TohL)
( al::aL
ffi r t t r h :a ( | * )
(
(
II a:0.5
I values

a-0.3
ffi al::uI-

( t
B values
0.5 0.98 0.98
( , 1.0
0.98 0.99 0.99 trL a=0.5 | d:0.4 a:0.3 a-0.2 i d:0.1
0.9? 0.93 0.94 |
( 2.0 0.95 0.97 : _
0.76 0.77 0.80
3.0 0.84 0.91 0.5 0.9'l 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.98
0.60 0.62 0.65
( 4.0 0.72 0.83 1.0 0.91 0. 91 0.91 0.9i 0.92
0.48 0.50 0.54
5.0 ' 0.41 0.62 0.76 2.0 0.70 0.71 0.71 n't1 o.74
( t 0.39 0.45
6.0 0.54 4.70 3.0 0.51 0.51 0.52 0.54 0.57
0.33 0.34 0.39
8.0 0.47 0.65 4.0 0.37 0.37 0.38 0.41 a.M
( u._) 4.26 0.30 0.37 0.55
10.0 0.:0 0.21 4.24 0.31
s.d 0.27 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.34
( , 0.48 6.0 0.20 0.20 0.72 0.24 0.28
8.0 0 . 12 0.i2 0. 13 0. 16 0.19
( ,
10.0 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.11 0. 14
(
, TORSIONALLYFIXEDSUPPORTS
( i FiXEDSUPPORTS
TAELE 8.6.4 B VALUES.UNIFORMLOAD.TORSIOI'JA.LLY

( t q lLllh : Brlrott2 L,1


i , at;:0
: PiSt=l
l,!{h
( i-er -<1--or --J
at::0and::l
M1h: BrlTczbLy
( i alz=L
( , a:0.5 ; a=0.4 a :0.3 a=4.2
(t lr h=B: i ---.--il-
Bt Bz Bt Bz i o
Br i Y z
( , 0.5 TABLE 8.6.5 p VALUES,CONCENTRATED
LOAD, TCRSIONALLYFIxED SUPPORTS
0:99 I 1.00 0.99
i 1.00
i

1. 0 0.99 1.00 0.99


( 0.98 i o.gs 0.98 I 0.e8 Ii 0.98 0.99
2.0 0.92 i 0.93 0.98
( t 3.0 0.85 0.86
0.92
I a.e4 0.92
0.84 | 0.88
0.96 4.92 it'l/h: B (positivemomcntby flexuretheory)
4.0 j 0.76 0.84 0.91 0.85 : plZfa2*Ll
( , 0.7g 0.75 0.81
s.0 i 0.68 , 0.70 0.67 I 0.75
0.74 I 0.67
0.86 4.77 Al:=aL
6.0 | 0.60 I
l 0.80 0.69
( , 0.63 0.59 4.67 I
0.60 l 0.75
I
8.0'l 0.48 0.51 0.47
I
0.62
trL a :0.5 a=0.1
0.56 II 0.4e a:0.3
( lo.o I 0.39 , 0.42 0.39 I 0.65
0.47 I 0.41 | 0.56
0.52
I 0.4
( I
u.) 0.99 1.00 1.00
1.0 0.98 0.99 1.01
( 2.0 4.92 0.95 1.05
3.0 0.85 0.91 1.10
(
4.0 0.76 0.85 1. 16
( r * 5.0 0.68 0.79 L.2T
6.0 0.60 0.73 1. 75
(
, (
;,f';

F.* '::_
+j..-
C
\ gi:,

478 8 / TOfiSICN Or TORS|ONAL'L6A!&G ,- 479


8 7 /ppACTtCALSITUATISNS
(,,
(
To;sional loading existson spandrelbeams,where the torsionalloading ,i*piy supportedat ends .4 and B, using either the differential equation
solution formulas or the curves of. Tarsion Analysis of Steel Members [8.81 (
r:ra1be uniform!1'distributed;it existswherea beam framesinto a girderon
.-,ncside onll', or *-hereuncqualreactionscome to oppositesidesof a girder- (Case3, p. 32;. for trL: 15(12)/51.3: 3.51,one finds the angleof trvist f at (
- poi nt a,
T6e 6esign of crane run\\,aygirders involves the combination of biaxial
(
bcnding and rorsion,and is illustrateCin Scc.8.8 for lateralll stablebeams. GJ
= 0.09
Anv siruation rvherethe loadingor reactionacts eccentricallvto the shear 0
O (
ccntcr givesrisc to torsion.
or (
7., (
Q o"n : 1G
6'2: J
Analysis for Torsionat t'toment
Tlrc <ier,:rminationof the torsionalmoment in a framing systeminvolvesan for T applicd at a. In additionthe valueof g at point a for I appliedat c i s
clasticanalysis*'herethejoints may be rigid or semi-rigid. While thedetailsof ( ,
suc6a1 lnalrsis are outsirJe the scopeof this text,somediscussion is necessary
Goldberg[8.12ihasdiscussed this
+J : n-6+
Qo,:0.07(180)
'G
GJ
(
:6 rhar at leastthe problemis understood.
subjecrand prcscnreCan irpproximate method suitable_for design. Spandrel (
Fi nal l y,for T" : 7, . : T,
gir.icrs have bccn treatedbf Lothers[8.18].Chen and'Jolissaint[8.19]have (
providecla sirnpleanalysistechniquefor rigid frames' T T
..-. .. )Z ;J : 2 8 . 8-
Q " : ( 1 6 . 2+ 1 2 . 6, G (
Consider an exampleof a floor framing system(similar to Goldberg's GJ
is.l:l) as slrorvnin Fig. 8.7.1.Spandrelbehm AB is subjectedt(l torsion (
The trvist angle 9d must be compatible with the end slope of the beam: using
hccauseof thc floor beamsframing on only one side. Contrary to sonle
slope deflcction. (
common belief. hol.,,ever. the torsional moment is nol equal to the beam
rc:tcrionrimes its eccentricityfrom the centerlineof the girderweb. iv{omentis zErI 3A
-Qr+T (
transmittedacrossthejoint, and the end momenton the beam must equalthe llut,: Mrutl

torsional momertron the girder. To attack such a problem cne must first
CL-2QO uah
(
dctermine rhe relationshipbetweenthe angle of twist + and the applied n'here .\lrun: the fired-endmomentfor beam ab at a
(
torsionalmoment 7n - +, : beamslopeat a
For erample. in Fig. 8.7.1 the loading systemcausesequa! tr.rrsicnai- gn : beamslopeat b (
momentsat the I points on membet AB. Assurningthe gircicr:orsitrnall)' J : relative<ieflection
betg'eena and b
(
After having establishedthe necessaryslope deflection equations for
(
moments.joint equ,ilibriumand shear conditiortsare necessary,after u'hiclr
T__
I
simultancousequationsmust be solved.One suchjoint equationis that ai (
I
I i oi nt a.
I

I (
T + ltfou:0
c
i., (
After soh'ingfor the slopes,then the torsionalmomentscan be found: for tlie
L . a torsionalnromentat a. (
7 : EgJ /28.8 (
I
(
I
I
In tlie Coldbergt8.121exampleusing membershaving propertiessimilar
B
to thosi of Fig. E.7.1,the -valueof T obtained was 1.55 in.-kips using an
(
3 Q 1 4 ' - 0= a 2 ' - O approximatemethcrdof satisfyingdeformationcompatibility.
i i ! g r r d e r s , ' J J 1 0X 4 5
all beams, Supposeone had takenthe simplebeamreactionfor memberab,0.517;: (
i = 2.18:n.a
6J = 105 ft2-kips
tv6 x 25 3.5 kips, und assumeuseof an AISC "FRANTED BEAM CONNECTION"
a = lr'\ = 51.3in. / = 53.'3in.' (
(see Fig. 13.2.1).If the eccentricityhad been taken to the bolt line on the
Figure8.7.1 Plan vicrv of floor framing. outstandingleg (2i irr.).the torsionalmornentwould have been far too great, (
(
(
C
- - -4;5;
-
( -iffit
480 8/TORSION - LATEMLLYSTABLE
LBILRFD FORTORSTON BEAMS 481
- i'*
F t.
( ':=-:
6 i + :

-.* i
i -Ti:

( "s]i
rvhile if the eccentricityhad been taken as one-halfthe wl0x45 (Fig. s.7.1) & l
#_-r
zero deflection and zero moment which @rrespond torsionally to S = 0 and
( $'eb thickness(0.350/?), the torsionalmoment rvould havebeen far too small. .-. d'e/dt': 0, It is noted that O : 0 only if the simpleconnectionextendsover
j=' ! '
( The proper torsional momentcan only be obtained(even approximately) --b . a significant portion of the beam depth.
by consideringdeformationcompatibility. Figure 8.?.2bshowsthe analogysituation of zero deflectionand zeroslope
( which correspondstorsionallyto Q : 0 and dE/d:: 0. Hotchkiss[8'9] states
:i
the ends of the beam must be boxed in (platesA. Fig. 8.7.2b)so as to assure
( Torsional End Restraint
de/d:: 0. Ojalvo [8.20,8.22]has discussedtorsionalrestraintand indicates
"boxing", that is,
( If a torsional situation is deemedto require analysis,the torsionat end that "boxing" is not sufficientto obtain dQ/dz: 0. When
r*straintmusr be evaluared.Under LRFD-A2.2 two welding stiffenerplatesbetrveenthe toes of flangesand extendingthem along
( basic typesof construc-
lion are permitted:Tlpe FR (fully restrained)rvhichis the traditional "rigid the beam for a length equal to the beam depth. is usedand the beam is then
"torsion-
( fraine" construction:and Tlpe PR (partiallyrestrained)which includes"sim. welded to a thick column flange the authorsbelieveit is essentially
ple" or "conl'entional" framing rvhere there is assumedto be negligible ally fixed". Furthermore.if the column has flexible flanges.colurnnstiffeners
(
flexural restraint at rhejoint, as well as "semi-rigid" framing where a defined (platesB, Fig. 8.7.2b)shouldbe provided.
( flexural restraintexiststhat is lessthan Type FR. In ASD-Ai.2 there are three The Ojalvo [8.20]suggestionof welding a length of channel,angle,or bent
tlpes of consrrucrionpermirted: Type 1 which is the same as Tlpe FR in plate betweenthe flangeson one side of the web seemsto be a more efficient
(
LRFD; T"vpe2 rvhich is "simple" or "conventional" framing; and rype 3 and economicalsolution.The ends of the membermust be weldedagainstthe
( sliich is "semi-rigid" framing.ASD Types 2 and 3 are included in LRFD insidesof tie flanges.and there must be u'eld vertically along the edgesthat
T1'pePR. bear against the web. Tests of several torsional restraints,including that
( The correlationof "simple" and "rigrd" framingwith torsionalrestraintis proposedby Ojalvo [8.20],have been reportedby Heins and Potocko[8.21].
( shonin in Fig. 8.7.2.Again. the lateral bending analogywill help in visualizing :.' r
l
Vacharajitriphanand Trahair [8.23Jalso discusstorsional restraintat l-section
the torsional restraintconditions.Figure 8.7.2ashorvsthe analogy situation of joints.
( The structural engineershould rememberthat in practical situationswhere
--'E .
( no specialdesignis made at the ends, the torsionalrestraintis neithersimple
(dz+/dzz : 0) nor fixed ( dQ/dz: 0) but is, however,usually such that the
( end twist is nearlyzero(Q: 0).
:;
(
=vB :
( 0=0 FACTORDESIGN
8.8 LOADAND RESISTANCE
(
d20-^ t FOR TORSION- LATERALLYSTABLEBEAMS
a-u
x
(
(a) AISC simple framing connection
Nomlnal Strength
t
( Mr=f',lr+M-;Mr=0
The nominal strengthof a section subject to torsion or torsion combinedwith
( flexure is not readily determined. Such strength wiil certainly depend on the
?
Ptates
I proportions of the section and the relative magnitudesof the forcesapplied.
(
The AISC ASD Specification (such as the 1978 Specification,Sec. 1.5.1.4.4)
t
Plares
A
; rI
( has traditiohatly limited the combined stress to a maximum of 0.60F".This
effectively implies that the nominal strength of the section under combined
( 5 bending and torsion is reachedwhen the extremefiber stressreachesthe yield
( 1a stress ^{u.Thus, the entire cross-sectionwill be elastic; no credit is then given
to any hUitiry of the cross-sectionto undergo plastic deformation. Certainly
( = EEEEEEEE
of,i,o=o this approach is conservative.
( (b) AISC rigid iraming connection (LRFD Type FR and ASD Type 1) with lry
LRFD-H2 uses rhe same lirnit state by requiring the combined stress
additional stifiening-plates.
-* computed for factored loads to not exceed QoFr.(Note that in this chapterthe
(- , Mr=M*:M,=O
*.€
s
strength reduction factor O, is given the sutiscript tc clearly distinguish it
( Figure8.7.2 Torsional restraintconditions.(Adaptcd from Fig. g of Ref. g.9.) * iI from the angle Q of trvist.) Thus, the elastic biaxial bending stressequation.
'f
t

( 'x
B B/LRFD FOR TORSION- L;.TERALLYSIABLE BEAMS 483 (
4E2 8/ rOaS;ON
( t
The designacceptabilitycriterionis (
Eq. 7.11.1,can be used after convertingthe torsional moment into a pair of
lareral bending momentsacting in oppositedirectionson eachflange. (
In the examplesthat follorv, the beamsare assumedto be stablesuch that % * ! u l " ' ' = 9ar'
s' T (
the lateral.rorsionalbucklinglimit statedoesnot control (seeChapter9).
in Sec.7.11 gives
and usingthe procedurediscussed (
E EXAMPLE 8.8.I
Selectthe lightest W sectionof A36 steelto carry 0.4 kips/ft dead load, in (
addition to the rveight of the beam, and live load of 1.5 kips/ft. The Requiredr.=
superimposedload is appliedeccentrically7 in. from the center'of.theweb on
#. #(i) (,
the simply supportedspanof 28 ft as shorvnin Fig. 8.8.1.Assumethe endsof 2e8(12) 2(7A.6,12 (
the beanrhave torsionalsimplesupport. :
nto6. ffi(3):266in'3 (

in rvhich the ratio .S./S, is estimatedat 3 (Table 7.11.1)for medium weight (t


W14 sections.and M, is doubledto give an equivalentmombnt acting on two (
O -1
,, = 1.9 kirrs,'ft + beam r^/t flanges. :
This rvould indicatea w14x176 having an s' : 281 in'3 since the actual (
;r; per ft . E/S,. ratio for W14 sections in this rveightrange is 2.6, the required S, is then (
SectionA - A
.'-reducedto 245,indicatingW14x159.
Using tg5lg!g!_piopertiesin the AISC Manuals [1.7. 1.17] for the (
(a.l Ve rtical support (b) Torsionalsuppor.t
W 14X 159,\' GJ/EC" : i / 68. 3.Thus. ( :
8.8-1.
for F-xample
Frgure8.8.1 Conditions
trL:28(12)/65.3:4.9 (
SOL.UTION Using Fig. 8.6.3,B is reducedto about 0.3, w'hichfurther reducesrequired S, (
(a) Clomputefactoredloadseccentricallyapplied. to about190 i n.3Tr y W14xi32.
(
rr; : I .2 Q .4 ) + 1 .6 (1 .5 ): 2 .8 8ki P s/ft l , L : 2 g ( 1 2 ) , / 7. 2
3:4.59
(
(bt Compute lactoredmoment.J{,,. Estimatingthe beamrveightas 0.13 F = 0 . 3 1 ( T a b l e8 . 6 . 3 )
ki p s lf t , t he m om e n tM ,. i s (
nt,.L? 20.2(28)- (
, r [ , , : I r u t . 2= l [ 2 . 8 8 + 1 . 2 ( 0 . 1 3 ) ] ( Z g:)Zt 9 8 f t - k i p s Mt: P-gh : 0.31 : 45.1 ft-kips
8( 14. 66- 1. 030) (
(c) Consider the torsion effect. The factored uniformly distributedtor-
si onalm om entis Check design strength criterion under LRFD-H2. Compute the factored (
normal stress/,,,,
t1 1 ,:2 .s s (7 :)
2 0 .z i n .-ki ps/ft
(
,'rrnsiderntuTh as the uniformlydistributedlateralload actingon one flange M tr{u, 2eE(12) 45.1(12)
r - - ] ' t - : - + - (
,,f rhe Dclrrn.'l'henusingthe fiexureanalogy,the lateralbendingmoment M, J utt
s. s,. 209 74.5/2
a ct ingon one f lan g ei s (
: 1 7 . 1+ 1 , r i --
i 1 . 6 k s i < ( + a 4 . : 3 2 . 4k s i ) OK
t':u I t . J

(
' ,I : !':- L, : :912s;r
t\t : ft-kips
s /r" E rr n U seW 14x132.
(
* ithout rcgardto the modificationfactorp.
Whcrehigh torsionalstrengthis required,the wide W14 sectionsare mgsl (
A s a f ir s t app ro x i m a ti o na,s s u m eh :1 4 i n - and B : 0.5(approxi meti on
'fablc suitable. For the sane x,eightper foot. deeper sections give a reduced strcss
from 3.6.3,ior trL = 3). Thus the modifiedflexureanalogygives (
from ordinary flexure but an increased stress from restraint of torsional
1976 i 1976t w arpi ng.The W 2lxl32 ( f , , : 29. 4 ksi) and t he W24x131 ( / , ": 30. 7 ksi) ( ,
Mr:B :o.tt
n 14 l:70-6ft-kiPs eive about the samemaximumnormal stressas the above selectedbeam.
(
(
( ;
(
._,_',.:l
( . .-:iiil
_,:f,l BEAMS 485
( SITORS|ON . ; TI STABLE
8 8/LRFD FORTORSION-LATERALLY
:€l
..rt
-o: I
( i - l

.,,:
( The differentialequationsolutiongivesfor the factorednormal stress/,,,, ..: ConsideringT,/h as the analogouslateral concentratedloads acting ar otrc
due to warping torsion 14.3ksi as comparedrvith 14.5 ksi computedabove. flange,the fixed-endmomentsare computed;thus
(
The maximumfactoredflangeshearstress/,,, is 16.6ksi. while that in the rveb
T"ab? Tuulb 15(l2) ( 2'l)
( .is 13.5 ksi. both computedfronr the differentialequrtion solution.Theseare . \ r , h ( a t e n:d s ) *
F
acceptableunder LRFD-H2, ? .*f-(24+12)
(
( f u" : 16. 6 k s i . [0 ,r, : O r(0 .6 F ,): 1 9 .+t< si ] oK : E0.0+ 40.0 : 120ft2-kips
I
(
and in the positivemomentzone(midspanregion),
\ B [.\A:\IPLE 8.8.2 T..L
(
)esigna beam havin-storsionalh'fixed endsto carry two concentratedloads u,h(^r'"il;ilrated
)
: + ? - 1 2 0 . 0 : 1 5 ( 1 2- ) 1 2 0 . 0
of jU kips (5 kips deadlosd and 15 kips live load) actingeccentricto the plane
( of the *'eb by 6 in. as shownin Fig. 8.8.2.Assumefor conservatismthat for : 60 ft2-kips
ordinary'flexurethe beamis simply supported.Use A36 steel.Use Load and
(
Resistance Factor Desien.
The abore momentsare computedrvithoutregardfor the B reductionfactor:
('
the flexureanalog.vgit'es|Ll,i valuesas shorvnin Fig. 8.8.2b.Thesevaluesare'
( more appropriate itran uring the expressionin Table 8.6.5 becausethat
I 16" expressionii for one concentratedload. The B valuesfrom Table 8-6.5are
( l=i_ reasonable.horvever.sincethe effectof one load on the torsionalstressat the
( = l i other load is small.
EstimatingaveragetrL at about3, and usingaL :0-3L in Table8'6'2for
(
(
(
t:
lFa-*--6----{
l'ro
^4rw I
l l
t
l J ( -
Section4-A

l,rou.-*'o.
end moments.the modified analogousfixed-endmomentsbecome
'r{,lt (ar ends) : 0.88(80)+ 0'84(40): 70 * 34 : 104 ft2-kips

( For positive moment at 12 ft from the support,refer to Table 8.6.5and


(i) Verlical support and
. ordinary flexural moment.
(b) Torsional.supportand
llexure analogy lateral
estimatep as 0.9. though tbe exactcasebeing treatedis not coveredin any of
( bending moment. the B tables.Thus
( Figure8.8.2 Loading-O ,u.ror.dmoments
for F-xanple8.8.2. l vl, h ( at z : 0. 3L) = 0. 9( O O:) 5a f t 2- kips

(
which is knog.n to be consen'ativelyhigh (seeFig. 8.8.3)becausethe value 54
( SOLUTION includesthe effectsof both concentrated torsionalmoments.(1'orsionAnal.v"sis
(a) Computefactoredloadseccentricallyapplied. :0.3L has
( of SteelMentbers [8.8], Case 6, indicatesthat I applied ar z
W u : 1 . 2 ( 5 ) + 1 . 6 ( 1 5 ): 3 0 k i p s negligibleeffect at 0.7L).
(
( (b) Computefactoredmoment rly',,..Estimatingthe beam rveightas 0.15
( kips/ft, the momenl M,, is

( Lr u, : w, ( 12) + f,w L z : 3 0 (1 2 )+ * [1 .2 (0 .1 5 )](36)': 389ft-ki ps 7- L!3 -

( (c) Considerthe torsion effect. The factored concentratedtorsional mo-


( mcnt is Figure 8.8.3 lvl, vaiation for coacentratcd
--
( Tu= 30(6/12) : 15 ft-kips Lessriran
z torsional momeht L

, (
I

?
B 9 /ASD FOR TORSION_ LATERALLYSTABLE BEAMS 487 (
4ta 4,,TOFSION (
(
the factored stressf,,,
(c) sslect the member.Assumeh = 14 in.. rvhichmakes (
M! : 54(12)/14 : 46'3 ft-kiPs f,,,,:+:
ru't ?tj1-1) . (+04:32.4ksi)O K
: re.ok,i (
s,/2 87.3/2
n/,j_ y+i Thesetwo examplesillustratethat usingapproximateB values,alongwith
(
r v Y s r r v v "s.
Reouired , =- * + i
the flexure analogy for lateral bending due to warping torsion, gives suffi-
gtF, S, I
euF, \ (
ciently quick and accurateresults for ordinary design. Furthermore' the
389(12) l(46-3)(12) (
: ' - 0 . 9 0 ( 3 6 ) - \,!"' ). l, designercan better visualizewhat is happeningusing the flexure analog,v
0.90(36) rather than working with the hyperbolicfunctionsfor Q' (
The F modified flexureanalogyhas been expandedby Lin [8.151where
: I44 + 86 : 230 in.3 additional B tablesare provided.Johnston[8.14]has provided more detailed
(
a B estimate'This design aids to compute torsional functions other than the compressiveor (
A prel:minarvcheck of Table 8.6'5 gives abour 0'8 for
to 213 in.3 and indicatesa W14xi32' Try t.nJ. stressdue to restraintof rvarpingii.e., particularly the shear stress.
*-cuid reJuce the required S.l (
: in .r: Johnston also has severalexcellentdetaileddesignexamples.Salmon [8.24]
\i '1 .1 xi31: S . 209
and Lin tS.16lhave providedadditionalinsight in their discussionsof John- (
AL:36(12)/i3.2:5.90 ston's pa-per.Additional approximate formulas for design are provided by
'\ (
Johnston,Lin, and Galambos[8'25,pp. 330-331].
Usine Table 8'6'5,find F = 0j4 rvhichgives .--=,. For additionaltreatmentof combinedtorsionand flexure,particularlyon
(
rt,h 6o{i2) channeland zeesections,the readeris referredto the work of Lansing[8.26].
= 0.74 : 3 9 ' 1f t - k i p s For nonprismatic open section rnembers,Evick and Heins 18'271present (
.\/.(at ::0.3L): B'j: 14G: i03
solution techniquesand give somedesigninformation' (
2(39.1\12 Another topic, outsid. the scopeof this text, is the secondarylareral
S,: 14+. : 225in'3
Required
ffi(z'g) bending *o1n.nt that arisesfrom the torsionaldeflectionof the compression (
flange laterally. In the deflectedposition the.compressiveforce resulting from
\
l-nu: the nert heayiersectionis indicated;Lrsew14x145. ordiiary flexural moment, M., timesthe lateralflangedeflectiongivesrise to
Ft\r 3 :t'tr)r€accuratecheckof the fVtCXtiZ using TorsionAnaly5i5
o.iSteel the secondarylateral momentwhich in turn causesgreaterlateral deflection. (
. ! , : ' c i ; , n[ . sR . SCl .a s c6 f o r i L : 5 . 9 0a t : : 0 - 3 L ' Discussionof this topic appearselseu'here [8.28,8.14]and is similar to the (
secondary bending *o*.nt that occursin bearn-columns.a subjecttreatedin
4, : c . 3 7 ( 1)5
'r' /t rrt.t-- 1 R e f . 8 . i8 : 33.9ftr-kips Chapter12. (
\co:fi / r ( r / 7 3 . 2) 1 2 r (
h{f : 33'9(12)/13'63: 25'8 it-i:rPs STRESS
8.9 ALLOWABLE DESIGNFORTORSION- (
LATERALLYSTABLEBEAMS
389{11), 25.8(1i) : (
_ t i , : . {k. s r
ri u" 74.5/2 (1978ASD, Scc.1.5.1.4-6i''i
requirement
2a9 The rraditionalASD strength-related (
is bY
represented Eq. 7.11-8,
rrt;utribe
Si n c e- i- - doesnot exc e e dQ o F r:0 ' 9 0 (3 6 ):3 2 ' 4 k si ' the w 14x132 (
acceptableby the more exact check-
Also. the stressunder factoredmomentat the supPortsmust be checked'
, - s i n e f . r r " ' l cS . 6 . 2f.i n c l; 3 , = 0 . 6 8a n d B . = 0 . 6 1 f o r , \ L : 5 - 8 7 ( \ \ ' 1 4 X 1 4 5 )
(':t. f ) = ( * : h : o 6 0 r " ) rrrr.sl (
(
: : n d c i - : 0 . 3 L .T h e n The torsion is convertedinto equivalent,{{, by using the flexure analogi as
discussedin Sec.8.6. The procedureis the'sameas illustratedfor LRFD in (
' \ l, lt : 0' 6s (8 0 ) + 0 ' 6 1 (4 0 ): 5 4 ' + + 2 4 ' 4: 78' 8 ft2-ki ps Sec.8.8 exceptin ASD the serviceloads are used insteadof factored loadsto (
compute the stress ,fn. ft. 1989 ASD Specification [1.5] does not state
t r t t : ?8.8 (1 2 )/1 3 .6 :9 6 9 .1ft-k i p s explicitly how to designfor biaxial bending without axralload: presumablythe (
foimulas for combinedbendingand axial force(ASD-H.2) could be used'
Thus thr'factorcd moment lvl, aboutthe;'-axis resistedby one flangcSives (
(
(
(
{ -'*'.-,''
488 8/TORSION 8.10 /TORSION lN CLO3=D THIN-WALLSECTIONS 489
(
(
(
s EXAMPLE 8.9.1
Invcstigate the Wl4x132 selectedin Example 8.8.1 for the loading and
+
lo. =C
conditionsof Fig. 8.8.1.Use AllowableStressDesign. t '
( 7:
+

( " ' ti-l | --


',-., i
SOLUTION
(a) Compute the sen'iceload moment M,. Including the 0.132 kip/tt
ll ilr;'': i--
( i-_i

(
beanrs'eight. r _ t
ds

iu.tt : * (t.9 + 0 .i 3 2 )(2 8 )t: 1 9 9ft-ki ps


M,: I =o
( lo,

(
(h) Consider the lorsion effect. The uniformly distributedserviceload + (bt
(a)
rsionalnromentm is
( Figure 8.'t0.1 Shear flow in a clos'edthin-n'all sectioa-
n t : 1 . 9 ( 7 ) : 1 3 . 3i n . - k i p s / f t
(
. .rnsiderm/h as the uniformlydistributedlateralload actingon one flangeof
( :ltc tream.Then using the B modified flexure analogy,the lateral bending Referringto Fig. 8.10.1a.the incrementof torsional moment contributed
;nonrentl/, acting on one flangeis bv each elementis
(
ln t - 1 1 3 .3 dT : rtp ds (8.i0.1)
Mt: Be L 2 = 0 .3 1 t (2 8 )' : 2 9 .6ft-ki ps
n 13J3 Integrating gives the full torsionalmoment. u';::ch is in effect the same as
( Eq. 8.2.5,
(c) Check tbe stress.The designaiceptability criterion is
( T : rt-fs, * (s.10.2)
|V- ILi',
( fr: TJr + T+ < 0.604,
Jr/ z
areaof the triangularsegmentin Fig.
t--

-..- Note that jp ds is the cross-hatched


( 8.10.1.Thus the i nteg r al
. iee(12) 2e.6(12)
( f t,: -fi: + : 20.9
ksi. (r.,: 22ksi) r\r
vt\
-
ffi '---
e?'
_:
Ioat:]A (8.10.3)
( .s
ThustheWl4x132is acceptable! E 'rF ,
T. rvhereA : areaenclosedby the walls. Finalli;.
( -': : '
T : ZrtA (8.10.4)
( 8.10 TORSIONIN CLOSEDTHIN-WALLSECTTONS ..
( If a cut is made in the rvall of a closed thin-rvall section (Fig. 8.10.2)'
In gc'neral,rvhere a high torsional stiffness is required, a closed section is a relative movcment(as in Fig. 8.10.2b)will be produced betwcen the t\\o
( prefcrred over the ordinary open section,such as the l-shapeor channel.An sides in the axial direction of the member. Tbe unit shear strain along the
( cxcellentgeneraldiscussionof the torsion phenomenawith comparativebe-
havior of open and closedsectionsis given by Tambergand Mikluchin [s 29].
(. Some practicdl commentsrelating to closed sectionsin torsion are given by
Sier'[8.30].It is the high torsionalstiffnessexhibitedby closedsectionsthar
(
makes them ideal for aircraft structural componentsand curved girders in
( bridges and buildings. This subject is treated in a number of textbooks
(
(
[8.1-8.3] so that only a brief treatmenrfollows.
In the closedsectionof Fig. 8.10.1,it is assumedthat the walls are thin so
that the shearing stress may be assumeduniiorrnly distributed across the
frr.l
l*l
thicknessr. If the shearstressis r, then rl is the shearforce per unit distance Lr,l
( along the wall, usually referredto as shearflow. Sinceonly torsional stressii-
( prcsentlybeing considered,the normal stresses(o, of Fig. 8.10.1b)are zero. (a)

Since o. : 0, the shearfiow rt cannot vary along the wali; i.e., rt is constant.
: ( Figure 8.10.2 Forcesoo a cut thin-wall section.
)
i

t
a
-

s.*...: ('
':::.' 8.10 / TORSIONlN CLOSEDTHIN-WALLSECTIONS
490 I ,' TOPSIC'S{ i :::'
."-.: ( ,
=-
(
penmeter ls
'f : t/G
; (
(8.10.5)
('
The inrernalstrain energy'for an1'elementallength ds alohg the perimeteris
(8.10.6) ( ,
CIV : \rty ds
l t l \ r
(
: -l-l-ds (s.to.r) tr lr
(
2 \ 2 AI G (a) (b)

The t'*'istingmoment I about point 0 can now be replacedby a couple, Figure 8.10.3 Shearflow in multicell thin-wall section.
(
T/r.The externalu'ork done by the couple is ( ,
liT', T0
d!"t': : (8.10.8) Second,deformationcompatibilityis obtainedrvhen ( t
Zl; l" T
(
Equatinginternaland externalu'orkper unit lengthgives
T A 'T
-: frds (8.10.e)
0- b
2A$
(

4AG J, ( 8. 10. 14) \


7

fre ,, Jf 'ar7, 0:
f:^ (
g
' ' 2A$ (
-:J' : (8.10.10)
zAG zAG
(
sincerl is a constant- Finally, moment equilibriumrequires
In order ro obrain more useful forms of the equations,recallfrom Sec.8.2 T : 2 A r r r t r+ 2 A = r 2 t*2 " ' +2Afinrn (8.10.1s) (
th a t
I
T: GJ? [ 8 . 2 . ]5 The developmentof the equationsfor torsionstiffnessand strmsin closed
"membraneanal-
thin-wall sectionsmay be alternativelydevelopedusingthe (
grves
andusingEq.E.l0.10
ogy" developedby Prandtl[8.]-8.3] (
,, f atTt The principal aim in this text is to developthe basic expressionsrnd
illustrate the high degreeof torsionalstiffnessthat closedsectionsexhibit as (
T : GJ (8.10.11)
zIG, compared to open ones. The following two examplesare intended for this (
and eliminatingT betweenEqs-8.10.4and 8.10.11gives,when solvingfor the purpose.
torsionalconsiant J. (
r EXAMPLE 8.IO.I
(
4A2
(8.10.12) Compare the torsionalresistingmoment I and the torsionalconstant J for
area.The
the sictions of Fig. 8.10.4all havingaboutthe samecross-sectional (
f,*/, maximum shearstressr is 14 ksi.
(

Multicell Sections
SOLUTION (
(a) Circular thin-rvallsection.UsingEq. 8.10.4,
the shearstresses
In crrrrrputing in multicell sectionsunder torsion.equilibrium (
-r : 2rtA: 2(14)(0.s1["1r01' : el-6ft-kips
* 7q1
must he sarisiied:rhus the shearflow into a junction (such as the one shorvn (
shirdcdin Fig. 8.10.3a)must equal the flow out; the angleof twist 0 must be
must be
identicalfor eachceil: the sum of the individual torsionalresistance-s 4A2 a(25r.): , (
J: =
equel to the applicd 1s15isnalmoment. T d:393in.. (
In Fig. L10.3 the force equilibrium at joints is satisfiedby J *t' ' ( ;
T,tt: rrtt - rrl2 (s.10.13) w here!.ds/t:2tr(5 ') / 0. 5: 20n. * :' : t i''r "
("
\ .
!
.

(
C
*.t I
( . * l

J.{
492 8/TORS!ON B.1O/TORSIONrNCLOSEDTHI.r-WALLSECTTONS 493
.i.'I
*i
a ' l
- l
\ + t

r i-^-l rtz'-l .. - t
.'.. i

/Ai FJ
- l I * i l

( I l(- !
i
1t 0i" l
- t

(
\\ 7J-'; t.=l]I
12X6sl;'ucturat I
ll r
-lf-z-----i
( \7 I

(
lo" diam.pipe
, = 1 6 . 1s qi n .
o = rutto|l.. Lifl
channel llJaris in. rhick
j = 16.0 sc in. ]
(
FrEure 8.10.4 Sections for Exanple 8.10.1.
(
(
(b) Rectangularbox section.
(
T : 2rtA : 2(ra)(0.5)(72)*: 8+.0ft-kips
(
( r : :o' : ,!!-'.'=f=r':
288in.a Figure8.r0.5 Sectionfor Example8.10.2.
Q6/as) '
( ! a'n
l'
(c) Channelsection.'Sinceforthis open section,
Also, the net shearstressin the interior rvallsis r, - rr.
(
From the compatibilityof deformation,Eqs. 8-10.14give:
r-Tt
( J For cell @,

,(
I
the maximum shearstresswill be in the flange.Also, ds: 3(20)r, + 20(\ - rs) : 2G0(400,1
l,
1:l!bti ._-:
'
( For cell @, ,
J = t[ro1o.s;'+ 2(5.5X1)'l: 4.08
in.a '[rds
( - ",)J :2G0(4oo)
: 4l2o("s
J '
( J' '::'_'
- r-
' :',fl(,1;4] :4.8rt-kips
tt (r)(121 The abovetwo equationsare then solved for r, and rr:
(
-
( The circular section is best for torsional capacity, the rectangularbox is i 80r , - 20r r : 800G 9
next; theseclosed sectionshave the torsional constant J equai to 96 and 7l - 80rr + 80r, :
(
.3
800G0
times that of the channel, respectively.The resistingmornentsare 19 and 18,
' ':
( respectively,times that of the channel. . 60"5: r6oocg
:
( E EXAMPLE 8.10.2 rs: 26'67G0
( Computethe torsionalmomentcapacityand the torsionalconstantfor the rr: 76'67G 0
'
multicellgirder cross-section
of Fig. 8.10.5if the maximumshearstressr
( cannotexceed14 ksi. equal 16.67Gg,whitethe interior watl strcssis
The exteriorwall shearstresses
( (26.67 --76.67)G0. For rmo : 14 ksi,
SOLUTION
( ' From symmetry. :-
'
G o- L : 0.84
( rl: tZ: T3: 74 16.67
I
:l

. t I -<

:f
t .

g , TCeS:ili BUCKLING
8.12 /TORSIONAL 495
r 194
(
( ;
U si ngE q. 8. I $. 15.
g-\ (
r: IlArt frcentroio
\l I and strear (
)c6i (0.5)+ 2(400)(26.6't)c0(0.s)
: 4[{400x16.6't centef

: 26.700Gd : 37,404G0 (
+ i0.700GA
i : 762Aft-kips
: 3?.400(0.84) ll\j
lll
(
_i[_,, (
Thc torsionalconstantJ is
T dz (
: 37,400in.a
J
l -
_
GO -T
I
t r6=v (
The dcsignoi closedsecrionsfor bending a-ndtorsionis outsidethe scope
I
II ll",/ (, ,
of ihis rexr.and the readeris referredto the rvorkof Feltonand Dobbs[8.31].
, llA-o, ( ,
ShermertS.-l2lhas shorvnapplicationsof the closedthin-rvalltube conceptof ll lr
torsicnapplicd to trussedstructuresand structurescontainingplatesand truss
fr)iflS. lI'L-J
lii
t
8 . 1 1 T O R S I O NI N S E C T I O N SV / I T H O P E N I
I

AND CLOSEDPARTS - (a) (br

Generall.vrhis problemis treatedby combiningthe principlesdiscussed Figure8.12.1 Torsionalbuckling.


for openandclosedparts.The procedure
separatei,v to be usedfor determin-
and shearcenterlocationfor suchsections
moment,stiffness,
ing resisting is
presented u'ith b1
examples Chu and Longinorv t8.331.The is
follori'ing a
discussedin Chapter6. Horvever,somethin-rvallsectionssuch as angles,tees.
surnmaryof pertinentequations: i
Toral resistingn'lomentis
i
zees,and channels.havingrelativelylow torsionalstiffnessmay, under axial
I
compression,buckletorsionallyr,,'hilethe longitudinalaxis remainsstraight.
T_
n

L . r,,,A,+ GJO (8.11.r) I'-


t. The subject of torsional buckling is treated extensivell'by Timoshenko
t- I and Gere [6.67,pp.225-250]and Bleich[6-9]. r
Using conceptspreviouslydeveloped,it is the objective here merely to
J : !lrbtr for open parts only- illustrate how such bucklingcan occur and the t)?es of situationsfor which
:'!
rdJition. eachof the closedcellsmust satisfyEq. 8.10.14: the designershouldbe cautious.
Considerthe doubly symmetricalsectionin the shapeof a crossgivenin

1,,? :2GA,0 (8.11.2) Fig. 8.12.1, whose shear center and centroid coincide. Recalling the Euler
equation,
d?v
EI ,, *Py:g
az-
16.2.31
8 . 1 2 T O R S I O N A LB U C K L ! N G

Siii;e the diffcrential equadon for torsion was developedearlier in this which differentiatedtwice becomes
cl:iprcr. ind buckling of arially loaded columnshas previouslybeen treated,
rorsionrl b,ucklingmay now be treated.The strengthof most centrallyloaded dav dzv
cr-'l!.n:ns at the tangent-modulusEuler load with a reducedeffi-
is r,--ached l,' u,*r - -PAi (8.12.1)
ciencl if k-rcalhuckling occurs before overall column buckling occurs,as
f.
(
(
( 8 12,/TOBSIONALBUCKLING
497

( 4s[i 8/TORSTON

( ce'ilcr'
- polar moment of inertia abotttthe shear
( $ince EI da.y,/tlzais the loading. the Euler column can be thoughtof as a in which [,.r7rdr I-. the 8'12'6alone determincs
ivith the-shearcenter'Eq'
beamlaterally loadedwith the fictitiousloading - P(dzy/&l;. Thuswith the
" t
I
When rhe centroidcoif,cides
( ti rebuckl i ngcorl di t icn'
I
:re4ionput in the slightlybuckledposition(i.e.,rotatedthe angleQ at distance . .I 1 ^ A\ . , . . . r - ^
; frorn the end) the compressiveforce ortdr on the elementdr d: is statically Itrvi l l befound ( t er t Appenc] ixTableA2) t har t her r , ar pin*': l_i'9''at
3t a: ) ] : c"''
( rectangularelenrentsintersectlng
. l

zero for shape, .onti.tit'tj'of thin


" j t
I

cquivalentto a lateral load u'hoseintensityper unit lengthis : :i

( , l
commonPoini.
written as
- - l

d2( ro\ I For other cases.Eq' 8'12'6may be


( (o;dr)-f I

' Ii ctt+ .d=+ n ( 8 . 1? . ?)


( I
I
* :4
+P-77:v
I u
The incrementof torsiona!moment about the z-axistributaryto the lengthd: i
I

( . l
equelsthe load times the moment arm r: thus t
rvhere
( I
o'Io- GJ
r dzb I -' -
( dntl: - @ . t d r ) -' A dz (s.12.2) ,-" I
I
f Ec.
dz-
(
(
The total torsional moment for the slicedz of the column is for rvhichthe generalsolutionis
(8.i2.8)
Q: At sinPz * lr cos Pz * A3z * Aa
( Dt=: .o,# dzlnztdr (s.12.3)
( C onsi deri ngt hepin. endcolum n, r vit hr ot at ion. about 'p'. ] , : l: . ^1jl. u. n
( Equation 8.12.3 representsthe contribution to the torsional moment !L't. end,butwithrvarpingnotrestrictedattheends,givesinamannersimilarto
6' that
[ributarv to the element&: ;; E;i;t column derivationin Chapter
( Az: A3: Ao:0
dM-: m"dz (s.12.4)
(
( The differential equationfor torsion on I-shapedsections,Eq. 8.5.10.is and since.l, cannot alsobe zero'
:
, s i nP L 0 , PL: nr
( d6 d3a
M,: GJ - EC"E [8.5.10J is
a, at rvhichtorsionalbuckling occurs
( The elasticbuc(ling stresso: critical
( which when differentiatedoncebecomes n2 _ orlr- GJ
L2 EC*.
( dM. dze do+
: Ot - EC*E (8.12.5)
( i ar, GJ ( 8'12'9)
o: critical :
* =- : F",
( lP
Referring to Fig. 8.5.2, positive M, at the section z gives a ciockrvise
( rotation; whereasin Fig. 8.12.1 at the section z there is counterclockrvise and
rotation. Thus the Eq. 8.72.4relationshiprequiresa minus sign for use in sectionswhose shear center
( which is accuratefor doubly symmetrical The s;*mbol F", is used
secrions.
Eq. 8.12.5.The differential equation for torsional buckling is then centroid coincide.ru.t, u, I-'an-dz;;; strut'
io LRFD-App'nOi* Ef' For the-c:l*on single-angle
( insteadof o, criticar 8'12'9 will
dTor^ dze do+ to shear center is small' Eq'
( o.4
-t | rzt dr : GJ-; - EC*-
" dza since the distancg from cen;;id stress'Expres-
dzt Jt dz' the torsionalbuckling
provide u ,.oronuble approximationJoi
constant C" "ia conslant J for various
( sions for the rvarping }:.toltion
Table A2'
tftup.t are to be found in text Appendix probable
(' not lose t;gh, of the fact that the most
r ( ,r-#-(- -o,fn,to,\#:o ( 8 . i2 . 6 )
The reader should
buckling mode is still that occurrTrig
ot the taiigent-modulus Euler load
(,
E.l2 /TORSIONAL BUCKLING 499
493 B / TORSICN ( ;
t7-L
r G
(
(8.12.12)
Gzfr
r -
Thus the problem involves
because of lateral bending about the x- or _'v--axis. where- I et
(
three critical values of axial load; bending about either principal axis and
(
nvisting about the lcngitudinal axis. On rvide-flange sections. torsional buck- { ,2tc. \ t
ling ma-vbe important {ln sectionswith extra wide flanges and short lengths
E
r e: - l--+ + G Jl - (8.12.13)
[6.61.pp.225-2s0J.
\(r,r)' I I, (
In thc generalcaservherethe shear center does not coincide with the /.+/., (
_ iri+tbt\ (8.12.14)
cenrroid,the buckling failureis actuallya combinationof torsion and flexure. H : l - l - - - = t - l : -
\ r; J ro (
For rhis case.the threedifferentialequations,(1) buckling by lateralbending
about the x-axis; (l) bucklingby lateral bending about the j'-axis; and (3) f -
rP - Ar;:1,+lr+A(t'+#) (8.12.1s) (
tu'isringabout the shearcenter,are interdependent.Thus three simultaneous modulusof elasticity,ksi
E - tension-compression \
differentialequationsrnustbe solvedto get the buckline loads. The develop-
G : shearmodulusof elasticity,ksi
mcnr and solutionof theseequationsis outsidethe scopecf this te.rtand is
c*.: torsional*'arping constant,in.6
rrcicquately 16.9:6.61,pp. 225-2501.
treatedelservhere
torsion constant,in.a
f -

For design purposes.a checkmay be made to determine'*hether an


( :
[.,, f
moment of inertia about principal axes,x and'y
t l
--

equivalcntradiusof gvrationr, is below rr or r!..The alternativeu.ouldbe to i - polar moment of inertia, Eq. 8.12.15,in.a (
tp -
ctrnlputethc elastictcrsionalbucklingstressfrom Eq-'8.12.9 [identical to
K,,, K - - effective length factors in the y-direction, and for torsional (
LRFD Formuia(A-E3-5)landcomparethe resultrvith that obtainedusingthe
buckling (z-axis)
largerof K.L,/r.,ot K,.L,/r, in lhe column formulasoi Chapter6. LRFD- \,,
xo' )b : coordinatesof shearcenterrvith respectto centroidof section.
Appendix E3 indicatesto do the latter.N'lanytirnes,hog'ever.it rvill be useful
in. (
to usethe equivalentraCiusof g-vration procedure.SettingEq. 8.12.9equalto
r,, : radius of gyrationtvith respectto the uxis of syrnmetry
Eu !er ' sc quat ion, (
io : polar radiusof gyrationrvith respectto shearcenter
:r?E EC*rt GJ
_-----=:_-'-- [ ,
I Liru)' I ^L' Ie
3 EXATUPLE8.I2.I (
For the secrionssiven in Fig. 8.12.2.determincunder rvhat conditions,if any,
torsional or flerural-torsionalbuckling is likely to occur under arial compres-
(
i c" GJL:
sion loading.Assumerhe memberspinnedat the endsof the unbracedlengths.
- -.i-
f-:
c t
Il , |
. n
trl--
u . n "
(
l r r

(
s'hich for steelrvith .e7'G= 2.6 gives I (
Shear

ic., JL? (
r-r = . [ ' , +0.0J- (3.12.10)
t' IP \
|
C.G. and
shear (
cen!er
for doubly symmetric-alsections.It has been demonstrat.d that onll' for short
lengths rvill r' be lorver than r, and r-" for W shapes [6-9]. Shear (
center
Singly syntmetric sectionsma1.'buckle in a combinaiicn fie.u:rai-tcisi.rlli (
rnode. *'hich rvill depend on the Euler column buckling stress {,. fc'r axis of wa x 3: wT8\?85 r-exex]
A = 8 . 3 8s q r n .
svmrrc-lr').and the torsional buckling stressF", (Eq. 8.12-9).LRFD-Appendix
A=9.13r'-. A = ?.75 sq in. (
lr = ?,i 1;:"t /' = 48.7 in.€ l, = l, = €.6 in.'
E3 givc'sthc elastic buckling stress d for the combined mode as r, = 2.C2 in. / Y- 2 l ' 6 i n ' a r, =.ry = 2.50 in. (
r' o ?'41 in' rr = l'59in.

,':#(,_ t;
I
I
,l i i l -
4F*rF"rH

(F,, * F,,)t
i
I
I
I
(8.12.11) (a)

Figure8.12.2 Sectionsfor Example8,12.1.


rr'160in'
(b) (c)
(
(,
(
\
(
- /
C
(
8.12 / T AWONAL Er-€KLING 501
(
8/TORSION
(
( common length of 10 ft:
and free to warp at the ends, fully recognizingthat these l,lvo assumptions
( niinimizebuckling strength. r2(29,ooo) : 50.9l::
Fry:
( tr otroltr2)/L.6012
SOLUTION
(
( to
(a) \V8x31. Sincethe centroidand shearcentercoincide,use Eq. 8.12.10
get the equivalentrr: F",:tffi.r\; Ia.tz.t;l
( .r : i[212.s1s;10.435)3 : 0.4e4
+ 7.13(0.2s5)'l in-a
z'2(zs,o00)t-ss2e,000(1'066) : 131ksi
'7 -
( F"=: 1r 2'6
i: gt'z
|
( LRFD N { a n u a lJ, = 0 .5 4i n .a ) \ it'(*)t[-
( the sectioa to tbe sbearcenterat the
The distance )b from the centroid of
( c . - h 2 l ; . / 4 : ( 8 . 0 0- 0 . 4 3 5 ) r ( 3 7 . r ) / 4 : 5 3 1i n . 6 junction of the *,i'tnictnesses of tbe flange
and the web is

( - t / 2 = 1 . 9 4- 0 ' 7 1 5 / 2 : 1 ' 5 8i n '


(LRFD Manull, c, : 530in.6) fo: f
( xo:0
Ir:l'*l;:110+ 3 7 ' 1: 1 4 7 ' 1i n ' a
( I o : I , + I y +e ( ' 3 + r i i )
( : 91'2in''
: 48.7+ 21.6+ 8-38(1-58)2
fE: : - o'04-
( V r4at 1471 I,* I, _ 48.1+ 77'6 : cr-??o
( tu' - _ 9i-3
Ip
( : r6.ot+ o,otxrJ ,.1
Then using Eq' 8'12'11'
( ::'i
rvhereI is the unsupportedlength, in feet. Only rvhen /- is less than 4.9 ft i

( does r, exceed rr; only for a very short column is torsional buckling.^11-.. '- i : aS.3
ksi
: 0),- '. I
possibiiity, and even when rs approachesits minimum value (when I, '' :I
( rvhichis rr(min) : 1.90in., il iionly 6% lessthan r.". ..,..i
- "'-! gyradonfor
The result using this sectionis iypical of standard W and S shapesand formula, an equivalentradius r, of
( '': fuuating F. io Euler,s to conpare wi's r' and rr'
indicatestorsional buckiing may Properlybe neglectedfor them- flexural-torsionalbucklingcanbe obtainid
( (b) WT8x28.5. The cintroid and sheut center do not coincide,but the :=
- ::, rzE r,.r29.000
useEq.8.12.11:
sectionhasoneaxisof symmetry; 45.3:@f
( I
: 1.066in.3
@
( J : l[tz.rz)t0.715)3
+ 7.50(0-30)'i ;
t:
+ rc: l'51 i!'
( is
Using the formula from text Appendix Table A2, 1j
I
-rE is less than r" : 1'60 in' aad flexural-torsional buckling
t In this case wirh double an'gle
( i' situutioo rn'*l oceui
r | ( z . r z o ) 3 ( o . z r s. -)-3 . . , . - ^ ^ . " -: l criticar for ordinary lengths.The t;; will havez'
rtt' 8'12'2c)
( C,.: (7.50)3(0.430)31
+ /\ 'J t.85in.6 , compression *rtu.,,-in equal l";;i;it:13^T
" J-l-o L 4 of gyration
- eJ with respectto that axis
as its axis of symmetry, and the radius ' n
( i . i'tz'tz'
- 1-99in'6. q musr be used f"r';';'F4
gives,I : 1.10in.3and f
The LRFD Manualt1.171
( ..{
- - / v : 48J + 21-6
- - v + Ay]
: 91'2in'a
+ 8.38(1-58)2 U nsymmerr icsect ionsincom pr essiol*: To'ecortbe nplicat edandt heirls
strut
- . r + Ir.
Ip: I, . - : single-angle
( - 'p
€* treatment is outside the scopeof t*"
it*t. Particutarly,
t. $ it tt-io-t this reason that cauuon
( t: controued by flexural-torsi,onalu.r.ttlag; sectionis
For usein Eq. 8.12.11,comPutethe criricalstresses.Q.uand d- from'Eqs' [1'?] and the special
u ( con".rning ii, ur?;;;;ffit;atL;arual
8.12.12and 8.12.13using for an effectivelength Kt (foi .l''-and z-axes)the i.
4

EI
.5O3 (
3 ;CFS:CIJ SFLECTEDRETCJNET'TCES
(

8.13. K'uang-HanChu and Robert B. Johnson."Torsion in Beamswith Open Sections," (


providcd in tlie LRFD \{anual [1.17.pp. 2- 9]. AISC has provideda special
publicaticnIS.3a]relatingto the strengthof single-angle members.Usamiand Journul of the Structurat Dicision,ASCE, 100,Sfi (July 1974),1397-L419. (
Galambos[S.ii] have given a detailedtreatmentof the relatedproblemof an 8.14. Bruce G. Johnston."Design of W-Shapesfor Combined Bending and Torsion,"
EngineeringJournal, AISC. 19, 2 (SecondQuarter 1982),65-85. (
cccentricaiiylcaded single-angle strut: it is essentiallyimpossibleto load a
singleanslecrrncentricallv in compressicn. Note is madethat the Iargerarethe 8.15. Philip H. Lin. "Simplified Design for Torsional Loading of Rolled Steel Mem-
(
'*'idth to thicknessratios the greaterthe possibilityof torsionalor flexurai-tor- bers," EngineeringJournal, AISC, 14, 3 (Third Quarter L977),98-107.
8.16. Phil H. Lin. Discussionof "Design of W-Shapesfor Combined Bending and (
sionalhuckiing being lhe controllinglimit state.
Torsion," bv Bruce G. Johnston, Engineering Journal, AISC, 20, 2 (Second
As a conclusionto this treatment.the designeris caut,ioneC about using (
Quarter1983),82-87.
open sectionsin compressionhavinglessthan two axesof symmetiy,particu- 8.17. J. N. Goodier and M. V. Barton. "The Effects of Web Deformatioo on the
larly ruhen high width/thickness ratios exist for the elements.The width/ (
Torsion of l-Beams,"J. Appl. Mech., Marcb 1944,p. A-35.
thicknessratio limits (X, in LRFD-BS and the "noncompact" limits of 8.18. J. E. Lothers. "Torsion in Steel Spandrel Girders," Transactions,ASCE, ll2
ASD-85) for control of local buckling,if not exceeded, pror"iCesomecontrol (1947).345-376.
since local bucl:ling of sectionssuch as angles,flanges.and reesis closely 8.19. lvlin-TseChen and Donald E. Jolissaint,Jr. "Pure and Warping Tonion Analysis
rcl a t edt o t or s ionalb u c k i i n :. of Rigid Frames,"Journalof StructuralEngineering,ASCE, 109,.8(August 1983),
1999-2003.
8.20. Morris Ojalvo. Discussionof "Warping and Distortion at l-section Joins," by P.
., Vacharajittiphanand N- S. Trahair, Journal of the Structurol Dicisiort,ASCE,
l0l, ST1 (January1975),343-345.
S E L E C T E DR E F E R E N C E S 8.21. Conrad P. Heins and Robert A. Potocko. "Torsionai Stiffening of l-Girder
Webs," Journal al the Structural Diuisiort, ASCE, 105, ST8 (August i979).
1 1 . 1. Adranced ivlcchanic's of .llcterials. 2nd cd 1689-1698.
i952, Chap.9. 8.22. lv{orrisOjalvo. Discussionof "Torsional Stiffening of l-Girder Webs." by C. P.
8.2 Part II, 2nd ed. Ne*' York: D. Van Heins and R. A. Potocko, Journal of the Structural Diaision,ASCE, 106, ST4
(April 1980).939.
8.3. Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Inc.. 8.23. Porpan Vacharajittiphanand Nicholas S. Trahair. "Warping and Distortion at
I-section Joints," Journal of the Structura!Dit:ision,ASCE. 100. ST3 (lrlarch
8.4. "Structural Bcamsin Torsion."
Trurcactions.
ASCE. 1974),541-564.
8.24. CharlesC. Salmon.Discussionof "Design of W-Shapesfor CombinedBending
8.5 Johnston."Torsion of Piate Girders." Trensocriorrs. and Torsion," by Bruce G. Johnston, EngineeringJounni. AISC. 19, 4 (Fourth
Quarter1982),215-216.
It.6 Eney. " Nonuaiform Torsion 8.25. Bruce G. Johnstoa.F. J. Lin, and T. V. Galambos. Baric SteelDesign,3rd ed.
759-785.(Good summaryof EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,Inc., 1986. I
8.26. Warner Lansing. "Thin-Walled Members in Combined Torsion and Flexure,"
Transactions. ASCE. ll8 (1953),128-146.(Particularemphasison channeland
zee secdons.)
8.27. Donald R. Evick and ConradP. Heins,Jr. "Torsion of NonprismaticBeamsoi
Open Section." Jounzalof the Structural Diuision, ASCE, 98, STl? (December
Cliicago, IL: Amenc:n I n - < t i t u t eo f 1972).2i69-2184.
8.18. Basil'Sourochnikoff. "Strengthof I-Beanrs
in CombinedBendingand Torsion,"
o.', in Buildi:,gStruc'.ures," Transactiotts,ASCE. 116(1951),1319-1311.
8.29. K. G. Tanrbcrg and P. T. lltikluchin. "Torsional PhcnonrenaAnalvsis and
fi.l0 ConcreteStructureDesign." Analysiso! StructuralS;'stenrs for Torsiotr.SP-35.
AmcricEnConcreteInstitute, i973, 1-102.
of Tliin-Wailed 8.30. ArinaCav Sicv. "Torsion in Closed Scctions." EngineeringJoumal, AISC, 3. 1
i. ard 5 (1945), (Januaryi966).46-54.
8.31. Lesis P. Felton and M. W. Dobbs. "Optimum Designof Tubes for Bending,and
8 . 11 . Torsion," Journal ol the Stru;cturalDiuision,ASCE, 93, ST4 (August 1967),
185-100.

i
(
(
5O4 8/roRstoN PROBLEMS 505
(
(
( 8.32.Carl L. Shermerll":tt"-tr Strengtbiia s,iro.ss of SteelStructures,"
Engineer- actual sloping flangesfor determiningshearcenter on standardrolled
ingJournal,AISC, 17,2 (SecoudQuarterl9g0), 33_37. channels.
( 8.33.Kuan8'Han Chu and A:ratoleLonginow. "Torsion in Sectionswith Openand
ClosedParts,"Journalof the StructuralDiuisiort, ASCE, 93, 5T6 (Dccember
( 1967),213_227. ^-1 1
s.34.AISC'Specilicationfor Allowable Stress Designof Single-AngleMembers.Chicago, I l-L
( ---1
IL: American Institute of SteelConstruction,19g9.
( 8.35.
Tsutomu Usami and Tbeodore V. Galambos. "Ecc€ntrically Loaded SingleAngle t,=|tf*it
Colurnns," Publications, Iaternational Association for iiridge aoO itructrriA l-Assume
( Engineering,3l-II (i971), 153-184.
(cons1.)
(
(
( PROBLEMS L,=.',J Pr ob. 8. 2

( Ali designproblems are to be done according to the AISC Load and Resis- 8.3. Repeat the requirementsof Prob. 8.1 for the chaanel n'ith unequal
( tance Factor Designor Allowable StiessDesign,as indicatedby tbe instructor. flanecsas shown.
All given loads are sen'iceloads unlessofherwiseindicated. For all problems
( assume adequote lateral ilpport of the compression
flange such thit lateral
( stability does not control. Assume all standard sections are equally readily
available in the indicated grade of steel (even though actually they are not).
( A figure showing span and loading is reguired
T- t --l
'r = l4

-', 2!'
l6
( +€X
8.1. For the channel shown in the accompanyingfigure, separate ly applyv* t, = 17.25in.a
( Td
V, thro-ughthe centroid of the section. For each rh.ut corpuie -d /r = 3'9.l in'l
draw to scalethe shearflow rt distribution along each of the elenrentsof l,v = +3'25 in'e
('
the cross-secrion.on the two separatediagramilone f.or v. and one fol
_.
( Vr) of shear florv distribution compute the total shear force io-;ui5-t 4 " J
-
elementof the cross-secdon in tenns of the applied shear v,or v,.using \ Dimensionsrefer
( to centerlines
thesecomputed shearforces calculate the two coordinatei of 6e shear of elerr,ents Prob.8.3
( center.

( 8.4. Repeat the requirementsof Prob. 8.1 for the angle section of the
accompanyingfigure.
(
( r r."_l
(
lcr
I
( l, = 192.7 in: ll
(
/,. =
'19.14
in.'
i = 1.087 in. L]
Standardangle
( r-sxoxI prob.8.4
Prob.8.1
(
( 8.2. Repeat the requirements of Prob. 8.1 for the channsl rvitb sloiing 9.5. Repeatthe requirementsof Prob. 8.1 for the zeesectionof the accomPa'
flanges.Comment on the effect of using averagethickness instead ofthe nying figure.
(
(
I

,t- I
8,,'TOfiSION :I:t'l

_it*
PROBLEMS 507
j!
(
Neglecr (
Z*c:ion beam dead
wetght P = 30 kips ( ,
/, = i$. 19 ;n.c
i" = 9.C5 in.r
(
( ,
i , !vt4 x 90

(
p ro b .8 .5 (
(
8.6. Locate the shearcenterfor the combined w and Prob.8.8
channercrane girder (
section'Is theresignificanterror in assumingthe shear 8.9. Develop the torsion differential equation solution for the cantilever
centerlies at the
centroid?use a'eragethicknessand constan-tdepth for beam rvith an eccentricconcentratedload at its end, and compute (
the channer.
.
constantsand stresses as givenin items (b) through(e) of prob. g.g. Is ( '
c12x207
there any relationshipbetweenthis problemand piob. g.g?,
(
(
Neglect l5 kips
vt27 x 94 beam weight (
(
P r o b .8 . 6 i ,r-r, I
(
F ixed
8.7. An lllcl8x58 is ro be usedon a 24-ft-simplysupported (
span to carry.a
tc-itglload of 0.8 kips/ft, with rhe toaa apilied in the plane Prob.8.9
of the web. (
Supposethe flansesare to have attachmlntsso that
rhe channelrviil
bend 'erticallv about the x-ads- \\'hat lateral 8.10. Develop the torsion differential equation solution for the uniformll, (
momeilr capacitr..4/,
slrouldthe attachrnents be capableof resisiing? loadedbeam with loadingappliedeccenrricall-v to the web. Considerthe
what perceni.,r irlco., (
this represent? ends torsionally simpll' supported..Compute consrantsand stressesas
given in items (b) through(e) of prob. g.g. (
8'8' (a) Develop the torsiondifferentialequation
solution ior the W section
having torsionalll'fixed ends and an eccenrricall-v w = 1.5 kips/ft (not inct. beam weightf (
applied .on..n- a

trated load at midspan.


(b) compute the torsionconstantJ, the rvarping {
constar:tC", and tr
(i.e..1/a); thenusethem in parts(c) rhrough(f). (
(c) Compute the combinedbending stress. L_ro,_o, wt8 \ 97
in-ctuaingrvlrpine torsion
and ordinaryfle.rurecomponents,at : : 0. 0.3L,:.'d jL (
t.,. u'lcss tttttt

It' r
*\
otheruiseinstructed. (
=. /t"ttt""t'
(d) Compute the ma-timumshear stressin
the *'c1,..ir:llurling Sai't- t
Yenant torsionalshearand fiexurat shear. (
at the sanc irrcations Prob. 8.10
indicatedin (c).
(e) computc the flrnge shear force r,, due (
to warping resrraintat the 8.11. RepeatProb. 8.10,consideringthe endstorsionallyflxed.
-qtntclocationsindicatedin (c). (
(i) compute rhe maximum shear skess 8.12. RepearProb. 8.
8.8, *tth the load applied in the plane of the y-axis of a
in the flange.incrucrin*e saint- (
\ienant torsion, warping shear, and vertical * channel,Cl5X50.
flexure flange shear,at
rhe samelocationsindiCatedin (c). 8.13. For the case(orcases)assignedby the insrructor,selectthe lightest (
(g) Give a rabularsummaryof all stressqs. wl4
€ secrion, using the B ,modified'flexure analogy approach. (
io curry u
(
*
\
(
(
8/TORS|ON
FROBLEMS
(
(
concentratedload W at midspan.in addition to the weightof the beam.
( 8.1S.For the case(or cases)listedin Prob. 8.14and assignedb1'the instructor,
The ends of the simply supportedspan are assumedto have torsional
select the lightest W section, using the B modified flexure analogv
sinrple support. Check the stressesin the section selectedusing the
( "exact" approach,to carry uniform loading w, in addition to the rveightci the
solution for assumedconditionsas developedin Exampl. s.s.z.
beam. The ends of the span are simpl.ysttpportedfor both flexure and
( "exact" solutionis available(solutionto Prob.S.11).check
F v e torsion.If the
( wD lv, Steel stressesusing that solution.
Eccentricitr
( Dead Live Span yield of 8.16. For the case(or cases)listedin Prob. 8.14and assignedby the instructor,
load load length stress loading comparethe solution using A36 and A572Grade 50 steels.Assumethe
( Case (kips) (kips) (ft) (ksi) (in.) Grade 50 costs7% morc per pound than A36. Indicate the economical
( solution to the problem. Assume ends simply supported for flexure but
1 5 20 20 36 2 fixed for torsion.
( 2 5 20 20 36 3 8.17. Given the 40-ft simply supported span carry'ing two symmetricallrr"
( 3 20 20 36 4 placedconcentratedloads, 20% deadload and 80% live load, as shonn in
4 5 20 24 36 )
( the accompanyingfigure. If the loads are eccentric to the rveb by 5 in.,
5 5 2A 24 36 J
and the member is torsionally simply supported,seiect the lightest W14
6 5 20 24 36 4
( 7 sectionsuitable using the B modified flexure analogy nethod.
1 22 24 50 2
')'l
( 8 7 t-
1 A
/-, 50 J l4r
'r^
9 7 11
L1 Lq 50 4
( 10 10 i5 26 50 2
( 11 l0 15 26 50 a
J

12 10 15 26 50 ,
.i
\rJl4 section
( 13 10 15 26 50 )
( l4 10 15 26 50 6
15 10 15 26 50 .|
I
(
P rob.8.17
( 8'14- For the case(or cases)assignedby the instructor, selectthe lightestW
section,using the B modified flexuie analory approach,to .urry-uniform
( loading ru, in addition ro the weight of the beam. The endsof the span 8.18. The 30-ft simply supported(for M,) span is to can;v t\r'o symmetrically
( are assumedto be fixed for both flexure and torsion.If "exact" solution placed concentratedloads of 8 kips dead load and 14 kips iive load
was obtainedin Prob. 8.11,checkmadmum stressusing that solution. located10 ft from the supports.The loads are 6-in. eccentricto the web,
( and fully fixity is assumedfor torsional restraint.Selectthe lightestW
( Fy sectionusing the B modified flexure analogy method.
wD wL Steel Eccentricity
( Dead Live Span yield of 22k 22k
Ioad Ioad length siress loading
(
Case (kips/ft) (kips/ft) ( fr) (ksi) (in.)
(
( 0.5 1.5 28 36
0.5 1.5 28 36
( 0.5 1.5 28 36
0.5 1.5 28 36
(
0.35 1.4 26 50 Prob.8.18
( 0.35 1.4 26 50
0.35 1.4 26 50 8.19. Estimate,using the rnodified flexure analogydesign procedureused for
( 0.35 W shapesand crane girders.the uniformly distributed load capaciiy,T}@rc
L.4 26 50
( dead load and 80% live load. for a C15x50 of 436 steel.The endsof the
II -
r 510 B / TORSICI{ PROBLEMS 511 (
(
I
'
beam are rcstrainedagainstroarion (9 : 0), but the ends are free to a*ial compressiveforce of 10 kips and a horizontal force of 3 kips on (
rvarp.Chcck stressesusing the differential equation solution. each wheel applied at 4l in. above the top of the compressionflange.
(
!
Assume torsional simple suppoft'at the ends of the beam. Select the
lightest W14 section of A36 steel using the B modified flexure analogy (
approach. Note: All loads excep{weight of the crane runway girder are
rz. k ips/ft live loads. (

8.22. Compare the torsional constantsJ for each of the following sections.If (
the maximum shear stressis 14 ksi, compute the torsional moment (
c15x 50 capacity of each section.Can this be done for the W30x99? Explain.
(
==T-
I
;- 0.8cr
I
Prob.8.19
:' (
.. il: (
8.20. A simply supportedbeamis to carry'0.2krp/tt deadload and 0.6 k'tp/ft
live load on a span of 24 ft. A cbannelsection is to b6 used,and sinceit
is not laterally restrained,torsion is to be consideredin the design.
JL
w30x 99
(
(
Assumethe memberis torsionallysimply supported.After computing ' (a' (b) (c)
the torsionalmoment,use the g:oerally acceptedapproximateflexure (
Prob.8.22
to makea selectionof a channeisettion from the AISC il{anual.
anaiog,"- (
Investigaterhe stresson the selectedsection using the exact solution
basedon the statedloadingand supportcondition.Use ,4,36steel. 8.23. If the maximum shearstressis limited to 14 ksi. computethe torsional (
moment capacityfor the sectiongiven.What is the percentage changein
capacity if the interior walls are omitted (assuminglocal buckling does (
LoaCrngir"rthe plane not control)? (
I
r . . '= C . 8 k i p ' f r { i n c l u d e s b e a m r . , , e r j h : } I c? lne u/e?
re I (
*
.\ *
/r//l

'v-24' l (,
Exterior walls
(
r=Jin r
- (

TI
Intericr wal!s

Prob. 8.20 ' =l ' l '


(
(
C . 2 1 ,A s s u m e a s i n g l e\\r sectionis to serveas a crane run\\'ay girder rvhich
clrries a vertical loadine.as shos'1.In addition,designmust include an (
(
Crere rail. weiEht = 20 lb/f t Prob. 8.23 (
_-'-.-i-_. 4.4.
3k actsat
,,\ ,fir each 40k (
corl-.--laor -T
i i t l vertical 8.24. Investigatethe possibilityof torsionalbuckling occurringon the follow-
road (
.- - --.:0 tl" ing beams:(a) W16x3l; (b) W6x16; (c) Iv{8x6.5.For each,plot equiva-
.//,////t'///.'.///
---
,'ilovrnt ci3ne wta section lent slendernessratio r, againstlength of column. Give conclusions. (
$:L-:
\f_-: trneel lo3dt

{r'rithout inpacrl
8.25. Estimate the buckling load, assumingzero residual stressand elastic (
Prob.8.21
buckling so that Euler'sequationapplies,on the following sectionsfor a
(
(
(
(
;-- :
:T
( 5|?
s
s/ToRStoN '
rS:
r*.
;F;
( ' -rq=

ChapterI
1

( pig*Jld,lengtH+ l 0 f,r;.Anwb4t,leqgth
wouId rorsional buckling be likely
( to eontro!.?
(a);IrfCl0x6.5.
(
f!* L4xaxi
€s.wT?xrs.:
(
(
(QZee seeriondidumn Lateral-Torsional
( Bucklingof Beams
(
( q..=-l.6lln,
'? ='l.83in ,
( *="osa;lo,'
t't -'106,1in,f
( a

( Prob. 8.25 Gase.(d)-


(
( i l

(
9.1 RATIONALANALOGYTO PURECOLUMNS
(
Emphasisin this chapteris on the lateralstability considerations associated
( rvith bending about the strong axis of the section.In beams,as in arialll'
( loaded columns,it is not possibleto achieveperfectloading,i.e., beamsare
never perfectly straight, not perfectly homogeneous, and are usually not
( loaded in exactly the plane that is assumedfor designand analysis.
( Consider the compressionzone of the laterally unsupportedbeam of Fig.
9.1:1.With the loading in the plane of the web, accordingto ordinary beam
( theory.points A {nd B are equallystressed.Imperfectionsin the beam and
accidentaleccentricityin loading actuallyresultin differentstresses at A and
(
B. Furthermore,residual stressesas discussedin Chapter 6 contribute to
( unequalstresses acrossthe flangervidthat any distancefrom the neutrala\is.
In a qualitative way one may look upon the ccmpressionflangeof a beam
(
as a column, rvith all the considerationstreatedin Chapter 6. The rectangular
( flange as a column would ordinarily buckle in its weak direction, by bending
about an a{is such as 1-l of Fig. f.i.lb, but the web providescontinuous
(
support to preventsuch buckling. At higher compressiveloads the rectangular
( flangervill tend to buckle by bendingabout axis 2-2 of Fig. 9.1.1b.It is tiris
suddenbuckling of the flangeaboutits strongaxisin a lateraldirectionthat is
(
commonly referred to as lateral buckling.The analogybetweenthe compres-
( sion flange of a beam and a column is intended to presentonly the general
behavior for lateral buckling.
(
In order to evaluatethis behaviormore precisely,one naustreal\zethat the
I compressionflange is not onl-v-bracedin its weak direction by its attachment
. -' "a! via the web to the stabletensionflange.but the web alsoprovidescontinuous
( -ti
| , l qle
( ;t
-
> 9 2 ,/ LAIIFAL SUPPORT 6.t6 a
514 9 i LATERAL.TORSIONALBUCKLII'JGOF BEAI"JS
( i

Concrete slab (
/
t ;
r\
/\
(a)
,/
\
+:il: EtFr-+
I L:4 ll:l I
(
r
lt ll I

JL- (
I

(c) (d) (e)


(,
Roof purlrn
(
-Strllener
tfr (\
rF1:=:=- channer Welciedor bolted
lLl--- -? strul i;'lain roof (\
lrT-
--llJ,
iram or
rr3rd lrame (
!]ct;cn
(f)
Larae girdcr u-irh shcar stud connectorson top flange to be embeddedin concreteto
proii'Jecontinuouslateralsupport(sceFig. 9.2.1b).(Photoby C. C. Salmon)
Frgure9.2.1 Typcs of definite lateral support.

--Leteral def lection


_- _----: of the compresion
-\{T-=P:--<f franse
=:====i--:--==.--€.€-a \ ports. There are tu'o categoriesof lateral support that are definite and
lZ
ffi \ 'LEQFZA-
*-Jffil adequate;theseare:
ropvian ,tr ,
L g i plane
o e c i n in
Loecing n p l a nofevreb
ofvreb ;I * V Ul A
}Ji
Pl I .^^^- -^-. -^^. .-;-^;^^ ^ T l. Continuouslateralsupportby embedmentof the compression flangcin
-1tr^l^
",-J*k'om'ression i, a concretefloor slab (Fig. 9.2.1aand b).
:---=1
-----.- --l'
il-'s< 2. Lateral support at intervals(Fig. 9.2.1c through g) provided by cross
-tt--/\,q
beams,cross frames,ties, or struts. franiing in laterally,u'herethe
sideriew
lateralsystemis itself adequatelystiff and braced.
t'1::'.*
It is necessaryto examinenot only the individuel beam for adcqua'
Figure9.1.1 Bcrm latcralli'supportedonly at its c-nds. bracing,but alsothe entiresystem.Figure9.2.2ashorvsbeam lB with a cro>s
beam framing in at midlength.but buckling of the entire system is still
restnint (rot:ttional and transverseialung i:r3junction oi the flangc attd rveb.
possibleunlessthe systemis braced.suchas shorvnin Fig. 9.2.2b.
Thus the bending stiffness ol the ueb brirgs tli': cntire section into action All too frequentlyin design,the engineerencounterssituutionstltat are
u'hen latcral notlon commences. none of thesewell-definedcases.A common unknt't*'nsitultion occursu'hen
healy beams have light-gagesteel decking spot u'cltlcd to thenr: cr'r-t.rirtlr
providinga degreeof restraintall along the mernbcr.Horvcver,thc stii{'ncss
9.2 LATERALSUPPORT and lateralstrengthmay be questioned. Other qucstionable casesare (a) r"'hcre
bracing framesinto the beam in question,but it is at or near the tcnsion
Rareh-does a beam exist with its compressionflange entirely free of all flange;(b; timber or light-gagedeckingfloor svstenrsthat reston but :.trc'not
rc:.tr.:int.Even when it doesnot havea positiveconnectionto a floor or roof solidly attachedto the beams;(c) rigid framesthat are enclosedin light gagr'
syslem.there is still friction betweenthe beam flangeand rvhateverit sup- metalsheathing.
a
), - r & 3
&
-
. ,e
I
516 . 9/LATEML-ToRS|oNAL BIJCKLING
oF BEAMS . ::ra +
OFr-SHAPED FTOMENT 517
9.3/ STRENGTH BEAMSUNDERUNTFOR|J
( L':
i &
( A
-zi

.'-::
: Rotation capacity -- Fl,
I
( \ \ I I

I
I
I \ \ t
I
( I I t I
I

t
I
I
I

( I , ,
t
t
I
I
I I I I I
I I I I
( I

I
( (a) Unbraced (b) Braced
( Frgure9.2.2 Latcral buckling oi a roof or floor system.
(
( However, it is better to assumeno lateral supportin doubrfulsituations.
( Alternatively, it may be possiblein some c:rsesto evaluateit as an elastic
restraint.such an anal;-ticalapproachis discussedin Sec.9.i3. o j^",
( Lateral support considerationsmust not be ignored;probablymost fail- Detlection

( ures in steel structuresare the result of inadequatebracing agiinst lateral Figure 9.3.1 Beam behavior. (From Yura, Galambos, and Ravindra [9.1a])
instability of sornetype. The engineeris also,remindedto.ontid.r carefully
( the constructionstagervhenall of the restraintswhich may eyentuallyact are
( not yet in place. in Fig. 9'3.1:
of behaviorare reptesented
Threecategories
( t. Plasticmomentstrenglhlv[, achievedand large deformationcapabil-
9.3 STRENGTH
OF I-SHAPED ity. Deformationability may be expressed as rotationcapacitl'or as the
( BEAMSUNDER '
UNIFORTVI
MOMENT ability to undergoflangestrain,as shownin Fig. 9.3.2.
(, 2. Inelasticbehaviorrvheremomentstrengthis affectedb-vresidualstress
( In the development of design equarions,the case of constant (unifor$)_-. and either does not reach Mo becauseof inadequatestiffnessof the
moment along a laterallyunbracedlength is usuallyusedas the basiccasefor flange and/or rvebto permit idequatecompressive strain rvithoutlocal
( lateral-torsional buckling. Using the analogy of the compressionflange as a "' buckling, or inadequatelateral bracing to provide adequatemoment
column, the uniform momenl causesconstantcompression is inelasticbut
capacity.In this categorysomeor all of the cross-section
( in one flanle ouer
the entire unbraced length. When there is a moment gradient thereis inadequatedeformationcapability.
lvariaiion in
( moment).thecompressionforce in the flangevariesalong the unbracedlength, 3. Elasticbehaviorrvheremomentstrengthis controlled by elasticbuck-
resulting in a lorver averagecompressionforce for the unbracedlength. The ling; local flangebuckling.rvebbuckling,or lateral-torsional buckling.
(
lorver average compression force means less likelihood of lateral-torsional
Most rolled W shapeshave lorv enough slendernesstatios (b1/2tt for
( buckling.
flange and h,/t^,or d/t, for the web) such that they are categorizedas
Lateral-torsional buckling is a possible limit state that may control the

'vJ'
(
strength of a beam. The general behavior of a beam rnay be representedby
( Fig' 9.3-1from Yura, Galambos.and Ravindra
[9.14].As discussedin Chapter
6, Part II, local buckling of the plate elements(suchas the flangeor webJin
( compressionmay limit the strengthof a section.The.maximumstrengthof a
( beam rvill be its plasticmoment strengthM, u discussed in chapteri. M:lr,lo = -1 O
Whether or not the plastic moment streigth is reached,failure rvill be one
( of the follorving modes:
(
l . Local buckling of the flange in compression. 0, 0 0.,,
( - 3 , 2 .. Local bucklingof the web. R otat!on

Lateral-torsionalbucklins. for developingplastic strcngth.


Figure9.3.2 Deformationrequirements
(
.:.I
t ( -
' i
!

. i
-
9.4/ ELASTTC
a
513 9/ LiTERAL-TORSiONALBUCKLINGOF BEAMS LATEML-TORSIONAI
dUCXLrr'rC 519
(,

"compact" as discussedin Chapter ?. For such cases,achievementof the {


plastic moment M o dependson the laterally unbraced length lu. A long (
!
llterally unbracedlength will indicate moment strength.,1{., controlled by (-
elasticlateral-torsionalbuckling. 1 . ,

(,
x' t'
BUCKLING
9.4 ELASTICLATERAL.TORSIONAL

Becausestructuraldesignrequiresa thoroughunderstandingof stability,the


follorving developmentis presentedof the basic equation for the elastic
I
buckling strengthMn of,an l-shapedbeam under the action
lateral-torsional
,' L-^
crfconstant(uniform) momentactingin the plane of the web. o)
l
\l
More detailed treatmentof this uniform moment case as well as other I
(a) Top view
common loading casesis to be found in Timoshenko[6.67], Bleich [6.9], Su.,ion A-A
de Vries[9.1].Hechtmanet al. [9.2],Austin et al. [9.3],Clark and Jombock (c)

[9.4],Salvadori[9.51.and Galambos[9.6].

DifferentialEquation for Elastic Lateral-TorsionalBuckling


Direction Cosines
Referringto Fig. 9.4.1,rvhichshorvsthe beam in a buckled position,it is
x v 2
obsen'edthat the appliedmomentlv{oin Lheyz planewill give rise to moment
components,t/... ,{/,,, and M.,, abOUtthe x'-, y'-, and z''axes,respectively. x I
a - ddu
z

This meanstheres'ill be bendingcurvaturein both the x'z' and y'z'planesas


v I -a
dv
r','elias torsionalcun'atureabout the z'-axis.Assumingsmall deformation,the
bendingin the -1";' plane(considering the directioncosineis 1 bet*'een)''- z'
du dv
I
dz
and .r'-.and :'- and :-axes)may be u'ritten
ib) Side view
d2u
EI,AF : I[,,: Mo (e.4.1) Figure 9.4.1 I-shapedbeam in slightly buckledposition.

u'hereu is the displacementof the centroidin the y direction(seeFig. 9.a.1b).


Also. the cun,aturein the x'z'plane is the xz plane:
du
d2u
: Mr,: (e.4.2) M" - - ( e . 4 .i3
EI, MoQ aruIo
*,

as is sc.'nfrom Fie.9.4.1c,whereu is the displacementof the centroiCin th: .r * hich givesfor the torsionaldifferentialequation
Ci rec t ion.
du d6 d3o
The differentirrlequationfor torsionof l-shapedbeamsrvasdevelopedin - Ot - EC*E t
(1.+.+
Clrrpt.'rS as Eq. E.5.10,as follos's: eMo: O,
d+ ^ dte Two assumptionsare inherentin Eqs.9.4.1and 9.4.2,both of rvhichrelare
It{.,: Ot - EC* Is.s.ro]
a, ar, to the assumptionof small deformation.It is assumedthat properties/.*.and
r.n equal /.* and /.r, respectively;and also that .[, is large comparedto r,.. so
Frc-rmFig. 9.4.1 and the directioncosines,the torsional componentof .1/o that Eq. 9.4.1is not linked to Eqs.9.4.2and 9.4.4.Thus displacementu in the
rvltcn the beam is slightlybuckledis proportionalto the slopeof the beamin plane of bending does not affect the torsional function f.
e
(
I / LATERAL-TORSTONAL
BUCKLTNG
OF BEAMS 9.4/ELAST|CLATEML-TORSTONAL
BUCKLTNG 521
(
(
Differentiating Eq. 9.4.4 rvith respect ro z gives It is apparentfrom Eq. 9.4.11that rn rvill consistof tu'o real and trvo
(
cornplexroots because
d2u d26 d46
(' -
ZFitro: GJ77 EC*E
(e.4.5)
, ; B * o =t o
( Let
Fro m E q. 9. 4. 2,
(. d2u Moe tt2: c, + \'B + a2 (both real roots) ( 9 . 4 .2i t
( f:EI,
q2 : -a + lB + a2 (realpart of complexroots) (9.4.13)
( *'hich rvhensubstitutedinto Eq. 9.4.5gives f or nr , t he cxplcssicrf or . ', ! "r ol:l:i - . c. +. 9bc. l'ii'. '
U si ngtl i e fr:ur' ,' al u es
(-
d16 dzo M: (9.-i.r.i)
( tC,,E -GJZ? - (9.4.6)
,,"+:O '
The complexexponentialfunctions may be cxpresscdi:: ier;'!sof circullr
C u hich is the differentialequationfor the angleof twist. functions.
( To obtain a solution for Eq. 9.4.6,divide by EC,, and let
e'47 : cos q: - i sin qz
( e . . 1 .)1 5
( GJ TTT
2o: E* andP: (e.4.7\ e- i't' - cos g: - i sin qz
( fr, By using Eqs. 9.4.15and defining new constantsl, and A4 n'hich equal
( Equation 9.4.6 then becomes (At + lo) and (Aj - Aoi),respectivety.
one obtains
( d46 d2o Q : Ar en'* Az€- "' * At cosqz * Aosinq: ( 9. 4- 16)
(e.4.8)
( dl_zao;_FO:0 The constants,4, and Ao are determinedby the end supportconditions.
Let For the caseof torsionalsimplesupport.i-e.,beamendsma;-not t*'ist.but are
(
free to warp, the conditionsare
( Q: Ae^'
'--
s' dza
( dre 0:0. ?te:0 and z-L
: Atnze^' ,7i:0
E (e.4.e)
( For Q : 0 at : : 0. Eq. 9.4.16gives
doe ( e. 4 . r)7
( = Am4e^' 0,: Ar* Az* At
' 77
( Ford'e/dt':0at;:0,
Substitutionof Eq.9.a.9into Eq.9.4.8gives
( 0 : A { t z * A - , n 2- A f l ' (e.4.18)
( A e ^ ' ( m a - 2 a m 2 - F ): O (e.4.10) Multiplying Eq. 9.4.17by n'and subtractingEq. 9.a.18gives
Since e-' cannot be zero and A can be zero only if no buckling has occurred, ' "'
( 0 : Ar(q'+ n=). . 'At: 0
the bracket expressionof Eq. 9.4.70must be zero:
( Then, from Eq. 9.4.17.
m4-2am2-F:0
( At: - Az (e.4.1e1
rvhich gives for the solution
( Thus Eq. 9.4.16becomes
m2:"trfp+7 - (e.4.20)
( { : lr( e" e-n') * Aosinqz

which rnav be u'ritten


\ l.-..---:

trr:*t1o+iB+oz (e.4:11) * Aosing: (q.4.21)


( Q:2Atsinh;l:
' ' l
\
v( --l
:1 |
I

. i .
-
ix
| ;+r
I

s22 9 / LATEML-TORSICNALBUCKLTNGOF BEAt,,tS


9.5 / INEI-ASTICLATERAL-TORSIONALBUCKL|NG 523 I

$,:
li, -(
A t : : L, + : 0: th e re fo refro
, m E q . 9 .4 .2 1 ,
l*'
t :
/'
t
Factoring n / L from insidethe root sign gives
0 : 2 A r s i n h n l , * A o s i ng l (e.4.22) t i':
| :r.
(,
| :.. ir
Also, at : : L. d22lrl:2 : 0. which gives I :
i'l
cr
-
(e.4.32\ I
l .=,''
-
0 : 2 1 , n 2s i n hn L - A o Q 2s i n q L (e.4.23) |
l : ' Equation 9.4.32is the elasticlateral-torsional
bucklingsrrengthfot-an l-shaped {
M u l t i p l f i n g Eq. 9.4.22by ,j'and addingto Eq. 9.4.23gives [*: section under the action of constantmomentin the plane of the web over the
I :. laterally unbracedlength L.To adjustfor momentgradient,F4.9.4.32may be
' li
2 A r ( n ?+ q 2 ) s i n nh L : 0 (s.4.24) multiplied by a facror Cn.Thus, in general
l.!,
S i n c e ( r 2 + q2,; cannot be zero, and sinh nL can be zero only' if n:0, l'.
tltcrcfore ,1, must be zero: t[ ::. ,V-- : C,-
6

CnI., + EIIGJ (e.4.33)


At: -Az: 0 l.
[l i .. t'
Final{y.from Eq. 9.4.21. t;
I'. 9.5 INELASTICLATERAL.TORSTONAL
BUCKLING
Q:AasinqL:0 (e.4.25)
''When
the moment strengthis basedon someof the fibersof the cross-section
l f l a t c r al- t or s ional
bu c k l i n go c c u rs l,o c a n n o tb e z e ro.so that
reachinga strain e (seeFig.9.3.2) that is greaterthan e.,.(that is, c > Fr/E),,
singl:0 (e..1.26) buckling is more likely to occurthan when the strain€.< €,..When elemenis
are inelastic the stiffnessa:; related to the modulus of elasricity decreases;
qL: Nn
therefore.buckling strengthdecreases. The larger the strain r"quit.*.nt the
w'hcrc J is anv intcger. lower must be the slenderness ratiosrelatedto the varioustyp.i of buckling.
The clastic buckling condition is defined by Studies of inelastic lateral-torsionalbuckling have be.n made by
Nz Galambos [9.7], Lay and Galambos[9.8, 9.9J, Massey and pitman
[9.10j,
q: 0,4.27) Bansal[9.11].Hartmann[9.12].and ojalvo and weaver
L t9.131.The curren{
(1989)statusas usedin Load and Resistance FactorDesignis summarizedbv
uhicir ftrr the fundartrenta!buckling mode AI : l. Y ura et al . [9.14].
Tlrc iaiue of .1/o g'hicli satisliesEq.9.4.27 is said to be rirc critical The strengthof l-shapedbeamsas'relatedto lateralll'unbracedlengrhJ.,
':
l t ) : : : e : lI ' as studied by Nethercotand Trahair[9.15]and reportedby Yura et al.
[9-.l4lii
.---:-
-/l
shown in Fig. 9.5.1.Though the torsionalstiffnessis not grearly affectedby
: \ l - G * ,,!B+o' :; (e.4.28) residual stress,the column-relatedstrengthis very rhuch affected,as discussed
!
L
in Chapter 6: In the presenceof residualstress.the maximum elasricmo.rtrentr
S c l t r : r i n s i . . . : i hs i d c s , a n t i : u b s t i t u t i n g t h e d e i i n i t i o n s o f a and p. fronrEqs. strength lll, ls givenby
a l t ^

t{,: E(F, - 4) (gJ.ri


', :-'/ rrl GJ \'
a

__ =-- _.1- *---_ l- _ - t _ (e.4.2e) For the samereasons(suchas unknownresidualstressmagnitudeand mr.i,+"


) f:(- x Il -F 1 rr I
x.. j 2EC,,] T tion, accidentaleccentricity,and initial crookedness) as for inelasticc&imn
buckling, the range betu'eenI'1, and lv{o is not readil;*anellzed. Note{rryyt
1/,, :, ,t,/.. givcs Fig. 9.5-1that when thereis uniform rnomentthe decrease in strengthdss tc
residualstressis greatest.
(e.4.30) When the bendingmomentactswith a gradienthar"ingmaximum $norwgl
at one end to one-halfthat amountat the other end the residualstresseffrcn,.is
relatively insignificant. In this caseonly a smail portion of the
lpgr .o€fir
,r182C,.1, , ,n2EIrcl maximum mornentwill be inelastic;when the appliedload stressis lower, rhe
M,,: -rl * (e.4.31) additicn of residual stresswill be less likely to causea fibEr to reach yield
L"
stress.
(
t,(
9 / LATERAL-TORSTONAL
BUCKLTNG
OF BEAMS 9.5/TNELASICLATERAL-TORSTONALBUCKLTNG
525
:( .,
(
material.Using a conseryative
low valueof 1.5 for hA/2, and ^E: 29,000ksi
( in Eq. 9.5.3gives
(
Lb z229,ooo(t.5) 460
(
- : . ! (e.s.+)
ry 2f,)' ,iF,
V
(
It is clear from Fig. 9.5.1that to expectbehaviorin the plasticregion. Lu/r,
( , must be limited to rvellbelow that of Eq. 9.5.4.Of course,momentgradient.
partial yielding, torsional stiffness, and end restraint. if considered.rrili
( increasethe limit. Experimentaldata [9.16,9.17] are the basisfor setting the
( limit in Load and Resistance Factor Design(LRFD-Fl.3) as
( Lu- 300
(e.5.5),.
( /{,' ksi
7,

( If the ability to absorbadditional plastic strain is desired,the limit rviil


haveto be lower. In termsof Fig. 9.3.2,LJr, beiorvthe limit of F4. 9.5.5w-ill
( give rotation somewhatgreater than Bo.When more rotation is required as
( when plastic analysisis used,as disculsedin Chapter 10, the limit must be
lower.The AISC Specifications [1.5, 1.15]requiremoment rotation capacityR
( (Fig.9.3.D of approximately3 when plastic analysisis used.
Figure9.5.1 Beambehaviorasrelated,";j, supporr.(Fromyura, Garambos. When large plastic strain is to be achievedand the strain hardeningrange
( and
Ravindra[9.141) is approached,the strainhardeningmodulusof elasticityE, shouldbe usedin
( placeof E in Eq. 9.5.3.Lay and Galambos[9.8]have indicatedthat E,, might
( be approximatedas E/Fr. If that is done and Eq. 9.5.3 is again evaluated
Lateral Braclng Requlrements in the Inelasilc Range
using hA/Z,: 1.5 and using the symbol Lo for L, one obtains
( To gain an idea of the type of lateral bracing requirementsthat are neededto
, Lu: jlY
( aghievethe strength and rotation capacity,one may use the elasticlateral-tor-'. (s s . 6 )
sionalbuckling€Qrrafion,Eq.9.4.31,butredefinetherigiditiesE/,'aodGJto ry F", ksi
.
( include values in the inelastic range. Since generallylateral rupiort n'iil be which makes the limit vary inversely in a linear manner with {, instead cf
provided at locations wheretbe plastic moment M, is expectedio occur, and
( inverselyas the squareroot of F,. Again. there are neglectedstrength factors
the distancesbetweenlateral supportpoints wiil be?elativlly shorr,it hasbeen
I
I
such as torsionalstiffnessand end restraint.Tests [9.i1] at the University ci
( determined [9.9] that the term involuiog torsional rigidiiy GJ may be ne- I
Texashave establishedthe limit using the sameform of Eq. 9.5.6.additionalll'
glected.Thus, Eq. 9.4.31,neglectingthe secondtern, becomes ..-l

: l
( I
including provision for moment gradient. as
I
I
*28 + 22A0M/MP
( Lb 36CO
Mn:TW (e.s.2) - : (9.5,7)'
rv {r, ksi
(
SinceM*, must reach
{/r, su_bstitute
ILI.: Z,F, f.orMn. Also, C*: I,.hz/1,
( and replaceL'by Lu f.ortheiateraiy'unbraddlength.Sot.ingEq. , 1
I where Mt: smallermoment at the ends of the laterally unbracedsegment
5:.A.r', *-l
9.5.4then givesthe maximumslenderness ratio, . l (taken positive when moments causereuersecurvature)
( : _ I

I
( Lb tm
( T : t l, + \ z ) (e.5.3) 'For SI units, n'ith
f. in MPa,
Lb
r]
13i

Yr"
{9.5.5'i

( - rirhich would apply for uniform bend.ingmomenr. An upper limit to 24,800 + l',?rfi!rtt/Mp
Eq. 9.5.3 Lb
may be obtained if one assumesno residual stressand perfect elastic-plasric (9.5.;)
( r,
, (
(
FACTOR
9.6/ LOADANDRESTSTANCE DESIGN
526 9 / LATEtrAL.TCRS:ONALEUCKLING CF BEAI"IS
( i

"COMPACT" (
9.6 LOAD AND RESISTANCEFACTORDESIGN- I-SHAPED
TABLS 9.6,1 SLENDERNESSMTIO LIM|TS tre FOR I-SHAPEDBEAMS TO
ACHTEVEPLASTTCMOMENT STRENGTHMe (LRFD-85.1F (
B E A M S S U B J E C T E DT O S T R O N G . A X I SB E N D I N G
Flange Web Lateral- (
Yietd Local Local Torsional
This sectionconsidersthe full rangeof strengthfrom laterailystablebeamsto Buckling Buckling Buckling (
Siress
bucklingcausesconsiderable
siruationswhere lateral-torsional strengthreduc-
b, 65 hc 640 Lb 300
tion. Loading in the planeof the r'.'ebis assumed. 'v
-=: _.:: _.-f-- (
The strengthrequirement accordingto LRFD-F2 may be stated (ksi) 2\ iF, t* ,lF, rv ,lF,
(
Q o trl ,2 Mu (e.6.1)
36 10.8 107 50.0 (
rvhere fr, : strengthreductionfactor for flexure : 0.90 47 10.0 98.8 46.3
(
M , , : nom ina lmo me n ts tre n g th 45 9.7 95.4 4.7
50 9.2 90.5 42.4
il(,: factoredserviceload moment(seeSec.1-9) ( t
)) 8. 8 86.3 40.5 -
Figure 9.6.1 showsthe effcct of laterally unbracedlength Lo on the 60 8.4 82.6 38.7 (
laterat-torsionalbucklingstrength.Of course.local buckling may result in 65' 8.1 79.4 37.2
(
lower momcnt strengthlt, if the plate element(flange'orweb; rvidth/thick- :.'
nessratiosare too high. "Loading in tbe plane of tbe web; lvlo: FrZ, (
'-' jThe
I useof plastic moment strengtb Mo is restrictedby LRFD-AS anciASD-Fl.l to (
Ca se 1: P las t ic M om e n t i s R e a c h e d(M n = M o ) Atong W i th Large I
I steelshaving 4, s 65 ksi.
Plastic Rotation Capacity(F > 3 in Fig. 9.3.2) l -
I (
"compAct"to preventlocal buckling; that is. tr for the
The secrionmust be I
the laterally unbraced length Lo does not exceed Loa, whete from Eq. 9.5.7, (
in II
flange(b,/2rr) and for the w'eb( h,/t.,) must not exceedtr, ul discussed
and lateralbracing must be provided suchthat I 3600+ 2200Mr/Mo- (
Sec.6.1?-(values in Table 9.6.1) I Lpa (e.6.2)
{., ksi (
In this category, plastic analysis involving redistribution of moments as (
discussedin Chapter10 may be used.
//
L R F D F o r m u i a ( F 1 - 1 ) ,E q 9 6 2 (
'- L R F D F o r r " n u i a1 F 1 - 4 ) .E q . 9 . 6 3
z
(
Case 2. Li.. = ltl . but plasirc Case 2: Plastlc Moment ls Reached (Mn= llt ) But With Relatlvely
analys!snci used
Little Rotation Capacity (R < 3 ln Flg. 9.3:21' (
"compact" to prevent lOcal buckling; that is, tr for the
The sectionmust be (
flange (br,/ztf) and for the web (h,/t-) must not exceedtro as discussedin
) Sec,6.17 and lateral bracing must be provided such that tr (i.e., L6/rr) does
(
not exceedtro. The threeslenderness limits for various yield stressesare giVe:r (
in Table 9.6.1.This latter limit \o, from F4. 9.5.5,meanslu may not exccei
Lo when C6: 1.0, (
C a s e s3 o r 4 , i C a s e5 . 300 (
rneiasilc ----j>r--> elaslic
behavaor
L R F D F o r m u l a( F 1 - 1 3 ) Lr: (e.5:3)
Ec.9.6.11 F1 ( ,
(
"Compact" Sectlons May
Case 3: Lateral-TorslonalBuckllng of
Occur in the Inelastlc Range(l|fo > MnZ Mrl
(
0 l,- L, i,
( ,
This moment strength Mn is approximated as a linear relationship between
La:eta:iy unbracecl lenglh LD
points t (l'Ip at Lr) and 2 (M, at L,) on Fig. 9.6.1.I-ocal buckling must be ( i
"compact" sectionsas affectedby lateral-tor- 'compact", that is therv
Figure 9.6.1 Nominal strength,1{, of precluded. Since n-earlyall of the rolled sections are
sional buckling. (
(
\
.:
\
I / LATERAL-TORSTONAL
BUCKLTNG
OF BEAMS DESTGN 529
FACTOR
9.6/ LOADANDRESTSTANCE
(
(
have =
( .1, |o as-discussedin Sec.6.16, the nominal strength Mn is a linear
function of the lateral-torsional
bucklingstrength.Thus,
Noncompact
(
(
M , : r o l * r - ( M o -M , ) ( :-r -? \ 1 tt, (e.6.4)
r \ r., ",)ls
( u'here .ld is the moment strength available for serviceloads rvhen compact I
extreme seclion
( fiber reachesthe yield stress (including the residual stress),and mav
{, be limits: :
expressed seeTable I
( s6.t
M,: (4,- 4)q. (e.6.5) --l i
(
( uhere 4, : minimum specifiedyield stress
{ : compressiveresidualstressin flanee o
( : l0 ksi for rolled shapes;16.5ksi for weldedshapes
E
cg
'-
( {. : elasticsectionmodulus: I,/(d/Z) E

.I..: moment of inertia about the x-axis z I lnelaslic I


( / : overall depth of the section -I range

( The length L, is obtained by equatingthe maximum elastic momenr i l


slrength M, (Eq.9.6.5) to the elasticlateral-torsionalbuckling strength
( .1l4cr
(Eq. 9-a-33)and solving for L. upon performingthat operation,on.-obruir6 tre I,
( L, (L in Eq. 9.4.33)as givenby LRFD-F3,
' ratiotr
slenderness
Generatized
( , f,Xt
-r Figure9.6.2 Nominal strcngtbl"l^ vs gencra'lized slcndernessratic''tr for limit statcsof
f : -

(r, - 4) (e.6.6)
( flange local buckling, rveb local buckling, and lateral-torsionalbuckling.

( rvhere

( ling; X : b1/2t, when considering flange local buckling; and )t: h,/t, rvhcn
'
G a

X^ : - c (s.6.7) : considering we6 local buikling.


( ux q

The variation in'strength rvith the generalized slendercess ratio tr is shorvn


and in Fig. 9.6.2. When tr lies between tr, and ),, for any one or more of the limit
(
states of (1) flange local buckling. (2) rveb local buckline. or (3) lateral-tor-
( xz:'?(*)' (e.6.8) sional buckling, the relationship for moment strength is linear. For the limit
( state of flange or web local buckling. LRFD-Appendix F1 prescribes

(
Note that X, and X, are not really physical propertiesbut rather provide a i I - r"\ (e.6.e)
shortenedway of writing Eq. 9.6.6.Th.y t.pr.rcni combirrationsof t,'orr-r..-
( tional properties; x1 and x, aregiven in the LRFD Manual
t1.171.
( For the limit stateof lateral-torsionalbuckling, the linear relationshipof
case 4: General Limit state ll/here Nominat Moment strength M,, Eq. 9.6.9is used; however,the result is increasedby multipll''ingb)' C, rvhen
( Occurs in the InelasUcRange (Mo> Mn>_Mr) there is moment gradient. Of course. the maximum |l'1, is Mo rcgardlessof
horv steep is the moment gradient. The expressionaccording to LRFD-
( This condidon is relativelyuncommon for rolled shapes.when Lo <
Lb < L, Appendix F1 is identical to Eq. 9.6.4,except expressedin the form of the
for lateral-torsionar-buckring, or tro . onang.'
( et: b1/2rj) < l, ro, tocal ratios 1,.
or )ro < (l_: < tr, ?or web lolal ducHing. the strerigrtrwiil
( Pl.Hl,*, !r/,r\
be in this category. LRFD has used the symbor tr to representthe general
stability slendernessratio; )t : Lu/r, whentonsidering lateral-torsional
Mr:'rl*, - (Mn- !'{,,(*'}] = r, (e6.10)
( buck-
(
-.-
\a
530 9/ LATEPAI_-TORSTCNAL
BUCKLTNGOF BEA.|"4S s 7 /ALLOWABLESTRESS
DESIGN 531 ( i

- (
where follorvsfrom LRFD-F4: (
(
c , , : 1 .+
7 i5o s#{ . ) . , t ( # ) ' = , . , (e.6.11) - l ' I, , : ll{rr: C6 C*t, + EI,GJ
I* [9.4.331 (
ft>rcasesof moment gradient,rvherer1l, is the smallerand M, the largerend
niomcn! in the unbracedsegment.The ratio Mt/Mz is negativewhen the Using the pseudo-propertiesXr and (
- momentscause single curvature; that is, the most severeloading caservith becomes (
:
.constantbendingmomentgivesC6 1.0.
'to Accordingto LRFD-F3, CDis also
X?X" (
be takenas 1.0 for cantileversand for "memberswherethe momeniwithin 1+ -a (e.6.12)
a significantportion of the unbracedsegmentis greaterthan or equal to the z(tu7rr)" (
largerof the segmentend moments."
Note that M., cannot lcgically be greater than cuM, and therefore has ( t
that upper lirnit accordingto LRFD-F4. (
case 5: General Limit state where Nominal Moment strength /td,,
!' . - >

Equals the Elastic Buckling Strength /1f", (i.e, M,


j M,\ (
Therear€ two subcategories for the case;(1) slendernessratios tr for flangeor 9.7 ALLOWABLESTRESSDESIGN_ I.SHAPED
BEAMS (
rveb local buckling d.onot exceedX,: and (2) slenderness ratios ,*rrri )r,. SUBJECTED TO STRONG.AXIS
BENDING
When l' exceeds),,, local buckling rvill occur prior to the extremefiber (
reachingthe yield stressand the efficiencyof the cross-section is reduced. The generai philosoph,vof Allorvable StressDesign (ASD) for beams was
Sucheiementsare knownas "slender"compression
(
elements;a subjecttreated presentedin Sec.?-5.The nominal strengthexpressions for Mn may be divided
in Sec.6.18.All rolledshapeshavetr < 1,, for focalbuckling;thereforebeants by an appropriate factor of safety,and divided by the sectionmodulus.S, *o (
having I t I,' are not treatedin this text. When l, < ),, for local buckling into "stress" format.
converl the e-rpressions
(seeTable9.6.2),the nominalmomenrstrengthis represented (
by Eq.9.4.33, ai
Case 1: Plastic tutomentis Reached (fvi,= Mo) Along With Large (
SA T I OL I M I T St r - F O R " N O N C O M P A C TS E C T I O N '
T A B L E 9 . 6 . 2 S L E N D E R N E SR Plastic Rotation Capaci$ (
I-SHAPEDBEAf',/'ts ro AcHtfv-E Fy AT EXTREMEF|BER(LRFD-BS1)
As shor','nin Sec. 7.5, achiertng the plastic moment strength indicaresa.rn (
Ftange Ftange alloriablesrressof 0.66{. The sectionmust be "compact" to preventfuca}
Local Local Web LAtEt<il- buckling:that is. b/Zt, for the flangemay norexceed65/{I and h,/,t*fnr (
Yield Buckling Buckling Local Torsional (
Si:ess Rolledt-shape WeldeCl-shape Buckling
the n'eb ma)' not e.rceedeqT/UT in accordance with ASD-85.1. In additiryn.
Buckling
bl 141 bt 1c3 hc
according to ASD-F1.1. lateral bracing nrust be provided such that rhe (
970
.10 5- E q .- o . 6 . 6 '
laterall'''unbraced length L, does not exceed1., given as the sntallerof rl'le
yFr-
4a
- t |7
3It att tO.) 'v (LRFD-F3)
yr, \q Vrv follou'ine: (
, 76bt (
-if) _;.1 24.0 1 6 1.7 Values (e3.1,6*
.
'
i : -

24.9 2 1 .0 I49.7 mustbe '/f,..


u f'
ksi (
?? e 19.9 144.6 determincd
-:r, 223 I E .3 137.2 for each 20.000 (
55 ?rn 1 7 .1 "c
f -

(93 2)*
1 3 0.8 W shape (d/ar)r,,, tsi (
60 19.9 i6.r l?< 1 for a given
65 r9.0 1 5 .2 120.3 yield (
90 15.8 12..1 102.2 stress.
100 14.9 l l.6 97.0 'For Sl urits. *:tb dirncnsions io mm and 20abt (
4, in MPa, "''
| 3 -----! (9l7.rt
t't4 (
*Equation9.6.6. r' , ,' X , , F 139,000
-I r - ,l,t l + - F,)' -c
t - - (9.7.:) (
(q - q) y'+ 1i &({' (dnr) r,
(
(
C
(
9 / LATEnAU-r6nSrOr.reL
BUCKLING
OFBEAMS 9.7/ ALLOWABLE DESIGN
STRESS
(
(
:
where t, : flangethicknest,b.{] flangervidth, 1,.: web thickness.and i.r.
TAELE 9.7.1 ASD LATERALBRACINGREOUIREMENTS "COMPACT
FOR
( S E C T I O N "S A S D . F 1 . 1 .
rvebdepth.$ r-,.7tr=0.5.and if the rvebareais about20%of the arcl oi'ihc
( Bolh LimitsMay Not b e a m( A . , : 0 . 2 1 ) ' E q ' 9 ' ? ' 3b e c o m e s
Be Exceeded
( Lc i;
.
J : - : l 2 b , t , +d * t * . - 0 . 7 5 d " r * ]
,y ld\ Fv
( (ksi) ; "(;) (MPa) J '

( A :2bttt+ d,.tn
36 12.7 556 250
( 42 tL.7 476 290 A": d,t*
45 11.3 444 310
( 50 10.7 400 350 0 . 7 5 . { ,=. 0 . 7 5 ( 0 . 2 A:10 . i 5 - ' 1
55 10.2 364 380
( 60 9.8 JJJ 410 Then
( 65' 9.4 308 450 ,2
J = +le - o.7sAl
= o.zsAti (e.?.1)
( 'I-shapedseclionsloadedin the prane
of the webmay be assumed
to
( developi/" only wben{ doesnor exceed 65 ksi (450Mpa). For other'variables,
( C, . : 1, . h2/ 4
Equation 9.7.1,s'hich is essentiallyEq. 9.5.5 used in LRFD if r, is
( approximatedas A.25br.considers'lateral E E
stabilityprimarily as column strength
of the compressionflange.Hoivever,since the lateral rtubility of many rolled G : shearmoduht s :
( {1 f p) L6
sectionsis governedby rhe torsionalstrength,Eq.9.7.2 is neededfor ihem.
( A summaryof the "compactsection"lateralsupportrequirementsin ASD Ir : Ar;
( is givenin Table 9.7.1.
S.:2Ari/d
(
C a s e 2: f illo> M n> (M y = F A)
( r, = 0.11d (seetext AppendixTableA1)
Beamsin this categoryare thosecapableof achievingyield strain e '.-
Fr/E,
( .r:
at the extreme fiber prior to lateral-tcrsional buckling, but M, canntit be 4: o'gsd
reached.For Case2 situations,ASD does not permit an interpolJted strength
( rvhere p: Poisson'srario (0.3 for steel)
betrveen "9 iy'o.-lnsteadthe strengthis consideredtotbr- M, and the
( Yl
correspondingallorvablestressis 0.60{,. fv: radiusof gyrationrvith respectto the y-axis
In order to achievea strength!LI, - Mu without lateral-torsionalbuckling, fr: radius of g1'rationrvith respectto the x-axis
( 6 l - overalldepth of beam
the maximum laterally unbraced length Z, permitted is the length 1, that
( makes M", of Eq. 9.a.31equal to Mr. Equation 9.4.31 ** *niidered too h - distancebetrveencentroidsof flanges

(
complex for design use and the use of torsional properties in design was Substitutigninto Eq. 9.4.31and dividing by S, to obtain slressformat gives
deemedundesirable. -
( The developmenrof the ASD-FI.3 designequarions,ASD Formulas(F1-6 i "'r=( t ,tf 1a)I, rz5r,.1E/2.6)\0.28eti
\
- +' (e.7.5)
and F1-7) or (F1-8), requires some approximations and transformation of l c t

( propertiesin Eq. 9.4.31. t


lzala.au)'/al' )'/al' v'
lrn.r..41d
( The torsion consrant J may be expressedfor an I-shaped section by Eq.
8 .2 . t 4,
(
It ,=EI,h \' nrrit x ,/7 t
( t : r ( + )+ 1 d ; f , :
1
F": . lt 2A(0.41\z
,,/o t ( e . 7. 6 )
(
tlru,,,+ dntn(;)'] (g.z.ll
[[;,*t-EFJ aU,tIi

" (
I /'LATERAL-TORSICNALBUCKLINGOF BEAMS
9.7/ ALLOWABLE
STRESS
DEStcN
( ,
( i

Th en,s ubs t it ut ingI,: A rj a n d Ir:0 .9 5 d g i v e s tfre ein 1.67 basic factor of safety and taking E :29,000 ksi gives the (
allowable stress d in ksi, (
I rr(o.ts) r */oE n
4 ' :y I
I 4(0.41)3(t7r)'
I
) ' . { 2$.41)' ,/X(u7r,r,)
(e.7.7)
'r:ffiOri (e.7.12)* (
(
which is ASD Formula (F1-8).
(

F -_
it t4E \'t + t (_ l rc \'
, j t 2. Torsionally Weak Sections- For deep sectionshaving relatively thin (
'c' ' (e.7.8) flanges and rveb (such as plate girder sections),column strength of the
\i \{ttil, ) \u7,,t,1 compression flange predominatesand the second term of Eq. 9.7.8 may be (
neglected.Thus, (
Equarion 9.7.8 is essenriallylt{,,/s, (Eq. 9.4.31divided b}.s.) where
torsiottalfunctions have been replacedby more familiar properties.The first 14E ( ,
-t crr : - , (e.7.73)
term reprcscntscolurnn buckling strength and the second term represents (ur)t
torsionalstrength.The AISC AllowableStressDesignhas traditionallyuseda
tn'cr-formulaprocedurefor allorvablestress.Referringto.Fig. 9.7.1,Eq. 9.7.g Since only the compressionflange is the column, logically the radius of
may be visualizedas the resultantof two vectorsat,90" to eachother. If the glr?tion should be that of the compressionflange.and ssme portion of the
..'adjacent
resultlnt is not used,the next best approachrvouldbe to use the largerof the web. ASD-F1.3 introduces the symbol r, for this compression
"foition,
trvo legsof the right triangle. defined as "radius of gyration of a sectioniomprising the compres-
sion flangeplus one-thirdof the compression rvebarea,taken about an axis in
9.7'13,F., : 14Et(L/rr)2
the plane of the $'eb." For doubly symmetricall-shapedsections,r, may be
,r,o expressed
{-7--7t
l' -/\Eq. e.7B #tPi (e.7.14)
l/. -i
lT:
tpt+ It"(d.-ut)
Figure9.7.1 Lateral-rorsionalluckling
Eq !i9 F,.=T (Ld'r,t,)
stressas tbe resuitantof tivo vcctors. The valuesof r, are given in the ASD Manual along with other dimensions
and propertiesfor rolled shapes.As an approximationfor this developmenrof
t . Tc,r;lorittii.'.'Strong Sectiotts. For shallorv thick flangcd sections, tor- ASD formulas rr may be taken as \.2rr.
sional strength predomrnaresand the first term of Eq. 9.7.8 may be neglected. Replacing r., by 17/1.2 in Eq. 9.7.13would make thar equation ven-
Thus, closelythe sameas the Euler column equation,
r
3E n2E
F",: (e.7.e) 'trc r ( e " 7 . 1) s
fi//, (ur)'
Since r, = A.22bi. .!,, -- b1t,, and using l, instead of L for the laterallv This makesit more visiblethat Eq. 9.7.13is representativeof column strengrh
unbraccd leng'.h,'Eq. 9.?.9 becomes of the compressionflange.
Treatment of column strength as it relatesto beamsrequiresapplication
0.668 of the principles of column designas discussedin Chapter 6. Recall the use of
-Fcr : - (e.7.10)
Lbd/Af two design equations,one basedon inelasticbuckling strength representedin
ASD by the SSRC parabola(Eq. 6.7.1)for buckling srress.Q, above F,/2, and
fcr momentgradient,Eq. 9.7.10bccomes the other basedon the Euler elasticbuckling strengthfor buckling stressf
0.66tcb equal to or lessthan Fr/z.
-Fc.t : (e.7.11)
Lbd/Al
83.000c.
Equation9.4.33showsthat Cu is a direct mufriplieron ly'",.Next, dir,idingby 'For SI units;
4* -7p7i MPt i 2)
19.?.
\
( ':-
( 9/ LATERAL-TORSTONAL
BUCKLINGOF BEAMS 9.7 / ALLOTIIABLESTFIESSDESIGN

(
( Th,eSSRC parabolas'ith r : r, and the effectivelength factor K taken as For large LJrrrvhen elasticbucklingcontrols,Eq. 9.7.15rvouldlogically
1.0is be the basii for-design.Dividing Eq. 9.?.15by 1.67(the basicFS for beams)
( and inserting Cu for momentgradientgl'es
( F,,:rf'-
#(;)'] (e.7.16)
'f b
x:
---7--7-
17EC.
( e . i. l i )
( l.6i(Lo/rr)t
Uniike the axial compressionloading of Chapter 6 where the magnitude of
( cornpressionwas normally constantover the unbracedlength,the compression which gives closely the follow*t,
flai:ge of a beam rvill have its magnitude var;.ing as the bending moment ,rO,*Or^
( "arir's. Thus, for beams the term C, to account
for moment gradient is \:7;7ryksi (9.7.22).
ineludedin Eq. 9.7.76,
which is ASD Formula(F1'7).
( l- The use of 1.67herefor beamsrather than the 1.92usedfor long a-riallr
( Fn:?l'-'+-t;l
4 ir\'l
J (e.7.17) loaded columns is explainable(a) by realizing that torsional strength is
neglectedin Eq. 9.7.22,and (b) F4.9.7.13 is inherently conservativervhen
( whereC, is givenby Eq. 9.6.11. laGral-torsional buckling strength is primarily column strength, in that for
( To obtain the alloivablestress,the strengthequationis dividedby a factor sectionsconsisting of thin flangesand deep thin web r, = 0.38d rvould have
to gct the calculationinto the serviceload range.For small L/r, the strength been rlore correctthan the valueA.41dusedin the developmentof Eq. 9.7.13.
( shouldbe Mr: F,.2, rvhereasfor large L/rr the strengthwi[ be Mn: f;E. Thus lateral-torsionalfugkling controls the design rvhen the laterally
As discussedin Chapter 7 when Mo is achievable,the allowable value for unbracedlength lu exceedsLhe larger value of Lu definedby Eqs. 9.7-12or
(
elasticserviceload stressesis 0.56
4.
gv the samereasoning, basedon Eq.
d 9.7.2A equaling an allowable stress of 0.60{,.. When the larger value of F,'
( :.17 should be I of 4,, grriog from thele two equationsexceeds0.60F,,it-implies that M" can be reached
prior to lateral-torsionalbuckling.
( ( 3 ) {/ r \ ' l^
F , :l z G (e.7.18)
The maximum unbraced length Lu fot n'hich Fa: 0.60F, may be ob-
(
(
Lt - 4[ ; J ] 1 tained by setting Eqs.9.?.12and 9.7.20equal to 0-60{.. Thus
12,000c,
For S' : 29,000ksi and
5 in ksi, Eq. 9.2.18becomes ''-*:t 0.60^1 : #

Lbd/Ar
le.1.r2l
(
I z - F,(L/r)z l,
( Fr: r'16r11c,14 (e.7.le): - e 1

(
l; : l z _-..----=_.'
0.604,
F,(L6/rr)' l-
Ie.7.20]
Tlic ;,':efficientin the secondterm has been adjustedfrom l7Z0 to 1530(i.e., ] l; 1 5 3 0 ( 1 o i ) cJ ,- '
( insteadc:f f is usedon that term) to allow for the fact rhar as L/r, gets largei From the first,
the strength drops below M, and &e extra benefit of the shape factor 30.000cb
(
(
disappears.when rhe nominai strength Mnis less than M, the.Foshould be
0.604, rather than 0.66d,. Thus W.9.7.19 becomes
and from the second,
Lo:
vm (e.7.23)

(
( o:f;ffi1' (9.7.20).
t -

Lo: rr
102,000cb
(e.7.24)

(
rvhich is ASD Formula (Fl-6). The symbol Lo is used for laterally unbraced Tfitelarger value of L, from Eqs. 9.7.23 and9.7.71is the maximum unbraced
( length. length for " Case 2 besign situation: i.e., p'here the nominal strength IIn
achievable lies between M, and Mr-
(
(
( 'in SI
units. ":L;- r,(LJ,T.),lr. "ru
lt
1 0 . 5 5 0 ( i 0 , ) c|, ,
(e.7.20) 'In SI units. *:ffi*'nu ( e . 7 . )r :
, (
-6,r
538 9lLA;ERAI_-TORSIONAL
BUCKLTNG
OFBFA|/S
>*o r* (
9.7/ ALLOWABLE
STRESS
DEStcN
( ,
when ct : 1 (the conservativecase of constant *
bending moment). the to"a, n.r., (
larger value af L* from Eqs. 9.7.23 and 9.7.24is termed ''-
.t:.. sD FORMULAS
(Fl -6 AND 1_7)
t,, u-proferry pr the
section for any specifiedyield stress.(., (
fTdtddoc" 1530(1o3jc^

|"_
20,000 I v,, ---17-,
,y
forFo(F1_6) tr-o:oooa
U F v
(
( d/Ar)(.t, ksi)
I ..:- Eg.9.724 fromEq.9.t.ZO Eq.9.7.26 (

but not lessthan t (1.2.251.


: Fy
(ksi) 1.0
cb

1. 7 5 2.3 1,0
cb

1.75 2.3 r.0


cb

1. 7 5
(
(

Lu:tTl@ 36 53 70 80 1181 (
2070 2720 1 1 9 158 190*
V 4.'kti 42 49 65 74 867 L5L7 1995 1 1 0 146 t67 (
50 45 60 68 6t2 1070 1408 101 r34 153
The.ASDl\{anualgivesvalues 60 4t 54 62 425 74 ( ,
for Lu for F,:36 ksi and50 ksi. 65
977 92 122 r39
40 53 61 362
100
634 832 89 . 1 1 8 r 3 5 (
32 42 49 153 268 3s2 7L 94 t07
C a se 3 : M n. M, (
For this case,taieral-torsionalbuckling occurs before ,,.t)?r!' ratios
rorcompression
members L/r, :200 when
to 20e.
i4, "unbe reachedand r|ilfjY||f*' (
the allowablestressis lessthan 0.60{..
whenever the_laterallyunsupporiedlength exceeds (
the largerl, value of
Eq'9.7-23 and g-7.?4,the allowibl.-rrr.r, r, is th'i rarger Elastic behavioroccursfor srendernes^sratios
stress'arue of Eqs. greaterthan Eq. g.7.z6and Eq. (
9'7 '12 and 9'7 '2a for strengthcontrolledby inelasric 9'7.22controlsover Eq. g.l.zo.Tabre
lateral-torsionalbuckling, 9.7.2give's;:;rrupper and lower limits
or is the larger stressva-lueof Eqs.9.7.12and9.7.22
for strengthcontrolledbv and denominarorcoefficientsfor the (
secondterm i"n Eq.9.7.20[ASDFormura
elasticlateral-torsionalbuckling. (FI-6)l for variousvaluesof
The slenderness.
fl.. (
tatio Lo/r, at which the criteria for inelastic A summary of the ASD'allorvable
lateral-torsionalbucklingprJventiongive the same and elastic flexural stressvs laterally unbraced
allowablestressis obtained length lo relationshipsis given in Fig. g.JJ. (
by equatingEqs. 9-7.20and 9.7.22;rhus,
(
2F, l7o,oooc, (
- 71tu/rr)' Case 1. based on strength M^=
Mo
3 1530(10)c, aJ;f Case 2, based on strength Mn = M,

Case 3, based on strength Mn .


from w.hichis obrained M, (
Larger vatuetrornFormulas(Ft_6and F1_n
tu=
tt.o or (Fl-g) controls (
510,000c, ut
.J'
(q.:.:s) 0.66q, AISCFormuta(Fl_8),Eq. 9.7.t2
rT /. (
o 0.60F,,
,\ AISCFormuta(Ft_6). Eq. 9.7.20
c
.,,. (
c
o
.o Eq. 9.7.26 (
'For SI units, wirh .9
{. in l{pa, Il
o
3**
o
\
2900
t, = a
!rr.rrn(tt lcssthan
14711
I
I
I (
(
I
1n,.rr1
(
Figure 9'7'2 Summary of ASD criteria (
allowable flexural sress for members
having an axis of symnaetryit, *J r-o.i.d-for
ir, &. ;il oT-tn. *.u. ( ,
(
(
-C
(
' DESIGN 541
9.7/ALLoWABLESTRESS
9./LATERAL-TORSIONAL
Bt CKLINGOF BEAt'rS
(
(
r EXAMPLE 9.7.I allowable stressat
( Calculateand plot the allowablestressrelationshipfor a W14x30 of A36 steel
F.@-c' r.?4.FF@:1T.3rt
( ta ki n gCo: 1. Ltr: 11
-'- :: T V ru
(
VJ4.
SOLUTION stressis givenby the largerof
fo, f, turgerthan1?.3ft, theallowable
( (a) Calculate L.. Using the smaller value from Eqs. 9.7.1 and 9.7.2 u
pre.scribed
in ASD-FI.1, 187
^qb(F1-8) : tti (comPuted above)
(
76(6'73)
: ?.rfr
f
( -c :ry-
L or
/4 (12)
/36
( . 170,000cb
f'D(Fr-?)
or TLrtT
(
zo,ooo 2o,ooo 3570
( L:.'--_-:-:8.7ft
-c
(d/A)Fy (s.34)36(12)
: f 17o,ooo(1-o)
fi,: Y;uti
( W14x.30 rvith Cn = 1 rs
Thus L, : 7.1 f.t. The complete allowable stressrelationshipfor this
( t
(b) CalculateLu. Using Lhelargerof Eqs.9.7.25, shownin Fig.9.7.3-
(
t': 8'7ft (from
above) LD.melers
( ffi: 4 5 6 7 8 9

( 3r -l --J W14X 3osection


436 stee! yz 150
( 7.74 FD(F1-6):24.a - 2i3 ttti
Lu: lT : 7.7 ft
( = 1.0) o
6-
I2 0 >
( Th u s Lu: 8. 7 f . t .
a
; \a(forco r'i ,ai

;.'Ni ft-n=ff
\ r q
o;

( (c) ljnbraced lengthslarger than L,. Use the larger value from Eq. 9.7.12'*-: t\ 0
q)
/(lor
Co= 1.g1 9 0 ;
C)

or 9.7.20,as pi:scribld in ASD-F1.3,Formulas(n-O and F1-7) and (F1'8), _9


o
( Q'

(
12,000c0
r D ( F l - 8' ) : - _ -
Ero
-9 ,"rrr-!r= +lN 60a
o

Lbd/Al (tor Co= 1'g;


( \
12,000(1.0) 187. L.=7'1' Lr, = 8.7'
( - - A J r

Lb(5.34)12 Lb
(
offi n 2s 30
lz - l. r,(Loyrr)t
( rb(F1-6): 1530dbt Laterallyunbracecltength,LD.teet
l; ,.lt,
( Allowable bend.ing stress for w14x30 section witb c, : 1' as computed
Figure g-7.3
( Iz 36(Lb/1.la)2waf
- r - - - - - - - - r J v
^. in Example 9.7.L.

( L3 1530(103Xl.0)J--
More Precise AnalYsis
( L2^ "a whichaccordingto the
an-alysis"
:24.0 - *i ASD-R.3 permitstheuseof moreprecise"may
( t; ASD Commentarymeans'the procedure be refinedto includeboth St'
Eq' 9'4'31in some
( According to Eq. 9.7.26, ASD Formulas (F1-6) and (F1-7) gve the same Venantand warpingtorsion."This wouldmeanthe useof
t ( h
(
542 9,/ LATERAL-TCRSICNALBUCKL|NG OF BEAf'J4S I 8/ EFFECTIVE
LATERALLY
UNS;]A;EOleruCrH
(
/
fashion.If this mcre preciseanalysisprocedureis desired,the useof Load and factor'1.6?to obtain the nominalstrengthMn.Theactual safetyfactor usedin
ResistanceFactor Designas describedin Sec.9.6 will be more practical. LRFD will be the overloadfactors y.as discussedin Sec.1.8 divided by the i
strength reduction factor $, for flexure.If the serviceloading M werc80%live
(
load and 20vadeadload, the combinedsaferyfactor in LRFD would be
Comparison ol ASD and LRFD Strength Relationships (
Mn : M,/Qr , : [ t . z( o. zM ) + 1. 6( 0. 5M ) lt o. go : 1. 69M
Load and ResistanceFactor Design recognizesthe moment strength of a (
which would be very closeto the l.6T usedin AsD. The rangewould be from
rolled l-shapedsectionin strong axis bending to a greaterextent than does
1.33 for lUAVodead load to 1.78 for 100%live load (an impossiblesituarion). (
Allowable StressDesign.This is particularlytrue when ASD Formqlas(F1-6
Additionally, the ASD method using O.66Fyas the maximum allowable
and F1-7; c r (Fi-8) are used,since each reflectsonly part of the available (
stress effectively recognizesa shape factor z*/-s, for an l-shaped section of
strength.The comparisonfor a W14x30 section,the samesectionwhoseASD
1.L. whereas except in a ferv cases the actual value exceeds1.1; for the
relationshipis shownin detail in Fig.9.7.3,is givenin Fig.9.7.4.The ASD (
w14x30 sectionz,/s*:1.13. In LRFD the actr_.' Mois usedas the upper
curve rvould be higher and much closer to the LRFD relationshipif the
limit of the strengthrelationship. (
permissionin ASD-FI.3 of using"a morepreciseanalysis"is followed.In that
casethe two cunes for elasticbuckling,that is, for lo greaterthan L,, would (.
bc iclentical.Howevcr,sinceusuallythe "more precise"cun'e is not used,Fig. 9.8 EFFECTIVE
LATERALLY
UNBRACED
LENGTH (
9.7.4showsthe practicalcomparison.
'",Design
The true design comparisoncould show a wider difference than the equations,such as those of LRFD and AsD-Fl, are based on the (
norninalstrengthusedin the two methodsmay indicate.The strengthassumed 'a-ssumPtion
of torsionalsimple support(seeFigs. 8.5.4and 8.7.2)at the ends (
in ASD is obtainedb-"*multiplyingthe serviceload capacityFrS, by the safet-v- of the unbraced segment.This means that for torsional behooioronly the
effective laterally unbracedlength KLo equalsthe actual laterally unbraced (
length Lu; that is, the effectivelength factor K : 1.0. (
1 2 Nearly any type of lateral brace or end connectionwill preventrotation
(that is, keep the angle g of twist equal to zero; see Fig. l.+.tc; about the (
longitudinal axis oi .L^ beam. However,.only rarely will there be much
l . l

'\s flanges (
1.0 restraint against rotation about a vertical axis as discussedin
regai d to Fi g. 8.5.7( i. e. ,w&r p ^ - : ^'. - r : . t ) ; t hus K: 1. 0 is r easonable
f or i
most cases.
(
,)a Formula (F1-3)

Nonuniform Moment
c7 A>TJ
Formula(F1-6) The moment gradient do€s not directly affect iaterally unbraced effective (
length; however, it does affect lateral-torsionalbuckling srrength and is
(
accountedfor by the factorCu when thereis linearly varying bendingmonent.
This is true for both LRFD and ASD procedures. (
When a beam has transverse loading(not just end moments)the strcngrii
in lateral-torsionalbucklingwtll dependupon *'hether rhe load is appliecl;:
AJIJ the top flange, the centroid,or the bottom flange.The weukestsituationwiii (
F o r r : l u l a( F 1 - 8 )
be u'hen the load is appliedat'the top fiange,and the strongestrvhenthe lnarj
(
is appiied ar rhe bottom flange.The ssRC Guirte[6.g, pp. 1sz-tez1 pror.idas
, : 1 7 q ' for adjustment to the moment gradient factor C, to ptouiO. for theseeffecrs- (

3 6 9 1 2 1 5 1 8 2 1 2 4 2 7 3 0
(
Continuous Beams
Laterallyunbracediength,Lo (leet) (
A continuousbeam has lateral end restraintmomentsdevelopas a result of
Figure 9.7.4 Comparison of nominal strengtb rlfn used by Load and Resistance Factor continuity over severalsparis.When the adjacent spans are shorter than the (
Dcsign (LRFD) *'ith tbat used by Allowable Srress Design (ASD). span being considered,or at least braced laterally at closer intervals; or tiie (
(
\
(
{ 544 9/LATERAL-ToRsIoNALBUCKLINGoF BEAMS I 9/€XAMPLES: ANDRESISTANCE
LOAD FACTOR
DESlGr.t 54S
(
( adjacentspans are less severelyloaded,some lateral moment restraint Clark and Hill [9.26]andthe SSRCGuide,3rded.t6.201
may reporredthrt ir is
( develop. conservativeto usethe full lengthas the effectivelaterallyunbracedlengthfor
Typically, however,such end restraintabout the y-y axis shourdnot lateral-torsional'bucklingof cantilevcrbearns.However.the consen'ativencss
be
( assumedpresent since alternate unbraced spans could buckle in opposite of using the actual lengthfor a cantileverdependsin large part on having
directions.For treatmentof lateral buckling on continuousbeams,the reader
( fixed torsionalrestraintat the supportedend, as rvell as having the loading
is referredro Salvadori[9.5,9.r9J,Harrmann applied at the shearcenteror at the bottom flange.Sincesuchporsionatfi-xiry
[9.20J,Trahairlg.zl,g;.nl.porvell
( gy t<]i1s1er [9.22]. Roeder and Assadi lg.24l, and Fukumoro, Itoh, anJ rarely exists,the authorsrecommendusingtiie actualcantilever\engthas rhe
'trc{rori '
( [9.251.The ssR c Guide [6.8, pp. 162-i651 presenrsa method for effectivelaterallyunbracedlength.
rultrating the strengthof a continuous
beam spanhavingintermediatepoints Furthermore. the nroment gradient expressioncr, Eq. 9.6.11, is nor
( of larcralsupport. applicable for a canlilever;thus Cu should be taken as uniry. Obviousll',
in continuousbeams,the point of inflection has often been treatedas a moment gradient has someeffect; hou'ever,a cantileverinherentlyhas mo-
(
bracedpoint when designequationsdid not provide for the effectof nroment ment that varies from marirnumat the support to zeroat i,hefree end. The use
( rrar.licnt.In current design using AsD [1.5Jor LRFD
[1.15J,the effect of of the actual length as the effectivelength alreadyrecognizesthe moment
t)lnellt gradient appez!.rsin all equations except in the requirements to gradient.
( 'tlblish the ability to qualifv as a "compact section".The requirements
of When a more detaileddesigntreatmentof lateral-torsionalbuckling of
( I-RFD-FI.3 rvhereLo is prescribedand ASD-FI.3 where l,. is cantileversis desired.the SSRC Guide.4th ed. [6.8, pp. 16s-169] pi-ovi,Jes
irescribeddo
not include the moment gradient. when applying thesepro'isions one may (from a recohmendationb1'Nethercot)effectivelength factorsK in ordcr to
( rvishto considerthe inflection point as a poisiLle bracedpoint. use Kl insteadof I in Eq.9.a32. Kitipornchai,Dux, and Richter[9.27]have
( The authors' presentopinion is that rvhenevermoment gradientis.explic- a recent excellentoverallreviewof the subject.Again in that method. Cr,: I
.tlr provided for in a design equation (no matter horv apiroximately), would be used.For nonuniformcantilevers, refer to the work of lr{assel.and
the
( inflcction point should not be considered a braced poi"i. However, rvhen McGuire [9.28].
( provision is not made for the effect of moment gradient, generally
the
inflectionmay be consideredas a bracedpoint. The combinationof torsional
( restraintprovided by the floor systernattachmentsand the continuity at the 9.9 EXAMPLES:
LOADANDRESTSTANCE
FACTORDEStcN
( support point of maximum neg3tivemoment rvill normally be adequateto
ju.stify.treating-theinflection point as if it were actuaily braced Severalexamplesof l-shapedbeamsare presentedto illustrarethe Load and
( for the'purpose."
of eualuatingwhetheror nat Lo exceedsL, in LRFD or-exceeds L" inl jO.-The -.- ResistanceFactor Design method to include the effect of lateral-torsional
important factor is the amount of torsional restraint provided by the floor ... buckling. other considerations, such as deflection,shear, and web tocal
(
systemat the inflectionpoint. yielding and cripplingrveretreatedand illustratedin Chapter7. For additional
( Regarding endorsementof this suggestion,LRFD-Fl.3 defines zo as practical trearmenrof LRFO beamdesignseeYura tg.ZgJ.
"distance
betweenpoints braced against iateral displacementof the compres-
(
sion flange,.or points braced to prevent twist or tl, cross-section.,o E EXAMPLE 9.9.I
rhe
( cxpression"braced to prevent twist" could include the inflection point. In A simply supportedbeamis loadedas shorvnin Fig. 9.9.1.The uniform load is
ASD-Fl.3 L. is r.he"larerally unsupportedlength". Thus, in ASD there is 15Vodeadload and 85%live load, and the concentrated load is 40%dead load
( seeminglyno endorsementfor using the inflection point as a bracedpoint. and 60% live load. The beam has transverselateral support at the ends and
( every 7'-6" along the span.Selectthe lightestw sectionof 4,36 steel,using
Cantilever Beams Load and ResistdnceFactorDesign.
(
( Unlike the flagpole column where the effective pinned-endlength is trvice the
actual length, the lateral-torsionalbuckling of a cantileverbeam is not even = lklft (superimposed)
( as
severeas the unbraced segmentunder uniform moment. If one considersthe
( analogy to a column as discussedin Sec. 9.1, such a result is logical. Since
the moment at the free end of the cantilever is zero, the compreision force
( in the flange decreasesfrom a maximum at one end to zeroai the free end; Lateralsupport of
con':pressionf lange
( thus, the loading is less severe than if the compressionforce *rr. ,onrtun-i_
over the entire leneth. Venical
suppon Figure9.9.'t Exar:ples9.9.1and 9.10.1.
(
t , (
tt> (
545 9/LATERAL-TORSIONALBUCKLINGOF BEAI/|S 9.9/EXAMPLES: LOADAND RESISTA|.jCE
FACTORDEStcN il7
( ,
(
SOLUTION (d) Check the section.The dead weight of the beam must be included;it
(a) Determine the factored moment ltI, at midspan and the required could have been estimatedat the beginningof the design. (
nominal strengthM,. Using LRFD-A4.l, Formuia (A4-2),
. (
M"(deadload) : 1.2(0.01+)(lO)' 78= 11 ft-kips
r r , ,: r . 2( 0 .1 5 )(1 .0+) 1 .6 (0 .8 5 )(1 .0:) 1.54ki ps/ft
Mu: 562 + 11 : 573 ft-kips (
w u : 1 . 2 ( 0 . 4 0 x 3 6 ) + 1 . 6 ( 0 . 6 0 x 3 6:) 5 1 . 8k i p s
/ ( ,
Mn: Mr: Z, Fr : 224( 36) / 12: 672 f r - kips
s1'8(30) (
L{, : + : s6zrt-kips , Lo:50r, : 5 g ( 1 9 5 ) / 1 2: 8 . 1 f t t ( L t : 7 . 5 ft) oK
;(r.s4x30)a
t

Sincethe LRFD requirementis The other requirements{seeTable 9.6.1) for "compact section" are satisfied.
(
Qtb{^ >_ Mu Ie.6.1] l euM,:0.90(672) : 605 f t - kips] > ( M , : s73f t - kips) oK
(
v;here0r, : 0.90. the strengthreductionfactor for flexure,the requirednomi- In this casethe strength provided is nearly 6% high; however,the W24x84 is
nal strengthis the lightest section satisfying the requirements.The flange and web of this (
a
section satisfy the "compact section" requirementsto prevent to.u1 6usklingi (
Requiredh{n: M,/*u: 562/0.90 : 625ft-kips that is, tr . tr, as given in Table 9.6.1.
(b) Estimatewhetheror not lateralsupportsare closeenoughto designthe . LrseW24x84. (
beam using plastic analysis(LRFD-Fl.1) or to use the full plastic momenr (
strength Mp (LRFD-Fl.3) *'ithout plastic analysis.To use either of these r EXAMPLE 9.9.2
prol'isionsthe sectionmust be "compact" for local buckling in accordance Selectthe lightest W sectionfor the simply supportedbeam of Fig. 9.9.2.The (
with LRFD-B5. Sincc the beam is simply supported, plastic analysis (as superimposedload is 0.2 V,tpltt dead load and 0.8 V,rp/tt live load. Lateral (
describedin Chapter10) doesnot apply. Assumethe beam will be tn Cose2, support is provided at the endsand at midspan.Assumedeflectionlimitations
where rln: lIo.The maximum laterallyunbracedlength lu is given by Eq. need not be considered.Use 436 steel and Load and ResistanceFactor (
9.6.3, Design.
(
300 300
Lo: :tl.: 50f'
" ' Ef": w = l.Ok/ft {superimposed}
\rd, ksi v36 '
(
If one assumesthat r, = A.224 (text Appendix Table A1), (
Lateral zuppon of
compression flange
L- 7.5(12) (
l\.linbr: : : 8.2 in. if.Lp: 7.5 ft Vertical
,(Ob f 9rpport
(
Assurningthe flangewidth is at least8.2 in. the strengthcan reachthe plastic
Bending moment (
moment .1fy'p.
(c) select from LRFD lr{anual. "LOAD FAcToR DESIGN SELEC- Figure9.9.2 Data for F-xamples
9.9.2,9.9.4,
9.10.2,
and9.10.4. (
TiON TABLE." This is an efficient procedure'*'hen the designeris certain
(
that the sectionis "compact" and that l, . Lo. The r:quiicd plasticmodulus
Z. i s SOLUTION (
(a) Determine the factored moment Mu at midspan and the required
Req u i re dI!n : R e q u i re dtrfr:6 2 5 ft-ki ps design strength QtMn. Estimate the beam weight about 90 lb/tt (
Using
LRFD-A4.l, Formula (Az1-2), (
Requiredt, ^ : l:!ui:-dJ/o
F r :62s!:2)
3 6 : 208in.3
lv, : 1-2(0.2+ 0.09) + 1.6(0.8)= 1.63kips/ft (
The lightesrsecrionthat has Z* z 208 in.3 is W24x84 having Z, : 224 in.i; Mn:1.63(5q2/8 : 509ft-kips (
i n a d d it ion4, 8. 2in .
RequiredQtMn: Mu: 509 ft-kips {
{.
I
t,
(
t
1 i

*. I LOAD
9.9/ EXAMPLES: DESIGN 549
FACTOR
ANDRESISTANCE
:- - _l
( 548 OF BEAMS
BUCKLING
9/LATERAL-TORSIONAL : i
( I

( "BEAM DESIGN MOMEI'ITS." These Sincez'iS'=|.T2aSanaverage,themaximumeffectiveciforA36steel*'ill


(b) Use rhe LRFQ beam curves, beabout1.55.Thu-s.inthisexampiervhe r e C u : LFACTOR
l_thenom inalstrength/V'
"LOAD DESIGN
cun,es are plots of thb design moment strengthSrlf, vs laterally^unbraced rvill likely equal Mf inrvhich case,the lniO
length lo fbr roiled W and lr{ shapesfor {,.:36 ksi.u{. 1:50 ksi' The used to select the section ps in
( in Fig. 9.6.1multiplied SELECTISN rndr-E': ;;;l; tt.ut been ,/
curvesare the nominal strength Mn relationsliipshown ExamPle9-9-1,
I bythestrengthreductionfaitor0l(-0.90forflexure).Themomentgradient (509/0.90)12-
RequiredMo
factor Ca:-i-0, the most severeloadingcase,is used-forthe curves. - --- - : --T- 189in.3
( with Eq' 9'6'11(LRFD-Fl'3)' Required Z'
For this example,Ct,: l'75 in accordance \
just as
( Sinceall of the strlngrh lquationsale linearin C6, Lu/Crcan be-used
is w24x76 haring z^: 200 in'3
if cD $,ere 1.0 for th-epurposeof using the LRFD curves. For this example, The lighresrsectionthat has z,>- 18gin.i
\ Lu 25 (d)Checkthew24X?6section.Inclu,Jingthedeadrteightofthebeam.
_ :14.3 fr
( cb 1.75 M u: i. 61( 50) : i8 = io3 f t - kiPs
( LrlCr: 14'3 ft' < ( l a = 2 5f t )
Entering the curvesw'ith requiredEuMn: 509 ft-kips and L,:23'4ft
i
( find M r: z'F, : 200(36)/12= 6oo ft-kiPs
\\r24x84, QtMn = 520ft-kiPs
(
This ma1' t'ell be too conserr,'ative;Mn increases, linearly with Cu' When SinceLb>L,,Mn:I'f.'rvhichincreaseswithCobutcannotexceedChltf'
( IvI,Ch: Mo no further bineficial effect of increasing C6 is ,U., uiing Eq' 9'6'12which includesC6'
nor tr[o."Compute
Lr,3 L, and
Eq.
( possible.D.t.rmine rhe v'alueof L, (seeFig. 9.6.1)for the W24x84 using c,s.xfr;:E
9.6.6, M,,:
trrn: * [rorz]
L
(' T V, fi,u7r,\,
(
, : -( F"r x_ 4') .v ' , f| r+ xz(Fy
,'r- Ie.6.6]
Lu
(, given in :25(12) : 156
where Xr : i950 ksi and xz:12,200 x 10-6 in.41vtf as properties ry 1. 97
or X, uid Xrcan be computedusingEqs. 9-6.7and 9'6'8'
( the LRFD luanual, .--_-----;-
Thus, i
1.75(176)(r760),[2 0too)'18600: 603f t - kiPs
( L I n= l { , r : 11 + - - . - - . ; :=
t2,200(36- lo)t 156(12) 2( 1s6) 2( 10) 6
(. 1.es(1e50) :24.5 ft
L,: * ^'
t t

(36- 1o[2 , / , (to)u Mo (600 ft-kips)' the nominal


( \/ Sinceltf., (603 ft-kips)exceedsthe upperlimit
50 ksi in strength}f , is
( The value of L, foi a rolled sectionis alsoavailableforir1:-3-6.:19 Mn = LIo:600 ft'kiPs
..LOAD FACTOR DES1GNSELECTION TABLE." Since Lu in
the LRFD
( cr.
this example (25 ft) is very closeto 1,, determinethe maximum effective (Q|,1,,: 0.90(600): 5aoft-kips), (M': 503 ft.kips) oK
( Setting MSu: Mo gives
MSu: M, N o t e t h a r C n M , . i s 6 6 T f t - k i p s ; t ! r u s " ' f { o i s t h e u p P e i l * i ' Twhat
h e Whas
2 4 xbeen
76isthe
( -satisfyingihe requir.fit.n,r. In addition to
lightest secrion ""o*pur," to assurethat the computedstrength
(
(4-4)s'cr:2,F, checked,the sectionmust be "compact" for local
this sectionis
Solving for C, gives is correct.As are nearly ail A36 sectiOns,
( s ' s " v Y tne Umiisiot'ot.U and
flangegivenin Table 9'6'i'
buckling;rhar is, ^itr rsatiifies !
( b :
' -C^
Max effective , =t'':r', IJseW24x76.
(F, - 4)S,
( gEXAMPLE9.9.3 ^AA r-^--^,^..-a
which for 436 steeland rolled shapes(4: 10 ksi) becomes of Fig' 9'9'3' Lateral support ls
( Selectan economicalW sectionfor the beam
load points, and at the end of
: t:lz! proyidedat the verticalsupports,,onr.nrt.,ed
cu: ,.t'u
Maxeffective deadload and the 11'5-kipload
( (36- =-
10)?S, E rhe cantilever.The 26-kipload containtOfipt
. (
.-
t:i-
(
550 9/LATERAL-TGRSTONALBUCKLTNGOF B€AMS 9.9 / EXAMPLES:LOAD AND R=SISTANCE FACTORDESIGN 551
{
-(
t,V,= 6' dead load Wz= 1'Cead load
20' hve lcad 7.5' live load {b) Segment A. Three laterally unbrabed s€gmentsmust be considered
since each length is different and is subject to a different maximum factored I
bending moment M,.By inspection,segmentA controlsover segmentC; poth
the moment and the unbraced length are larger on segmentA, and the
moment gradientis the same(i.e., Co : 1.75 for both). ('
I

Lateralsupport ot Mu:460 ft-kipsi


compressionflange
Ct: 1.75i La:24f.t \
RequiredQtMn: 46Oft-kips (

Use the LRFD Manual curves, *BEAM DESIGN MOMENTS." As in l

Example 9.9.2, the C, factor may be combined with Z, as Lo/Cu, (


LL on 52 ft span. not on canlilever

2cb : -'!=
1.75
:13.7rt t

(
,fr,|i
rltiil Factoredbending
Enter curveswith requiredEuL'l^: 460 ft-kips and Lr/Cu:13.7 fr; find I

momentM, envelope W24x76,


due to superimpos€d QuM): 467ft-kips, Lo'= 13.7ft ('
\
loads '---Determine
L, for this section as23.4 ft from Eq. 9.6.6,or more easily from (
LL dn cantilever, not on 52 fi span LRFD Manual tables"BEAMS" or "LOAD FACTOR DESIGI{ SELEC-
/
TION TABLE." SegmentA, La : 24 ft exceedsL,; however,sinceC, is more
than the maximum effectivevalue 1.55 obtained in Example9.9.2 for A36 (
steel, the section will likely have its maximum nominal strength ILi'o. The
Frgure
9.9.3 Datafor Example9.9.3. requiredplastic modulusis )
Required ,\r'^
' (xa/o.e0)12 l

R equi redZ, : L : 1 7 0i n . 3
includes4 kips deadload; the remainderis live load.Use A36 sreeland Load F, " {
and ResistanceFactor Design.
(
The lightestsectionthat has Z,) 1?0 in.r is from "LOAD FACTOR DE-
SOLUTION SIGN SELECTIONTABLE," W24x68 haring Z,: 177n.3 For this section. (
ta; Obtain the bendingmomeat enveloperesultingfrom factoredloads. L,: 22.4 ft, and with C, : 1.75,the sectionis likely acceptable. When L, is
fhe moment en,.'elopewill include trro loading cases:(1) dead-loadplus live close to L6, the bestway of selectingthe ligbtest section will be in the cun'cs. I
':rc t,il rire 52-ft span and no live load on cantilever;and (2) dead load plus "BEAM DESIGN MOMENTS."
To help understandthe strengthrelation- {
'.'c ,,Jr.r(i
on cantiieverand no live load on the 52-ft span. ships, eiamine Fig. 9.9.awhere the W24x63 and \Y24x76 designstrengths
tt" ,t: i .2 (6 ) + 1 .6 (2 0 ): 3 9 . 2ki ps QtM^ are shown. \
(c) SegmentB. This segmenthas a steepermoment gradientthan segment (
I V , t : 1 . 2 ( 4 ) + i . 6 ( 7 . 5 ): 1 6 . 8k i p s A, i.e., Cu > 7.?5;however,the laterallyunb:acedlength lu is longer.Using
Eq.9.6.11, I
For loading case1. the maximumfactoredmomentunder load I/, is
(
on cantilever: 1.2(4)21: l0l ft-kips
J\y',, c a :1 7 +
51osf**) . o.r(#)': r*
i. {
,r{u ar wt : 39.2{24)(25)/52 - 101(24/52) - 460 ft_kips
F This is less than the upper limit of 2.3. Even though the Co has increascd (
For loadingcase2. the maximumfactoredmomentat the cantileversupportis til_ above the 1.75 for segmentA, the laterally unbraced length of 28 ft is longc-r (
Mu :1 6 .8 (2 1 ) : 3 5 3ft-k i ps l; An entry to the LRFD "BEAM DESIGN MOMENTS" cun'es would use
(
F Lo/Co: 28/2.N: 14 ft. This is not much different from segmenrA. It is
The factored moment envelopeis shorvnin Fig. 9.9.3.
E possiblerhe W24x68 will be acceptable.
{
ti {
F (
(
(
552 I / T3TERAL-TOF€TONAL
BUCKL|NG
OF BEAMS 9.9/ EXAMPLES: FACTOR
LOADAllDRES|STANC€ DESIGN 553
( .'
(
'
sM, -- 54ry\ ta. l\r- Then, for the two possibts coa6slling segmeots:
( \. A36sreer
,/ l\r
SegrnentA, Ct - \.75, Lt : 24 tt, find n{- : 523ft-kips
(
W24x76 B,
S-egment Ct:2.N, Lc: 28 ft, find M"' -- 468ft-kips
( an
-e
-ts C D =1 ' 7 5
( c 400
Both values are below Mo:531 ft-kips; segmentB controls and it is clear
E W24x76 that grM", is less than l{4"of 460 ft-kips. Increasesection to W24x?6 and
( € Co; l'o check segrnentB.
For the w24x76 section, having s' - 1?6 in':' 4 : 1760 ksi' xz:
o)
(
E 3oo
w24x68 18,600x 10-6 in.43ip2,and ': 1.92in.,
( C Co:10
'= 738
70,090c0
( o Mn: Mo:
(
avv
h 4
t

( For segmentB with Ct: 2.00 and Lu : 28 f,l,


'
L' = 22'4' M"': 581 ft-kiPs
( W24x6g
L, - 23.4'
w24x76
(
QM",: o.9o(581): 523 ft-kiPs) Mu oK
( 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0
Laterally
unbracedlengthlD (leet) . ' a The factored moment M, is 460 ft-kips in segrnentsA and B. Thus, W24X76
( is acceptable.The section satisfiesthe limits for flange and web given in Table
Figure 9.9.4 Comparison of designstreng,thsg6Mn f,or W24x76 and W24x68 for A36 . t
"compact"; i.e., l, < lp, and thereforelateral-torsional
( steel-Example 9.9.3. ' l
i 9.6.1 and therefore is
I

:
*1
I
l buckling is the controlling limit state (as assumed).
(:. -{ i
UseW24x76.
( (d) Check rhe W24x68. From the LRFD Maqual, ,i
'.1
.. 1

( L': 2 2 ' 4 ft' il


t
r EXAMPLE 9.9.4
_l Repeat Example 9.9.2(SeeFig. 9.9.2) except use A572 Grade 60 steel.
(
QoMp: 478ft-kiPs -"1
; -l
'_t
( SOLUTION
_ ; QtM,: 300ft_kips (a) Obtain the factored moment Mu at midspan and the required design
( strength enMn. From Example9.9.2,including the beam weight now estimated
( For all three beam segments,lo exceedsL" indicating elasticlateral-torsional as 70 lb/fl (the ,{36 beam was 76 lb/ft),
buckling is the controlling limit state. Thus, M", must be computed for both
( the 24 and 28-ft unbracedlengrhs(segmentsA and B). using Eq. 9.6.12, wu: 1.2(0.2+ 0.07) + 1.6(0.8): 1-60kips/ft

(
t
'-Mu:1.60(50)2/8 :
_

-( '"-oc? x' =r { I t - w 5oo ft-kiPs


(.
t r "L , : M!rn : ,lt + Ie.6.12]
Luf ,, z(to7r), RequiredQuM,: Mu: 500 ft-kiPs
|/
(
"BEAM DESICN MOMENTS."
(b) Selecttrial sectionusingbeam curyes,
( For the W24x 68-section,having S,= 15+ it.t, X,:1590 ksi, X, :
29,000x 10-6 in.47kip7,and r": 1.8Tin., Since there are nci LRFD tables or curves for F, - 60 ksi, a more general
( approach must be used. When rcxshing the plasiic momeat strength M, .is
53,960cA
re90- eipected to be the controling limit state, that strength is proponional to the
\ , Mn:Mo ./l+- *LOAD FACTOR DESIGN SELEC-
Lb y'' L' b yiitO stress.Tbus, when Lb< Lp, use
( TION TABLE." When ^Lu is 6xpected to exceed lo, adjust the required
(
-
554 9 / LATERAL-TORSIONALBUCKLTNGOF BEAIjS
!
9.9/ EXAtuIPLES: FACTORDESIGN
LOADANDRESISTANCE 555 \
{
.
designmoment strengthin the ratio of the yield stressused to F,. : 50 ksi for 50 ksi and I,, for {
Since L, considerablyexceedsthe L" of 16.6 ft for 4:
rvhich there are curyes, "BEAM DESIGN IV{OMENTS." Thus, for this F" : 60 ksi will be lower, elastic lateral-torsiorial buckiing strength M", *ill I
erample, likely be thi limit state for this example.The variation in I, with {, for the
W21x62 is shorvnin Fig. 9.9.5; the two LRFD Manual tabulated values are
Required*rlr{, (for 4 : 50 ksi) = 500(50,/60): 41? ft-kips
marked as points A and B. Typically, ss the yield stressgets higher, the /-, gets
Lb 25 lower but there is less decreasethan if the relationship were linear. Tl:e
- 1 4 ' 3f t conclusionhere is that becauseof the low L, 6 compared to Lu: 25 ft, the
q: lJ5
W21x62 is unlikely to work. The W16x67 may well work since I". is much
Enter 4 : 50 ksi curveswith requiredQ6luI,: 4t7 ft-kips and Lu/Cu: 14.3 closerto Lr.
ft; find (c) Check the W16x67 further. Compute M'

W21x62, QtMn: 417ft-kiPs, L,r: 14.3ft to{, : Z,F, : 130(60)/12 : 650ft-kiPs

Tlic nc.rt heaviersectionindicatedis the next solid line vertically uprvardon Q t M p: o'90( 650): 58sf t - kiPs
il:e cun'es.Wl6x67. From the table,"BEAMS" for 4, : 50 ksi, find
W2lx62, L, = 16.6ft, QoMp: 540 ft-krps which exceedsthe required QoM, of 500 ft-kips. Compute L, f,or 5 : 60 ksi
\. from Eq. 9.6.6 below using rr: 2.46 in., Xt : 2350 ksi, and Xz: 4690 x
Q N ,: 381ft-ki P s --- 10-6 in.olktps2for the w16>467,
rv16x67, L , : 2 3 . 8f t , 488 ft-ki P s (
? rMr: : 20.6 ft
I,
Q tfu I,: 351ft-ki P s
(
Since Lt-25 ft for this exampleexceedsL,, the elastic lateral-torsional
buckling strength M,, must be computed to make the check of this section.
Using Eq. 9.6.12with C, : 1.75along with the other valuesusedabove for L,, )
<U

)
to

l6
CHECKSFOREXAMPLE
OFSTRENGTH
TABLE9.9.1 SUMMARY 9.9.4

L, srM", $oMp goM,

Sectiono (ft) (f:-klps) (ft-kiPs) (tt-kips) f-ornmenl

12 w27x84 17.0 710 1098 720 44% orerstreagdr


w24x76 15. 8 >43 900 543 8% overstr'mgth
i3 w24x68 r5.3 +11 797 441 < 500 t*G
L, - 21.7' F, : 36 ksi w21x83 16.0 581 882 581 16%6ovcrstmng&
From LRFD Manual )
w21x73 15.4 t1"l
774 472 < 500 NCG
wl8x76 21.5 758 734 734 466 overstrca'glh
L,: 16.6' F, = 50 fsi 421 < 500
wrSx?1 15,3 421 653 NG
From LRFD manual
w15x67 20"6 572 )6) 572 14%oramsrrrySr t.

wt6x57 14.3 :80 473 280 < 500 NG


w14x68 ?2.4 581 518 518 .OK
w14x61 zr.3 482 459 459<m WG {
Yield stress F, (ksi) (
'Atrl sectionsin table stisfy tr < tro for flangeanil ;*€b;lecil,'buckling(see :
Figure 9.9.5 Variation in L. and Lo tor various yield sresses-W2lx62 section. "compactsections"h : 60'ksi stel.
Talle 9.6.1)andaretberefore 5 \
r l
C
(
I / LATERAL-TORSTONAL
BUCKLTNG
OF BEAMS LOAD
9.9/EXAMPLES: ANDRESISTANCE DESIGN 557
FACToR
(
(
( grves Assume Cr: 1.0 for the check- The dead weight of the beam must be
included,
chs,'xlz xlx,
M , : l { r r : t t " / r ; V t *i^
(
Ie.6.12J : 49? ft-kips:
t.59(50)22'8 Requiredl/" : 551ft-kips
( yrfi Yr:
: x 10-6
( For the w24x55, usingr,, : 1'34in" x, : 1540ksi' and X2 39'600
Mn: M",: 636ft-kipsi QrMn: 572ft-kips in.a7kips2,
( (+uM,: 300
572ft-kips) > (M": 500 ft-kips) oK Lr: -6a71
( V')'t
^
The Wl6x67 is satisfactorythough overstrengthby 14o,o. There may s'eil be
( sc'ctionsmore economical.The section also satisfiesthe "compact seclicn" Lr: 4 . 3f t i f o r { : 6 0k s i )
rcquirementsl, < tr, for flangeand web as given in Table 9.6.1.
( r . , ' - : - F,)'
A summaryof the checkof other sectionsis given in Table 9.9.1.For the L.: :J_a-i/l + \,1
'
+ Xr(4
- ' l [9.6.6]
( useW27x84 iJ
lightest section,reseW16x67 if deflectioncan be tolerated;or -------E ( { " - t ' ) '

minimumdefiectEnrft emd.' L,: 1\.4lt


(
'
r{P : z'F, : 134(60)//12: 670ft-kiPs
(
E EXAMPLE 9.9.5 u,: ({, - 4)s' = (60- n)n4/12: 475ft-kips
( What W sectioncan be usedfor the beamof Example9.9.4if lateralsupportis strenSth
( provided every 5 ft? Since lu (i.e., 5 ft) exceedslo and does not exceed L,, the
determinedby linear interpolatidn according to Eq' 9'6'4'
( SOLUTION tr.-|
l- \l
( In this case, since the lateral-torsionalstability has been improved by c o l M ,(-M , -t d , ) l f f "i lPl l=J ' ,
]{n= [ e64 ]
reducing the unbracedlength, the deepersectionscan carry greaterloads.The L' \"'
( deepersectionswill also be the lighter ones. nI, : 661ft'kiPs
1o.ls6,lro)
( (a) Factored moment Mu. From Example 9.9.4 and assuming a lighter
(QuM,: 594 ft'kips) > (M": 49'l ft-kips) OK
section than the 84- or 67-lb/f.t sectionsused in Example 9.9.4, ---:
( lJse\,t24x55 (4. : 60 ksi), even though it bas strength'
excess
w" : L .2 (0 .2+ 0 .0 6 ) + 1 .6 (0 .8 ): 1 .59Y ,tps/ft
(
Mu = 1.59(50)2/8 : 497ft-kips E DE)(AMPLE9.9.6
(
a 45-ft simply
' Required QbII,: Mu: 49:.ft-kips Given the welded l-shaped section of Fig. 9.9:6 used as
( po-intst Determine the
supporteObeam laterally supported at the one-third
to carry if the dead load is 0'15
( (b) Selecta trial section.Assumethe section will be adequatelybracedto servicelive load the beam tnuy U. permitted
achieveits plastic moment strength .4y'r,
(
Requiredi/- /a.e0)12:
@e7
( _.1 Required
Z,:
ir: ' v
1 1 0i n . 3 . q
Flanges- i
(
From "LOAD FACTOR DESIGN SELECTION TABLE", the lightest sec-
( tion that has Z, > 110 in.3 is W21x50 haviag 2,:110 in.3. Note that x ze
,zw eb- $
( Lo:4.6 ft f.orFr:50 ksi, and wiil be lower for {,: 60 ksi. Thus,a section
having somewhatlarger Z, must be used.The ne:rt lightest sectionis W24x55
(
b a vi ngZ , : 134 in.3 .
( (d) Check the section. l',Iote that the 5-ft laterally unbraced segment
tVelded section
adjacent to midspan will have Co very close to 1.0 (actually it is 1.02); if rhe
( check shows the strength to be slightly low, tbe correct Cu can be computed. Figure 9.9.6 Data for Erample 9.9.6.
' (
(.
f'- ss8 9 / LATERAL-TORSTONAL
BUCKLTNG
OF BEAMS 9.9/EXAMPLES:LOADANDRES:STAf'|CE
FAGTORDESTGN
( t

( t
( )
kip/tt including the beam weight. Use Load and ResisranceFactor Design. Thus, the se-ctionis not "compact" with regard to either the flange or the web.
The steelh* 4,: 65 ksi. Next, check whether the flange arrd/ot the web mnsl be classified as "slender" ( '
elements; that is, determine whether l, exceeds1,, (LRFD-85.1 and Table (
SOLUTION 9.6.2).For flange local buckling,
(a) Compute cross-sectionalproperties. ( ;
Area, A:28.1sqin.
( ^ : T : r 2 8 )< : : - - 1 < 1
,ifi. - 16.5
OK ( ;
^t ( ,
tlt
r.: -r2l(ru
5 5\3
- s \ l : *r 'n..
* ; . ;J trol- (zo)3(16
G)J For web local buckling, ( 1

(
s
I. 4003
: 294 in.3 (^: . ( ^ :, - 970 : 1203) OK
"x
d/2 13.625 ?:832) iF' \ )
( t
Thus, the slenderness ratios tr for both the flange and the web lie between
,,: rt|)trul't
o.6zs)
: 427 in.a
l, and tr,; the sectionis "noncompact" with regard to both the flange and the ( ,
-web, and two of the possiblecontrolling limit states for nominal strengthwill
(
' r : YtT
be-local buckling of the flange or the web in the inelastic range as shown in
: Fi 1.9.6.2. (
i {Tr:3.8ein. (c) Computethe plasticmomentstrengthMo and the moment strengthM,
( '
at the elasticlimit (seeFig. 9.6.2).
/ : : z.B7in.a
zl3 + 26(o.3tzs)'l ( ,
; [z1ro11o.e Mr: Z,Fr: 319(65)/12 - 1728ft-kips
(
I.,h2 427(26+ 0.62s\2 trf, : ( 4, - 4 ).!, : (65 - 16.5)294/tz: u8? ft-kips
C . : !
4 A
: 7 3 ,8 5 0i n .6 (
+
(d) Compute the nominal strength M, based on the lirnit state of local (
EGJA i bucklingof theflange. Using Eq. 9.6.9,. ( ,
.ri - r i : -'. t/ :1220ksi
J r Y 2e4U 2.6(2) ( ,
.vn=M
P e -\ ( M o . _' M
\ I ' .- ;I 1
o ,/ . r + ) [e.6.e]
r ( ,
-x,: :
r, GJ 427 29,000(2 .87)
4n 4Tkrpsz
4+( +)' : ol'tto ( =:?::::)=,,|: o.or, ( \
\ J \ J - (172s
- 1187)ts+1|
.\t,, r?28 '\ : rrroft-kips
1 s . 2- 8 . 1/ ( i
tb) Investigatethe local flange buckling and local *'eb buckling limit
states.Clieck ^ . Ar accordingto LRFD-B5.l; the limis are given in Table qel Compute the nominal strength rly'" based on the limit state of.loca! ( ,
9.6.1. For flange local buckling, bucklingof the weD.Using Eq. 9.6.9, (
[.
I '
!

|l -l b,/2 16/2 6 5 \ t . .
( ;
- : u s ) ' ( ^ ,: NC
t,:
l'a, Mn:1728- (1728
- n87)(#)
' \ 1 2 0 . 3- 7 9 . 4 : ,un
- - - - -ft-kips
---r-
rr 0.625 t'
\ E:*.',| t-.
t_-
1 ( t
t: (f) Examinethe lateral-torsional ( ,
For w'eblocalbuckling, t+-
t :
bucklinglirnit state.C-omputeL, using
Eq.9.6.3,
F '

F ( ;
L'- 26 : \ f 6 4 0 \ F.
f^:
r* 0,3125
83.2)' : :7e.4J NG
=-:i

E'
_
Lo:
300 300(3.8el12)
- --*G5-- '= l2'1 ft (t
\ f+ -:
l^, E L

F . Ft" ( r
tL
F:
E
g (
4
L

( ,
-+F.l
( '
560 g/LATERAL-ToRSIoNAL
BUCKLTNG
oF BEAMS 9.I O , EXAI"IPLESALLOIVABLESTi€SS DESIGN 561
( , :l
..,t
I
(,
Since Lt,: l5 ft exceedslo, the lateral-torsional buckling limit statemust be
( , r EXAMPLE9.IO.I
examined fur ther. using Eq. 9.6.6,rvith r, = 3.g9 in.. X, : 1220
.Co,*,plrll,
: 0-0584 in.a7krpsz, beamis loadedas shorvnin Fig. 9.9.1.The bcamhas
A sirnplvsupported
( \!i, xr 4: 16.5 ksi for a *,elded secrion.a;d 'F.r':- trtnsverselateralsupportat the endsand even''7'-6" alongihe span.Selectthe
65 ksi,
lightestW sectionof .436steel.usingAllou'ableStressDesign.
(
( ',:11=6
, '.rX,
- F,)' :29'2ft SOLUTION
(a) Estimate*'hether or not lateral supports are close enough to qualif;'
( "compact seciion." Eqs.9.7.1
Thus. the nominal strength M, basedon the limit state of lateral-torsional the bcam aS"compact" underASD-85.1.For
( Fuckling is linearly interpolatedbetween Mo and,M, accord,rng and 9.7.2.
ro Eq. 9.6.a
( using Co : 1-0 for the center15-ftlaterallyuibracedsegrnentof the 45-ft 76b, 20.000
span -
of this example, L. : max unbracedlength:- smaller r -:
J r r r g f r l r vof -onrl
""
td''AtlF,
( tr,

( Mn:rrlr,- (u;-t{,)(#,)l= r, Il.o.a] : 12-74 (for


{
: 36 ksi)
( '
- L, . 7. 5( 12)
( M , : 1 . 0[ ,[_r^ 7
-
z B(, <t-azaza _s i r 8 7I ) 1l 5 lz.l \l
: re:orr_kips 6r-,n : --=
L).7
: - - - r =- : i. 1 in. if L, : 7. 5
l2. l
ft
ffij]
(
(g) Final evaluation.The nominalstrengthMn is the lo*-estr.alue (b) Assumeconrpactsection:the allo*'ablebendingstiessis
( among
the possiblecontrolling limit states:1370 ft-kipi'fot flange local buckling; F t : 0 . 6 6 F r : 0 . 6 6 ( 3 6 ): 2 4 k s i
( 1678 ft-kips for web local buckling; and 1636 ft-kips foi lateral-torsional
buckling. Thus,
( M : tr(1.0 ) ( 30)+' i( 36) ( 30) : 382. 5f t - kipswit hourbeams'eight
Mn: 1370fr-kips
( M 3 8 2 . 5i 2( )
e#,: t233ft_kips RequircdSr:F: : 19i in.r
(. t b 24
MaximumM,: QoMn: L233ft-kips
( (c) Select from "ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN SELECTION
M u : 7 . 2 M D+ l . 6 M L TABLE,'I ASD Manual.This procedureis efficientif the designeris certain
( " compactS ection"r equir em entcan
s be sat isf ied.SelectW24X84. S. : 196
( Mp: 0:s(as)278 : 3g ft-kips i n.3
( Mu - 7.zMD - trlo,.: (0.084)QA
/ 8f : 9 . 4 5 f t - k i p s
Mt: _ 1233 1.2(35)
.:742fr-kips
( 1.6 1.6
M (382.s
+ e.4s)(i2)
f -
_ : ?4.0 : Fr OK
( 8M, 8(742) It
\.) u :
ll'', --;- : --.- : 2.93 ktpS/ft E 196
L'
( @5r
bt: 9 '02> 7'1 in' OK
(
9.10 EXAMPLES:ALLOWABLE Other requirementsfor compactsectionare satisfied.
( STRESSDEStcN UseW24x84.
( Severalexamplesare preseotedto illustrate allowable stressdesign
to include E EXAMPLE 9.10.2
( - lateral-torsional buckling as a factor determining the allorvableltr"rr.
Other Repearthe selectionof the lightestW sectionfor rhe simpl,vsupportedbeanr
considerations'such as deflection,shear,and web crippling were treated
and of Fig. 9.9.2designedusing Load and ResistanceFactor Design. excepthere
( illustratedin Chapter 7- For someadditionalpracticalii.at*ent of
ASDbeam use AllorvableStressDesign.Lateral support is provided at the ends and at
design,seeStocku'ell[9.30]and Brandt t9.31i.
( midspan.Assumedeflectionlimitationsneednot be considered. Use A36 steel.
, (
g 1A/ EXAMPLES:ALLOWABLESTRESSDESIGN a
I / LATERAI--TOASIONALBUCKLING OF BEAl"tS
( t

(b).CheckW24x84' S. : 196r1'3 (
SOLUTION "ALLOWABLE MOMENTS IN Using ASD Formula(F1-8)'Eq' 9'1'12'
(a) Use AsD lrlanual beam cun/es,
BEAN{S." These cura'esare plots of the allorvable moment FuS.,vs laterally 12,000c6_ 12'000(1.75)
: &v'- 'Lr < 0.60r, ma.rimum
-:20.Zksi ;
: 36 ksi *9 F" Fh
unbraced length lu for rolled W and lv{ shapesfor {, :i! Zrd/AJ @3-47
ksi. The allowable srressFu it the larger of the valuesobtained from ASD
(
Formulas(Fl-6 or F1-?) and (F1-8),Eqs. 9.7-20,9.7.22. and9'7'12.with the it is not expectedto govern' examine
Though from the ASD Manual curves ( t
value of.C^ taken as 1.0 for the curyes-
ASD-Formula(Fl-6), Eq' 9'7'20' (
Assumingthe beam weight about 90lb/ft, the midspanbendingmoment
L b - r""::'
< / rl \
is : 129-9; Ct : 135 (
rT 2.3r
.1/ : *(1.09)(50)2: 34r ft-kips (
Lr : Laterallyunbracedlength : 25 ft /| -Ll u \ :70 ( t
\l r- iJl ito"'c'
mit
ct: 1 . 7 5 ( n s o - F 1 . 3 ,F 4 . 9 . 6 . i 1 ) I
I
t

I
|
..
-r l f 1
(
An examination of ASD Formula (F1-6) will sh6*' that Co can be
ASD
t - .
tat | uPPcr
:157
(
combined$.ith Lo it Lb/fr replacesLuin that equation.Eq. 9.7.2A.1n l|
Ur / umir
Formul:r (Fl-8) Cocan-be combinedwith tu by replacinZLt,by Lu/Cu. Since (
the curvesare foi C":1, when C, is not 1'0 the cun'esmay be enteredas Since10 < 12g.9< 157,parabolicFormula
(F1-6)applies'
follorvs:
(
l z - F , ( L u / r r )lt- (
l. Usc Ln/Co if Formula (F1-8) controls Fb- tr: t53o(ro,;c,.|",
2. Use L/A if Formula (F1-6) controls .Fr. LJ (
Sincefor W and tr{ rolled shapestorsionalstrengthis usuallythe predomi- which for 4,36 steelbecomes (
nanr iacror. mosr suchbeamshave .F,controlledby ASD Formula(F1-8).it is (
(LuirJ (129.9)'
rcc()mnlcndcdthat the first entry to the cun'es be with Lu/Cu. As the values . n - -ffi :24'0 - : 1 5 . Sk s i
:rre re.rilfronr ihe cun'es.the usercan tell from the shapeof the cury'ewhether
Ft,: A24.0 Z'.^ (
ii is rireh5'perboiroi Formula(F1-8)or the parabolaof Formula(F1-6).and
(F1-8)and thereforedoesnot control' (
atljrrsttire entry appropnately. which is less than givenby Formula
for beam *'eight' is
For this exampie,in place of.Lu enter w-ith Bending ,tr.rr"unaer appliedload, corrected (
t-"
- ll.3 lr oi L : i8.9ft
M -- 33e( 12): 20-7
ksi> Fr,: 20'2ksi (
Ch f o': #
. ,Cu i (
E
2'5%overstress'
dependingon the formula suspectedas control.lingth: :ilonrble stress-in t,se W24x84. sincethereis only abou| (
uring the cun,es,the solid line abot:ethe intersectionof \t and L indicatesthe (
lightestsectionsatisfyingtheserequirements- r EXAMPLE 9.103
beamof Fig' 9'10'1' Lateralsupport is
Enteringrvith -1f :341ft-kips and Lu/Cu: 14.3ft- find Selectun ..onorni.al W sectionfor the (
load points' and at the end of
provided at the verticalsupports,concentrated
W27x84, il{ > 34t ft-kips (
thecantilever.UseA36steelandAllowableStressDesign.
(
W24x84, Might u'ork
SOLUTION
of the three lsterally unbraced (
Three casesmust be consideredsinceeach
Note that the W2?>lS4is controlled by the parabolic cun'e, Fo (F1-6)' and
lengthsisdifferentandissubjecttoadifferentm a x i m u m b e n d i n g m o m e t r t (. ,
reenreringthe cunes with Lu/{ca : 18.9 ft indicatesw27x84 to be inade- mornentgoverns'
Assume the segmentcontainingthe largest
quate. (
(
( ,
\
(
9/LATERAL-TORSTONAL
BUCKL|NG
oF BEAMS ALLOWAtsLE
9]0 / EXAMPLES: DESIGN
STRESS
' e

(
(
(a) SegmentC:
(
I ! : 2 1 1 . 5f t - k i p s . C t , : 1 . 1 5 . I-:27 fi
( Use the ASD lr,lanualcun'es.
"ALLO\\'ABLE it{OiUENTS IN BEAi\IS," a
( portion of which is shou.nin Fig. f.i0.2. As discussed previousll".the Cu factor
b-52'_O.. Vertical may be combined u'ith lo, as follou's:
( supports
L^ 21
( 224.5 tr-kips _: - - : 12 ft ;1 ro (F1-8) governs
c,, 1.75
(
Eendingmo:.nent
(due to superimposed
( Lb 21
ioads) : : 15.9fr if 4b (F1-6)governs
( iCo
,ll,_-75
2 4 1 . 5f r . k i p s
( Figure 9.10.1 Dara for Example 9.10.3
Try enteringcurvesrvith i/ : 24L.5ft-kips with Lu/Cu: 12.0ft, sclect
( W21x68, M : 257ft-kips, Lu: 12.4 ft
:
( SinceLr: L. (8.7fi) but Lu/Ct:72.0 ft doesnot exceedL,
21 ft exceeds
(.72.4ft),
( Fu: 0'60F,
L" = 9.5 ft F" = 36 ksi
( w2l x 73- - _ - - ? Note that in the cun'es the solid black dot (o; representsl. and the open
Co=1
( circle (O) representsLs,.Also, the valuesof.L, and L, for {. : 36 and 50 ksi
L" = 1O.2tt
are given in the ASD Manual.
( The additional moment due to a beam weight about 76 lb,tll should be
w21 x 6e w24 x 68
( paraboficcurve included at this stage.
showingFb(F1-6) At the (- M ) region,
( controls

( t r [ ot . : ] ( 0. 07) ( 21) 2: 75. q f t - kips


W21 x 73
hyperboliccurve
showingFD(F1-8) At the 26 kips load.
( conlrols
( - tt ,(#)
L{or.: i(0.07)(24)(28) : 76.4 ft-kips
W21 x 68
( hyperboliccurve
showingFD(F1-8) Reexaminecurvesrvith
( conirols
M : 247. 5 + 15. 4: 757 f t - kips
( OK.
SegmentC.loo_ks
( (b) SegmentB: From ASD-FI.3,

( {M,\2
C o : 1 . 7+5t r r ( # ) . + o rM
l :2.ee
La:era!ly unbraced length, Lo

( Figure 9.10.2 Portion of ASD Manual curves, .,ALLOWABLE


\{oMENTS IN
,J
BEAMS" used ia Example 9-10.3.
( Use maximum C, + 2.3.

( Lb 28 L^ 28
: : i2'2ft; + : ---::18.5 f:
i L3 i Co '12'3
(
(
t (
ts a
I
9 / LATERAL-TORSIONAL
BUCKLTNG
OF BEAMS 9.1A/ EXAMPLES:
ALLOWABLE
STRESS
DESIGN 567 ( ,
(
Since Llcu < (L": 12.4fr), rhis srill looks arceptablefor M : 257 ft_kips. (Note that ^Fi: 0.604, may also be derermined from Lu/Cu: 12 ft < Lu:) (
(c) SegmentA: Co: 1.75
M 2s7(12) (
Lb 24 Lb 24 .ft: : 2A-4ksi < Ft: 22ksi OK
: 13.7ft; : 1 8 . 1f t ,5, 151
cb m ,'lCu ,tL.75 (
For SegmentB: (
Here Lu/C6 exceedsLu:12.4 ft for w21x68, meaning^Fuwill be lessthan
M : Zi|ft-kips sameasSegment
C (
0.60F,
M : 2 2 4 . 5 + 1 6 . 4: 2 4 l f t - k i p s LulCr : 12.2ft < l,; 4 = 22 ksi (

From the curves, the point defined by M : Z4I and Lu/Cu: 13.7 ft lies Stresscheck identical with SegmentC. (
above the hyperbolic curve for w21x6g, indicating that wztxeg is not UseW27x73. I ( ,
adequate.A reentry to the curvesshowsthe next solid line curye above
the I EXAMPLE 9.10.4 ( ,
w2lx68 is that for W24x68; however,that curve is a parabolicone
and for Investigateusing Allowable StressDesign the W16x67 sectionof i., : 60 ksi
that section (
steel that was selectedby Load and ResisranceFactor Design in Exainple9.9.4
M : 24|ft-kips ar Lb/,,fCb:, 18.1ft (seeFig. 9.9.2).The simply supportedspan of 50 ft has la,.eralsupport at rhe
.'.'gg4s (
and midspan.
The W24x68 is nor adequate (
for Segment
A.The nextsecrionis W2lx73 wirh
tlre hy'perboliccun'e governing. SOLUTION (
(a) Determinethe serviceload mom ent M at midspan.
M > 24I ft-kips at Lo/Cu: 13.7ft (
M : wLz/g : l.o(50)2/g : 3l2ft-kips (
(d) Check srresses
for W21xT3, S, = l5l in.3
For SegmentA: (b) Check compact sectionrequirementsfor Wl6x67. Examine 1", the (
rnaximum laterally unbracedlength foi which Ft: 0.66Fr. For ^{,.: 5b ksi,
12,000c, 12,000(1.75) (
4 ( F 1 - 8 ): : 21.1ksi the AsD N{anualgivesL,: 9.2 ft and it n-ill be lessthan that for F,.: 60 ksi.
Lbd/At 24(12)3.46 Thus, Lo - 25 ft is well aboveL.. To illustratethe L. compurationaccording (
ro A S D -Fl .1.
or for Lo/rr:24(12)/7.13: (
135.2< 157.Thus paraboricFormula (F1-6) is 20,000 20,000
_
to be used. L": qiFS: 11.6
6o(2.ao;t2,: rt
(

i
4 ( F 1 - 6 ): 2 4 . 0 - W
1 1:82
1C4D. 0 - g : l1:1r851 (.12 k- sI i
.75) (
76bl 76(10.23s)
Thusthelarger,Ft: 2l.l ksi, governs.
T
L c -
_ : : 8'4rt (
t1 6d[t
(
M 247(12\
f, - - -
Jt, ,," : 1 9 . 1 k s i< f , OK Thus Lr: 8.4 ft, since the snvller value governs. (
c
-,t
(c) Compute the allowablestressFr. Since for such a large Lo as 25 ft it is
likely that lateral-torsionalbucklingndl control the design,go directly to rtte (
For Segmcnt C:
ASD Foririulas(F1-6 or F1-T) and (F1-8) w{thour computi;g /-,, the maxi- (
12.000(1.75) mum laterally unbraced iength at v'hicb 4: 0.60{ when Ca - 1.0. For
4(FI-8) : = 24.7ksi> 0.604 :'
4
: 5Oksi; L,, : 13.9ft; thereforefor
4. : 60 ksi, Lj < 13.9 fr.
(
J{12)3.46 i
t .
I
l i (
- f 2)(12)
Ir . - Lb
4 : 0.604,,==22ksi governs
t-:109
rT (
l .

$
li (
r1'
t "

(
(
--t
f ;.:l-.
. : I

OFl€nAPEDSaCTIONS 569
i
- ."J1 BENDING
9.11/WEAK-AXIS
( oF BEAMS !

568 BUcKLING
9r'LATERAL-ToRSIoNAL
(
( For rveblocal buckling,
From Table9.?.2with Ct: l-75,
(
54 < 109 < 122 .'..Fu(F1-6) aPPlies' . (^,: s 2 6 io K
(
[z F,(Lulrr)t Il't-"
-
l ^ : * : f f i : 3 6 3 ) H:
Fb (Fl-6) - l1' - --1---_-::- The allorvable
.'compactsection" requirements-
(
L- - - 3 0 ( 1 0 ' ) c u) J Thus, the sectionsatisfiesall
( stress F, is
F a : 0 ' 6 6 f , : 3 9 ' 6k s i
, r2
t!'=7'
(,
( : 4o.o- for d.) : 6oksi
425Cb
I
The stress/o u'ascomPuledin Exrnple
(c) Final check and evalua',ion.
(tog)2 9.10.4.
( - 4 o -. o 2 4 k. 5s i : ksi)
ffir: f r,:29.2 ksi ' ( Fu 39'6
(
12,000(1-75) better as this beam' Deeper
( . : 12.'0o0cD
: gd:2e'2ksi The stressis very lorv; lighter sectionswill sen'e
(Ft-8)
.F6 sectionsrvill likely f. pr.i.rred to bettercontrol deflecrion' E
(
ffi
( The lerger value, Ft,: 29'2ksi, controls'
(d) Final checkand evaluation' 9.11WEAK-AXISBENDINGoF|-SHAPEDSECTIoNS
(
M - *(t.p67x5o)' :333 ft-kips The treatmentthus far in this chapterhas dealt
rvirh larera!-torsional buckling
( in a direction perpendicular to the plane of
M -3t3 3 (1 2 ) where instability might occur
NG in the rveaker direciion)'
( /r:
: :34.2ksi > Fr:29-2ksi srrong-axisbenOinf?iftu, is. the.buckling occurs
,, is bent about isl'eak axisl.l'-axis). tha.tis, bending
When an l-shaped-b** the nsutral
( to the planeof the rveb, making the .t'-axis
W16X77 rvould be in a planeperpendicular
The Wi6x67 is nor satisfactory.The next larger section, longer of conceT' Tht beam s'ill tcnd to
(' and the serviceload stress instabilityis no
axis,lateral-torsional
required.The allowablestress.Q- becomes33'2 ksi since that is the principal a'xis
e--' deflect only in rhe direcrionof the loaiing on
( l, it:O.f f.ti. Sincelateral instability $'ill not occur
orientationoffering least.resistance. the onlr
about thek weak axis'
( I EXAMPLE 9.T0.5 doubly symmerri;it,i-rt op.d sectionsbent
and -found to be that mighipi.u.n, them from achieving the plasticmoment conciition
If the W16x6? in 4 = 60 ksi steel that rvas investigated factor
( p-ortion (unstiffenedelemcnt)<rf
inadequatein Examdie 9.10.awere to be lateraliy braced every 5 ft' rvould it rvould be local bucklingof the compression
( be satisfactory?Use Allowable StressDesign' the flanges.

(
SOLUTION \,
at Load and Resistance Factor Design
( (a) Compari'i towith the t. limits of ASD-FI.1. With lateral support "There is nO limit on Lh"'for an;- beam hent
of the membei may reach M "!1 According.to-LRFD-F1.l,
( close intervals ir is iitety that the strength o
rvill not be a compressionclcmcnl
the allorvablestresswiil be Fa: 0'66FnIn Exampie9'10'4'
l. was computed about its mirror axis." In addition, the web
Thus' the limit statesft)r
( to be 8.4 ft, which exceedstie laterally unbraced length Lo
of-5.ft; thus' tlte when the loading is in a planeparallelto the flanges' of the plastic
(lidevelopment
sectionis
'.compact" with regard to lateral-torsionalbuckling limit state' I-shapedsectiorisin."eak u*i, U.ijing are the flange'locai
( "compact" limits of ASD-8.5.1 relating to bickling' In order that
(b) check l,ocalbuckling. Tht momenr strengthand (2) flangelocal '\e (LRFI)-BS as
must not exceed
( local buckling of the flange-and web otttlt also be satisfied' In the calculation bucklinglimit stateis avoided,the flangetr
below, the symbol tr is the actual slenderness ratio of the element and tro is given in Table 9.6:1).
( "campact" section.To prevent flange local buckling'
the ASD limit for a
( Allowable $tress DesiEn
?'5'
ete summarizitdin Scctron
( The allowablestressprovisicnsof AsD'F2
, (
BUCKLING OF 8EAN4S
I / LATERq',--TCRSTONAL I 12 / LATERALBUCKLTNGOtr MONOSYMMETRTC
SECTTONS 571 (
570 I

(.r
9.12* LATERALBUCKLINGOF CHANNELS,
ZEES, (
MONOSYMMETRIC I.SHAPED
SECTIONS,
AND TEES (
The basic developmentof lateral buckling strength-relatedcriteria has as- (
sumedthat loads are appliedverticallythroughthe shearcenter.Furthermore.
(;
the resistanceto lateral buckling consideredthat the shear forces which supporl

developedin the flangeswere equal and the center of twist r"'a.slocatedat Figure9.12.1 Etample9.12.1. ( ,
mid-height.
(
9.6.1.For the flange, (
Channels 1 b , 2 . 9 4 2 \ / 6 5 \ (
Unless loaded through the shearcenter,a channel is subjectedto combined l\ } ' : t t 0.501
\ V,., t
'-)
(,
bendingand torsion.Sincethe shearcenteris not in the planeof the web (see
For the web, ), must not exceedl,o as given in Table 9.6.1,as follows: (,
Fig. 8.5.1),usual loadingsthroughthe centroidor in the plane of the web give
rise to such combinedstress.For loadsin a plane parallel to the web, lateral I h. =f 9.75 \ / 640 \ (
buckling must be considered,even if the torsional fnoment may properly be l l : j : rn
-: : 3 4 . 6 .1l I o : - - - : - : 9 0 . I5 OK
neglected.The.SSRC Guide [6.20]states"if an otherwiselateraily unsup- \ tw 0.282 / \ iF, 1
ported channel has concentrated loads brought in b1' other membersthat Note that neither b1/tr nor h,/t* is given in the LRFD Manual as a property
frame into it, such loads can be consideredas being applied at the shear for channel sections.Thus, for h, the authors recommendusing the dimen-
center, prouided that tlrc span of the framing'mentber is measuredfront rhe sional property 7" to computethe ratio. The rvebsof channelsusuallyhavelou'
channelslpar centerand the framing connectionsare designedior the moment ratios h,/t* so that one might almost assumeA. Ao. This channel is a
and shearat the connection." "compact section" for the local buckling limit states.
For design purposes,Hill [9.32Jindicatesthat lateral-torsionalbuckling (b) Examine the lateral-torsionalbuckling limit state. Plastic moment
equationsfor symmetricall-shapedsectionsmay be appliedfor channels.Such strengthcan developwhen Lb < Lp, where.according to Eq. 9.6.3,
a procedureis statedto err on the unsafeside by about 6% tn extremecases.
Both ASD and LRFD adopt this approach.Equation9.4.33can be usedto
rcprescntthe elasticlateral-torsionalbucklingstrengthof a channelloaded L r : + , ,k:s1i 1 9 f { 4 : 2 . 8 r t
v4, /50
cssentiallyin the plane of its web. The torsion warping constant C* has a
tlificrent expressionthan doesan l-shapedsection;the expressionis avaiiable Mo : Z,Fr': 25'4(50)/12: 106ft-kiPs
in tc.tt Appendix Table A2. The torsion propertiesfor rolled channelsare M,: (F, - 4)E : (50- 10)21 .s/tz : 71.7ft-kips
availablein the 7th edition ASD lr{anual(1970)and in the LRFD Manual
r*r\r
i1.171;theyrvereomittedfrom the 8th editionof the ASD Manual (i980). L,: #r/t
t
+V
l-
* - 4' )/ t
(.F,-4)f I ' l &j (\ F
. ),' [( l . o . o ]
3 EXAI{PLE 9.12.1 where the propertiesX, and X, are nr)t iabulatedin the LRFD lr'lanuali'or
lctcrmine the nominal strengthMn f.ora channel,C72x20.7of steelhaving channelsections.Using X, accordingto I-q. 9.6.7,
It, : 50 ksi, used on a spanof 24 ft w'ithconcentratedloads at the one-third
noints as shorvnin Fig. 9.12.1.It is assumedthat the loads "ct at the shear G
t; '/(:q.ooo)'(o.lz)e.og
'
;cntcr of the channel. X' , :S - * ' - :l790ksi
2i.5 | 212.6)

and X, accordingto Eq. 9.6.8,


SOLUTION
"compact section" 4(112x21.5)2
1a) Determinewhetheror not the sectionsatisfiesthe
rcquirements.For local bucklinglimit stal.esthe flange and rr'ebmust satisfy x z : ^ ? ( * ) ' 3:.88(2e.oo
0 2.6)2 37)'
: 0.00313
tire sanrerequirementsas for l-shapedsections;i.e., tr S tro as given in Table / $
(
( 572 g/LATERAL-TORSTONAL
BUCKLTNG
OFBEAMS 9.12/LATEML BUCKLTNG
oF TiloNOSYMMETF,C
s:ciloNs S73
(
( Then, substituting Xr : 2790 ksi, Xz - 0.00313in.4fti p2,r,: 0.80 in., and For practicaldesignpurposes.rhe AISC Specifications i:.i. l.l5J indicnte
( 4: 10 ksi for a rolled sectionin Eq. 9.6.6above,gives
using the regularprocedures for svnrmetricl-shapedscciic,:suhen rhe t'ottt.
( L' : 8'6 ft pressionflange is larger than the tensionflang,e. This is unsafe u'hcn ti:c
compressionflangeis smallerthah rhe rerrsicnflange.
( Thus, When the tensionflangehas the greaterarea. an eq:;tiort dcrived b1'
(Lo:2.8 ft) . (Lr: I fr) < (L,: 8 . 6f r ) Winter [9.39]may be usedin LRFD design.
(
( The nominal stren_grh!^ is a linear interpolation bet*'een l{, and M, n'u I -
'' "t, 1 + E d ' f ,; li
F": zs-,u'ol/'
w1 (e.12.1)
according to Eq. 9.6.4.The governinglaterallyunbracedsegmeotin'Fig. 9.l1.l
(
is the center one where the maximum momentoccursqith a coastaDtmoment;
I
( therefore,Ct: 1.0 for that segment.Evaluatingthe nominai srreagrbgives rvhere.f..and I, are the momentsof inertia of the compie.sitln and tcnsion
( flanges, respectively,conrputed about the 1'-axis,and S,, is the section

(
Mn:r,l*,-(M,-M,)(Ti:)]=" [e.6.41 modulusS, referredto the compressionflange.

( Tee Sectiqns
- (106- it 7)(#=#)]
Mn: r.o[roo : tr 4 rt-kips E
( A T-sectionmay be thoughtof as a monosymmetric l-shapedsectionthat hls
one zerorvidth flange.Both ASD and LRFD Specificationsare vagueon hou'
(
a T-section beam is to be treated. Rolled structural tees will rarcll' havc
( Zees strengthcontrolledby the lateral-torsionalbucklinglimit slaie.Whenevcra tr.e
The zee-sectionlateral buckling strength is complicated b1 the fact that sectionis loadedin the planeof its web (nromentabout ihe -x-axis)and r. is
(
loading in the plane of the web causesunsynmetrical bending. resulting iess than r' there is no limit on lateralll' unbracedlength. LRFD-FI statcs.
" There i s no l i mit on Lb. . . f or any beam bent about ils m inor axis. " A
( becausea principal axis doesnot lie in that plane.The generalrreatmentof
buckling under biaxial bending is found in Sec.9.14. The effect of biaxial significantnumber of rolled teesare in this categor)'.
( When the tee hauingitsflange in contpressicn is bent ab.ut its nra.;ora.xrs.
bendingon zeesectionsrvasfound by Hill [9.32]to reducethe critical moment
( M* to 90-95 percent of the value given by Eq. 9.1.33. In addirion, rhe---' that is, bending in the plane of the siern and r, ) r,. p:esumabl\ L, for
torsion-bending constant C,, is different than for channels or l-shaped sec- 'r I-shapedmembers,LRFD Formula (F1-4), Eq. 9.6.3. is appiicablc.Thc
( maximum unbracedlength L, at rvhich inelasticlateral-torsionalbuckling
tions.
( For design purposes,in view of the fact that unbraced zsss Ne relatively occursis givenby LRFD Formula(F1-6).Eq. 9.6.6,rvhere:or the tec lraving
rare, AISC does not provide for them. The authorssuggestusing one-half the the flange in compressionthe section modulus 5,. is thai refcrrcd to thc
( compressionflange.
valuesobtained using M", ftom Eq. 9.4.33
( -1.
ETEXAMPLE 9.12.2
Monosymmetric l-Shapes Investigatethe moment strength of a structural tee section WT?xl9 both
( I-shaped sectionssymmetricalabout the y-axis, but uas1,'rrimetrical about the when usedwith its flangein compressionand rvith the flan3c in tension.Use
x-axis, are surnmarized in the S.sRc Guide [6.8] and b-v Ciark and Hill [9.26). Load and ResistanceDesignand A36 steel.Shorvhoir the strcngthis affected
( by lateral bracing.
The additional variable involved is ye, the distancefrom the centroid of the
( -eirdercross-sectionto the shearceoter(positiveif the shearcenter lies between
the centroid and compressionflange,otherwisenegative). SOLUTION
( The 4th edition of the SSRC Guide [6.8] pror{des coasiderable detaii Case1: F[ange in Contpression
regarding procedure for monosymmetric beams; largely from the work of (a) Plastic strength.The flange must satisfy that tr < i, to precludethe
(
Galambos[9.6J,Anderson and Trahair [9.33J,Kitipornchai asd Trahair [9.34], flange local buckling limit statefrorn reducingthe strength.
( and Nethercot [9.35]. More recently, Kitipornchai, wang, and Trahair [9.36],
I -b,l 6. i70 6s
wang and Kitipornchai 19.371, and Kitipornchai and wong-Chung [9.38Jhave lL: - - - - : - - - - - - - - : \6 .. 6l fii - : Z : l C r . r i ox
( 2( 0. 515) "
treatedthe subject. \ 2,r I \ \ ! F, I
(
, (
(
574 9/ LATEML-TORSICNAL BUCKLING OF BEAMS 912 / LATERALBUCKLINGOF MONOSYMI"iIETRIC
S=CTIONS 575
( ,
I
Since the stem (web) is primarily in tension, L for the rveb does not have to 1o; Inetastic lateral-torsionalbuckling limit state.When the extremefiber
in bending reachesthe yield stress{,,' the nominal momentstrengthis (
satisfyany limit. Thus,
Maximum L{n: Mr: Z'Fr: 7 '45(36)/12 : 2?"4ft-kips M, : (F, - F,) I,/(y, distanceto outer fiber of flange) ( ,
(b) Examine lateral-torsionalbuckling limitation on achieving plastic (
moment strength.There are two casesto consider: (1) When the radius of tr{,: F,I,/(d - y)
(
gyiation r.. is lessthan r., and the loadingis in the plane of the stem, the beam Because the section is monosymmetrichaving a shorter distance to the
will bend in this weakdirection and will have no tendencyto buckle laterally. compressionextremefiber than to the tensionextremefiber, the strengthma1' (
121When the axis of symmetryis the weak axis (i.e., r,> rr)-there is some be controlled by either extremefiber. The flangecontainsresidualstress;thus ( ;
possibilityof lateral-torsional buckling. L{, is used. At the tension fiber in the stem, there will be no significant
For this casewher€ /' ) r,,, it rviil be conservativeto treat the structural residual stress.Thus, (
tee flangein the samemanneras the l-shapedbeam flange. LRFD-F1.1 and
"singly symmetricl-shapedmembersrvith the com- M,: (36 - 10)(23.3)/L.54/r2 : 32.8ft-kips ( .
F1.2 are applicablefor
pression flange larger-than the tensionflange.. . loaded in the plane of the Mr: 36(23-3)/(7.05- 1.54)/12: 72j ft-kips (
web." A tce sectionwould be a limiting caseof an unsvmmetricall-shaped
It is clear that the stem reaches!, before the flange extremefiber reaches (
secrionhaving zero tensionflange.Sinceteesand doubl; anglesare specifi-
callv trcated by LRFD-Fl.5, one might conclude that thel'' are excludedfrom
({' - 4)' (
\ Calculatethe limit L, at which Mn: if,; the formulasin LRFD-F1.3are
LRFD-FI.1 and F1.3.However,in generalit seemslogical to include teeswith .-applicable for sections"...singly symmetricrvith the compressionflange
other monosymmetric sections.Followingthis latter approach,a structuraltee (
larger than cr equal to the tensionflange ... ." In the useof thoseformulas.
might be used in plasticanalysiswhen the maximum laterally unbracedlength (
the sectionmodulus S,. referredto the compression flangemust be usedfor S.
Lo doesnot exceedLro of.LRFD Formula(F1-1), Eq. 9.6.2.
in computing Xt and X, (usingEqs.9.6.7and 9.6.8).Thus, (
3600+ 2200M1/Mp
Lpa: I ls.o.zl ti |TGJA qrE foi98(5s8) (
Ir,ki Xt:;il 2 23.3/1.54U
r,r 42.6) (
For situations where plastic analysisis not to be used, the nominal
strengrhmay still reachthe plasticmomentstrengthMp rvhenthe flangelocal C i S-"2 5 . 5 4 | 2 3 . 3 / -7,. 5 4 \ 2 (
"Xz" : 4 + t + I : 4' i_3 1
. 3, - ' | | : 0 . 0 0 0 0i ni 9. . z r k i p[ ss.z6 . s ]
buckling limit stateis precludedand the maximum lateraliy unbracedlength I, \ GJ ! \ c ( 0 . 3 9 8 )/ (
L, doesnot exceedL, of,LRFD Formula(F1-4), Eq. 9.6.3,
r..X, (
300 r': t; + f l *Xz(Fr-r,)t Ie.6.6]
Lr:@r, [ e . 6 .]3 1p,:;11 (
, 1 . 5 5 1 3 9 3 5, t
Note is made that the shapefactor (ZJS,) for a structural tee is commonly L,: - 10):: 27.7
* r'1+ 0.0000i9(36 rt (
higher than the 1.5 for a rectangularsectionand is frequ:ntly as high as 2.0. G6:fri\'1
(
When this high shapefactoris encountered, and if Mp is fuily utiiized,thereis buckling.When l, exceedsl,' and tr c/oes,:,.,t
(d) Elastic larerai-torsional
likely to be yieldingat senice load. Using some phsti: sirlrl rs;':siified. exceed).,, LRFD-FI.5 givesFormula (F1-15)to predict ,\/., for laterei-1,-r- (
perhapseven the full ,rtfo;hon'ever,it shoulddependon t^:'l :lirpe lic:('r. sionalbuckling.For most structuralteesthe computedlf", s'ill far erceed :i.
For the Wfixl9. (or M, if it is less);thus, Mr will governthe nominrl strengthfor most cil:-'S i
',vhen Lo exceedsL,.Compute M* f.or severalt'aluc'sof. Lu for thr'givr'n (
r,
_2.04:1.3 structuraltec,
r!. 1.55 (
ConrlEI,GJ I t---------=r \
buckll:3 is a possiblelimit
Sincc the r,/r, ratio erceedsunitr',lateral-torsional t[",: * /i + B2l < t/" L R F D F o r n r u l (aF 1 - 1 5 )
[ r
stltc. Tl'nrs,Lra and Lo arc computed. L^ (
Lpa: 100r, : 12.9ft (f,ot Mr/Mo : 0) where
(
l, : 50r, - 6.5 ft B _ t23(;) LRFD Formula(F1-16) (
to use Loa> Lo.
It docs not seemreasonable
\
(
(' MGf.{OSyr,rMErRrcSECT|O|.JS
9.12lLATEMLEUCKLTNGOF
BUCKLTNG
9/LATERAL-TORSTONAL OF BEANTS 5n
(
(
The plus sign applies when the stem is in tension as for this case.Evaluating When the formulas for doubli symmetricl-shapedsectionsare applied to
( for the WT7x19. singly symmetric l-shaped sections having compressionflange largcr thrn
tensionflange,and exrcndedto include the stnrctural tee (having az:;ro u'idth
( 1.o"E,fB3(M9sffi 1^
M,,:t["*fiTrt] f,--=;r tcnsionflange),the resultis very consen'ative, followingpath ABCDE on Fig.
( 9.12.2.The value of L, should actuallybe about 79 ft. LRFD-F1.3 indicates
using the singly symmetric l-shape formulas to obtain L,; horvever,LRFD-
( Appendix F, Table F1.1 indicates obtaining L, by intersecting the .11..,
130'000 r r------=t
M.,: -;- + /1 + A''J equationfor tee sectionswith l}/,,. This later procedureis the more logical one
( lz6
[ B
for tee sections.Thus, the consen'ativerelationshipof applying M,, for singly
( symmetric l-shaped sectionsrvould follow path ABCDE on Fig. 9.12.2,
where
( however, using M,, specifically for. structural tees gives the most logical
relationshipfollowing path ABDE on Fig. 9.12.2.
B : * 2 . 3 1_ | ly/ rT3r
/ 7.05\ 93.7 / + for stemin rension
*.
( - : \
- rot stem in con:pression Wten the shapefactor of any monorymmetricl-shaped section or tee is
r , L t j 0.398 T [ / Iarger than about 1.5 for the larger flange in compressioncase, the conseruatiue
(
approach is to restrict the ma:vrnunr strength Mn to equal Mr: F.E, as
( The full nominal strength Mn vanationwith l, is shogn in Fig. g.12.?.Note indicatedby LRFD-FI . 5.
that when Lu exceedsI, of 27.7 ft the strengthis still governedby reaching Ce-ce2: Stem in Contpression
( the yield stress in tension at the outei end of the stem of the tee until l, (e) Plastic moment strenglh. When the stem is in compression.the
( reachesabout 79 f.t, after which Mo controlis.Thus, for this sectionhaving the indicationof LRFD-Table B5.1 is that tro has no applicabilityfor "stcms of
flange in compressionthe lateral-torsionalbuckling limit state nill not control tees".Sincethe referenc€to tee rvebsis for a uniform compressionsituation.
( in the practical range (L, well below 79 ft). referenceto l,o rvould be inappropriate, Horvever,when the tee web is in
( compressionbecauseit is on the compressionside of the neulral axis. the
situation is similar to an l-shapedsectionbent in its weak direction. If the
( stem of the tee satisfiestro for an unstiffenedflange,as follows,
=:
( M P = 2 2 '4'\ :,
A E
65
Compression Io:ffi
N
: l

(' ].: ,:
:5i
'-- t
7',
.it
(
\.' ; 18 Tension
"' ;l then it should be acceptableto use the maximum nominal strength ,\y'"cqual
:;l

( \ t.'.
g
:l
*t
to Mr. Again, caution shouldbe usedwhen the shapefactor exceedsabout 1,5
r6 ,\ ':I
as mentionedabove for the flange in compressioncase.From a practical point
{ '-:;
. a l

of view, structural tee webs will never satisfy the tr, limit. However.r tcc
0, 14 : \ Mv: 12'7''
\
M^. = LRFD - l

(
o "'ct
shaperveldedof two platesmight be made to satisfythe limit; in u'hich case
u,
12 Formula (Fl-15) ':i M, could equal Mo v*en the shapefactor is not too high.
( o
E . l For this example,
o €l
F
( *l

(
6
.E
o
::i I
+ l
:tt
+l
' ll o :a' 7.0s-
0.31
- L
\ i
1 )L1' /l z- l I -
65
: 10.8) NC
z L,: 27.7' - l
il \'"o i1
( usingdoubly il
L,= 78.8' : l Thus the web local buckling limit state precludesdeveloping the plastic
Lp: 6'5' symmeiriclormulas usingtee * l
, a a

( lormula moment strength.


g t
?-,
(l; Inelastic local buckling of the web. The limit tr, for the r';cb in
( . ' * compressionis, from LRFD-85.1,
0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 ( 100 110 '*
g

(
' l{ ^ ' E
:tzt
3.
Lalerallyunbraced length LD (feet) .t 1 d 7 . 0 r r5z l \
Itr: - -"''l : ^.2] NC
( Figure 9.12.2 Nominal moment streDgth Mn vs laterally unbraced length .1, for i' 1
I l1
\"- t,. 0-31
( WT7x19 having fla::ge ia compression. -rl
.aF

.*, !

:.( 't
'-''
57E 9/ LATERAT*-T0R$oIIAL oF BEAMS
BUCKLING t$
tf
BRACINGDESIGN
9.13/ LATERAL (

_ (
Since ), > tr,', the efficiency of the stem in compressionis reduced because
local buckling may be expectedprior to the yield stress{ being reachedat
rhe extremefiber. Thus Q,'ts lessthan unity as discussedin Sections6.18and
ffi
t*
are given below:

Flange in ComPression Flange in Tension


(

6.19.Using LRFD-AppendixB5-3a,with d/t*:22.7,


IF Lb Mo Mn Lb M", Mn
(

itzt \ /tzo \
| + : 2l.Zl< ZZ-l< | .==: 29.31
\/+ I \i4, t lfr (f0 (ft-kips) (ft-kiPs) (ft) (ft-kips) (ft-kiPs) (
(

ld\-
--' l$
Itr
NA 22.4
(Max M, : Mo)
NA
(Max M"
11.8
:0,48.) (
- 0.00715t;
Q,: 1.e08 I rF-"
(
,|uq
: 0.93
: 1.908- 0.00715(22.7),/36
IE
l+
Lot
L,
L,
6.5

79
NA

L2.7
22.4

72;l
NA
68
I.lA
11.8
11.8
11.8

.11.5
(

70 r1.5
and
Then l{, which is controliedby the stemextremefiber in compression
cannot exceedM, genetally,may be calculated
M,: (Fr- F,)tJy < Q,FTIJG - y) ,
llli ",' 80'
90
100
12.s
11.1
10.0
12.5
11.1
10.0
80
90
100
10.2
9.2
8.4
. 10.2
9.2
8.4
(
(

'' :-? l-\


|.
i
t20 9.1 9.1 120 7.1 7.1 (
(
:;r3','ll[,: l',,0,,,2
:,,8r,kips ilo applies for flangein compression
only'
' t--
l (

The next step would be to compute 1,. Using the LRFD formulas fot M",
l'
t -
(
for a teesection,the valueof L, at which M., equalsM,of.11.8 ft-kips will be
L,. The alternative of using the formulas for a doubly symmetric section as
t:
I
t
I
9.13T LATERALBRACINGDESIGN I

contnue (
n'as done in part (c) of this example is not permitted when the compression i The questionsof what constitutesbracingand horv to design bracing
of practicing engineers. The subject is includ.ed in this
flange is smaller than the tensionflange- to be major concerns (.
bracing design is the
(g) Elastic lateral-torsionalbuckling. LRFD Formula (Fi-15) for tee chapter 6".uur. a majoi item oi .on..- in leteral
in beams' The develop- (
secrionsas usedin part (d) aboveis still valid when the stemis in compression. ,.r*uin, required to pr.u.ot lateral'torsionalbuckling
columns as weil
Horvever,the constant B must be taken negative( - ); thus, the buckling stress ment of this section,however'is applicableto the bracing of (
q'ill be lorver for the tee in this orientation. ttte concept oi braced and unbraced systems was briefly
as beams.In Sec.O.i
regard to the effective length factbr K. In the follorving discus- (
130,000 discussedin
structural system
r { n : T' [r'bu * /I+r l sion, the emphisis in on bracedsystems;that is, the overall (
to an adjoining system th1 is b:aced'
is braced by crossbracingor attac-hment
14' Bracing fOr (
The bracing require*.o; for framesare Ueatedin Chapter
l T . a s \r %.7 individual beams or columns may consist of cross bracing where the arjel
B:*t'[ be prorided at discrq{ (
L, stiffness of the bracing elements is utitized; it ma,v
",lVt*:- the member beii'{
locetions by fiexural iembers framing in transverseto (
of the bracing member are
Sctting ,11.,equal to M,: 11.8ft-kips, then solvingfor Lu givesL,, I braced, rvhereinboth adal and flexuraLstiffnesses (
L,: 6 8i t I.
l'
utilized; or such bracing may be
light gageroof deckingor wall
provided
panels'
continuously by materia! such as
(
li
-fhe Little is available"in specificationsbut point bracing has been ug-acd br
sion is
nominal strengthrelationshipfor the tee having its stem in compres-
not presented in graphical form; however, id remains constant at
accordingto M*.
g.F,E. (that is, 11.8fr-lcips)to 1,, then decreases
k
te
Zuk [9.a0],Winrer [9.4U, M*py [9.421,Pinius t9.431.Galambos [9.44t
[9.45i, Lay and Calu*Uos [9.46i, Taylor
and Qal'o [9-{?f Hartmann
Urdal
t9'4t}
\
(
The values needed to.obtain the relationshipsbetween Mn and Ln for
$
E Mutron and Trahair [9.49],*O iii.A*d and Segedin t9.501. In addition Yura
(
w, provided simplified practical tr€atment'
both flangein compressionand flangein tensionon the WT7X19 of 436 steel b t9.5U and Lutz anOfistrer t9.52lhave
F (

H (
(-
tl
(
(
I / LATERAL-TORSTONAL
BUCKLTNG
OF BEAMS 9.r3lLATEnat gRnCtruG
DESIGN 581
(
(
What follows is largely a combinationof the work of Winter [9.41],Galambos
( ,/
Ig.Ml, and Yura t9.5U. y'-p=xt
(
( Polnt Bracing for Elastic Columns and Beams
( Consider the axially loadedcolumn of Fig. 9.13.1awherethe top and bottom
of the menrber are assumedto be supported in such a way that no side
(
movement occurs at one end relative to the other. Such restraint rvould
( constitute a braced system.The bracing to create such restraint may be
ccnsideredas a spring at the top that is capabie of developinga horizontal
( rcactionequal to the springconstantft times the deflectionJ. When the brace
( has a large spring constant(that is, the brace is vcry stifl; the deflection A
couid be close to zero and yet the spring may provide a large enough K aeat L

( horizonral force to prevent any side motion (sides*'ay)at the top. This would Figure 9.13,2 Brace stiffness relative to concept of
"brace(i" (K - 1'0) and
..inbraced" (K > 1.0) system5fel s6lrrmn hinged at top and bottom.
( be the situation in Fig. 9.13.1b.The equilibrium requirementis sho*'n in Fig.
9.13.1c,wherein a sidesrvayis shown. If one imagines this as a slightly
( deflectedposition, then in order to haveeQuilibrium,it is requiredthat
the elastic P",. Thus the largest required stiffness k,0." is
( PL:QL:(kA)L (e.13.1) P^-
( kiar a: ( e . 1 3). 3
If (/cA)t is lessthan PA, sidesway occurs.If (k A)L is greaterthan PA, i
( no sideswayoccurs and the column would be consideredbraced. The ideal The conceptis shownby the plot of P vs kL in Fig. 9.13.2,rvhereinu'hen
brace, then, would be one that has just enough stiffness k to prevent k exceeds&,0-, P", it reachedand the column bucklesrvithout end transla'
(
movement (ar the top in this example);tbat is, tion (sider*uil in other words,it is a braced system.When k is less than
( kid""r,a sidcswaydeflectionwill occur such that P : kL; in other rvords'a
P
O:Z (e.13.2) so-calledunbracedsystem.The major treatment of unbraced s1'stemsis in
(
Chapter 14, devoted to rigid frames.
( ilext, extend the congeptto a two-storycolumn within a bracedsystem-as
fi.... **imum load fcr which bracingwouid be required is the elasticbuckling shown in Fig. 9.13.3.WhJn no displacementoccurs at mid-height,i.e., fuli
( load P"r, or the load causingyielding or inelastic buckling if that is lower than
(
(
r- f"' l"' la,
+

ffiffi
O=kJ
(
T_
( II
( I
L
( i L'

(
(
(
(
(
I
1_
I
lP
' (a)
l,
(b)
t"
(c)

Figure 9 13.1 Bracing for a single-storycoluon.


ryA
h' 1.' f,., Figure 9.13.3 lrtrid'heightbracc for a
two-story column-
(a) (b) (c)

t (
-
DESIGN
s 13/ LATERALBRACB{G 583
582 9/LATERAL-TORSICI.JAL
BUCKLTNG
OF BEAr"rS
/

bracing is provided, the column will buckie at a load nearly equal to Assunting the forces Q acting in opposite directions (Fig. 9.13.4b) glves I

t'
12EA
QL/3: (kA)t: P",A; :
k,0." (e.13.9)
-Pc r: -
(t/r)'
(e"13.4) + (

The configuration requiring the highestspring constant is the correct one,


( ,
In other words, one may imagine that a hinge exists at rrud-height. Buckling
occurswhen the column snapsinto the two half-wave mode of Fig. 9.13.3c. that which will permit the highestcritical load. If a lesserstiffnessis used,an
Taking moments about the imaginary hinge location r*ith the column alternate buckling mode will occur.at a lower load, accompaniedby displace-
deflectedby an amount A, as in Fig. 9.13.3b,gives - ' ment at the springs.
By the same pr@ess, k,o.r may be determined for any trumber of equal
(
r*a: f,r (e.13.s) spans.In general,
, BP", (e.13.10)
i

SinceQ:kA, Kid.ul:
T (
(&A)r
P"rA: (e.13.6) where B varies from 1 for one span to 4 for infinite equal spans.The variation
(,
is given in Fig. 9.13.5.
As in the one-storycolumn, if kid..r is the necessarystiffness to create a nodal
point (zero deflection)at mid-heightof the two-story columr, then I

, ZPo (
Kiara: (e.r3.7) A

T
For situations with more than two equal spans,the same procedure may - k,aetrL
, r r r 2 (
be used to obtain k,o"r,.Examinationof Fig. 9.13.4for three equal spans r*'ill
show that the spring forces Q can act either in the same or in opposite (
1
directions. Assuming they act in tbe same direction (Fig- 9.13.4a), using
imaginary hinges at one-third span points, and taking moment-cr*'henslightly (
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Figure 9.13.5 Variations of required
deflectedat the bracepoints,gives spring constant for column with number (
Numberof EqualSpans of equal unbracedsPen\.
(
QL : (/. A)L : P",A; k,0." - P n (e.13.8)
L
Thus Eqs. 9.13.3,9.73.7,9.13.9, and 9.13.10give the ideal brace stiffness (
to prevent translation at the points where the bracesact.

Y
l'- In addition to stiffness, a brace must provide adequatestrenglft. The
strength Q required of an ideal brace is (
otr
*il' Q : kra,aL (e.13.1u (
:i\
ll I
ll t , O but until bucltling occurs,A is zero (seeFig. 9.13.6);thereforetherewill be s'i'
il '-+u.5*- brace force in the ideal systemuntil buckling occurs. (
llr Compression membersin real structures are not perfectly straight, per-
(
ll"*.A3
llj
fectly alignedvertically,nor perfectlyloadcd as assumedin calculations;therl
is always an initial crookednesss.In other words, A is not zero even wher (
-----*
o ill
x
there is no compressiveload P acting. Reexaminethe single-storycolumn taf
Fig. 9.13.1assumingthereis an initial deflection Ao that exiss evenwhen P b (
.v zero. Then, as shown in Fig 9.13.7,equilibrium requires (
+ ( &A ) L : P ( A + , t o ) (9.13,r2)
lP., Figure 9.13.4 Colusrn braced to make (
three cqual spanr for P : P"r,
(
(
(
C
(
9/TATERAL-Tm|ONAL 8Ucl(LNG OF BEAMS
( 9.r3 / LATERAL
BRACTNG
DEStcN

(
( accidentaleccentricityof loaciing,Winter [9.411suggeststaking A0 from
7/750 to l/500 of the length.
(
( Load and Resistance Factor Design - Point Bracing
( To obtain design equationsuseful in LRFD, Winter [9.41] has suggcsted
A : Ao : L/50A. Substitutionof this in Eqs. (9.13.14)and (9.13.15)gives
(
designequations.
Figure 9.13.6 Brace force relative to
( colurtttt load fOr ideal system. l. For stiffness&,"q,r.
( &r.qd: Zkro"^ (9.13.16)
( P-I A"\
. k'*-o-a :- : l t + + l (e.13.13) 2. For noninal strength Q n,
( L\ a/
Since krarut: P"r/L, Eq. 9.13.13 then becomes Qn: k i a , a ( 2A o )
(
/ An\
Qn : kid".r(0.0041) (e.r3.17)
( k , . q d : t ' o - \ 1. T i (e.13.i4)
where kid."l = pPrr/L.
( which is the sriffness requirement for compressionmembers havinginitial
( crookedness10.
The strengtlr requirement is then Allowable Stress Design- Point Bracing
(
i A^\ For ASD a factor of safetyFS must be appliedso that the sen'iceload P may
( Q : k , , e a:Ak , o * t t* T l O be usedinsteadof P.r. If FS : 2, the strengthrequirementmay be expresscd
in term of serviceload P: however.the stiffnessrequired*ill be the sarnein
( Q:ki*.a(A+,fo) ( e .3
i .15) ASD as in LRFD.
( Normal toleranceson crookednessof compressionmembersrvould vary
l. Stiffnessrequirement,
from 1/5AA to 1fl000 of the length [9-41]. The AISC Code of Standard-.'
( (e.13.1s)
Practice* indicates acceptableout-of-plumbnessto be L/500. Considering ... ,.
A.^^.t
_
- 1r.
a^:A."1

(
2. Strengthreqilirentent,
(
, t " ,a I
( rT-t a:k:ry(o.oo4t) (9 . 1 3 . 1 e )

( rvherekid.or: BP;/L: 2FP/L.


( Where the strengthof the compressionmember being braced is controllcd
L
(
(
II by an elastic'limit state F., S 4,, as would be the case for columns, the
foregoingis applicable.When larye plastic strain must be accommodatcdat
bracingpoints, the designsuggestions of Lay and Galambos[9.46]for inelastic
( I steel beams,as discussedlater in this section,should be applied.
II P To summarizethe procedure:
( (a) No load applied (b) When load is applied
l. Establishthe bracing locationsand compute the strength {. for the
( Figure 9.13.7 Column sitb iaitial crookedaessAo. compressionelement(either entire column, or compressionflange of
( beam) being braced.
2. EstimateB from Fig. 9.13.5basedon the nunrber of equal unbraced
( 'Code of Standord Practice
for Steel Buildings and Bidges, Arnerican Insritute of Sreel Consiruc- lengths.
tion, adopted Septemberf , 19E6(Section7.11.3.1). 3. Cornputek,r..1: pPr,/L.
r (
(
586 I / TJTERA:_-TCRSTONAL
BUCKLTNGOF BEAt.,lS 9.13 / LATEML BRACTNGDESTGN 587 (
(
4. Select bracing area loruo SO that a stiffness 2kia"^t u'ili be obtained. Vertical beam zuppon
(
For axial stiffness.
(
t-
t\ :2kia."t
w27 x 84
e6"l
beams re (
IAE\ IEI ,
| - l : 2 8 '' ; r l l - I (
\ L /0,".. \ L /comprcsscd
clcmcnr

(
'"*o
Required
Ab,*.:
u's 21r2fF I |/L= ) ' ., (e.13.20)
\/'^J'- (
\ 8 b , " " ./ \ t " . - o ) ( 4 " * r / r ) '
(
If Eo*p: Eb,o..and Lor.." = l.oop. then Eq. 9.13.?0becomes
'"*n
R e q u i r e dA b r ^ n = 2 9 n ' , = (9.13.1i) Vertical beam *pPort

\ L,"^o/, .)' (a) Plantiew

5. Venf;v that the requiredforce can be carried.by the brace.Using Eq. Figure9.13.8 Datafor F:anple9.13.1.
9.13.17,
R e q u i re dQ n : k ,o J " ,(0.004L
) regionof the beam)as
compression
Pu = r-,Ar/2: 36(24.s)/2= 450kips
: BP",
i(o.oo4r) The slenderness ratio lcomr/r, of.the compressionelementto be braced,
: 0.004B{, ( e1 3 . 2 r ) in this casethe beamslenderness ratio relatingto lateral-torsional
buckling,is
l.o*o: tu(t2)
The norrunal strength Q, of the brace. including considerationof :oa
buc k lings r r e n g thm
, u s te q u a lo r e rc e e drh eval uesi venbl ' E q.9.13.11. ty 2.07

I ELTIIPLE 9.13.1 For threeequal unbracedlengths,estimateB : 3 from Fig. 9.13.5.Usin-e


Desig-aa brace(braceA) to providelateralsupport for a W27x84 beam(beam E q. 9.13.21.
A) posltionedas shown in Fig. 9.13.8.Assumerhe bracesare 7.5 ft long. are
attach:d near ihe compressionflange,and are located along the supporred Required/0r""..: ZBoz--A@*e-\-
beam al the one-ihirdpointsof a 48-ft span.Use Load and ResistanceFacl.rr \L*^p/ r I
Desig::a;rd .{36 steel.
: 2( 3)"'( ': 'r =( : \ : o'085sq in
SOLUTION (e3)-
Sincethe bracing locationsare given,the first step is to esrim:lrethe fr-.:lr'
in the con:rpression zone of the beamor bearnsrvhenthe nominal strength-\,'.. lVi:ile ii:r nominal sizervill satisfythis area requirement,it must be remenr-
rrf the beamsis reached.Sincethe bracesare 16 ft apart, the srrens,th of ll:: bere.j that as a compression elementit shouldpreferablynot erceedKL/r :
bcam could be basedon 4, lessthan {. For this W27x84 section.L.- - ...) 200 according to LRFD-B?. When severalbeams are to be braced, tlie
ft anc L, : 24.9 ft. Thus. whenbraced.ivery16 ft this beamu'ill hrvc .t/,. i-'ss requiredlb,u." for the mostheavilvloadedbracewould be brsedon the total
t
than -'./r. Sincestiffnessusuallycontrolsover strength.it nrel' be practicalto i - compressionarea of all beamsto be braced.
t
rssurle the entire flange has the stressd acting. The stress.f., bas.-don L
L 7.5(12)
ilterai-iorsional buckling could be determinedif dcsired; it probablv would lvllr r-' : - : 0.45in.
have been determinedwhen designingtbe beanr.Thus, estimatingthe roral t-,
t: 200 200
I

nominal compressiveload P", (treat this as the nominal strength {, of rhr- i :


SelectC4x5.4 as the tightestsectionwith ru
I
t 0.45in. (rt:0.{49 in.).
l__

t.
!--
;
590 9 / LATEFiL-TCRSTONAL
BUCKLTNG
OF BEAMS 9 13 y'LATERALBRACING'DESIGN 591
(
(
Using diaphragm action can greatly reducethe stiffnessrequirementfor ThE design recommendationsare:
( point bracing. ln this case,if diaphragmaction can be developed.rhe stiffness
l. For axial strength, the required cross-sectionalarea is
',( rcquirementis one-fourthas much'asrequiredwithout any diaphragmaction.
\letal dcck *'ith 2l'in. concretefill would provide many times thi required
( sirffnes:;.Even the diaphragmaction of the metal deck without the concrere Required
rb,.o:i-"'-tltil
- j ,1,'"T (e.13.23)
'
( slab is likely' to provide more than the 90 kips/ft required.Trearmentof f a" ,i"" lL 3 ( L,"/b)
diaphragm bracing is generallyoutside the scope of this text; horvever,a
( 2LLLR
number of relerences[9.53-9.64]on diaphragmaction are includedat the end where Lu":
of this chapter. Lr+ L*
( Lt = unbracedlength to lefr of bracedpoint
(b) Determineweld requiredto attachjoists ro top flangeof W14x34.The
( force required is, accordingto F;q.9.13.22, LR : unbracedlength to right of braced point
b: width of compressionflange
( RequiredQn:0.0048P- le.13.221 d,,: strain at strain harCening divided by yield strain, e,r/€t,
( (A value of 12 may be reasonable for steelsup to F" : 60 ksi
take B : 4 as for a seriesof point braces,
Consen'ative!,v
Ie.46].)
( a. : elasticmodulusdivided by strain hardeningmodulusof elastic-
R e q u i re dQn :0 .0 0 4 (4 )1 8 1 = 2 .9ki ps
( ity, Er/E*

( Using a ;-in. fillet rveldwith E70 electrodesand the SMAW process,the 2. The axial stiffnessrequirementis satisfiedwhen
nominal strengthR,. per inch is
( Lbro,
Rn,,: *(0.707)0.60(70)
: 5.57kips/in. L^t
(
( rvherelo : longerof the two adjacentunbracedlengths.
R e q u i r eLdn : :0.5 in.
( *: # In addition to the axial strengrh and .stiffnessrequirements,Lay and
Galambosindicated[9.461that u'hen only the compressionflange is braced
( L'sefr-in.*'eld.E7A,L: 0'-0i". there are additional flexural strengthand stiffnessrequirementsthat must be
(" satisfied.These flexural requirements(not given here) give overly large and
deep bracing members.Recent studies[9.48] indicate that flexural require-
( Bracing Requirernents for tnelastic Steel Beams ments are unnecessaryfor lateral bracing locations away from beam vertical
( When abilitl" to 4,ccommodate reactions.When the compressionflange is braced,point restraintgiving the
largeplasticstrain is desiredat bracingpoints,
such as *'hes plastic strength or plastic analysis is used in deslgn. the necessaryaxial strength and stiffness is sufficient. Lateral bracing at vertical
( supports undoubtedly does need some flexural strength and stiffness tc
nrocedurein lhe previoussectionmay no[ be adequate.Lay and Galambos
( preventa beam from tipping, but ordinary framing at such locationsgeneralll'
i9-451li:r'e de'.eicpecia set oi rules for designin caseswhcresuchhigh plastic
;t:ain {rci-1:l*: cap3slty)is rcqurredto be accommodated. providesadequateflexuralstrengthand stiffness.
(
In cii::t- l:3ctng requirements are basedon a rotrtion capaciryR copsis-
( rent u'ith tl:e be:ni unbracedlengthslenderness r EXAI{PLE 9.13.3
ratio givcnbl,.Eq. q.s.z.It has t

':.r lotrnCt:l'i'*'itnln the laterallyunbraced For the beamof E.x.rnrple9.13.1(Fig.9.13.8)determinethe brlce sizerequiret!
length"locll trucklinqcausesa
I

a
( if plastichingerotationis requiredat the bracingpoints.
.;:l.liiincnt ci the iraci capacityof the mcmbei and thcreforediiines the I
I
( :r-rrrtionclra;ii..' of the beam"Ig.46l. I
Tite de:-ri'e:icnof Lay and Galambos[9.46Jhasdeteslined the madnrum
t
I
SOLUTION
( iateral morn:ni that can developin the compressionflangc under a unifornt
I (a) Determinethe sectionrequiredfor axial strength.use Eq. 9.13.23,
( Irlu'rlrl€rlt.iI,: Mo, by using the strain distributions on the conroression
i: , o" - t
(
flange due to (a) compressiondue to M,: Mo and (b) the laterrl tending ?

i Required
rb,o".:I lf :t;/**0,
strains rvhen lccal bucklingoccurson the "compression"sirje. f-
\"-'1", 1\3/(L^,/b)
( I

(
t
I

, ( I
F

(
(
9 / LATEML-TORSTONAL
BUCKLTNG
OF BEAr"tS I I3lLATERAL BRAC|NGDESTGN 589 {
(
Check stiffness:

FP",- 3(450)
kia"rl : : 7'0 kiPs/in'
T 1,(D
AE 1.59(29,000) spaeIng
k".t : : : 503kips/in.
;-
& 7.s(12)
bracc

uhich far exceeds the minimum of 2 times&,0"u to account for initiel


crookedness. \ r u, o ^ ro
Check strengthof the brace:
Figure9.13.9 Beamlaterallybracedby joists.
lor... 7.5(12)
:_ :--rnr
Zo{J
,, J;i-
, For four or more point bracesalong the compressionflange.p : 4; thus,
x . : Yr r l Tn z E
"c _
- ' :2
" Voro
fy :2.25 [6.7.3] , BP.., 4(181) -^- . .
V o=E kid"ur:;: :i81 kips/ft
4
For 1,. > 1.5,
kr.qd= 2k;a"^r: 362kips/ft
Fo: l o . s t t \ r 0 . 8 7 7 \ : 6.2
ksi
t=" Jr,: f zreJru [6.7.8]
Assumingthe joists have metal deck adequatelyattachedto them. thcre {
A c t ua l Qn : F " rAb ru o : 6 .2 (1 .5 9 ): 9.9 ki ps
rvill developin the deckingan in-planeshear,knorvnas diaphragnz actiott.rhat (
R e q u i r e d Q ' ' =0 ' 0 0 4 8 P " will restrain the relative axial movement of two adjacenr;oists. thercbr' \
: 0.004(3X450) i n \ -: 5.4
< A tkipr
. : - ^ - ^9.9 kips restrainingrelative lateral movementbetweentrvo adjacenrlaterall-''bracc-d {
-. OK
pointson the beambeingbraced,suchas points A and .B oi Fig.9.13.10.Thc (\'
UseC4x5.4 for braceA. adequacyof the attachmentof the decking to the joists '*'ili dctcrmine rhe
For this case the LRFD-B7 recomsrendedmaximum slendernessratio of 200 degreeto which diaphragmaction preventsthe relativemorion of poinrs.such (
for compressionmembersassuredproper sizebracing. I as Il and B. lf there is zero relativemotion, then the requirementfor lareral
support may be baSedon B : 1, i.e.,the sameas the bracingof a singlc-ston' \/
column. In which case,the requiredstiffnesswould be (
E EXAMPLT g.TI.Z
For the beam laterally bracedby joists as shownin Fig. 9.13.9,dererminethe 28P", 2(1)(181)^_. \
k r " q d : 2 & i o=. " r :
amount of weld required so that the joist will adequatelybrace rhe beam.The t 4::90kips7ft
servicebending moment is 25 ft-kips dead load and 100 ft-kips live load. The
steel is 436. Use Load and ResistanceFactor Design.
(
(
SOLUTION w14 \ 34
beams
(a) Determine stiffnessrequired.Whereasin Example 9.13.i the compres- (
sion strength P", of the flange was used, in this example the strength to be
accommodatedis computed frob the factored load force in the flanse. The
cl \ I n . p l a n es h e a r
(
developedrvithrn
factored moment Mu is
metal deck transferred
I
to ;oists;i.e., diaghragm
M,: 1.2(25)+ 1.6(100): 190ft-kips actiGn
{l.

M.. 190(12) t{
:
- P":
# g.*i71 : 181kiPs Figure9.13.10 Diaphragmacrionof metal deck attachedro joisrs. {
( .
590 BUCKLI':G
9 / TATEFAL-TOFSIONAL CF BEA]JS 9.13/ LATERAL
BRACING'DESIGN 591

Using diaphragm action can greatly reducethe stiffnessrequiremenrfor are:


Thb design recorrunendetions
point bracing. In this case,if diaphragmaction can be developed.the stiffness l. For axial itrengrh,the required cross-sectional
areais
rcquirenrcntis one-fourthas much as requiredrvithoutany diaphragmaction.
\lctal dcck *'ith 2*-in. concretefitl would provide many times rhe required
stiffness.Even the diaphragnactionof the metal deckwirhout rhe concrere
Ab,,o-
Required [-+l ti 1H (e.13.23)
slab is likely to provide rnore than the 90 kips/ft required.Trearmentof 1",: /", l[3 J(Lon/b)
diaphragm bracing is gcnerallyoutside the scopeof this texr; horvever,a 2 LLLR
numbcr of references [9.53-9.64]on diaphragmactionare includedat rhe end where L"" :
o f thjs c hapt er . LL+ L^
t --
(b) Deterrnineu'ctd requircdto attacbjoists to Lopflangeof W14x34.The r'rl. unbraccdlength to lefi of bracedpoint
r - R - unbracedlength to right of bracedpoint
f -
force rcquired is, accordingto Eq. 9.13-22,
b - width of compressionflange
R c q u i re dQn :0 -0 0 4 8 P - Il.r.zzJ t a : strain at strain hardening divided by f ield strain, e,r/c t,
(A value of 12 may be reasonablefor steelsup to Fr: 60 ksi
Conscn'ativelytakc B = 4 as for a seriesof point braces, Ie.46].)
d . : elasticmodulus divided by strain hardeningmodulusof elastic-
RequvedQ,: 0-0O1(4)t8t- 2.9 kiPj
ity, Eo/E,,

Using a fr-in. fillet rveldrvith 870 electrodesand the Str,IAWprocess.the 2. The a.ual stiffnessrequirementis satisfiedwhen
nominal strengthR,,- per inch is
(e.13.24)
Rn* = *(0.707)0.60(70): 5.5?kips/in.

' :' Q' 2.9 where Lo : longer of the trvo adjacentunbracedlengths.


R e lu
q tre oL ,.: : : 0.5in.
il 3;7 In addition to the axial strengthjgd stiffnessrequirements,Lay and
Galambosindicated[9.46Jthat g'hen onlli the compression flangeis braccd
Use *-in. rveld.870, L : 0'-0i". E there are additional flexuralstrengthand stiffnessrequirennentsthat must be
satisfied.These flexural requirements(not given here) give overll' large and
deep bracing mernbers.Recent studics[9.48] indicate rhat flexural require-
Bracing Requiremenls for lnelastic Steel Beams ments are unnecessaryfor lateral bracing locationsaway from beam veriica!
reactions.When the compressionflange is braced,point restraintgiving the
Wben ability to accorrunodate largeplastic sttzin is desiredat bracingpoints, necessaryaxial strengthand stiffnessis sufficieni.Lateral bracingat vertical
such as u'hen plastic strength or plastic analysisis used in decign, rhe
supports undoubtedly does need some flexural strength and stiffness to
procedure in the previcussectionmay nor be adequate.Lay and Galambos
pre\:enta bearn from tipping, but ordinary framingat suchlocationsgenerally
[9.16] havedevelcpecia setof rulesfor Cesignin caseswheresuchhigh plasric pror'idesadequateflexuralstrengthandstiffness.
strajn (rot.iricecapacity)is requiredto be accommodated.
In eft'ect.brrcing requirernents
are basedon a rotstion capacirvR consis- r EXAI\IPLE 9.133
tent rvith t!:e beamunbracedlengthslenderness ratiogivenby Eq. 9.5.?.It has
':egl found that u'ithin the laterdll' unbracedlength"locai For the beam of Ex:mple 9.13.1(Fig. 9.13.8)determinethe brrce sizerequirer!
bucklingcausesa if plastic hinge rotation is requiredat the bracingpoinrs.
curlaiimcnt of the loici capacityof the memberand thereforedefinesthe
;ot:tion cagacityof the beem"[9.46].
SOLUTION
The derii'ationof Lay and Galambos[9.46]hasdeterminedrhe ma{murn (a) Dgiermine tb.c..s_gron
requiredfgt a-xialsrrengllr.Use Eq. 9.13.2t-:.,,,
lateral moment that can developin tbe compressionflangeunder a unifornt
molrent, tr/., : M r, by using the strain. distributionson the con:pression
flaoge due to (a) compressiondue to i{,': iti'o and O) the latersl bending
strains when local buckling occurson ibe "@mpression"side.
_
J J I {

l'

Using diaphragm action can gready reduce the sriffness are:


ThE design recorrunendations
rcquircmenrfor I
point bracing-In this case'if diaphragmaction can be developcd.
rhe-stirrness I. For axial itrengi&, the requiredcross-sectional (
rcquirenrcntis onc-fourth as much as required rvithoutany area is
diaphragnr,;;i;;.
\tcral dcck *'ith 2l-in- concretefill wourd provide r"ny timcs
rhi required A'o*, /o
stiffncss.Even the diaphragn action of the metai deck u'irhour
rhe concrcre * - [f-$lt1l
Required
Ab,,o= 6Jt;lTffi (e1323)
slab is likcly ro proride more than rhe 90 kips/fr required.
Tr.rtn,-.;;
diaphragm bracing is gcnerailyoutside the scopeof -rhis te.rr;
horvever.a
numbcr of references 2 LLLR
[9.53-9.64]on diaphragmactionare incrudedat thc end n'lrere L",
o f t h i sc h a p t c r . Lr+ L*
(b) Determinervcrdrequiredto atracbjoists ro rop flange L L : unbracedlength to lefr of braccdpoint
of wi4x34. The
forcc rcquiredis, accordingto Eq. 9.13.22, L R ==unbracedlength to right of bracedpoint
b : rvidth of compression
flange
Rcquircd
Qn:0.004pP* I e .3r . 2 2 ] dil : strain at strain hardeningdivided by yieid strain, €
rr/€ y
(A valueof 12 may be reasonable for steelsup t o 4 . : 6 0 k s i
conscn'ati'ely takeB : 4 as for a seriesof point braces, (
Ie.46].)
Required
Q n : 0 . 0 0 1 ( 4 ) l g 1 : 2 . 9k i p j a. : elasticmodulusdividedby strainhardeningmodulusof elastic- ,,
ity, Er/E,,
Using a f -in. fillet rveldrvith 870 electrodesand the ' 2. The a-rialslryty'rcss
rcquirementis sarisficdwhcn
I
sN{Aw proccss.the
n o minal s t r engt hRn * p e r i n c h i s t,'

Tso5?[+]tm
'brlcc
R ," , : * (0 .i 0 2 )0 .6 0 (7 0 ) : 5.57ki ps/i n. (e.13.24)
A---.
' ,(
O.,
" -2'g
'- rr,hereLo: longerof the trvo adjacentunbracedlengths.
d L-
"R- 'e1-q"uv isr e&F : :- n0s' 5
' tn . (
R; t3 7 In addition to the arJal strengihand stiffnessrequirements,Lay and
Galambosindicated[9.45]lhat q'henonly the compression flangeis braced
! l : * i n . w e l d , E 7 AL, : 0'-0i,, E there are additionalfle.xuralstrengthand stiffnessrequiremenrs that must be I
satisfied.These flexural requirements(not given here) give overty large and
deep bracing members.Recentstudiest9.481indicaterhat flexural require-
Bracing Requiremenls for Inetastic steer Beams .: ments are unnecessar)' for lateral bracing locationsaway from beam vertical
l -

When ability ro acconrmodate largeplastic reactions.When the compressionflange is braced.point restraint giring the
-plasricstr:rin is desiredat bracingpoinrs. I
such as *'hen plasric strength or t . necessaryaxial strengthand stiffnessis sufficieni.Lateral bracing at vertical
anarysisis used t" a.*"gn, the t '
procedure in the pr*ious sectionrnay not I suDports undoubtedly does need some flexural srrengrh and stiffness to
be aiequate. Lay and Gatambos t-
i9'46] have developeci a set of rulesfoi cesignio .*ses wheresuchhigh ptastic ! i

I
Preventa beam fronr tipping.but ordinary framingat such locationsgenerally
st:rir (rcta:icn caprci:1,)iS requiredto b: ,-..o*oart.J. I
provides adequateflexuralstrengrhand stiffness.
I
t
ln efiect''orlcingrequirements are basedon a roraticncapacitvR consis- t- :
rent *'irh rlre beam.unbiacedlengthsrenderness ; E EXAI\TPLE 9.133
':i3:1 lound ratio givenb_vEq. g.>r It has I
I'
that u'ithtnrhe laterally ilocal l r For the beamof Ex:nple 9.13.1(Fig.9.13.8)deter-mine the bracesizerequire.!
length 6u.[rin! causesa t:
:u:raili^acntof the-ioad capacityof^unbraced the u:esrbei and thereforedefinesthe
,--
t:
if plastichinge roraiionis requiredat t,hebracingpoinrs.
f--
:o t:i on c ac ac ir l. ofth e b e a m" II
[9 .1 6 J .
The derivarionof Lay ano duambos t: SOL(JTION
. [9.46Jhas determinedthe ma{rnum t.
iateral momenl that can developin the .t*piession
fl"ng. under a unifornt t:
l=
(a) Determine rhe sec-rionrequired
1'oraxial srrerrgrlr.use Eq. 9.13.23,
moinent. i/.. : M, by using 1!g 5tsein diirribution, F
on the cocrpression t:
flange due to (a) iompressiondue ro lt{,,: itto
ia @) rhe later:l bendine
l*:.'
tt -;- Required: /o,,-I
ru,"o \f ti Aoo,
strai's when local buckling occurson the ..co*ir.irion,,
side. ts
t= ltrl i ;l m
l'
t':
t.
t;
l:
lI ' _
(
(,
592 s/LATERAL-TORSIONAL
BUCKLTNG
OFBEAMS 9.14IB|AXTALBENDTNG
OF DOUBLYSyMMETR:C
SECT|ONS
(
(
where&,, = may be raken 12 for {,: 36 ksi and can probably be controlledby'f ielding under combinedslressor by lateral-torsionalbuck-
-r,:/rrwhich T
( also be usedfor stee-ls to about ksi. Fof a,: E/8r1, use^Er:450 ling. Two common situationsare roof purlins and cranesupport girders.Ht'rt
&:00
ksi. giring c" : 29,000/450 : 64.Certainly,the useof suchvaluesis iccurare does the moment Jt1,,affect lateralstabilitlt When ,1/,.acts alone lateral-ttr;-
(..
enoug-h
for design tli:rrtteel, a,, : 12,a": 64. sional buckling is rtot a possiblelimit state. and most rolled shapessr..
( :"I*' developtheir plastic moment.When M, acts alone.lateral-torsionalbuckli::g
: -
( 74:Gtr o'2 may well be the controllinglimit state.
This subject of biaxial bending, including torsion, has been treated b1'
( Dohrenwend[9.65],Gaylord and Gaylord [9.66],Springfield[9.671,Pastorand
f --
2LLLR
- 2(1!)(16J(12)
: re2in. DeWolf [9.68J,and Razzaqand Galambos[9.69,9.70].Man-vothers,including
( Lav
LL+ LR 16+16 the SSRC Gttide [6.8, pp. 306-310; 6.20], have treated the subject in th:
( context of beam-columns,rvhichare discussedin Chapter 12.
t2\ A.^^^
lbo." : o.t[
Required o.oo7l_,0 From Eq. 9.432 for pure bending l/,. *ith respectto the strongaxis,
( i)ffi:
12 n2Elc.I, I
( :'0.007(24.s/2):0.09sqin. I't:: : --. |r ----.---
tu12 - EI.GJ I ( 9 . i 4 . 1I
L'I L' '
( J
Practically
anyrolledshapewill satisfythissmallrequirement.
( (b) Eraminetherequirement for axtalstffiess.UseEq.9.13.24,
assuming
consen'atively
the arealoruo providedequalsexactlythat required, M: -:1 .? :l
( :Uli * i-i i (9.r1.:
EI,GJ L2l- \Lfl j
1g"."< o.5zf",,-l l[ actua]
lu,"*
lr,
L^u
( L o r - r l " , l [ r e q u i r eAdo , * r J b where )t,: l/a : gGJ/EC*,.
When simultaneouslva moment
(
< 0.57(0.2)(1.0X1e2 /e.e6): 4.A6

Tl,.(#l=]
Lo,u" < 4.A6L^": 4.06(16): 65 > 7.5 ft for brace OK
M: Mi
a (9.1r.-r,
EI.,GJ EI.GJ
As in Example9.13.1,the slenderness
ratio recommendedlinrit of 200 for
( compressionmemberswill give a memberadequatefor bracing purposes.' - --:.
which is applicable to l-shapedsectionswith trvo a.xesof symmetry. Furth*i-
( Use C4x5.4. I ... more, it is applicablefor Sections with point symmetry(such as the zee).and rs
( approximatelyvalid-for channelswhen M, does not exceedA.25M, [9.66].
One conclusionregardinglateral bracing for beams and columns is that
Combinations of M, and M,, which satisfy Eq. 9.14.3 will plot as -1:i
( the requirernentsfor such bracing are easily met. It is more important to 4
'of =
+
ellipse,as shown in Fig. 9.14.1for a W14x74.
provide a brace somesize than to be overly concernedabout what the size
( The usual limit state acceptedfor biaxial bending is the achievement.':
shouldbe. : the yield stress fr,. at the extremefiber under combined stress.Thereforc.;:..
Enpirical procedureshave long been used in lieu of a rational investiga- =
( -=
.:t matter how stable a beam may be, the combination of rnomentsmust satisfr'
tion of the strengthand stiffnessrequirementsfor braces.A summaryof some
( =
3

of theserules is given by Lay and Galambos[9.46].The typical rule-otthumb M_ l$.


has beento usea bracehaving a suength equal to or greaterthao 2 percentof
' g

* =4 (9.1.1.i;
(
the compressive strengthof the compressionelementbeing braced.This seems
I E E
( to be a conservativealternativeto an analvticalstudv. *-
Since the relationshipsshown in Fig. 9.14.1for W14x74 are typical. certri::
( * conclusionsmay be drawn. Considera laterally unbracedtength of 30 ft an.j
*
steel with Fn: 60 ksi. Ideally, the ultimate condition is defined by the lin.'s
( 9.14+BIAXIALBENDINGOF DOUBLYSYMMETRIC
SECTIONS =g AB (yielding contfols) and BC (buckling controls).
( The most important observationis that for ordinar-v laterally unhra--r.'i
When an l-shapedsectionis loaded in the plane of its major axis, thaf is, a lengths (say 25 ft or less)the line BC is nearly vertical: therefore sintultant:,u;
moment M, causes weak axis bending, in combination with strong. axis "*
( * application of M, does not appreciablyaffect tlze criticai moment M,.
bending M, from loading in the plane of its web, the strengthlimit statemay
*
(
+ Basedon the foregoingobservations, the designproceduresare as foll.-'rii:

' (
=
('
594 9 // LATERAL.TORSIONAL
BUCKLING
OF BEAMS 9.14 ,/ SIAXIALBENDINGOF DOUBLYSYMMETRICSECTIONS 595
(
"t'
In hddition, for the buckling limit state LRFD-H2 indicates the limit
would be 0.4, using the compressionmember g. : 0.85 and the d, column
w r 4x 7 4
formulas,Eqs. 6.7.7and 6.7.8,discussedin Chapter 6.
J = 3.88in.' This latter provisionseemsnot to apply to lateral-torsional bucklingunder
a - l/tr = 63.2in, biaxial bending without axial compression. (,
As an alternativetc the combinedstresslirnit state approach,LRFD-H3 (
3 4o0o
!
provides an alternative interaction relationship that was developedprimarily
for beam-columns.However,when the a:cialload P becomeszero, the rela-
€ tionship is suitable for biaxial bending, with or without torsion.

Allowable Stress Design


The same general approach is recornmendedas described .for Load and
o 2gJ0
ResistanceFactor Design.This procedurewas recommendedby Gaylord and
4000 6000 I
&1,(in.-kips) Gaylord [9.661as follows:

Frgure 9.14.1 Lareral buckling strengtb for biaxial bending of doublv I


symmetric ... - l. For yielding controlling(line AB of.Fig. 9.14.1):
I-shapcd scctions. (
M- M.,
;-f . S 0 . 6 0 ^-fq , (e.r4.7)
s, s;
.(
Load and Reslstance Factor Deslgn
2. For stability controlling(line BC of Fig. 9.14.1):
l. For the yielding limit state conttolling(line lB of Fig. 9.i{.1):
tr
Jtr
I Allowablestresses
basedon
s (e.14.8)
(,'.:?.?) sQa4 (e.14.s) s. eSD Formulas(F1-6 and F1-7) or (ft-S)

2' For the lateral-torsional buckling lintit staie controlling (line


The AISC ASD Specificationhas no specificprovisionfor biaxial bending
,BC of Fig. without axial compression.
One could use the beam-columnprovisions,or as is
e.14.1):
commonly and conservativelydone, require that the combined stress not
etM,,2 llu, (e.14.6) exceedthe allowable stressbasedon lateral-torsidnalbuckling for M, acting
alone.
'*'here fur: normal (compressiveor tensile)stressunderfactoredloads
Mur: factoredmomentabout the x-axis(strongaxis)
lv{ut,: factoredmomentabout the y-axis (weak a:iisl I EXAMPLE 9.I4.I
Design a W section to serve as a crane support girder to carqr a live loacl
0r : strengthreductionfactorin bending.0.9C
tr{nr: moment M, of 301 ft-kips (without impact) from the crane wheels. hi
nominal moment strength for a menber [rrdec only in
addition, a moment Mt of 30 ft-kips acts in the plane of the rop flange as a
the plane of the web (i.e., strong ads bending):..-cordingto
result of movementof the craneback and forth betweenthe support girders.
LRF D. F l
This moment Mt is basedon a lateral force acting on the top flange equal to
For biaxial bending,*irh or without torsion,but r+ithouradel compres- 10% of the lifted load and crane trolley weight in accordancewith LRFD anci
sion. LRFD-F refersto LRFD-H2, which is.for ,.unsl.mmetric n:emberssnd ASD-A4.3. The moment Mt abouLthe y-axis is assumedto be resistedby one
members under torsion and combined torsion. flerure and/or ;rdal force.,, flange; in effect, this is to accountfor the torsional effect by using the flexure
LRFD-H2 indicatescomputingthe combinednormal(compressive or tensile) analogy (see Sec.8.6). The approximation of equivalent systemsis shown in
stress/u,, under factoredloads not to exceedsr^(, forin. r.riirirry iimit statei Fig. 9.14.2.Assumethe simply supported span of 24 ft is laterally braced only
that is, useEq. 9.14.5. at the ends.use Load and ResistanceFactor Design and : 50 ksi. (
{,
(
(
BtlcKLlNG OF BEAMS
I / LATERAL-TORSIONAL
( M"' slightly to
criterion, Eq. 9.14.5,adjusting
check theyietd limir state
( weight'
causesf,|, refiect the correct beam
{ Poinr A
C I!u, LI n, 613( 12)- L 96( 12) : 22. 4 + zLJ: 44. 1ksi
( f,n:i;*T:T-.53.0
( : a5ksi] OK
P v =
t!"^- Mjksi) < [Orf, : 0'90(50)
(
P, !2.uut t
( tortional moment Checkthelareral'rorsionalbucklinglimilstate'Eq'9'14'6'
[e.14.6J
( (c)
(d) Qrtrln' u trl u'
(b)
(a)
Apply flexure Force sVslem
( A c t u a ll o a d i n g
F orcer
analogylor {oi selecttng
For the $34x131'
transferred seclion so that
torsicn = f t - kiPs
FrZ' : 50( 3?0) 112 1540
to centroid siressat Pornl A
( is the s;rt-'eas
tr!r:
in (cl
:
(
torsion. Lp: loo'r/fr: /12)/''!5a 1o'5ft
3oo(2'97
( systemfor bia:cialbending and
Fioure9'14.2 Approximate equivalent
- -- 1100ft-kips
r M,: ( r, - 4)s' : (50 10)(329)/12
( (A4-2), "BEAN{S" or Eq' 9'6'6)
totrT'r?.Jou,. (from LRFD table
using LRFD-A4.1with Formula
factoredmomenrs. L,: 29-\ft
a : ft-kips
Esdmateddeadload moment 10 = 1'
Then using E4' 9'6'4 with Co
(
t{ u, :1.2(10) + 1.6(301)1-25 (using 25%impact
increase)
t -
. . ) \ F !,\l =r, [r.oa]
(
: 614 ft-kips
I , t ^ - c r l M p - \ M r - M ' tlt=, LrlJ=
( L
I{ ut : 1.6(30) = 48 ft-kiPs : tttort-kiPs
(
tr{n:
- (ts4z-lloo)|ffi)l
lluy = 2M"l: 96 ft-kiPs (seeFig' 9'14'2b) frro,
(
- ft-kips) Mu' oK
( (b)Selectasectio&'tjsingtheapproacbofSec.?.llwiththecriterionof'.. +M,=o'eo(rzzo) 1100
Eq.9.1a.5
(
Mu, ' F, : 5oksi'
UseW24x131
( : s, =
Required -* M u y f ! \
+"F" n\t I
( 614(12) 2(48)12/ S'\
Required *
E = 0.t0(50) SELECTEDREFERENCES
( osotsol\E I
Transac'
( - "strength Determinedby Lateral Buckling"'
:
> 164+ 26( 6) 320in'3 '"' Karl de vries.
g-1. 9f-?.T."
,t"*,-PiSCE 112 (1947)'
1245-1320' La'crar
'' cir,^? ona I. L. Tiedemann'
"Latsral
(
Try W24x131:S' = 379in.'l e2'i*A1i:3,:31'i'll.
or noila iteel
{i"#? L^l,lX'
geams,-;ro*or,tl^, iliJ'bT51;Iann
esce, 122
"!-a-te1al
823-M3'
$9571'
of Elasticallv
( Buckling Buckling
614(12) 2(48x12)6.2
:372in: 9.3. w- l- austin' t' Y;; ga r" r' iuog'
( RequiredS- > Offi + to
o.eo(50) of I'BeamssubScctcd
End-Resuainealgea;sl'Tra"sacti'^'es6g'n2$g5T'374-388'
( g.4. J.w. clark ;;;. R. Jombocr-'Il"i.t"r Buckling. ASGE'
Dit:ision'
urrhani.,
\ state aPpears to be satisfied;
Uoequal E"d;;; ii,,' Journola"tit" ir*t*ng
( (c) Check the strength'The Yield limit and a final check of all 1957)'
must be checked 83, E:{3 (JutY
ho*eu.t, the stability limit s-tate
(' .tit.tiu shouldalwaYsbe made'
I,.

(
599
('
598 I / LATERAL-TORSIONALBUCKLING OF BEAMS FE;EAENCES
SELECTED
( ;

9.5. Mario G. Salvadori.


"Lateral Buckling of l-Beems," Trcnsacifons.ASCE, 120 "Lateral Buckling of Beams." Jounicl cf the (
9.26. L W. Clark and H. N. HiU.
( 1 9 5 5 ) 1, 1 6 5 - 1 i 8 2 . Sructural Diukion, ProceedingsASCE, 85, Sfi (July 1960).175-i96- Also. ( '
9.6. Thcodore V. Gala.mbos. Stntctural ilembers and Frames- Eng.les'ood Cliffs, NJ: Transactions,ASCE, 121 (1962),Part II, 180-201.
Prentice-Hall,Inc., 1968. " (
"Inelastic Lateral Buckling of Bea-Ers," 9.27. Sritawat Kitiporncbai, Peter F. Dux. and Neville J. fuchter. Buckling and
9.7. T V. Galanbos. Journa! of the Structural Bracing of Cantilevers," Journal of Structural Engineering,ASCE, ll0, 9 lSep-
Diuision, ASCE, 89, ST5 (October 1963),217-242.
(
"Iselastic SteelBearu Under Uaiforn Momenl"" tember 1984), 225A-2?6?.
9.8. M. G. Lay and T. V. Calanbos. "Lateral stabilit)' of Nonuniforn
9.28- Campbell Massey and Peter J' McGuire' (
Journal of the Structural Diuision,ASCE,9l, 5T6 (Decerrber 1955). 67-93- Cantilevers," Journcl of the Engineeringiv[echanicsDiuisiort,ASCE, 97. E\1-1
"Inelastic Beams Under Mccne:t Gradient," (
9.9. !v{. C. Lay and T. V. Galambos. ( J u o e1 9 7 1 ) , 6 7 3 - 6 8 6 .
Journal of the Structwal Diuision,ASCE, 93, ST1 (Februa:-vL967t.381-399. Factor Design-
"Inelastic Lateral Stability under a Moment 9.29. Joseph A. Yura Elententsfor Teaching Load and Resistance (
9.10. Campbell Masseyand F. S. Pitma:l Chicago, IL: American Institute of SteelConstruction,1987.
Gradient," Journalof the EngineeringMechania Diuision, ASCE 92,F)'42 (April "simplified Approach to AISC Bending Formulas," (
9.30. Frank W. Stockwell, Jr.
1966),101-111.
q.l1. J. Bansal."The Lateral Instability of ContinuousBeam<." AISI Report No.3, EngineeringJoumal, AISC, 11, 3 (Third Quarter, 1974),65-66. ( ;
Brandt. "Direct Feasibleand Optimal Design of. Laterally Unsup-
Amcrican lron and SteelInstitute, New York, August 19?1. 9.31. G. Donald
"Inelastic Flexural-Torsic.rnal gsqkling," Journal of the Engineer- poned Beams," EngineeringJournal, AISC, 14,2 (SecondQuarter,L977).78-E1. (
9.11. A. J. Hartmann.
ASCE, n,il44 (August l97I),1103-1119. g.32. H. N. Hill. "Lateral Bucklingo1 66annelsand Z-Beams,"Transactiotts, ASCE.
ing Mechanics Diuision, (
"Unbraced Length Requirementsfor Steel l19 (1954;, 829-841.
9.13. lr{orris Ojalvo and Ronald R. Weaver. ''. "stability of MonosymmetricBearls
I-Be3ms," Journal of the Structural Diuision,ASCE, lg1, ST3 (llarcb 1978), 9.33. John M. Anderson and Nicholas S. Trahair. (
479-494. .-- -.. and Cantilevers,"Jountal of the Structura! Diuision,ASCE,98. STI lJanuary
9.14. Joseph A. Yura, Theodore V. Galambos,and Mayasandra K. Ravindra.
"The L972),269-286. ( '
"
Bending Resistanceof Steel Beams," Journal of the Stru:tural Diz'ision,ASCE, 9.34. Sritawat Kitipornchai and Nicholas S. Trahair. Bucklinq Propcric's oi ( t
lG{, ST9 (September1978),f355-1370. Monosymmetric I-Beams,"Journal of the Structuru! Dit'ision.ASCE. 106, ST-(
"Inelastic Lateral Buckling of ( :
9.15. David A. Nethercot and Nicholas S. Trahair. (May 1980),941-957.
Detcrminate Beams,"Journal of the Struciural Diuision, ASCE 102, ST4 (April "Elastic Lateral Buckling of Beams."Beans and BeantColumrc
9.35. D. A. Nethercot. (
1976),70t-7t7. _ stability in Strengtlr(ed. R. Narayanan).Barking, Essex.England:Applic'J
"Experic--nb on Ffigh Strength
9.16. P. F. Adams, M. G. Lay, and T. V. Galambos. ScienceFublishers,1983. (
CouncilBulletin A'o. 110. iioten"tber1965. "
SteelMembers," lVelding Research
"Post-Bu6kliso Strengtbof Wide- 9.36. Sritawat Kiripornchai, Chien ir{.ing\\Iang. and Nicholas S. Trahrir, Bucklins oi
9.1?. George C. Lee and TheodoreV. Calambos. Monosymmetrici-BeamsUnder lr{omentGradient." Joumal oi StntcturtlEnT' (
Flange Beams," Jownal of the Engineeringtt{echanicsDi,:sion, ASCE 88, EMl neering,ASCE, 112,4 (April 1986),781-799.
(Fcbruary1962),59-75. "Buckiing Capacities ( ,
9.37. Chien Ming Wang and SritiwatKiipornchai. of \lcnosrm-
9.18. A. F. Lukey and P. F. Adams. "Rotation Capacity of Beains UnCer Moment metric l-Beams,"Journalof StructuralEngineering. ASCE. l12lNovember i9S6, (
Gradient," faurnal of the Structwal Diuision, ASCE" 95, 5T6 (June 1969), 2373-2391
11 7 3 -I 1 8 8 . ! "lnelastic ( ,
9.38. Sritawat Kitipornchai and Aiain D. Wong-Chung. Bucklingof \\'eld:j
f.ig. \lario G. Salvadori. "Lateral Buckling of Eccentricalll' Loaded l-Colunns," 113.a (Apn1 l9E-,.
MonosymmetricI-Beams,"Jountalof Structura!Engineering, ( '
Trcnsactions, ASCE, 121(1956),1163-1178.
; li. A. J. Hartmann. "El3stic Lateral Bucklingof Continuous Beams." Josna! of the 740-?56.
" (
9.39. G. \\'inter. "Latcral Stabilitl'of Unslmmetncal I-Bcemsand Trussesin Bendinl
;:ructurol Diuisiott, ASCE,93, ST4 (August196n. n-26.
Transactions, ASCE, 108(1943).:1?-168.
9.1.1.\icbolas S. Trahair. "Elastic Stability of Continuous Beams," Jo'tnal of the "Lateral Bracing Forces on Beams ald Columns." Joun::! o.ft .
(
StracturalDiuision,ASCE,95, 5T6 (June 1969),1295-131.2. 9.40. William Zuk.
9.12- Grabam Powell and Richard Klhgner.
"Elastic Lateral B':ciding of Steel Beams," EngineeringMechanicsDiuision,ASCE, 82, E\'13 tJuly 1956).Proc. Paper\. (
Journal of the StracturalDiuision,ASCq 96, ST9 (Septenber l97C), 1919-1932. 1032,16 pp.
"Lateral Braci-ngof Columns and Beams,"Trcnsactiotts. --\SCi-
(
'l.l-r. N. S. Trabair and NI- A. Bradford- The Behauiorand Daign of SteelStructwes 9.41. Gcorgc Winter.
lnd ed. London: Chapmanand Hall, 1988. 125(1960),E07-845. ( ,
"Lateral "Latcrel Bracing Force of Steel l-Bearns." Journc! o-f :)i;
9.14. Charles W. Roeder and l{ahyar Assadi. Stabi!!ry of l-Beams with 9.42. Campbell Massey.
Engineering MechanicsDiuision,ASCE, 88, EM6 (December1962),89-1i3.
(
Partial Support," Journal of the Srructural Diuision,ASCq lS, STB (August
"On the Latcral Support of Inela,sticCclunns," Errgnr'c.-jt;-'
1982),1768-1779. i 9.43. George Pincus. (
9.25, Yushi Fukumoto, Yoshito Itoh, and Ryoji Hattori. "Laterai $uskling on Welded I
Journal, AISC, l, 4 (Octobcr1964),1i3-115.
Continuous Beasls," founal of the StructuralDiuision, ASCE, 16. ST10 (Oc- l, "Lateral Support for Ticr Building Fraolcs,"Engincer;t:-: ( )
I ,9.44. Theodore V. Galambos.
tober 1982),2245-2262. I Journal, AISC, l, 1 (January1964),16-19; Disc, t, 4 (Octcber1964)'141- ( l
t;
f , (
:
( )
(
:
t(

(' PROELE\IS 601


600 I / TSTERAL-TOFSIONALBUCKLING CF BEAMS
(
( "strength and Stiffncssof ComrgatedMetal ShearDii;'trragms"'
"Bracing oi ContinuousColumns," Engineering Journai. AISC. 6. 9.63. John T. Easley.
9.45. Tor B. Urdal- the stmctural Diuisiort,ASCE" t03. sTl (January'19i71,itro-.1E()'
Jounnl of
( 3 (July 1969).80-83.
the Desigtrof Steel Drck D:';lrru'trrr'
"Bracing Requirementsfor InelasticStecl 9.64. SDI. Tentatiue Recantntertdatiorc
lor
9.46. ..riaxrpellG. Lal.and T. V. Galambos.
( Westchestcr,IL: SteelDcck Instilutc' Octoberl9i2'
Beams," lo"r"it af the Srrucural Diuision,ASCE,92, ST2 {April 1966),207-?28' "Aciion of Dccp BcamsUnder ConrbinedVcrtic'r'l'L'atcral
"Torsional Rcstraint of Lateral Buck- 9.65. C. O. Dohrenrvcnd.
( 9-47. Arrbur C- Ta1lor. Jr. and Morris Ojatvo.
ASCE, 92, ST2 (April 1966),115-129. and TorsionalLoads,"Journc!ol Apptied llechanics,S (1941).A-i30'
[ljag,,,Jaunai o! the StructuralDiuision, N"s' York:
( g 4S. A. J. Hartrnam. "Erperimental Study of Flexural-TorsionalBuckling." Journal 9.66. E. H. Gay.lord,Jr. and C. N. Caylord. Desigtto! Slyl Strucrures'
McGrasr.Hill Book Compan-v, Inc., 1957(pp' i69-170)'
( o! the Struc:ural Dit:isiott,ASCE 96, ST? (July 1970),1481-1493' "Dcsign of columns Subjcctto Biaxial Beadng." I'':sirrr'c'rirr^g
"stiffness Requiremens for Latcral 9.67. John Springficld.
9 49. 3ruce R- \futton and Nicbolas S. Trabair.
( Bracins." Journcl of the Structural Diuision, ASCE 99, ST10 (October 1973)' Jounrcl,AiSC, t2. 3 (Third Quarter19?i)' 73-8i'
"Bcalils n'ith Torsional a:r"i l;lcxural
:I67-2i82. 9.68. Thomas P. Pastor and iOhn T. DeWolf.
( g.50. I:.n C. \ledland and Cecil M. Segedin.
"Brace Forces in lnterbred coluntn Loads." Journal o! ihe structurc!'Dit'ision.ASCE. 105, ST3
(\lrrr''h 1979)'

( Srructures." Journal of the structura! Diuision, ASCE, 105, sT? (July 1979)' 527-538.
' "Biaxiai Bending oi Bci.::lsu'ith or
1543-1556. 9.69. Zie ftrrz3q and Theodore V. Galambos'
( ASCE. 16. STii (Novcm-
Diuisiort.
9.5i. Josepb A. yura. Notes presentedat uoiversiry of wisconsin Extension Insti- witboutTorsion," of
Journal theStructural
"D..ign of Bracing," Septembel1?-18, 1970; December LL-LZ, 1974' ber 1979),2145-2162.
( irrr.. "Biaxial BcndingTesrsr{ith (\r $'ithout
\{:lrr'au}<ee.\\'isconsin 9.10. ZiaRazTagand Thcodore\'. Galambos.
( g.52. LeRcv A. Lutz and JamesM. Fisher."A Unified Approach for Stabiliry-Bracing I
Torsion," Jourtwl oi tlte Structural ASCE. 105.ST11 (Novcttltrcr1979)'
Dicision.
I
Requireme11rs," Engineering Jountal,Alsc, 22,4 (4th Quarteri985)' 163-167' 2163-28
15.
( P. Fisber,
"Behavior of Diaphragm'BracedColumns I
9.53. George Pincus and Gordon
I
( and bears," Journal of the Structural Diuision,ASCE, 92, ST2 (April 1966)' i
, i
323-350. I

( "Columns and Beams I


g.54. Samuel J. Errera- GeorgePincus,and Gordon P. Fisber. t
I

Braced b1' Diaphrug.l" Journal of the Srructural Dicision, ASCE, 93. ST1 -.r
( I
PROBLEMS
(February'1967).295-318. I

!a
( g.55. La-.ry D. Lutrrell. "strength and Behavior of Light-Gage Stee]_Shear Di- I l{csistrlnce
aphragms," canell EngineeringResearch Bulletin No. 67-1, July 1967.
I
I All problemsare to be done accordingto the AISC Load and
( "Columns Braced as indicated by the instrtrctor' All
J.
9.56. T. V. S. R- Apparao, San'ruel Errer4 and Gordon P- Fisber' I Factor Design or AllorvableStressDesilr.
-are
- : l
othinvise indicated.Assumc l'rtcral sup-
( b-v Girts aoa'a Daphrago," Jottnal ol the Structutal Diuision,ASCE,95, ST5 .l given loads serviceloads unless
{}r{ay ,969),965-990-
I
t
port consistsof translationalrestraintbut not moment(rotation'il)rt:straint'
"Finite Element Analysis of Metal rcldill'
( 9.57. Artbur H. Nilson and Albert R. Ammar. unlessothenviseindicated.Assumeall standardsectionsare cqurllv A
(even actuailv thcr 'trc trot)'
( Deck Sbear Diapbragms," Jonrnal of the StructuralDiuisrcn, ASCE, 100, ST4 availablein the indicatedgradeof steel though
required, and after makirtg l dcsign
(April L974),i|l-726. figure shorvingspan and loading is
"Desig! of Diaphragm-Braced j/,. for L.ttl-l)) or
( 9.58. Darid A. Netbercot and Nicholas S. Trahair' selectiona final chcck of strength(+lu{,compared with
(October1975). '\'r'rtc:Live
(
I-Berms," Journal ol the Structural Diuision,ASCE, l0l' ST10 stress(/, comparedto allowablestressfo foi tSDl is required' (or
it causes nl:trirlrutt't
2045-2061.
"Diaphragm Braced Members and Dcsign load must always be applied (or not) such that
( 9.59. Amir Simaa" and Teoman B. Pekoz. minimum) effect.
(January
of Wall Studs," Journal ol the Structural Diuision, ASCE 102, ST1
( slrength
1976),77-92.
"Desigg of l-Shaped Beams 9.1. For the case(or cases)assignedby the instructor.plot dcsig'rt
9.60. Sanuel J. Errera and Tamirisa V. S. R. Apparao. bending sttessf6 (ksi) fl.rrASD vs
( QtMu(ft-kips) for LRFD or allo."atle
*itb Diaphragm Bracing," Journal al the Structural Diuision,ASCE, 102' ST4 laterallyunbracedlengthtb (ft). If ihe ASD problem has bccrt a'ssigncd'
( (April 1976),769-78I. of
"Calculation of Steel Diaphragm Behavior," Joumal of the show both ASD allorvablestressrelationships:(1) the cgntbinirtion
9.61. J. Michael Dar"ies. controls;and (2) Forr:trrla-(Fl-8;'
( Formulas(F1-6)and(F1-7),rvhicheyer
Structural Diuision,ASCE, 102, Sfi (July 1976),1411-1430' '\SD) rvith
"DesigD cf l-sbaped Colum:rs Shorvthe portions controlting( Qt,M, for LRFD or Fn for
( g.62. Samuel J. Errera and Tamirisa v. s. R. Apparao. parts with dashed lines' Frrr 3i1Yclse
solid lines and the noncontrclling
*itb Diaphraggr Bracing," Journal of the'Structwal Diuision,ASCE 102, ST9 both C, : 1'0 and 2'3'
( for
assigned,show relal'ionsh-ips
(September1976),1685-1701.
t-
(
*
s
IF
G" (,
+ PROBLEMS
I / LATERAL-TORSTONALBUCKLTNGOF BEAMS
i3 ( t
".
F
F (
F, n!
11'D t+,L (
Case Section (ksi) - Dead Live Span
L

Load Load Length Fy (


:::
1 wl6x26 36 (kip/t) (U,tptTt) (ft) (ksi) Lateral Support (
2 W14x145 36
3 W2lx62 36 .; (
6 0.2 0.6 3s 36 Continuous
4 W24x84 36 :. 7 0.2 0.6 35 36 Every 7 feet ( ,
5 Plategirder:5/8 x 12flanges; T 8 0.2 0.6 35 36 Endsand midspan
5/16 X 30web (
9 0.2 0.6 35 65 Continuous
6 Plategirder:7/8 x 16flanges; 10 0.2 0.6 35 65 Every7 feet (
3/4 x 26web 36 11 0.2 0.6 35 65 Ends and midspan
7 wl6x26 50 ( t
t2 0.2 0.6 35 100 Continuous
I w14x145 50 13 0.2 0.6 35 100 Every 7 feet' (
9 W27x62 50 t4 0.2 0.6 35 100 Endsand midspan
l0 W24x84 50 1 5 0 0.65 (
35 36 Every 5 ft
11 wl6x26 65 \ . 1 6 0 0.6s 35 36 Ends only (
12 wl4x145 65 0.5 2.0 48 36 Every 16 feet
:,-...t7
13 W24x84 65 18 0.5 2.0 48 60 Every16 feet (
( '
9 .2 . For the case (or cases)assignedby the instructor, determinethe mari-
mum concentratedserviceload P that can act at midspanon a simply 9.4. Selectthe lightestW sectionsfor the situationshown in the accompany- ( ,
supported span. Lateral supportsexist only at the endsof the span.The ing figure,underthe followingconditions:
(a) ,{36 steel:continuouslateralsupport (
senice load is 65%hve load and 35%dead load.
(b) A36 steel:lateralsupportat endsortly (
(c) A36 steel:lateralsupportat endsand at point ,4
Span F
(
(d) 4.572Grade60 steel:lateralsupportat endsand point ,4
Case Section (fr) (ksi)
(
1 W21x62 20 36 (
0.5 kips//tl clead load
2 W24x84 24 50 2.5kips/ft live load
3 w30x99 30 50 (not including beam (
weight)
(
9.3. For the case(or cases)assignedb1' the instructor,selectthe lightesrW
secticr as a beam. Assumeonly tlexure must be considered:i.e.. cmit (
-[he 30'-0" Prob. 9.4
treaing shear and deflection. dead load given is in addition to the ( ,
weight of the beam.
9.5. Selectthe lightestW sectionfor the situationshownin the accompanying (
E'D wL figure using (a) A572 Grade 50 st:el and (b) steel u'ith F,.: 65 ksi, (
Dead Live Span assuminglateralsupportat the endsand at point ,4 only.
Load Load Length r. ( ;
Ca-se l kiPrrft) {npii (ft) 0<sD Lateral Support (
W = 15 k deaclload
1 0.6 1.4 20 36 Continuous - 1l k live load (
w - 0.2 k,.ll dead load
0.6 t.4 20 36 Endsand midspen (nol includrng beam weight) (
; 0.6 1.4 2A 36 Endsonly - 0.8 k/ft lrv€ load
4 0.5 1.0 28 36 Endsand mid+en l (
t,i
5 0.5 1.0 28 ff! Ends and midspan Prob.9.5 (
i:-
it

: ,
a , ril9:a
(
604 9/LATERAL-ToRSIoNAL oF BEAMs
BU0KLTNG PROBLEMS 605
( .*P .

t :
( 'e
9.6. Selectthe lightest W sectionfor the conditionsshorvnin the accompany' 9.9. A beam is to serveas a floor beam on a simply supportedspan of 20 ft.
(
ing figure. Assume there is no deflection limitation. Use (a) A36 steel The live load consistsof a movableconcentratedload (no impact) of 50
( and (b) A572 Grade 60 steel. kips. Live load deflectionmay not exceedL/360. ,
(a) Select the lightest W section of A,36 steel rvhen continuous lateral
( - support is provided.
( (b) Repeat(a) if lateral support is provided only at the ends.
W - 15 k dead load
( 15 k live load 9.10.A W10x33 is to be usedas a simply supportedbeamon a span of 25 ft
w - 0.4 k/lt dead load
(including beam) with lateral support at the ends only. The beam is required to support a
( Laieral support = 1.1 k/ft live load plasteredceiling.If the deadload is 0.15txtp/tt (including beam weight),
( Vertical s':pport Prob. 9.6
what is the maximum uniform servicelive load permitted on the beam.
using A36 steel?What percentageincreasei:r live load can be gained if
'only
( 9.7. A floor beam. laterally supportedat the ends and supporting the beam is ,{572 Grade 60 steel?Comment.
ribration inducing heavymachinery,is subject to the loads shonn in the
( 9.11. Redesignfor loading CasesI and/or 2, as assigned,of Prob. 9.8 when
accompan.vingfigure. SeleCtthe lightestW sectionof A36 steel(consider
lateral support is providedonly at the ends and at midspan.In addition
( LRFD or ASD-A4.2). Compare the result when there is no deflection
to the L/360 traditional deflection limit for a plastered ceiling, the
lirnit with that rvhenL/d is limited to a mar.imumof 20 under full load,
( architectrequiresthe beam to be no deeperthan nominal W12.
a traditional limit to minimizeperceptiblevibration due to pedestrian
( 9.12. Investigatethe beam of the accompanyingfigure for bending and shear
::ittt"' 10k _Grav*y if the section is 4572 Grade 50 steel. External lateral support for the
( beam is provided only at the vertical supports and at the tip of the
( cantilever.If one additional lateral support were provided at the 12-kip
load, horv much lighter, if any, could the W14 sectionbe made?
(
( l. zs'-o" Prob.9.7

( 9.8. For the case(or cases)assignedby the instructor. selectthe lightest W ,


-:
section to serveas a uniformly loaded library flcor beam on a simply---r W - 2k dead load
( supported beam. Lateral support occurs at the ends and at L/4, L/2, -
\. w 1 4X 4 8 10 k live load
3L/4. Live load deflection may not exceed L/3AA (not an LRFD or I: w - 0.3 k/tt dead load
(
ASD Spegificationlimit but a designlimit for this design).Given dead (including bearn weighl)
( load moment does rol include beam weight. AssumeC6 : 1,0. l I -7.1k/ftliveload Prob.9.12

( MD ML
( Dead Live 9.13. Select the lightest W section for each of the situations shorvn in the
Load Load Span accompanyingfigure.The conc€ntratedload W is 5 kips dead load and
( Moment Moment Length Fy Deflection
15 kips live load. Assumelateral support is provided at the reactionsand
( Case (ft-kips) (ft-kips) (f0 (ksi) Limit
at the'concentratedloads.Use A36 steel.
( 1 49 98 28 36 L/360
( 2 49 98 28 60 L/360
J q 240 48 36 L/300 4
.E
( 4 0 240 48 65 L/3A0
i
( 5 s0 190 48 36 L/364
i

6 50 190 48 65 L/360 rs-u'l g-s' lrs-s'


f _ 7 80 750 60 36 L/4sg
a
o 80 750 60 50 L/440
(
9 80 750 60 60 L/4A0
( Prob.9.13
I t f
-
606
SUCKLINGCF BEAI"{S
g / LATERAL-TCF'SI3NAL |:
FF I ( ,
I

that
9.21. Selecrrhe lighresrW8 sectionto be usedin an inclinedpositionsuch ( i
figure' 30 degrees lvrth the plane of
g.14. Selectthe lightesttrVsectionfor the beem of the accompanying the plane of rhe u.eb makesan angle of
(
load points' and at
reactions' loading. The beam is to be of A572 Grade 50 steel, and it has lateral
Lateral supportis providedat concentrated
en<iof cantilever.use (a) A36 steeland (b) A572 GraCe 65 steel. ,upport only at the ends of the 2J-ft simple span. The uniform grarity (
toiJ is 0.3 kips/ft snowload and 0.1 kip/ft deadload, in additionto the
LV= 10 k dead load beam weight. ( ,
2C k live load
w - 3.0 k,/ft cteadload g.22. For rhe caseassignedby the instructor,designthe lightestw sectionto (
(nct rncludingbeam weight)
sen'e as a crane-supportgirder as shown in the accompanyingfigure' (
I
t Assumelaterai tuppott at the endsonly and that deflectionneednot be
resrricted.essumi bne-halfthe lateral force on the crane rail (seeLRFD
a
Lateral qJpports ( ,
Vertical crPPcrt or ASD-A4.? and A4.3 for cab-operatedcrane) acts at each runrvay
(
girder. Use A36 steel.
P r o b .9 . 1 4 (,'
f'ot LRID or allowable bending End truck for crane
9.15. Determine the nominal strength h{^ ( t
section and loading in Prob' 8'19 if
srressF, f.orASD for the chinnel (
at the ends. Neglecting torsion, horv much
lateral support existsonly
tuould be required? Use A36 steel' (
larger,if iily, section
of Prob' 8'20' assuming lateral Crane srpport girder
9.16. Select a channel for the conditions with chapter 8'
(
support at the endsonly. considertcrsionin accordance L r,...- c-c of learing

as assigned: (a) for ASD (


Use for safet.v criteriorreitherof the follorving, Cranesupport girder
bending and tcjrsion should not exceedthe
the combin.d ,,r.r, due to the
(
lateral-torsion'al buckling; or (b) for LRFD
allowable based on
(
factoredload stressfun maYnot exceedQoFr Venical supports
different sized flanges for the f o r c r a n eg i r d e r s (
9.17. Design a built-up l-shapedbeam *ith
u'eightcan be saved'if
contlitionsoi Prob.9.4,part (b). what percent
Runway Litted
depth anci$'eb thickness Crane area load, l't' (
an1,,by usingdifferentsizedflanges? use beam
for the lightest rolled \\' shape that satisfies (
approximut.iy'tt. sameas S e c t i o nA - A

loadingconditions. A36 steel' (


from Prob. 9'3, estimatethe
9.18. For the beam selectedfor a caseassigned (
size of bracing (i.e-, select a section)iequired.
The bracing frames into
flange- Length oi bracing
both sides and is attached lo the compression (
is 6 ft. Crane
lv{admum (
in Prob' 9'8, estimatethe size
i 9.19. For the beamdesignedin the caseassigned Grarity End-
framesinto bot5 sidesof (
I

I
bracing required.Arru*. bracingis tj ft long, Truck
I
End-Truck
Preferablyselect'
the beam, and is attachedto th; compressionflanse.
I

I \\'heel
Crane Wheel (
II channels. Load Trolley Span SP:rcing
Capacitl'
(
9.20. Detcrminethe adequrcy, of a w2.1xS4(rvith rail, 20 lb/tL\ sen'ing as a W Rl Weight l.r*. l,r*t
is f:-tl.tt,tuttttt
cranesupportgirdcroiefO steel'The simplespan .20 ior Case (tons) @ps) ' (kips) (ft) (ft) (
goocl practice in accounting
E supporta[ rheinds only, Use accepted
the torsionll effccroi laierailoading.tlaxinrum
rncni:r.tscccurritrg near
1 15 18 A 40 9.5
(

H nridsPan are
i/. (live load plus impact): 90 ft-kips
2 20 2'l 6 36 8.0 (

ti
i*
,1/, (dead loaC)= 10 ft-kips
lrit = 10 ft-kips lassumedlive lerarlrcsistecib1 one
flange using top
a
J

4
30
2g
36
25
6
5
32
30
6.0
6.0
(
(
ii flangelateralloadingin accordance rvith LRFD or ASD-A4'3'
g (
(
I (
\
(
9 // LATERAL.TORSIONAL
BUCKLINGOF BEAMS

9.23. Redesign the crane support girder of Prob. 9.22, using a combination
channel and W section.
Chapter${}
9.24. Design the crane runway girder indicated on the accompanvingfigure.
The two cranes are each 30-ton capacity, rvith the end-truck wheel
spacing as given in the figure. The rails are ASCE 60 lb with clamps (see
AISC Manuai). T. ' dead load of each crane is 15 kips, equally dis-
Continuous
Beams
tributed to its four wheels.Each crane trolley weighs 3 kips. Use 4'36
steel and (a) select a single W section and O) select a combination W
section and channel,where the channel would have its s'eb flat against
the top flange of the W section.

i roiley

PLAN VIEW

10.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter brings togethertheoreticalconceprsrelating to both Load ancl


ResistanceFactor Design and Allorvable StressDesign that have been pre-
i r r l sented in Chapters7 and 9. In addition, plastic analysisis introduced for
:-6'rQ"#6'-0"*l
f l application to continuous,beams; this proceduremay be applicable with
V a r i d b l ev r i t h 4 ' . 0 1 'm i n i m u m "compact
sections"havingadequatelateralbracing.Plasticanalysisis permit-
Wheet spacing ted under Chapter N of the ASD Specification[1.5Jand may be applicable
Prob. 9.24 under LRFD-FI.1, The readeris assumedto be familiar with elasticmethods
of staticallyindeterminateanalysis.
Before proceedinginto the chapter,the reader should review Sccs.7.3
through 7.5 rvherethe strengthsof the cross-section
in flexure and in shearare
treated, and where LRFD and ASD as applied to laterally stable beams are
presented.
The reader-isalsoexpectedto be famitiarwith the lateralstability criteria
treatedin Chapter9, particularlySecs.9.1,9.2, and 9.6 through9.10.
For the readerwho wishesa packagestudy of plastic analysisand the
relatedbeam design,Secs.7.3 and 7.4 provide the basic plastic moment and
shearstrengths,includingthe conceptsof plastic moment,plastic hinge, and
shapefactor. Section7.4 containsthe basicapproachof using factoredloads
to obtain the required nominal strength, as rvell as design examples for a
simply supportedbeam.The plastic analysisand LRFD designsectionsof this
chapter can then form the body of the study.
f\DiArrur';Lr rrrsL -
10.2/ PLASIIUSIH=NLIIn\Jr
610 10/ coNTlNuous BEAMS s
ti

iL

r EXAMPLE 10.2.I for


$.2PLASTICSTRENGTHoFASTATICALLY|NDETERM|NATE r*g,t of the plastichingefor thebeamshorvnin Fig' 10'2'1
2
g
ffiil;;irr. d'
BEAM * 6eam havinga rvidthb and a depth
'T
* (a) a W16X40and (b) u ,."tungular
beam supporting a concen-
In Sec.7.3 it was shown that a simply supported
l =
t =

limit state (i.e-' collapse condition) when the concen- I G SOLUTION


irur.d load reached its l.i-'

moment o develop; that is'


t? (a) For W16x40'
trated load is large enoughto causethe plastic
t ;
.Y l a :

the concentrated load'


t-::
M" z 72.9
.u,rr. a plastic hing. to developunder t_-
l, - _ - : - - : 1.13
the concentrated load increasestoward the l a

Referring ,o Eg. 10.2.1, as ,

i .a-
L
M, s: 643
collapse condition, the portion of the beam where the 1:-
value Wn lhatcauses-the l =

line d )'- In the region


moment does not .x"eed t t, is elastic(meaningstraight l:F
t:* From Eq. 10.2.2,.
length and-the midspan
near the plastic *o*.n, Ui tUeteis an inelastic 7L, I J

t.:
purposes the b-eam may be treated as two rigid / 1 \
cun'ature is large. For practlcal
iL: r[t - l,l :
l *

hinge, and
l _ -
t(t - : o.ttt.
U'y u ttiog" ar B, knorvn as a plastic *)
;;r,;(straight [nes) connected 0u'
having a concent'raiedangle change,or hinge rotation'
f.nitn of"a plastic hinge is dependent on the shape of the
The actual (b) For rectangularsection,
to as much as one-third of
cross-sectionand .in uury fiom about one-tenth
consider the relationship betrveen the bending bd2
the span. as ao .*u*pi.,
segnents AB and AB' tn Fig' 10'2'1: Z -4 : : 1 - 5
-o*.nt, and the beam
-t - - -
AB AB' L/2 L/2 - iL/z s bd'
-:- or (10.2.1)
Mp M'. Mp M) 6

Solving for j, 1 \
1 jL: r(t - - l :0.333L
M., l.sI
j:r- 1- (10.2.2)
4- E
of the span'as
Even though the distancejL may be as much as one-third
u'here { is the shapefactor as discussedin Sec'7'3' of a plastichinge at a point
shown in Exampt. tO.Z.f,the simpleassumption
by tests.Beedle [10.1]and Massonnet-.and Save
has beenamply demonstrated
of and
theoretical experimental verificationoi
tiO.Zt hau. .*t.nsive discussions are not includ:d
plastic analysisproceduresso individual researphreferences
here.

Plastic Limit Load - Equilibrium tl'lethod


il,, acting'the requirc-
At the collapseconditior with the plesiic limtt load
still applic"tl.. Consider first a strticallydetermin'rtc
ments of equilibriumare
Bending
beam, u, ,ho*" in Fig' 10'2'2' A collepsecondition is
moment,M simply supported
plasticmoment M r.to
achievedrvhenthe load Wnrs largeenoughto causethe
Rotation,0 When the sufficientnumher
(curvature) occur at one location(in this caseunder ihe load;-
allorv instantaneous hinge rotatiorrs
of plastic hingeshave been developedto
without developingincreasedresistance, a mechanisrnis sardto haveOccurret.i'

r EXAMPLE 10.2.2
the w21x62 beam of Fig'
, Determine the collapsemechanismload,w, for
10.2.2.AssumeF, = 36 ksi.
Figure 10.2.1 lt{oment-curvaturerelationshipsfor a plastic hinge'
.-.."-
1O.2/ PLASTIC STRENGTHOF A STATICALLYINDETERI'eNATE BEAf'l 613
612 I0/CONTINLpTJSBEAMS

r EXAMPm10.2.3
beam
Mp= 433 fi'kips
Determinethe collapsemechanismload lVn f'orthe fixed e.d W16x'30
oi Fig. Assume
70.2.3. F,, : 36 ksi.
M

Mf

Collapse
mechanism

Collapsemechanism
bending
M
i I
mornenl 0.82in. &lo i - -
lvlidgandeflectisn,A Collepse
mechanism
fr1,
t--
I
L0.?.2.r
Figure10.2.2ExamPle . Plastic hinges I
ltN
^t

Coltapse mechanrsm
t/
SOLUTIOY
t,: ty
,,,,o4liili.|\."
ql:il
bendrngmoment

v_________\
dra9ram
Using equilibrium. ?.lidspanCei rec':;cn,A

trfr=ry M." w L
-6-
M^

4M +@,2) 4(36)(144)
u , ^ : - fo : - f :id =72kips Elasticbending
moment diagram

-6-
J J L WL
-E-
Using the simplifiedprocedureof consideringthe behavioras ideally elastic-
plastii, the deflectionoccurring when Mo is reachedis based on the elastic Figure10.2.3 Examplei0.2.3.
equation);rvhichis strictly valid only until M" is reached.At a maximum-.
moment of.Mr' '..
SOLWION
wL3 MrL' FyILZ FrL'
^ Sincethe beariris staticallyindeterminate,three plastic hingesare required
(
.Ar: 4sEI:ffi:Wt:r;8, to form a mechanism.Using equilibrium,

( 36Qq2$44) 2 Mr ^ : W
: 0.82in. 4
(
12(10.sx29,000)

( Assuminga linear extensionuntil M - Mp, Mo: FrZ : 36(72'9)i, : 219 ft-kiPs


z 144 ' '-
( : 0'93in'
Ap= 0'823: 0'gz = 0'82(1'14) '
fr wn : 8Mo/ L : 8(219)/24 : 73 Y'rps
(
The deflection rvhen M. is achievedwill be higher than this. Horvever,it is the kno$' thc
( service load deflecdoi that is normally of concern, and this is correctly In order to determinethe load-defiectiondiagram.it is cecessaryto
elastic bending
computed by the usual elastic procedures. loading history gP to the collapsecondition. In this case the
( *orn.ntr, u, iho*n in Fig. 10.2.3,give equal positive and negative bending
itote that the coilapse mechanism moment diagram for this statically will
moment; therefore the thrJe phstic hiog.t form sirnultaneously. lv{onrents
( l
determinate problem is the same shape as that which occurs if the maximum is
proportion until the collapse condrtion
moment is do*-n in the service load range. At whatever load level, from an increasesimultaneouslyin direct
( as for the staticaityaetenninatecase' as lcad is applied the
infinitesima!load to collapsemechanismload, the bending moment at-every reached.Again,
to the loaC'
(-, point remainsin a constantpropcrtion to the load. E bending *o-ent at everypoint remainsin a constantptaportion
( i
10 2 ,' PLASTICSTRENGTHOF A STATICALLYINDETERMINATE
BEAM 615
614 10/ CONTIITUCUS
eEAMS
(
For this specialstaticallyindeterminatecaseplasticanalysishas no advantage The equilibriumrequirernent
at thecollapse
mechanism
conditiongives ( ,
over elasticanalysis. w"(10)(20\
-fr(, I
'M
. -P
A 5 _ :
,yL3
_ : _
MrL' FrL' 30
( ,
792E1 24EI 24Ec 3
l Vn: 2lvfp : 0. 3M 0 ( ,
36Qq20M) . Z0
: : o'54in' (
*cep*F Mo: 219ft kips (from Example10.2.3)
(
Assuminga linear extensionuntil M : Mr,
W, : 0. 3( 219) : 65. 7kips
z 72.9 ( ,
Ao : 0.54 : A.54 : 0 . 6 1i n . I
S *, The load-deflection diagram, however, requires examination of the loading (
E EKAillPLE 10.2.4 stages. (;
Dererminethe load.deflectiondiagram for the W16x40 beam of Fig. 70.2.4 Stage /. From the elastic bending moments,the first plastic hihge will
for loadingup to the collapsecondition.AssumeF,.: 36 ksi. form at point l. (
oo*' (
w1
: M
u o :: 2 1?1e
9 ff tr -- kr zinc
ips
g
pra-a'-|.|-- 2v-a'---i (
t r l w, : 9(219)/40: 49.3kips
-
,s Y " N^ i
(
r u
gg-c,-4
t
14(io)r(20)3 4e.3(8ooo)(172s) (
ar : 0. 56in.
Collapse
3(30)381 3(27)(2e.ooox518) (
mechanism
6 5 . 7k i p s (
Stage2. With Wr: 49.3kips one can considerthat part of the available
moment strength at points .B and C has be'enused up. The strengthremain- (
Collapse mechanrsin
benCing ing is
rnoment
(
dragram M a : II o - 80(49.3)/27.: 279 - 146.1: 72.9 ft-kips
(
Mc: tr(, - 20(49.3)/9 :219 - 109.6: 109.4ft-kips (
,l
0.56 0.96 1.67
(
l e f l e c t i o nu n d e r t h e l o a d ,A As the load is increasedabove ,yL :49.3 kips, the added load acts on a
';nches)
E lastic different elastic system.The momentscausedby the additionalload are not (
l"rprr"!i:a m^ron.
distributedover the spanin the samemanneras momentscausedby the first
(
49.3kips; thus the term "redistributionof moments"is applied.Figure10.2.5:r
rlianrzm - q _a.:
r r ! 5 v
I'

sho*'sthe elasticsystemand momentsfor stage2. It is apparentthat the ne>.i (


,':i pla:tic hinge u'il! form under the load.
(
Figure13.2.4ExampleLA.2.4. t4aw2
:72.9 (
27
SOL L TI O N (
l V z : 27(72.9) / 140: 14. 1kips
The coll:pse mechanismload Wn can be found directly rvithout knowing (
tlre sequence of plastichinge formation.In this case,sincethc elasticmoments w ' ra2b3( 3t+ o) 14.1(10)2(20)3(e0
+ 10X1728)
are dlfferent at the three locationsrvhereplastic hingeswill form. the plastic l2 -- : : 0.40in. (
hinges*'ill not form simultaneouslv. LzLtE-- 12(30)3(2e,oooxs18) (
(
(
(
(
' :
(
616 10/ coNTrNt
o[ls BEAirs to.z / PLASTTC
STRENGTH
OF A STATTCALLY BEAM -
TNDETERMINATE 617
(
(
E EXAMPLE 10.2.5
( Using the equilibriummethodfor the continuousbeam of Fig. 10.2.6,dc.icr-
| )*' '-='"1 mine the collapsemechanismload ld. Assum. 4. : 36 ksi and that the
( stage2 4 of plasticmomentstrength.
controllinglimit stateis the achievement
( >
,
l
I
l
toading ;g3d:n9

l"-;o-o'-l--20,-g' L-20'-0 SOLUTION


(
Whereasin the preriousexamplesonly one mechanismwas possible.and
( Elastic
thereforeobvious,thereare many situationswherethe collapsemechanisnis
E iasric
moments- not obvious. Each of the three possible mechanismsu'iil be investigatedftrr
( stase
2 I -:T"- this example.
20w^ Mechanism/: Positivemoment under the load IIz",
t-

( ry {br
Mp- M,t+ iM,z- \Mo
( r-igure10.2.5 ,o*", 2 and 3 for Exasrple10.2.4. .tMr: +w, + i(8%)
( Mo= lWn

( Merho,n,rrl2.' Positivemomentplastichingeat the load l.5lt;.


( s t age3. wit h a to ta l o f w r+ w 2 :4 9 ' 3 + 1 4 '1:63' 4 ki ps appl i ed'the Mr: t r M , ,+ ! r l , z - i l l l p , ;',
( strengthavailableat C is
iM o: \ w^ + llY,
(
Mc: Mp - 109.6(Stage1) - 40(14.1)/9 (Stage2) : 40.i ft-kips
-j-.
i
Me: +w,: 6.4w,
_ t

( .t
. l
i

.-:' i

( ] zo%:46'7; wt:2'3kiPs I w" 1.5W^ 2.5W"


:;. I
: r o-u Wl6x31.Z=54.Cin.3
( t. I
:i_ |

( ryLt 2.3(20)'(i728) ,1 |
-+ I

Ar: = 0.71in. 3 !
,.+ I

3EI 3(29,ooo)(s18) ;iia\aI


C
(
The completeload-deflectiondiagram appearsin Fig. 10.2.4b.The total load
;l
''l l,4echanrsnr I
( = l
to causethe collapsemechanismto form equals +f
( 5l l . ' l e c h a r i r s r n2

( wn: W r * W2+ w r: 4 9 .3+ 1 4 -1+ 2 ' 3 :65' 7 ki ps' .El


:l Mechanrsm 3
.tc I
( i+r. I
e:l
Note rhat this statically indeterminatecase, unlike the prertous special e.l
(
case, exhibits the multistage load-deflection diagram typical of statically E
€l
l
Bend:ng moments
ilf ro.,"rrnq ncgal rve moment

indeterminatesystems.As load is increasedmomentsvary in a different ratio


.ra d n r t ! r ' i i t r v ' ( 1 u iI, C C m p o n e n t
( g l
:::. I grmnle tream moments)
for eachstageof loading.Tbus the collapsemechanismmoment diagram rs not :il
( equal to a constrll times the elasticmoments.Only for statically determinate &l
f r l
,,' =SSE=fqu r",=ryg:nr/^
( "*.r, and a few specialstatically indeterminateones can the coilapse mecha- ? t
+i
1 .S k1l"(16)g
M"r=ff=8w"
nism moment diagram be obtained by multiplying the elastic moments by a € l
( constant. . I ,:tl Figure10.2.6 Example10.2.5.
(
, (
sl
#l
&,.1
-i,E:
a

..4 t
-
(
618 BEAMS
1o/ CONTINUOUS 10.2/ PLASTTCSTRENGTHOF A STATTCALLY
TNDETERMTNATE
BEAM 619
( :
- (
Mechanism J.' Positive moment plastic hinge at the load 2.5W, *ith r EXAMPLE 10.2.7
negative moment plastic hingesat the endsof the 30-ft span, t
Determine the plastic limit load lV, in'Example n.2.3 by the virtual rvork
Mo: M*- M' principle. Referring to Fig. 10.2.8, (

2 M r: 1 2 rV , External work : Internal work (


.eL (
Mo:6lvn W"- 2
:2M00+MpQ|\
(
Since the plastic moment capacity required is largest for Mechanism f. it Wn: gM e/ L
controls: (
which agreeswith the previoussolution. I
It{- 36(54.0) (
wn:
i: i6:23kips w^ ( ;
In this case the collapsemechanismoccursin the 24-ft span while the ( '
30-ft span remainsstableand elastic.A differentsectionin eachspan may be
a more economicalsolution. I (
Figure10.2.8 ExampleL0.2.7. \
Plastic Limit Load - Energy Method (
The principle of virtual work may alsobe applied-toobtain the plastic limit
r EXAMPT-E10.2.8
Determinethe collapsemechanism (i.e.,plasticlimit) load lVn for Example (
load W^ in an anall''sisof a given structure,or to find the required plastic
moment Mo in a designproblem. 10.2.4by the virtual work method.Referringto Fig. 1A.2.9, (
Considerthat as the collapsemechanism (i.e.,plasticlimit) load is reached Externalwork : Internalwork (
the beam moves through a virtual displacement6. For equilibrium. the 20L
externalwork done by the load movingthroughthe virtual displacementmust ,Y
" - 3: M o ( ? o + 0 + 3 0 ) (
equal the internal strain energydue to the plastic moment rotating through
(
small angles(hingerotal,ions). 3
l / , : ; ( 6t L) t r r[ r : 9 M e / L (
I EXA}IPLE T0.2.6
For L : 30 ft, Wn: 0.3Mpas before. I (
Determine the plastic limit load W, in Example 70.2.2by the virtual work
principle. Referringto Fig. 10.2.'1,
W ^ !
Externalwork : Internal work trs-- (
Wn6 MP20 ;r.,.-{-,
..,_
!=-ll----i,.,_

*"1+) -+ -l-.<-iin\n " (


' +
:2Mpo |" t e- - - \ t - i (
I I Figura10.2.9Example
10.2.8.
(
W- :4Mr/L
! EXA]VIPLE10.2.9 (
thc sameaspreviously
obtained. I Determine the plastic limit load Il/, for the continuous beam of Example
10.2.5.Referringto Fig. 10.2.10, (
lv{echanisml: (
w^(20x8)+1.sw.e(8
M)P
: ( 3+0 d ) (
28W^: 4M o (
Figure10.2.7 Erample 10.2.6. IVo: 7Wn (
(
(
(
(' _€l
E€'i
'.*:
i r - d a

EXAMPLES 621
( _ _:-':r ' / PlSSncANALYSIS-LRFD
1O.g
620 BEAMS
10,,'CONTINUOUS .'3' '
(
'L*i
i ;

;
("
1.51t ?.5w"
analysis wai used in plasricdesignas discussedin Sec. 1'8' For additional
w verifica-
( .::: elementarymaterial on the philosophy.procedure,and experimental
-;- ; tion of plastic design,Refs. 10.3 through 10'10 are.suggested'
( "€ The factored ioad plastic analysis option within Load and Resistancs
recommended
( Factor Designis the moit rational apptot.n -a is the authors'
load elaslic anall'sis
procedure for continuousbeams.eit.*atively, factored
piastic analysis ale satisfied' The
( may be used even rvhen the conditions for
for designing continuous beams is illus-
( Allowable StressDesign alternative
Mechanism I trated is Sec.10.5.
{ / -""1i ' c When elasticanalysisis usedunder either LRFD or ASD, adjustments
to
be made under conditions
tt
the elastic analysisUenaingmoment diagram may
( to bring
specifiedby LRFO-A5.I or ASD-FI.1. Theseadjustmentsattempt
Mechanism2
.7,- = - . - }\ .:1 Design (ASD'N) result and the LRFD
( the result close to both the Plastic
it

l'lechanism 3 plastic analysisresult.


limit state
The us! of plastic analysisto evaluate the moment strength
1

as shear, flange and/or *'eb lu'-al


( does not pieclude other limit states,such
and particularly lhe sen'iceability limi:
Figure10.2.10 ExamPle10-2.9- buckling, lateral-torsionalbuckling,
( from
state of deflection, controlling
(
Mechanisnt 2: E EXAMPLE 10.3.1
( contlnuous
: MpQA+ 20)
w^(lXS)+ I.5tY,20(g) Design the lightest w sectionof 436 steel for use as the trvo-span
is providedat the ends and midpoint cf
( beam of Fig. 10.3.1. Lateral support
32W'= 5M' each span. Use Load and Resili*.. Factor Design utilizing
plastic anal;-sis
( lcngths Ln are
requirementsunder LRFD-FI.I, even though the unbraced
*o:6'411/n
( - l
,"1 relatively long.
,'
( Mechanisnt 3: )'.
: M
:l
e(4A'+ 50'+ 0')
2-5W^(40')(6) SOLUTION
( iEl (a) compute the factored loads, rr; and wu. Temporarily neglecting
the

( 60W4- LlMp
E
1l ll
weight of the beam,
) 1 . 6 ( 2 . 5 )= 4 ' 6 0k i p s / f t
1 4 : 1 . 2 ( 0 . 5+
( Mo: 6lVn *l
( :Fl 1- 2( 10)+ 1. 6( 30): 60 kips
(
(
The equilibrium and energy proceduresare equally appligab-le
where degiees of freedom in
braced frimes, the design
sidesway
procedureis to
must be
cause
considered.
the plastic
In
hinges
for Jrames
multistory
to form in
rl
?l
w, :

The required n-ominalstrengthis the factoredload divided


by Or' In this case'
girders are treated as ' R eq uir ed
;h; girders rather than in the columns; thus the wn: w'/ Q t ': 4'60/ 0'90: 5'11kips/ f t
(
(
continuous beams.Where bracingcontributesan axial
beam-columnprinciples of Chapter12 apply'
force to the girder, the
il ,ii I RequiredW, = llt*/et: 60/0'9A: 66'7 kips
+ i
( is to be userJ'
As indicated in the problem statement,plastic analysis
(
10.3 PLASTICANALYSIS-LOADAND RESISTANCE *i
e Evaluate the possible coilapse mechanisms;in this case there are two' as
FACTORDESIGNEXAMPLES shown in Fig. 10'3.1b.
* at one
(
beain that * (b) MechanismI: For a span with uniform load, simply supportcd
An elemenraryexampleof the designof a simply supporleg the location of
(
, (
its
achieves mechanism
coilapse was in
presented 7.4
Secs. and?.5.
in
DesignSpecification
Prior
1986,
to the
plastic
B
. ,*
end, and expectedto developa piastic hilSe at. the other,
maximum positive mornent is noi self-erident.Ai an unknorvn
distance -t
uOoptionof A.IS'CLoad and Resistance *-5
+].',
'rt
Frr'-' (
. 622 1 0 / c o F J T I N U O U SB E A i T S ANALYS|S- LRFD EXAMPLES
10.g/ PLASTTC
(' ,
(
Service i:.=ds t'',L2/8 into Eq. (d). giving
r-24-o" W:10 k dead load SubstitutdM,:
3C k live load {
w :4.5 k/ft dead load M;-zttrtPM'+r6M!:g (.) (
2.5k/ft liveload

Solving the quadraticfor Mo gives (


ltqornenldiagram
.,t l' when Mo occurs M, : 0.686M, (10.3.1) ( ,
,/* M,,\ f,lr2 al interior
*
I
strpport (showing and the locationof the plastichinge is at (
>f--_ t.a
FD)
(
15'-g'
' : rL- M- ,P -{ Lt\z8 , lLg :Z
MelL\
Tl-* , l (
!tlaa\anism 1

| 1 0.686\ ( i
:tf1 -
!',lechanism 2 8 ):al74L (
are shownin Fig. 10.3.2.
The resultsof this development (
A-'.:a! mechanism '\\
{
t
I Q 1 1 4 L = 1 2a
i L ? e : h a n i s m2 )
@ l M o
wn

(
(c) l-_Jiseo Llo= 445
Cd:apse
f f i r
rngchanism (
---^^a Ai^^.^a
r:l!arr=;rt !io9;6lil

(ft-k!ps) (
Ito = 445
(
l

Figure10.3.1 Exanple 10.3.1. (


(
Figure10.3.2Coliapse condition at oneendand
for uniformlyloadedspancontinuous
at t-heother.
simpl,vsupported (
from the discontinuousend, the net posiive mo::lent is
w - x (
M ^, : For the specificerample,Mechanism1 (Fig. 10.3.1b)requires
^ r ( \L - r ) - /, M , (u)
2 L--P (
*'! ' 5'11( 30) 2
Mo:0.6561r / ,ir M,t: - : 575f t - kips (
Takrng d.\{,rtdx:0 and solving for -r. the locaiion of maximum moment is 8 B
(
L M"f M r : 0 . 6 S 6 ( 5 7 5 ): 3 9 4f t - k i P s
/ - - - ( b )
2 wnL (
(c) Meclrurtisnt
2: For the 40-ft span,
(
SubstitutingEq. (b) into Eq. (a) gives 66'7(40)
: ry-
tr!,2 : 667ft-kips (
, , r . ( , , , r*) l: (+' (- : . * i - + l : r ' 4 4

#\ (c)
Equilibriumrequires
I{, M,
(

(
l

\\'lren a plastic hinge develops,rty'*(mar1: .\!p; ii:us Eq. (c) becomes Mo: M,z- :667 -
; ; (
w-Lz M; Mo iIi
i tuIr: 6.67/I.5 : 445 ft-kips (
Mn: _ * (d)
I

t
- iw^Lz ? *,L2 I .
t ( ,
I The largest it, requirementobtained from the possible mechanismsdeter-
t.
t (
i"
(
(
(
- LRFDEXAMPLES
ANALYSIS
10.3/ PLASTIC
( 10/coNTtNUOUSBEAMS

(
mines the controlling condition. Thus Mechanism 2 governs.A check by 2. I5 .ft atljacent Io interio, ,uOOo)r,
t
detcrmining the conrpletecollapsemechanismmoment diagram should be Mt:3E0 fr-kiPs; llo: 4 4 5f t - k i P s
( rnadeto insure that Mo is the ma:iimummomeit. If a locationis found rvhere
( the computed nominal moment exceeds M, the mechanismused is not 3600+ 2200(380/445)
L^, r r : 752r ,
corrcct.In this case,Fig. 10.3.1cshog'sMr: 4-15ft-kips is the maximum,so 36
( that lv{echanism2 is the colrect one.
The maximum positivemoment on the 30-ft spanusing Eq. (a) is L "b - 1 s ( 1 2 )
f Minimum r,,: :1.18in.
152 152
( 6) - o.4r4tv{p
n/ : +(12.4)(17.
20 ft adlacenl to interior suPPoil:
(
trlr : 445ft-kiPs; trIo: 445ft-kiPs
( = 558 - 0.4(445): 3E0it-kips < 445 OK
3600+ 2200(Ms/Ms)
( Lpa r,: 16\r,
(d) Selectsection:
(
t
-:v{^ 445(72\ L, 20(12)
( R e q u i re dZ - - =' : \linimuml,' = : : 1.49in.
F, 36 ;i -
(
"LOAD 4. 20 ft at right end: Sincethe maximumpositivemoment plastichingeis
( Try W24x62 rvith Z*: 753 in.3.as indicated by the LRFD lv{anual, the last one to form. Lra doesnot apply. Horveverrvhen Lo exceedtLr, either
FACTOR DESIGN SELECTION TABLE." for 2, Becauseof the relatively the strengthdecreases buckling limit state.
due to inelasticlateral-torsional
( long laterally'unbracedlengths,a secticnhal'ing larger r-ymay be required. gradient.
or the strengthstill may reach M, becauseof a favorablemo!^nent
( (e) Check lateral suppcrt. When plastic anaiysisis used,more rotation When Lra doesnot apply,the seciionmustsatisfyLRFD-FI.3. In this design.
capacity at the plastic hinges is reljed upon to develop the mechanism. the nromerrtgradientgivesCt,: 1.75.Assumethis segmentrli/i not controlat
( LRFD-Fl.l requiresthat -i-, not exceed Lpa given by Eq. 9.5.7 ILRFD this stageof the d'esign.
( Fo r m ula( F 1- i) 1,
Assumethe minimum ry requiredis 1.49in. for segment3; in which casc
( 3600 + 22:A(M1/MP) the w24x62(rr: 1.38in.) is not aecepLable adjacentto thc
for the segments
Lpa ry [9.s.7]
F.. interior suppori.increasesizeto W24x68 (t,,:1.87 in.).
( Investigatefurth-erfor the W24x68.
(' Horvever.in the.regionof the last hiage to form, and in regionsnot adjacentto Mr: Z, Fr : 177( 36) / 12: 531f t - kiPs
( a plastic hinge, Eq. 9.5.7does not apply'.
At unbraced segmentsadjacent to tbe last plastic hinge to form, the L r : J : o o.(ur ) / , 1 4 / t 2 : 7 . 8f r
C- laterally unbraced length Lo may not exceed Lp lf C6 is 1.0; however,when
(' the moment gradient is favorable(i.e.. Ca > 1), lIo may still be achievedeven M,: (r, - 4)s, : (36- 10)154/12: 334ft-kips
though Lb > Lr. Lo is given by Eq. 9.5.5 ILRFD Fcrnrula (F1-4)], '
( L , : E q .9 . 6 . 6: 2 2 3f t
3CS
a- f
L_
/
-- _ --

t{'' ksi
' t -.
Ie.5.s] bv inii;r"i':i
For lu : 20 ft ar.therightendof the40-ftspan.ltl^ iscontrollcd
"!'
lateral-torsional buckling since Lt < L,. The strength lies bct$cc,n ll--tnd
( ' [ ' r ' r i : r trl.'
when Cn: L0; horvev.r, in thiJcase u'ith C6: 1.75, LRFD-FI .1.
( For this problem, four segmentsmust be considered,as follorvs: (Fl-3) or Eq. 9.6.10, gives

(-' l. /5 ft at left end: Lra does not.applS'for segmentscontainingno plastic 1t,: tzs[s:r - 334)(ffi i1
- (s3l
( hinges.Since the maximummomeat of 380 ft-kips is lessthan M,lr'can be t
greater than lo. This segmeqtw'iil be cbecked last since it is not expectedto : 1. 75( 366): 641f t - kiPs
( control the design.
, (.,
t-

10.3/ PLASTICANALYSIS- LRFD EXAMPLES 627 (


626 BEAMS
10/ CONTTNUOUS
(
is not
Sincecomputed ,\y'"exceedsMr, M,: lfr. Thus,segment4 is satisfactoryfor indication of difficulty as discussedin Sec.?.6. In this casedeflection (
lateral bracing. likely a problem.
{
trseW24x68, F,. : 36 ksi-
(tr,t, = Mr: 531ft-kips) > (RequiredMo: 445ft-kip3) OK { '
r EKA,I\{PLE 10.3.2 ('
for the
For Lo: 15 ft in segmentl, Mn is alsocontrolledby inelasticlateral-tor- Design the lightest constant moment of inertia section required (
sional buckling sinceLo < L,.Si-nceLb QS ft) is lessthan 1; for segrnent4 Lateral
10.3.3. supports are provided at the-vertical \ ,
continuousbeam of Fig.
and Co is the same,clearlysegment1 is satisfactoryby inspection-. each cJncentrated load. The steelhas Fr 69H:U:: Load
supporrsand ar 7 (
(f) Chcck moment strength.Note that the factored loads were divided by LRFD-Fl'1'
and ResistanceFactor Designutilizing plasticanalysisunder
fa ro obtain the requirednominal loads that can be carried when the collapse (
mechanism(required nominal moment strengthsM,) is reached.Alternatively,
the factoredmoment Mu diagram could have been obtained; that would be
V'1, W2 YY3

Service!oads
Wr=3 k dead toad
12 k live load
r
appropriatewhen elasticanalysisis used. However,when plastic analysisis W =7 k dead load
(.
uscd it seemsmore appropriate to use tbe Mn diagram involving the collapse 18 k live load
W^:1O k dead load (
mechanism,since only at the collapsemechanismdo the plastic hinge and M,
have meaning.In this case,after the beam weightis added,a recalculationof T czs'-.u-'.-
@ 40 k tive load
(
required M, for lr{echanism2 gives
l_ t-ateral
suppon (
,Y,L ( w./o \ L 2 0.068(1
.2/a.so)(4q2 f
It
lrt s?
- - :657 + : 685 ft-kips Mechanism'l
4 8 (,
I
I

Mr: M ,z - 0 ' 5 M P: M,y ' l ' 5 : 4 5 7f t' ki P s ,-


I Mechanism2
I (
I
I

(Pror"idedL!r:531 I Mechanism3 (
ft-kips) t (n.quyed Mo:457 ft-kips) OK
Variable,( lfo
{
lt is ciear that the beam*'eight has little effect. / U t t i - a t e m o m e n td i a g r a m ,l
(g) Check shear.At the interior end of the 40-ft span the factoredload i showtngcomponents
sh e a rtl is (
/
M5
V,: 33.35* : 44.5kips 1
ZO {
Collapsemechanism
momentdiagram (
V n: 0 . 6 F r A . : 0 . 6 ( 3 6 ) ( 2 3 . 7 3 ) 0 . 4 1: 5 2 1 3k i p s (ft-kiPs)
(
l. Q , Y ^: 0 .9 0 (2 1 3 :) 1 9 t k i p t] t 4 4 .5k i ps OK Mp=282 M p: 282 (

As expected,except on short spanswith healy loading,sheardoesnot mntrol.


10.3.2.
Figure10.3.3ExamPle (
(h) Deflection. If excessivedeflection appearsto be a problem, seroice (
load dellectionmust be computed.Defiection when collapseis imminent is not SOLUTION
easill' determined,nor is it generailyof interest.In this case, (a) D-eterminefactored loads tll, and associatednominal loads lll" that (
must be iarried when a collapsemechanismis imminent. (
L 40(12) ^^
-V- : "u w u t : 1 . 2 ( 3 ) + 1 - 6 ( 1 2:) 2 2 . 8k i P s (
7: w u z : 1 . 2 ( i ) + 1 . 6 ( 1 8 :) 3 7 . 2k i p s
(
Though L/cl is not any guaranteeregardingdeflection,it does provide sone w, 3: 1. 2( 10) + 1- 6( 40)- 76. 0kiP:
(
{
( I
(
s$'i
(. - ; . I 10.3 / PLASTICANALYSIS- LRFD EXAMPLES 629
- ': ' ' - Il
628 Io/CONTINUOUSBEAMS
( -,
1

( (e) Selectbeam.
Using Sr : 0.90, the required nominal ultimate loads ll'n to be carried are
( 2 S 2i {? )
RequiredWnL: WrJil: 22'8/A30 : l5'3 kiPs t,:
Rcquired : 56.4in.l
( T
RequiredWn2: WzJQo : 37'2/A 90 : 41'3 kips
( TryW18x35har,ingZ,:66.5in.3Thisseclioniscolttpucrfor{':60ksi
Requi re dWn : WtJ Q r:7 6 ' 0 /O 9 0 : 84' 4ki ps
( for flangelocalbuckling.
As indicated in the problem statement,plastic anallsis is to be used' '="t'=l \ 65
(
E'aluate the possiblecollapsemechanisms;in this caselhere are three. as
I h,/2 6.0/2
: 7 . 8'1' : 8 ' \4 1 o *
shos'nin Fig. 10.3.3-
l\ r : rr 0.425 | t ) , r :; =
i \ir,
(
( ^r -
2s.3(10)1s For web local buckling.
ivt sl
25
( ' : : 5 3 . s. ) oK
(
41.3(20)s
ILI", : -- j- : 165ft-kiPs (^: [ ^ " :H : 8 2 - 6 i
/.)
(
84.4(1c)(20)
. (D Chec.klateralsupport.Although it is likelv the plastichingc at ll' is
: ,:, It'Krps that it rs
( M,3:
30 the last to form, the designermay not be sure.The authorssuggest
criterion of LRFD-Fi.1 to ali segments havins 't/n
( prudent to apply the lr,,
I: Assumemomentunder lV, lsadequals,L/o,
(b) Illechanism at either end. eliminatid! the need for knou'ingthe ,.qr.n.. of plastichingc
un-
(
Mr: M,r + iM,, - *M, formation. The 20-ft segment.being considerablylonger than the othcr
bracedsegments. n'ill undoubtecllyconrrol lateral-torsional buckling'
(
:735
* M o - 1 5 2+ 1 ( 1 6 5 ) 36oo+ 22oo(rtt/MP) ln - -r
( \- L^, r, [ 9 . ) ./ J
Mr: g(235): 168ft-kips r,
(
i"'itlt
(:, 2: Assumemomentunder lv, loadequalsMo,
(c) Mecltartisnt since the moment gradientin this segmentis one of reversecun'ature.
Mt/Mo:*1'
( Mo: \M,, + M,z - *M,
. Lpd:58oor,'/60:96,\
:716
( *Mr: i ( 1 5 2 )+ 1 6 5 20 ft' the rl requiredr"'ouldbe
which meanstot Lu:
( ' Mp: #Q16) = 720ft-kiPs Requiredrt.:20(77)/96"1 : 2'48 in'
(
3: Assurnemomentunder w, loadequalsMo,
(d) Mechanism None of the W shapes
( The W18x35 havingr" only 1.33in. is not acceptable'
Mr: M't- MP in the range35 to q\ tb/tti,ou. ,., anl' higher than 2-0.Sincea realisticdesign
( having a sec.tionrvith r, g.reaterinutt 2.48 in. cannot be achieved'additional
2Mr: 563; M o : 282 ft'kiPs (Controls)
bracing must be Provided. . ,.
( right end of
282ft-kips' the rcsultingmomentsunder If one additionallateralsupport is providedat 10 ft from the
If a sectionis selectedthat has Mo: resulting
( the structure,determinethe W shapethit rvill be satisfactory.For the
the W, and Wr loads are th;2$-ft segment, MJIIp:0; conscqucntly'
trvo 10 ft segments that replace
( Mt: M,r* iMrr- #Mo . Lpa: 36A0r,/60: 60r,
(
: 235'- *(282) : 122ft-kips < 282 0K
r" : 10i12)/60: 2'00 in'
Requirecl
(
- :
Mz: \Mt * M,z *h{o This $,ouldrequirewl6x6? or Wl8x?5. the samesectionsneeded
$'hen L6
( at the
bracingat 5-ft inten'alsin the 30-ft Then
span'
: 216 - *(/:82) : - 1o ft-kips < 782 oK was 20 ft. Assumelateral
(
, ( ,
-
10.3 / PLASTICANALYSIS_ LRFD EXAMPLES 631 (
630 l0lCCrrTilrUOUS BEAI',4S

P:astichinges
most critical location near the right support,
tv{/ lv{p : -147/282 : -0.5
Failuremechanism
. Lpa: 250Arr,/60: 47.7r;

Requiredr, : 5(72)/41.7: I.44 in.


Cotlapsemechanism
Th: Iightestsection,W18x35, for dre Mo requirement has r,.: 1.22in. momentcltagram
showingcomponents
a n t l still will not qualify. However, W16x36, the next [ghtest secrionhas
l
1.52in. and is alsocompactwith 4..:60 ksi.
Use 5-ft spacingof lateralbracingon the 30-ft span.
On the 25-ft span.check the laterally unbraced10-ft segmentat the left
cnd. This segment does not have a plastic hinge associatedwith it. The
strcngt hof t he W 16x 3 6 h a v i n gL o : 7 0 ft mu s tb e determi ned. Collapse
m e c h a n i s mm o m e n l
,Vp : Z,F, : 64(60)/12 : 320ft-kiPs diagram
Mr, or fuloz
L, : [lco1r :4.e rt
.s2)/,[41/t2 10.3.3.
1C.3.4Example
.Figure
tr{,: ( 4 - 4)E : (60- t0)56.5 :235 ft-kips
1t2
UnCer the It'. load the moment is
L,: E q . 9 . 6 . 6 : 7 2 . 4f t

Ct:7'75
!,1 : \M,, * M,z- *Mo,
: 50.7+ 168 - 0. 8( i68) : 8Af t kips < 168 OK
I t l o - 4 . 9\ l
- (320- 235)t
Mn 1.75[320 : 4seft-kips
,* _ un ,|] (b) Lateral support requirements.Exarnine the 10-ft laterally unbraced
-84/168 :
length bern'eenthe W, and W, loads,wherethe ratio Mr/I'lp:
Since computed ,!/" erceedsIv{r, Mn:,Vo. Since Lln:320 ft-kips erceeds - 0.5.U si ngE q. 9.5. 7,
i22 ft-kips unCer the I/, load the 10-ft segmentis satisfacrory.
3600- 2200(-0.5)
L'seW16x36.r, : 60ksi. r Lpa r, : 41.7r,.
60
For l, : 19 ft, the required ry is 120/41.7 = 2.88 in. rvhich cannot be
B EXA]\IPLE 1033
'beam achievedb1'any realisticdesign.Increasethe lateral support to be every 5 ft.
Redesign the of Example 70.3.2,using either cover plates or r\\'o
This will be necessaryin the 30-ft span also,as sho*'n in Example10.3.2.
butt-splicedtogether.IJseplasticanall'sisunCerLoad and
dificrent sec';io:rs
Assumingthe plastichinge(,+M) betu'eensegmentsB and C (seeFig.
l:ecior De:ign uncierLR-FD-FI.1.Use F, : 60 ksi.
Ilc,ristancc
10.3.4)is the lasthingeto form, 4.9.5.7 is nct requiredby LRFD-Fl.1 1ei':
satisfied for those segments.Hcwever, in order for the nominal mcment (
SOLUTI OA'
strength-\/, to reachMo, Lu may not exceedLo v'henCr,: 1.0. [n tl:.iscas': (
.{ssunrethat thc changeof sectionoccursnearthe inflectionpoint to the -126/168. {
sesmentC has the flaiter moment gradient,iraving IIJir{":
right of the csrt:al support,givingrise to differentplasticmoments.11or
and Thus, C,,: 1.13;this rvouldmean that Lo could exceed Loby a small amount (
.11,^=at thc trvo resrrained supports(seeFig. 10.3.4).
suchthat 1.13^ill,could still equal !t[0, eventhough ]fn might be lessthan ,V/r.
(a;)Consid:r first the 25-ft spansupportingtheW, andI4/,loads.Assume
to requireLu to not cxcecd Lo f.or this segment,
It rvill be conservative
tirc positivemonent under the IV, load reacheslv{4, (
300 300 t

lvlor: M1 * trM,, - *I{0, Lr: = ,r: 38.7r, ('


@,, ,169 I

= 152+ 82.5- 0.4Mel


L, 5(12)
,r:
Minimum : 1 . 5 5i n .
lLI6: 168ft-kips #: # (
I.
,

,(
,,

( Cxlz |0ICONTINUOUS
BEAMS. - !
r0.3/ PLASTTC - LRFDEXAMPLES
ANALYS|S
(
( licicrring to text Appendix Table AL, r, = 0.224 rc A.ZSbr.Thus, Requrred nonrinal ultirnate loeds W*,,+
(
Minimum b, required= to : 6.zto ? in.
I H ;;; : 186 fi-kips
w12.26. trf" - 37.2160),/12
( rr'is requirementappliesfor segmentsB and C adjacentto the iast plastic
:i ::qr . ' t of or m .
( For segnrentsE and F, rotation capacity must be assuredby satisfying
( I :i F'D-FI.1: i.e., Lo may not exceedLoa. SegmentF has the flatter moment D e s r g nc o n d i l i o n ,
assumrng requrred Mp = aclual Jl?o
..i.r.iis'ntand controls; trlr/Mo: 0. Thus, (it-ktps)
t
Lpa: 360Arr./60: 60r-" Me -- 169
(
R e q u i re dry = 5 (7 2 )/6 A :1 .0 0 i n.
(
(c) Selectsectionfor the 2f-ft span.
( (b) Moment under nominal ultimate loads lV^
RequkedM- rvhen lr,f- = 186 tt-kips
168(12)
( Requir e dZ ,: -t' : : 33.6i n.3
-- [4' = 166
(
Requir e db t = 6 .2 1 o, " . Figure10.3.5 Comparison
of design
conditionand actualconditionfor 25-ftspanof
( Example10.3.3. :: .
Requiredr.,.: 1.55in-
(
( sing the LRFD Manual, "-.LOAD FACTOR DESIGN SELECTION The LRFD-Formula(F1-3)linearrelarionship
'-\BLE," applies:
find severalsectionsrhatsatisfy the required Z,:
(', o'1=
W12x26, Z, -- 37.2in.3 M n :r . l : f r s-o(\ 1 8-6r 3/e\ 1). i2, . -14 . 9l l
( W14x25, Z,: 4A.2in.3 L 11
(' W16X26, Z ,: 4 .2 i n .3 : 1. 13( 185)
: 210f t - kips, M o
i a
I

( hcse sectionsall have r" < 1.55 in., though W12x26 is close with f, : Since computed Mn exceedslv[,. M,: Mr. Thus, segmentsB and C are
I
5l in. .:J satisfactoryfor lateralbracing.
( Try Wl2x26, r,: 1.51in., and investigatesegmentC: I use w12x26, 4, : 60 ksi, for the 25-ft span. For the 30-ft span. rop and
( . roOO+ ZZOO(-t26/1,68) : Il bottom cover plateswill be added.An alternativewould be ro use.aheavier
Lpa -rr: 32.5rr: 4.1ft "I I

section having the sameproporrionsand butt join them b1' rveldingor by


( 60 :l
- - a splice plates.
( 300 300(1.51) I Since the section used has a greaterplastic moment strength than re-
Lr: :l
( F}:ffi:4'eft ":;
I
quired, the moment diagramunder loads lv,/en is as shown in Fig. 10.3.5b.
The diagrarRassumesthe first plastichingeis at the support.and that it does
-..l
(
-; ll 19* under the applicationof the requiredultimate loads llr,/er,.The II rt :
+ 1o s (
c , , :t 7 5 rt(#)': , ,, 186 ft-kips as providedis then usedin the analysisof the 30-fr span.
h). rl In the actual condition,segmentE is more severelyloaded than in the
Mr: Z,Fr: 37.2(60)/12: 186 ft-kips rl designcondition. However.it is still not as severelvloadedas segment.F.
{l (d) Determineplasticmomentrequiremenron the 30-ft span.when M
nz
trt,- (F, - 4)E : (60- 10)33.4
/rz :139 ft-kips ='l
i l
forms under the W, load. equilibrium requires

L,: E q . 9 . 6 . 6: 1 2 . 1 f t : tl
TI
Mpz: M,3 - \@* - Mpr) - Ma (long coverplates)
iince Lu is betweenL, and 1,', inelastic lateral-torsional buckling controls. rl if Mez is developedat the flred end.This u,ouldrequirecoverplatesto extend
*l
.---*
I
e-:*|l
L
1-

IO /CO,\TINUOUS
BEAMS 143 / PLASTICANALYSIS- LRiD EXA,i,4pLES I

Reguired nominal ultimate load fr' o-


to the support.If the coverplatesrue not extendedto the support,equilibrium
Rs-lx6xi3-0
requires
Mpz: M,3 - Mil (shortcoverplatcs)
(,
If long cover platesare used, Base seclicn . WlZ, 26
Mor = 186 ft-krps

I V o z : 5 6 3 - l M p z + i ( 1 8 6 )- 1 8 6 ; lMoz: 439, M.pz:329 ft-kips

If shortercover platesare used, Collapse condition


' Provided bv assuming required
"'ot
w1zx26. Mor: 8.ClualMo,
Mpz: 563 - 186 : 377 ft-kips (ft-kips) (
Mo, Mo

Sincc thereis little differencein requirements,


the coverplateswill be madeas 186
short as possible.The coverplates,top and bottom,must provide
Figure10.3.6collapseconditionfor 30-ftspanof Example10.3.3. (
!v{, (cover) : 371 - 186 : 191 ft-kips
I
(e) Selectplate size. For an area A, representingthe cover plate at one required from one plate is
flange,and a distanced center-to-center of coverplates,the plasticmodulusZ
becomes 3't7(72)
" ----. R equir edZ, : -f : 75. 4in. 3
td\
z : 2 A , \ r J: n , o
I

i
% Z f r o m p l a t e s :; 4 , , , ( 1 0 0 ) : _ # o (
(loo) : 557c
no r A7' 3 . a o+ z A 7
Ao:i=W:ry:
Required ffi :z.esqin. neglectingthe web effect.The nominal tensileforce
f required to be deyel- (
assumingd = 12.5+ 0.5 (i-in. plates).If the plate width is somervhatless oped is
than the flange rvidth of w12x26, say 6 in., the area A, provided will be 0.552F, 0.55(75.4)60
adequate. tn= --T- : -'L-ET,,S : 196 kips
Check local bucklingon plate as a stiffenedelementu'eldedalong two
sides,accordingto LRFD-B5.l: Assumingno weld acrossthe end oi tt e coverplate and continuousfillet *'e!cl
along the sides,determinethe number of inches of rveld necessaryto develcrp
tb 6 \ / 1e0 1e0 \ the desiredforcein the plates.As treatedin Sec.5.14,the rtr.ngth per inch of
t t l' l ^ o : F : : : 2 4 ' 5 1 oK
17: 03: / \ ,lF, /00 | *-i' r'ret
werd erectrodes
is
Use platesl x 6, top and bottom. Thesewould probablybe rveldedcontinu-
;":'Jfi)ilr'ffi 1; ;;,',:*
ously along the sidesin the length direction.Discussionof g'eld sizesand Equating the designstrengthof.L* inchesof filler s'eld to the designren:ilc
other requirementsis containedin Chapter5. strengthprf, requiredto be developed,
(l; Determineplate length.Referringto Fig. 10.3.6shorvingthe collapse
t* (5 . 91) : Q oT, : 0. g0( 1g6): 176kips
condition for the 30-ft span,the distancel, is the theoreticallcngth required
for covcr plates;this distancemay easilybe scaledfrom tire diagram.For t6is 176/ 5. 91: 30 in. ( 2 t inesof 15 in. )
straight line momentdiagram,the distancel, is ersily computed, ! *:
The lengthof platesrequiredis
| 186+186\
L r. : - ::.- l ( t o + 2 0 ) : 0 . 3 4 ( 3 0:) 1 0 . 2f t
ll Length: Lr * 2(15in. on eachend) : 10.2 + 2.5 : ll-.j ft
\ lg6+3771'
Extension of the plates in each direction rnust develop the cover plate's use i x 6 plates,13 ft long, beginning s'4" from support as shorvn in
proportion of the strength required. The tension or compressionstiength Fig. 10.3.6.
('
' : E
--a
.l?F
( 1O//CONTINUOUS
BEAMS
-ri#.r r0.4 /Et AsTtcANALYSTS-LRFDEXAMPLE
. .-:
r ---b!

( si
' :.1:'
( In this example,the memberwas not spliced; howel'er, ver. butt splicing the Jt 1-_
'o'--t
member might be a more economicalchoice to the use cover plates.
e of cover plates. A n= \- 4'6k/n 60 kiPs
( | ; 4:
compromisesolution rvould be to use a section having ? Z, larger than the
( minimum for the 25-ft span, but not as large as would be required to omit A=15' B:15'I C=20' I o=zo
( piates entirely. The cover platescould then be thinner and shorter. Splicesare t t
discussed in Sec.10.5. 3o'-o I co'-o
( I
I
( 306 36r
10.4 ELASTIC ANALYSIS- LOAD AND RESISTANCE
(
(
FACTORDESIGN EXAMPLE
/. X:ii'*" +
Wirhin Load and ResistanceFactor Design, either plastic analysis under
( LRFD-Fl.l or elastic analysisunder LRFD-FI.2 may be the appropriate
( procedure.When sectionsar6 "compact" with respectto local buckling and
the laterally unbraced length l, does oot exceed Lra, plastic analysis is -.ra....\

( pennitted to be used. Plastic analysis is not required to be used. Elastic


( analvsisis alwaysperntitted. 479
1.0 2"3' 2.3' r.75
Co values
(
-l

! EXAMPLE IO.4.I 306 479 479 361


Factored moments M, (tt-kips)
( Redesign the beam of Exafiiple.10.3.1using Load and ResistanceFactor sMcmenl ratio exceeds+0.46; thus maximumCo controls.
Design but not utilizing plastic analysis.Use .436 steel.
(
( SOLUTION
(a) The factoredloads W" and nL were computedin Example 10.3.1,as
( follows: *
find
( r' ;: 1 .2 (0 .5 )+ 1 .6 (2 .5 ): 4 .6 0ki ps/fr ':.
? W24x68, Zr: 1 7 ?i n . 3 , lr: \ . 8 7i n .
(
t rru :1 .2 (1 0 ) + 1 .6 (3 0 ): 6 0 k i p s
( (d) Check laterafsupport.In order to obtain the plastic moment stren-eth
(b) The elastic analysisbending moment diagram under factored service Mo,the laterally unbracedlength L, cannotexceedLo when Co: 1.0.
(
loads mrist be computedusing a method of statically indeterminate structural
( analysis.This appearsin Fig. 10.4.1 f : : - : 7 -
300
- ? Q f r
300( 1. 87)
The four separatelaterally unbracedsegmentsand their correspondingCu '
( ";: y{,, ksi ! 136(12)
valuesand maximum factoredmomentsMu are shown in Fig. 10.4.1.
( (c) Select a section based on the maximum negative mornent. Assum-
ing "compact" section for local buckling, the required plastic modulus Z, € At first it may.bppear that L, is lessthan 15 ft and therefore, M" must be less
( ,ir-
than Mo. Traditionally since moment gradient does not appear in the Ln
rvould be ;E
.F.
( M u : e rMp : e tZ * F y equation, the designerwould evaluatethe rotational restrainl.at the point of
inflection (rvhich in this case is at 8.5 ft from the interior support). If the
( 'q
designerdecided that trvist of the cross-sectionwas adequatelyprevented the
L{:
( z-:
Required : !:!:.').: 177in.3 e-

inflection point could be treatedas a bracedpoint. Under LRFD-F1.3, the fuil
Q,f., 0.e0(36) * moment gradient acrossthe inflection point to the next actual lateral support
( *g

€ is accounted forby Co. Thus, even rvhen l, exceedsLo. the Cn greater than
( Using LRFD Manual, "LOAD FACTOR DESIGN SELECTION TABI-8," t+
fr
1.0 rnay bring the availablestrengthto Mo anyway.
g
s9

( -n+
,:.li}
6
dfr-
( '*
*4*
3EA[4S
1o/ CONTINUOUS 1O.5/ ELASTICA|,JALYSIS
_ ASD EXAMPLES ( ,
638
( ' t

(e) Evaluar the availablestrength for the W24x68 near the interior in Chapter N of the 1989ASD Specification[1.5].AllorvableSrressDesign (
uses'adjuslmentsof the elasticmoment diagram to indirectly accountfor
. ing E q. 9. 6 .1 1fo r C , w rth Mr/M2 : + 3 6 7/4i 9: * A -19,
su p p or t Us
plastic behavior and redistribution.of moments. Such adjustmentscannot ( ,
reflect true behavior. Occasionally,for designsinvolving long laterally un-
c , , :t ? 5+ 1 o s#{\ . r t ( h ) ' : , , * * braced lengths *'here lateral-torsionalbuckling is the limit state insteadof
(
plastic moment strength,AllowableStressDesignbecomesa practicalalterna- (
M, : z,F, : l1i(36)/12 : 531ft-kiPs tive to elasticanalvsisunder Load and Resistance Factor Desisn.
'1 (
Lp: i n p a rt (d )]
. 8 h [c o m p u te d
I EX{\{PLE 10.5.1 (
M,: (r, - 4)s*: (36- 10)754/12:334ft-kips Redesignthe beam of Example10.3.1(Fig. 10.3.1)using AllowableStress (
L, : f:9.9 -6'6 : 22-4f.t f)esign. A'36 steel.
(
L. rnd 1,, inelasticlateral-torsionalbuckling controls.
Since L,, is bett+'een S OLLTION (t
The LRFD-FormulaiFl-3) linearrelationshipapplies The elasticbendingmomentdiagram(seeFig. 10.5.1)underserviceloads
must first be computedusinga methodof staticallyindeterminateanalysis. (
u n : : l i s i r- ( s 3-1 3 3 4z)L(.#L-+: \7l. 5 The four separateunbracedsegmentswith their Ci values and design
L \ Jl (
moments are shown in Fig. 10.5.1.If lateral bracingis sufficient to permit a
= 1 .3 (3 6 6 :) 8 4 3ft-k i p s, M o ' (
plastic moment to form at a given maximum moment locarion.an allorvable
Si n c ec om put ed, l/ , e rc e e d sMr, M n : M o . T h u s , segmentsB and C are sfess of 0.66{ is permitted.Further, at the negativemoment locationif
(
satisfactoryfor lateralbracing. i adequateroration capacity(plastic strain after h,l, has been reached)is
available,redistributionof momentsis accountedfol by a l0 percentreduc- ( l

: = (M ,: 4 79ft-ki ps) oK
l+ ouo: 0. 90 (5 3 1 \ 4 ' 7 8ft-k i p s l tion in maximum negativemornent,with the corresponding adjustmentof ( ,
positivemomentsto maintainequilibrium.
(D ChecksegmentD. As in segments.B and C, Lt is betweenLo and L,,
(
thus. iln is obtainedfor rhis inelasticbuckling caseby linear interpolation,
this time using Ct: I.75 w'ithLRFD-Formula(F1-3)' (
]{n : 1.75(366): 641ft-kipsu Mo (
Sincecomputedrt/"erceedsMr,Mn:L{r:531ft-kips.Thus'segmentDis ( ,
satisfactoryfor lateralbracing.
(g) Check segmentl. Ie this segment,the maximum moment occurs ( )
ben,;eenthe bracedpoints; thus, Cu is to be taken as 1.0. The linear interpo- ( l
latecivalueusing LRFD-Formula(F1-3) is
(
tr{ n :3 6 6 ft-k i p s. M ,
( )
i g o . r t ^ : { r . 9 C ( 3 6 6 ) : 3 2f t9- k i p s ], ( M " : 3 0 6f t - k i p s ) OK
Serviceload moments ( ,
\l,'hcn u.ringplasticrii:li.!. r,r'iththeselong laterallyunbracedlengths, the (ft.kips)

design*'as impossibi:. E (
(
1 0 . 5 E LA S T I C AN AL Y SIS _ AL L OW A BL E S TR E S S ( ,
DE S I G N E X A T J I PL E S C6 values
(
Designmoments (ft-kips)
beamshavingrelativelyclosespacingof lateral
The designof usualc(lntinuous 'tuornen! ralio
exceeCs+ 0.46; thus maximum C6 controls.
(
supports should be done using either (a) plastic analysisunder Load and
F i g u r e' 1 0 . 5 . 1E x a m p l e1 0 . 5 . 1 . ( )
ResistanceFactor Desisnor (b) plasticanalysiswithin PlasticDesigncovered i
l-
(
t
T:
(
,,
\
i6
10.5 / ELASTTCANALYSIS- ASD EXAMPLES 641
(
640 lolcoNTINUOUS BEAMS
(
(e) Shorvfinal checkfor segmentsB and C; W24x?6;
( in (-M) and using
(a) Determine required section assuming reduction
12. 000( 2. 3)
( 0.66{,. F r ( F i - -S' tl - - :29.4ksi>0.604'
o.e(316)12 20(12)(3.9i)
( RequiredS,:
- 142in.3
24 Fn : 0.60F, : 22 ksi
(
ass-ulungthe most favorable . 3i6(12) ^
( rr,!:rchis the minimum secdon modulus required r' : -16: : 21'5 ksi < 22 ksi oK
,onditions.The l.,;t;;braced length r, jt 15 ft for segmentB *hich is
( t" for any practicalchoiceof beam' \\' 24x76. F,:
L,.sc i6 k: i.
sufr.icientlylarge that itis likely to exceed
suitableapproachis to use the AsD
( fb) when.".r'1, .*ceeds l, the
..,q,llow;gl-E II,I0NrIENTSIN BEAMS-" For segmentc, A compari-s6n *iih Exarnple10.3.1n'hereLRFD usingplasticanalysis
i\{rnual cunes,
( 1as used shou'srhar riastic analysisobtainedthe iighter section,W24x68,
enterrvith
compared rvith \\'J,1xl6 for ASD. Example10.4.1,rl,hereLRFD s'as used
( Ivl : 316 ft'kips q'ith elastic anall'sis for the same beam. produced the W24x68 scction.
i

( Lu Prirnarily the differenceresultsfrom ASD assumingthe limit stateto be first


: 2 :8.7 ft (if r, (Fi-6) controls)
2.3 lield in the negarivemomentzone;thus.lateralbracingdid not haveto ensure
( cb largerorat;oncapacirrin the plasticrangeat the interiorsupport.Both LRFD
( approaches$'ere abie to utilize the beam deveiopingits plastic moment
+ : + : !3.zrt (ifr, itt-tl controls) strengthat the i nter iorsuPpor t .
( VLo UL )
I EXAMPLE 10.5.2
( Lu:11'8 ft' From the curves' the
Noting that 20 ft 7 L,, try w24x?6; Redesignthe continuousbeamof Example10.3.2(Fig. 10.3.3)by Allo'r'able
( capacitYis StressDesign.{ : 60 ksi.
( M = 322.5ft-kiPs at Lu: 8'7 ft
S OLU TI O.\
( anC FD= 0.604,. The elasticbendingmomentdiagramundersen'iceload is shos'nin Fig.
(ci Check segment, (Fig' 10'5'1)witb W24x?6' 10.5.2.To get a more appropriatecomparison*'ith plastic analysis.lateral
( support is provided every 5 ft on the 30-ft span and at the load and vcriical
1e?.s(12)
: supportpoints on the 25-ft sPan.
( fu 13.5ksi
176 (a) Select the sccrionrequiredusing 0.9 of maximum negat,ivemoment
( according.toASD-Fi.1 irith 0.66f). l,. must exceed5 ft.
15 \
{Lu ': 15 ft '
{L" : 11.8ft); Fb < 0.60^8,
( l - = :'''''''''''''''--: | 0.e(185.S)(12)
\co 1.0 l RequiredS,.: : 5 0 . ?i n . 3
( 39.6
12,000c0_ 12'000(1.0): oK Use "ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN SELECTION TABLE." Try
( t7.:ksi > (fo:13.5 ksi) "compact"for local bucklinglimits.
^ -E b ( F 1 - 8 ) : - : - - - - - -
r-u,t/Ar 15(12)3'91 W16x36: S- : 56.5 in.r This sectionis
( siirce{1 in'that tableerceedsF,.:60 ksi. The l. valuelor F,a1 5o ksi is 6'3
to checkASD Formula (F1-6)' ft u'hic'hmi,eht be e.xpectedto exceecl5 ft for F, - 60 ksi. Check to vcrify
( which indicatessegmeot,4 is oK and no need
(d) Check segmentD; W24x76' acceptabilit.v.
( 't6b,
76(6.985)
(
(ro= 2 0 \
1 1 ' 4tJ ( L ' : 1 1 ' f8t ) oK I-
_( : :- : --+: 5.7ft
\ c u #: ..F. !i60 (12)
( "l
Fa: 0'604,':22ksi a
t)r

( I :0.000 20.000
:
- : i
I
-Lc : ------T--- : 5.3ft {controls)
242(12) ,,,1 (d'.4,)F" 5.28(60)12
( t - : 16.5ksi < 22ksi OK t
It-
176 I
-,' i
r ( : l
.;" I
". t
..' 1
v- 10,/CONTII{UCUS
BEAMS (
10.5/ ELASTTCANALYSIS-ASD EXAMPLES 643
( i

($) Adjustment of the moment diagram to utilize the reduction in negative (


moment permitted under ASD-F1.l would make the negative moment (
0.9(185.8): 167 ft-kips. The resulting increasein positive moment will make
the positive mo:neni exceedthe adjustednegadve moment. Adjust only until (
the rnomentsin questionare equal: (
s0(10)20 72s.3 2 (
r 1 E 5 . 6: - - -
30:- 3 ;(tSS.Sx) ( ,
which indicates thar using 93.8 percent (x : 0.938) of the negativ€moment
(
will equalizethe positiveand negativevaluesat
-M - 0.938(185.8): 174.sft-kips (
Servrceload momenls
(t
{ft kips}
r74.sn2\
Requiredt, : : 52.8 in.3 (
*u-
w16x36, & : 56.5in.3.The adjusredmomentsare shorvnin Fig. 10.5.2c.The (
decreasein negrtiveroomentis 11.3 ft-kips. For equilibrium, the momentsin (
^span1 become
C6 values ('
- 1E.6- 0.8(- 11.3) : - 9.6 ft-kips 25-kipload
@
(
+ 65.7- 0.4(- 11.3) : +7A.2 ft-kips @ 15-kipload
(
Theseare only slightll'differentthan the ASD indication of using the average
of the changein negativemoments[in this case0.5(11.3)fto correct positive (
moments. Further. the authorsbelievethe.intention of the ASD method is (
followed by adlustinglessthan the full 10 percent and maintainingequilib-
rium. (
Adjustment of morneris
usrng 93.89! 6i nei;atr..,e (c) Check 10-frulbracedlengthson 25-ft span for W16x36: (
moment al InleilOr SUppOr:
(fr kips)
12,000cb 12,000(r.75) ('
4(F1-8): t#/4
:
1o(12x528)
: 33'1ksi
(
pI b 10(12) (
I74.5 - : : 67'0
r,;ure 11.5.2Example r- -t (
10.5-2.
(
:40.0
4(F1-6)
For local buckling.ASD-85.1, w (
( 67. 0) 2 (
\
{ t, < ll E
s s : 8 - \4 1
6.e85 : 40.0 - +=- : 34.0 ksi (controls)
: : 8 . 1I oK 42s(r.7s) \ (
\t ,'rqAn)
70.2(r2\ (
/u: -Se : 14'9ksi <
4 : 34-0ksi OK
S- (
l " : - 1: 5 . 8 6 5 3 .\8 <
! )
{sq \
t -
0.29s
1 oK UseWl6x36, Fy: 60 ksi. This is rhe same section obtained using LRFD ( ,
\r," fm : 8 2 6 )
t
I
@ I (
(

,,.,
(
{
644 10/coNTtNUOUSBEAMS 10.6/SPL|CES 645
(
(
10.6 SPLICES For service loads
( S e ef i g . 1 0 . 3 . 1

( While the design of connectionsis outside the scope of this chapter, the
location of and strength requirementsfor beam splices are appropriately
( 30'-0" .i
discussedhere. It is obvious that if a spliceis designedfor the moment and
( slrear capacity for the member spliced,full continuity is maintained and no
Coilapse mechanisr,
special precautionsare necessary. Somedesignersprefer to useshearsplicesat
( momenl diagram,
ptrints of contraflexureand thus introducea real hinge at a point of zero required ilt^
F U I I D L+ L L
( tnrrrn€nt.There are two reasonswhy this should be avoided: (1) the point of (ft-kips)
clhtraflexure under service load is not at the same location that it occurs Point of contraflexure
under factoredloads (i.e..at its mechanismcondition);(2) momentsobtained
( assuming continuity are invaiid if real hingesare inserted. Hart and Milek Nominal ultimate

( [10.11]have provided a good discussion of this problem. 531 > Me rnoments Li-
if shear splice
According to LRFD and,ASD-J7,connectionsmust be designedfor the is used
( moments, shears,and axial loads to which they are to be subjected.ASD-J7 DL + LL (span 1)
(ft-kips)
refers to serviceloads, while LRFD-J7 refersto factoredloads.
( \ l
If full continuity is assumedwhen determiningmoments,either under Shear splice(i.e.,= real hinge)

( senice loads or under factoredloads,then splicesshouldprovide that continu-


ity. A reduced stiffness at a splice may prevent or reduce transmissionof
( mornent across that section and significantly change the resulting moment Nominalultimate
diagram. M..o required at splice = momentsMd
( M, = 453
140.5 ft-kips (SpliceCap. = 140.5tt-kips)
D L + L L ( s p a n1 )
( g EXAMPLE 10.6.1 (ft-kips)

( Examine the effect of a shearsplice at the point of contraflexurein the 40-ft


span of the two-spancontinuousbeamof Example10.3.1.4'36 steel.
(
.-.-:. Figure10.6.1Examplei0.6.1.
( SOLI]TION
\, r:
(a) Full dead load plus live load. If full continuity is maintained, partial
( loading in some spans to accountfor live load in various locationsis un:reces- With the full factoreddead plus live load (ru,: 4.60 kips/ft from Exam-
( sary. Note that the moment Me: M5 ft-kips (seeFig. 10.6.1a)can develop . ple 10.3.1) acting in the adjacent span, the maximum required norninal
even when the adjacent span has a reducedload. In other words, each span positivemomentstrengthin the 30-ft spanis
( may be treated separately,as long as continuity exists so that the negative
moment may be assumedto reach Mo. (4.60/0.90)30 89
( V,AE: -30:i6.7-3.0:73.7kips
(b) Effect of hinge at inflection point. Use of a shear splice in effect ,
( creates a hinge for all stagesof loading (i.e., transforms the system into a
statically determinate one). The maximum negativemoment that can develop , .- (ll.l\2
(
is limited to the shear at the hinge times the distanceto the support. When Reqirired
Mn: 531ft-kips, tr{, NG
( load on the span rvith the hinge is reduced,the negative moment that can *ffi:
( develop is reduced.As shorvnin Fig. 10.6.1b,when only the dead load is on
Sincethe original designrequired M o = 445 ft-kips, the 30-ft span is norv
g

the 40-ft span, the nominal ultimate load acting is


inadequate as a result of the inability of tne negativemoment to exceed89
(
lY,: llr*/QD:1.2(10)/0-90: 13.3kips ft-kips with the reducedload on the 40-ft span.
( (c) lv{inimumstrengthrequired for splice.!f the splice designis to proride
Shearat splice:13.3(20/30) : 8.9 kips ,
l^Ir less than full continuity, Fig. 10.6.1cillustratesthe rninimum capacityneeded.
( If the sectionbeing splicedprovides M, : 445 ft-kips, the positive mornentin
,f
"g
( h{omenta[ support: 8:9(10) : 89 ft-kips the 30-ft span may not exceedthat value.Thus, referringto Fig. 10.6.1c,and
, ( *
:4
646 10 / CCllTil'.lUOUSeEAMS o|.331El.ts 647 ( ,
( i

assumingthe maximumoccursat appicximately0.45Lr. 10.9. Bluce G. Johnston,C. H. Yang, and Lynn S. Beedle."An Evaiuationof Plastic t'
Analysis as Applied to Structural Design," Welding Journa! ResesrchSuppl.
( 4. 60/0 .9 0 )(0 .4 5 )C .SS l ( M a y 1 9 5 3 )1, - 1 6 . (
Ilr: n (30)--0.45]IB:445.ft-kips
10.10. Joint Committce of Welding ResearchCouncil and the American Societ;-of (
Civil Engineers.Contmentan'onPlastic Designin Steel,2nd ed., ASCE lr{anual
569 - 445 124 and Reportson PracticeNo.41, New York, 1971. (
t f
ttt
R
: ;-;: : 2i6 ft-kips 10.11. Willard H. Hart and William A. Milek. "Splicesin PlasticallvDesignedContin-
0. 45 0 .4 5 (
uous Structures."EngineeringJournal,AISC 2, 2 (April 1955).33-37.
In order to have this moment develop, a nominal moment strengih must be (
provided at the splice point:
(
( 20. 0 /0 .9 0 )3 0 I{ o PROBLEMS
Mz: ---a - - - 1 3 8: 2 9 f t - k i P s (
;:167
All problemsare to be done accordingto the AISC Load and Resistance ( ,
2i6 + 25 Factor Designor Allou'ableStressDesign,as indicated by .the instructor.
RequiredMn at splice: - 2 5 : i 26 ft-ki ps (
2 When thc LRFD problem is assigned,use p/asticanaly'sisif possibleunless
otherwiseindicated.All given loads are serviceloads unless otherwiseindi- (
If the splice in this LRFD plastic analysis probiern is designed for the .cated, and assumethe loads are ahvaysin the position shorvn even though
uniform live load rvouldrarelyexistthat rvay.Assumeall standardsectionsare (
shear as determined from Fig. 10.6.1a, plus the 126 ft-kip momenr. the
reduccd loading of span BC will not cause unanticipated overload in equallyreadilyavailablei;r the indicatedgradeof steel(even though actualll (
span ,1^8. thel' are not). A figureshowingspanand loadingis required.and after making
a design selectiona final check of strength (E!v{,,compared n'ith !rI, for (
Finally, it is noted that reducedlcad in span ,4.Bhas no detrimental effect a '
It
on span BC. LRFD) or stress(/o comparedto allorvable stressF, for ASD) is required. (
t
l
The authors prefer that continuitl' be maintained by the design of splices
for 100 percent of the momcnt capacitv of members spliced; horvever, reduced I
I
10.1. Determinethe marimumvaluefor the serv'iceload P of the beamin the (
capacities provi<iing more economical designs ma-v-be used as long as the II accompanl,ing figure.Assumeadequate.lateralsupport such rhat Ln < (
resulting desiens are checkedunder possible partial loadings. Other examples Ln for LRFD and Lo < L,. for ASD. The load P isTAGIdead load and
i
and a morc detailed procedureare given in Ref. 10.11. ! 80%live load. (
I
I
I
(
S E L E C T E DR E F E R E N C E S
i
I
3P 1.5P P (
I I t | , . w 1 6 x 2 6 , F " = 3 6 k. s i
i (
10.1. L;-'nnS. Becdle. PlasticDesignof S:eelFrames.New York: John wiley & Sons, I

Inc. 1953. Ii l- za'-0" --f- o.l- a,I a'-l- e'-l (


10.2. C. E. \{assonnetand },{. A. save.P/c.sricAnalysisand Design,vol. [, Beamsand I t t l
I
I" L-3",-9', -i zq,-o',-J
Franrc-s.Waltbam, Mass: BlaisdeilPublishingCompany, i965. I
10.3. ilrucc G. Johnston."Strength as a Basis for StructuralDcsign." Proc. r/sc P r o b .1 0 . 1 (
liutionltl EngineeringConf.,1956,pp. ?-13.
10.4. Bruno ThurUmann."Sinple PlasticTheory," Proc. AI.SC -\'cliond Engineer:rq (
C o n .l , 1 9 5 6 p
. p.13-18. i 0.2. Dctermine the uniformlv distriLrutedservice load (409i deaC load, 60Gt
10.5. Robr'rt L. Ketter. "Anal)'sisand Design Examplcs,"Proc. AISC \aiior::! (
livc load) a W24x104, F, : 50 ksi, may be permilted to carry as a
Enqinaering Conf.,1956,pp. 19--?i. two-span continuous beam having equal spans of 40 ft. Assume deflcc- (
I r1.6. i-1nn S. Bccdlc. ''Lrpcdmental Verificationof Plastic Thcory," Proc. AISC tion dtresnot control. and that lateral support is provided at the vertical
h'u:itnrulEngineeringCan|.,1956,pp. j5-49. supports and at 15 and 30 ft from the simply supported ends. (
1 0 . 7 .Ilruno Thurlimann, "lv{odificationsro 'Simple Pla-sticThcory,"' Proc. AISC
!v'otionalEngineeringConf.,1956, pp- 50-57. 10.3. Select the lightest W section for the trvo-span continuous beam of the (
r0.8.Irrcderick S. Merritt. "How to Desig.aSteelby the PlasticThcory," Engineering acconrpanying figure. Use 4. : 50 ksi. Thc concentrated loads are i6 (
Ncxs-Rc'cord(Apr. 4, 19-57), 38-43. :_: kips dcad load and 24 kips live load; the uniform load is 0.5 kipsT'fi
I
I (
[:
t.
r, (
( ,
C
(
rolcoNTrNUotJsBEAMS PROBLEMS 649
(
(
dead load and 2.0 kips/ft live load. In the LRFD problem, specifli 10.6.Selectthe lightestW sectionfor the t\r'o-spancontinuousbeamof rhc
( alternativelateralsupportif necessary
in order to usemaximumplastic accompanving figure.Use 4 : 50 ksi.The concentruretl lord is l0 kips
strengthin the design. dead load and 30 kips live'load; the unifornrload is 0.g kipTft elcrd
(
load and 2.7 kips/ft live load. Specifythe unifornr lateralil'unbrrcecl
( lengths Luto give the optimum design.
Service loads
(
( r.
prs'-o"Jso Serviceloads
Lateral support
(
40'- Verticat support
t
I r1
I
4 .7 '
.ol t27A
( Service load
Prob. 10.6
bendingmornent
( diagram
1tt-t ips) 10.7.Selectthe lightestW sectionfor the three-span
( conrinuous belm of rhc
accompanyingfigure.Use F, : -76ksi. The 50-kipconcenrrared ltrads
( P r o b . .1 0 . 3
are 3C %d eadloadand707clir e load.t he 20- kipconcenr r : lr ed
lolciis ail
dead load. and the uniform load is 20%dcaclloa<iand E0%live load.
(
10.4. Selectthe lightestW sectionfor the two-spancontinuousbeam of the
( arcompanyingfigure.Use 4 = 0Oksi. The eoncentratedload is 12 kips
( dead load and 60 kips live load. Lateral support is provided at the Sen,ice lcads

vertical supports and under the concentratedload. In the LRFD


( problem,specifyalternativelateralsupportif necessaryin order to use
( maximum plastic strengthin the design. ' l r ,

'. co'-0" i
:o'+" s,Jrpo!.I
Verrrcar
(
Prob. 10.7
Serviceload
(
( 10.8.S el ecrrhe light estW scct ion f or a t hr ee- span( 50 f r - 65 f r - j( t f r t
( continuousbeamto carry a uniform dead load of 2 kips,,'itin adtlrlrori
Prob. 10.4 to the beam weight,and a uniform live ioac!of 1.5 kips,,'ft.in rhis
( problem, live load is to be treatedin its usual mannei: ihrl i-,. oi .
indefinite length and positionedto give ma.ximumeffects.Live loail
(
10.5. Select the lightest W sectionfor the two-span continuous beam of the deflection(maximum)may noi e.\ce€dL/360. Lareralsupportis pro-
( accompanyingfigure. Use 4: 5O ksi. The uniform load is 1, Y'tp/tt vided every 5 ft. 4. : 60 ksi. After doing rhc designu,irh lo = 5 fr.
dead load and 2 kips/ft live load. Lateral support is provided at the give an-alternatemore economicaldesignprcscrihingthc locarionof
(
vertical supportsand at 10-ft intervals.In the LRFD problem, specify lateralsupports.
( alternativelateral support if necessaryin order to use maximum plastic
10.9.R epeatPr ob. 10. 8usingst eelhaving F, : 50 ksi and spccif vlar cial
strengthin the design.
( bracing for an economicaldesign.insteadof using the 5-ft spacinr:r,f
P rob.10. 8.
(
3 kipVfi 10.10.Assumeone spliccis requiredfor the beam selectedfor Prcb. ir,r.3.
(
Specify its location and the shear and moment for rvhichit shouldbc
( dcsigned.Assumeany load or loadsmay be reducedto thcir Ccar}ioad
valuervhileother loadsremainat their maximumvalues.
(
t (
Fp 650' t0,zg3*t'*uous BEAf','is (
( i

i 0 .1 1. S am eas P r ob .1 0 .i 0 .b u t s p l i c eth e b e a mo f P rob.10.7.


1a.i2. For the beamshownin the accompanying
W sectionassumingthe samesecti.on
figure.(a) selecrthe lightest
extendingover all threespansand
Chapter11 (
{
(b; redesign,using a smaller base section u'ith u'elded cover plates (
r,r'here
needed.For the co','erplate,specifythe size.length,and location
of the plate.The concentrated loadsare 10 kips dead load and 25 kips PlateGirders (
li'e load, and the uniform loading is 0.5 kip/ft dead load and 1.5
kip/ft fixedpositionlive load. {, : 50 ksi. Specifythe necessarv lateral ( i
support.
(
(
Service loads ( ,
+' , 7,7r ' l tr i 7n l ( .
: l l l
;---4C,_0,' J 50,_0'.--__+_40,_0,,____J (
P r o b .1 0 . 1 2 ( ,
(
1 1 . 1 I N T R O D U C T I OA
NN D H I S T O R I C A LD E V E L O P M E N T
(
A plate girder is a beam built up from plate elementsto achievea more (
efficient arrangementof materialthan is possiblervith rolled beams.plate
girdersare economicalrvherespansare long enough to permit savingin cosr i
by proportioning for the particular requirements.Plate girders rna;- be of (
riveted,bolted.or u'eldedconstruction.Beginningrvith early railroadbridgr's
duri ng the peri od187c- 1900, r iver edplat e gir der s( Fig. 1l. l. lt com posedo! ' (
anglesconnectedto a u'ebplate,u'ith or rvithoutcoverplates.,r'.r. .*t.nsir-elr (
usedin the Unired Strteson spansfrom about 50 to 150 ft.
Beginningin the 1950swhen weldingbecamemore widell, used(becausc
of improvedquelitvoi u'eldingand shop-fabricating economiesresultingfrom (
increaseduseof autontaticequipmer-rt) shop-weldedplate girderscomposedc,f
threeplates(Fig. 11.1.1)graduallyreplacedriveiedgirders.During this peri.r,.l (
also, high-tensiie-strengthbolts were displacingrivets in field construcrior. (
Sincethe 1960snearlvall plategirdersare shop u'eldedusingtivo flangepla:cr
and one rvebplate to makean l-shapedcrosssection- (
Where practicall)'all riuetedgirders were composedof plate ant! angre
(
componentshaving the samematerial yield point, the tendencynorv uj:h
welded girders is to cermbinematerials of different strength. 81' changi:;g (
materialsat variouslocationsalongthe span so that higher strengthmaterirls
(
are availableat loc:rtionsof high moment and/or shear,or b1'usiag rliffere:rr
strengthmaterial for flangesthan for rveb (hybrid girders), more efficient an,J (
economicalgirderscen be obtarned.
(
Becausefew railroadbridgesare being built today, discussionof econom:-
cal spans and othcr dimensioningcomments in this chapter is limited tr, (
highway bridgr's,wheremost are continuousover two or mo-respans; or to
( ,
651 (
( ,
C
('
6s2 t1lPLATE GIRDERS 1"1.1/ TNTRODUCT|ON
AND HTSTORTCAL
DEVELOPMENT 653
(
(
Flange plate
(
(
(
( Bearing
si i f fener
platei
(
(
(
(
ral Crosss€clion {f't Elevationat end of span
(
Figure 11.1,2 Tlpical componentsof a weldedplate girder.
(
(
buildingsrvheresome spansmay be assumedas simply supportedbut more
( frequentlyare part of a rigid frame system.
( t
Better understandingof plate girder behavior.hig}er strengthsteels.and
Plate girders, showing welded stiffeners in place, rocker bearings for vertica! supports I improvedwelding techniqueshavecombinedto makeplate girderseconomical
i:l
( at rhJpier, transversecrossbracing betweeogirders, and linges_to provide a simple -
I
t in many situationsformerly thoughtto be ideal for the truss.Generally.simple
suppori for the spansto the rigbt of tbe hinges.(Photo by C. G. Salmon) t

spansof 70 to 150 ft (20 to 50 m) have traditionallybeenthe domain for the


( .
a
l
; l
t
plate girder. For bridges.continuousspansfrequentlyusinghaunches(variable
( depth sections)are noq' the rule for spans90 ft or rnore.There are sevcral
( Coverplates three-spancontinuous plate girders in the United Stateswith center spans
exceeding400 fr. and longer spansare likely to be feasiblein the future.Tlre
( longestplate girder in the world is a three-spancontinuousstructureover the
Save fuver at Belgrade,Yugoslavia,with spans246-856-246 f,L(75-260-75
(
varyingin depth from 14 ft 9 in.
m). It is a double box girder in cross-section
( (a.5 m) at midspanto 31 ft 6 in. (9.6 m) at the pier.The structurereplaccda
Inierrnedtate suspensionbridge destroyedin World War II.
( stiffener - : !

an9leS
( ;a

Compressron flange
( !'Jeb 1:

( '',;'Ia

Higher-
strength
( flanges
't. (say.
Lor^rer.strength
{ sl ructural uJeb
tee)
(tbl Elevataonat end of
b I Etevation o span '.#
( I a l Crosssection
*
( Figure 11.1.1 Typical comPonentsof riveted plate girder.
3.
';.4
( ,|in
(a) Box girder (b) Hybrid girder (cl Delta girder
:s
,1'.:

( _.!F Figure11.1.3 TFes of q'eldedplate girders.


e
, ( 4
4ai{
..r-t
,.-{*i
( ,
11 / 7'_;.;A G:FDERS 11,2/ DTFFERENCE
BETi;,IEii t:At'.,t CND PLAT; ciRf,:R 65s
( :

Three ty?€s of plate girders whose design is outside the scope of this {
chapter are sho'*"n in Fig. 11.1.3: (a) the box girder. providing improved
torsional stiffness for long-span bridges; (b) the hybrid girder, providing
a
I Co= 1 ( d ) Lateral-tcrsrcnal
variablematerial strength in accordancewith stresses:and (c) the delta girder, (
I buckling lrt"nits:aie
providing improved lateral rigidity for long lengthsof lateral unsupport. I (for shapes "corilpaci" (
Prior to studying the theoreticaldevelopmentin this chapter the reader is { for flange ci'we5
I
:rdviscdto revie'wChapter 6, Part II, where tlie basic elasticstability of plates I
local bucklrng) (
is treated. I
' L o
A : 7 (
Since the design of riveted girders has been extensivelytr'iat& in older
texts[11.1,1fJ,! and suehgirdersare rarely usedat present,emphasisis placed (
on welded g!rd:rs. No example of bolted or riveted girder design is given; ('
however,high-suength bolted splices,commonly found in field connections,
are treatedin Chapter 13. (
(b) Flangelccal bucking
limit state (
BETWEENBEAMAND PLATEGIRDER
11.2 DIFFERENCE LRFD-App.85.3
(
A plare girder is actually a deep beam. The limit statestreated in Chapter 9 ( l
*'ith regard to beams are still applicable for plate girders. Figure 11.2.1,
(
reiatingto Load and Resistan€ Factor Desigp,shorvsthe nominal strength
.lf, r's the sleniernessratio tr for the basic flexure limit states,lateral-torsional (
buckling, flange local buckling, and web local buckling. The relationship for
(
lateral-torsionalbuckling in Fig. 11.2.7ais valid when a sectionis "compact"
(i.e.. tr s tro in LRFD-B5) with regard to the flange and web local buckling (
limit states.r'\ten the sectionis "noncompact" (i.e., l,o < l s tr,, in LRFD- (c) Web local buckling
B5). ure nominei strength ,11,must be determinedfor all tbreelimit statesin (
limit state
Fig. 1i.l.l; the loq'estvaluecontrols. (
\{ost rolled shapesare either "compact" or "noncompact"; this entire
procalure ivas ciiscussedand iilustrated in Chapters7 and 9. If the flange is (
"slenier" (I > 1,,; for
flangelocal buckling,the efficiencyis further reduced (
and Q < I must be used in accordaacewith LRFD or ASD-AppendLxts5.3.
The generalreatment of using Q < 1 for stiffened and unstiffenedelements . 640
r ='f
of a compressionmember rl'aspresentedin Chapter 6, Part II.
(
\\-irenthe *'eb is "sleader" (tr > 1,,1the flexuralmembermust be treated
Figure 11.2.1 Limit statesin flexure.
accordingto tlc plate girder provisionsin LRFD-Appendix G or ASD-G. i

When tr does aot exceed4,, the stresson the elementcan ieach '-hi' r''.'I,-i (
stress{ without elastic buckling occurring. 2. Buckling of the compressionflange in the vertical direction due d.,.
TLeseccncspts are applicablewhether LRFD or ASD is used.There are of the web to preventsuchbuckling.
inadequate.stiffness (
differercesin eheequationsused for lateral-torsionalbuckling,as discussedin 3. Buckling due to shear. (
Chapl* 9. The specificinclusionof residualstressis not donein ASD, and the
This chapter is largelydevoiedto treatmentof theseproblems.
s1'mbritr is not used to refer either to the actualslenderness ratio or its limit. (
Sincethe 1961AISC Specification. the designof plate girdersh:rsusedthe
Philc*.phicall-.* I" is the "compact" iimit in ASD-85. and tr. is the "noncom- (
samestrengthapproachdevelopedby Baslerand othersat LehighUniversitr..
pact" fmit in -{SD-85.
even though in ASD the strengthsare divided by factors of safet)'to get thc
Tlr flexural and shearstrengthsof a plate girder are largelyrclated to the (
serviceload limits, and are also divided by the elastic sectionmodulus S to
r.'eb.The "slend€/' web may causeseveralproblems:
obtain the allowablestresses. (
l. Buckling due to bending in the plane of the u'eb will reduce the The most distinguishingfeatureof a plate girder is the use of regulrrlr
efficiencl'of the web to carry its elasticshareof the bending moment. ( ,
spacedtransvetsestiffeners.Stiffenersincreasethe strengthof the u'eb tc''can\'
( r

( t
,C
It (
LlMlrSrATE
l l 3 /vERTtcAL FLANGEBUCKLING 657
( 11 / PLATE GIRDERS
(
Reftrring to Fig. 11.3.3. the deforination e, dx accumulatedovcr thc
( girdelr'eb in shear
shear.The elasticor inelasticbuckling strengthof a plate distance.jr is
will be significant
( does not representthe maximumstrengthin shear.-There h
( 1I . 3.i )
(slight deforrnation) has e, dx : d0,
post-bucklingsrrengthafter buckling .o-ut-of-plane
( transverse stiffenersare used- The girder $'iil
occuFredrvhenproierly designed 2e,
( -behavelike a truss'witirits web carr5'ingdiagonallythe tensionforcesand the d0: d, (11.3.2)
stiffeners carrying the compressionior..t. This trusslike behavior is
referred i
( t.\ i:s'l€nsion'field action. .\5 5llqrrvnin Fi-:- 11.3.4a- the ,'grtical component causir,g compression ts
o,A, cld...\fterdiridi:rg b-v the area tb. dx to obtain the compressivestressf,- as
(
rhoi.'n in liig. 11.3.-1b.one rnay substitute Eq- 1I-3'2 f'or d0'
,'1.3VERTICALFLANGEBUCffi 2orrlte,
: -, d0
-, : -orA (i I .3.3
)
rvill be based on the "t
( The maximum limit on the web slendernessh,/t*' t*dx t*ll
compressionflange
( stiffnessneededin the plane of the web to prevent the Retrrring again rc Eq. 6.'14.28,the elasticbuckling stressfor a plate.
'rorn that li.' the clear unsupported
buckling verticaUl:1nig.ti.:.tc1. Note
( is the depth ft of the web plate in a kn2E
,.i!n, of the-rvebin a rolled section.
$.cldedl-shapedsection. Furthermore, some.flexural stiffness is neededfrom 'cr Io.t+.:tt]
( preclude torsional buckling of 1 2 ( 1- r ? ) ( n 7 t 1 2
the rveb along the flange-to-rveb connection to
i
( the flange(Fig. 11.3.1b). rvhere i' = h, t : i-. and k :7 for the case of the Euler plate assuntcclfrcc
along cdgcs parallel io loadin3. and pinned top and bottom. Thus
(
\ a -
a-I-

( ,-T-ftat , r u

(11.3.1)
' c i
q lht 12(t * p')(h/r,)-
( t eI I
V
(
I

( Figure11.3.1 (a) Lateral buckling'.(b) i i',


to-rsionalbuckling,(c) vertical buck'ling' '
i l

( I

( one may imaginethat lhe.flangeis a


For the purposeof this development,
(seeFig'
( compressionmemberindependeniof the rest of the girder .11'3'21'
in Fig. 11'3'3,the curyaturegivesrise '- c0
iVfr.n the girder is'bent,as exaggerated
( edgesof the rveb
to flange force componentsth;i causecompressionon the € t = f l a n g eu n i t s t r a i n
when subject to those
( adlaCeritto the flanles. When the web remains stable O e { o r m a t i o na c c u m u l a t e d
vertically' In :
co'mpressiveflange ior.. .o*ponents, the flange cannot buckle \ ,./ over the distancedx
( is assumed to have zero stiffnessto
ih" iolo.uing deivation the fiung. itself
procedure'
resist vertical buckling; a conservative
(
(
(
(
(
(
dB
(
Frgure11.3.3 Fla=.l: lorces a;:sing frorn grder curvature.
, (
11.3/ VET,TTCAL LrMITSTATE
FLANGEBUCKLTNG f:
e58 1i .r'Fi"-AT'€
GTRDERS
( r

/
Substitutionof or:
arAr Eq. 11.3.6gives
\-<
t ,
-- /-----r--- i o , A . d o
r-r h 19,500ri1
*/At ( ,
i l l i o _ : ( 1 1. - ?. !
L = web thickness
I
r l 1..
{FXF,TTTJ (
I
I ! l
!
-i !'- cx
h
i , a conservativeestimateof the maximum h/t,, to preventvertical buckling ( '
Basler[11.71suggests A*/At will rarelybe below0.5and that {: 16.5ks! :.

lLi ---r- )4
otA,

dn
are made,
realistic.If thesesubstitutions
13,800
(11-3.e
( ,
{ . ,
l n Frr(Fr,+ ( '
(b)
(
Figure.tr.a'a Effectof flangeforcecompoocntnormalto flangeplate. Equation 11.3.9has been developedwithout regard to placemento:
stiffeners.The efiect of stiffenerswould certainlybe to increasethe streng;- ( \
above the elasticbucklingstrengthbasedon 4, of Eq. 11.3.4.Tests repone.
Equaiingappliedstress,Eq. 11.3.3,to the criticalstress,-Eq.
11.3.4,gives by Frost and Schilling[11.8]on hybrid girdershaving A514 (Fr: 100 ks ,f

flanges indicate that h/t*. can conservativelybe acceptedin design as 25Ct::


2otAtet n2E 'rr
o./h < 1.0,and 200 for a/h between1.0and 1.5.The limitation of 200 mar'
(11.3.5) .--
'--
(
.
tnh 12(r- rz)(n7t*1' given for other flangeyield stressesas 2000/{\t for a/h < 1.5.
(
*hich. letting t.h: l*, gives Load and ResistanceFactor Design- Maximum h/l
(
h Equation11.3.9whenroundedbecomes
(11.3.6) (
tn h 14,000
_ : (11.3.10'* (.
t*. F,,(F,., +
Consr-n'ativelvassumethat o, must reach the flange field stress{., to (
achievethe strengthof the flange.Furthermore,if residualstress{ exisisin which is the LRFD-AppendixG1 generallimitation ( F,l in ksi).
In the presenceof transverse stiffeners.higherratiosare permitted.Basr. (
thc flange distributedas shownin Fig. 11.3.5,then the totai flangc strain u'ill
be that iue to the sum of the residualstressplus the yield stress;therefore on the recommendations of the ASCE-AASHOJoint Committee.Subcomm (
tee 1 on Hybrid Girder Design[11.121, LRFD-AppendLxGl givesthe ma.
,r: (F, + Fr.f)/E (11.3.7) mum h/t* as t (
h 2ooo
2000 (
It is the s"iain adjacent to the n'eb that is of concern; in Fig. 11.3.5c the (1r.3i.'
cirange is f;om .f in rension (point /) to 4., in compression (point B). i=67; (
when stiffenerspacinga to rvebdepth /r doesnot exceed1.5.Valuesfor i'-'. (
11.3.10and 11.3.i1aregivenin Table 11.3.1.
(
Allowable Stress Design- Maximum h/tw (
The maximum h/1.. limits in ASD-GI are identicalto thosein Load ..', : 1
RcsisirnceFactorDesign.
c

u 3
e

(
Final
t $ress
'For SI unirs, with
h
(l I .i 1.
(
ft in li{Pa,
!:t Residual (b) Average l*.
( ap< superimposed
(
stress h 5250
1 1 1 . 3i . ( r
Figure 11.3.5 Effect of residualstress.
tv ,lFrr
( i

( t
(
.1;*l
zt' *i.. i
( il /PLATE GIRDERS ,-:+
':.
-iF t
|
11 A l NOMINALMOIJENTSTF51.iG11.1_LRFD
I 661
i/'
;{ I
;
V TABLE 11.3..I MAX|}JUMN / I- LIMITATIONS
_ LRF}.APPENDIXGl AND ASD.Gl
H
$ S,. : sectionmodulusreiered to the compressi+;illanee
I
..'.' : I
t{
l *
Fy
n/l
f o rE q .1 1 . 3 . 1 0
h/t*
f o rE q .I i . 3 . ' l l Fy
r/!,
./., : f,roment of inertia *'iih respect to the r-er-:s
l B z
I H :-: 1. : distance from the CG of the section to the cc:npressicn L'_\l!.t:rlrc
i
i
i:'
F
(ksi) t c r a /h > 1 . 5 tora/ h< 1.5 (MPa)
' { fiber
I F :
36 322 ), ciistancefrom the CG of the section to rhe i:rsicn crtrenre fibcr
I t l
248 , . i
iir 42 282
JJJ

309 290
l a 1 " .j ' a also
I r,a 45 266 298 310
ri f l$ 50 {h 970,
LlJ 283 345
l a t
I ty'
!l 55 )')? 270 379
R p c : 1 - O . G I - r 5 .o , l is: i rr . 4 . 3 )
t*
I T
t : /
60 207 258 414 \ \r'c, .!
tr\ 65 192 248 448
r* 100 130 o,: A*/At. rvhereA, is compression flangeare=
Jtru 689
lIi(
l ..a
t q
&. : ru'icethe distancefrom the neutralaxis to rh: inside faceof the
II rt(
i5\
compressionflangelessthe fiilet or corner radius
i , " : A, heightof web piate for a svmmetricall-shapecplate g.rrder
iE( -
1 1 . 4 N O M I N A L M O M E N TS T R E N G T H
lr LOAD AND RESISTANCEFACTORDESIGN The factot Rpc, is to accountfor tie "bend-buckling"eiie;l cf th: "slen,jer"
i v
t E ' n'eb and its reducedability to carn its elasticshareof rhe Dendingmornenr.
iir The conceps relating to the nominal moment strengthMn havebeen pre- The developmenr is presentedin Section11.6.
The determinationof the "critical stress"4, to be us:d is obrained b1.
I }.\
t l i

i t./
sentedin Chaprers7 and 9, and reriewedin Sec.11.2.Compledty in deiign
I
t
i:\
i : arises using tl, and /., expressedby Eqs. 9.6.5 and 9.6.6,respectively,for dividing the nominal strengthM^ bt the sectionmodulus5,. For rhe ":.,lcndcr"
l ::
lir plate girders. For rolled beams,not only are the valuesoI M, and L, available web, the maximum 4, is F,r. the r-ieldstressin the flan_se.
t ; i
I *-, in the AISC \{anual but also all of the properties,including the torsion For the limit stateof lateral-torsional
buckling,LRFD-Aependi.r Gi givcs:
|*( properties, are readily available.For plate girdersail of the propertiesmust be l.For^.1,,,,
iir computed for each girder-Thus, while the beain provisionsof LRFD-FI are

=(^,:#j
i3\
l f logically acceprablefor plate girders, simplifiecl rules are given in LRFD- I T
l| ,f:\ r
Appendix Gl in order to avoid the useof torsion propertiesand the accoinpa- l r : : rlr lt ( 1 1. 4 . 1 \
nying complex expressionf,orL,. '.. \
(
Since plare girderswill usuallybe "slender"; that is, l, wilt exceedtr,, the tr : Frl flt.4.5)
maximum strength must be basedon reachingyield stressF, at the extreme
fiber. No inelastic behavioris coasideredpossiblefor designpurposes. 2.Fortro.l<I,,
rI tl \(
IE The nominal moment strength Mn of slender web plate girders is
lir 'i 300 i<(.
I F
controlled either by the limil 51s1sof fielding at the tension flange or lt I ^y : r -. - :- . i' r - -L(^ \' l =/ l r , : - - -r l t,i1.4.6' )
rt
lE( that of buckling at fte compressionflange, as foliorvs accordingto LRFD- '
\rt l'l
r . r/ \ .,r.,,,

=.,
l8\
tt aI , Appendix G1:
l'E
ti
tt
tr(
t l
(

-
For yielding of rhe tensionflange,
i tl ,:4 r& ,R p c (11.4.1)
3.Fortr>1.,
4r: Crfrrlt ;(Ft)l i 1 1. . 1 . 7
|

1 Fot buckling of the compression


flange,
Ltn: I}S,"Rpo (r1.4.2) L,, i lsoi
(
where Fr.,: feld stressof the tensionflange
(^:
;r' [^':fr| t 1 1. 4 . 1 . t )

f - buckling stressat the compressionflange, controlled either by 296,000c^


t r : ( 1 1. 4 . e )
, ( lateral-torsionalbuckring,flange rocalbuckling, or yibtaing.
S,, : sectionmodulusreferredto the tensionflange
:Ih,
l\ r,!l
rj
'
j '
t.r
; {
-
11lP LA T E G IF D ER S 11.4/ NOMTNAL (t
MOMENT _ LRFD
STRE;;GTH
( t

For the limit state of.flange local buckling, LRFD-Appendix Gl gives: 3;For^t^,, ( ,
l. Fortrsl",
gj , ( l

{^
=
+)={^,:#) (11.4.10)
( ^ : ztt
I {^':#)
11,200
(11.4.14) ( ,
(
-Fc r : (11.4.15)
(u.a.n) (

&'i
F"-: Fyf
2 .F o r t r r . ^ = ^ , ,

{^,=#) -(^: +)=(^.:


w)
150 \
(rr.4.r2)
The geoeral relations[ips of Eqs. 11.4.4 througb 11.4.15 are shown in
Fig 11.4.1. Numerical values of 1,, and 1,, foiplate girders as given in
Table 11.4.1.
(

( :
l

="
f - ,rrl, ;{H)l (11.4.13)
,
For the lateral-torsionalbuckling limit state, these plate girder provisions
approximate the Mn vs Ls relatronshipused for rotled beams and shown in
Fig- 9.6.1. The plate girder yro.
&
: ytJs,.insread of Mn. Note that tro of
(
( :
,(
1""' Eq. 11.4.4to obtain Lo b identical to E+ 9.6.9; however,r, is used for piate
I '. girders whereas it for rolled beams. Equation 11.1.6 for tr, gving L,'
I P{ (,;
''{9|-plate girders avoids the more complicated Eq. 9.6.6 for rolled beams; aud
I
; also avoids the necessityof computing torsion properties for plate girders. The (
plate girder provisions also avoid compudng
(a ) Lateral-torsional 4 as E(F, - F,), instead ( ,
bucklinglimitslale (
"- . rM= n
i
E (

Fv = 50 ksi
(
x ( :
LRFD-F1.3 ! rooweb
Formula (F1-3) rfxzaftanges (
1nn 756
^o= T .
Ar - -=-

\ rvt ,,lty't I (
LRFD-App.G1
Formula
(A-G2-5)
(
e 4 0
--
(t' Ir
(b) Flangelocalbuckling \ 3 s
E" 3'5 ( :
limit stale tRFD-App.G2
3C Formula(A-G2-G) (
_
fcr
M -E-^
: t{"
vl

( ;
c5i 1 1. 2 0 0
-lF-
i

I I Lo = 22.1 tl
(
Formula(A€2-8) L . - 4 9 . 1t l L , = S S . 0n !
I
Formula(F1-6) Formula(A-G2-9)I (
0 4 I 12 16 8 21
(
28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68
)\: *,
. o
Ap= -F
J . 15O Laterafiy unbracett tength, to (feet] (
l' t, i' rt
Figura.l1'e'{ of platesrder provisionsof LRFD-AppendixG with bearn (
Figure11.4.1 Limit staresin flexurc for plate girden (LRFD-Appendix G1). provisionsof -C*ogpgft
LRFDFI.
(
(
(
1
*E!

{ rt.6 / MQMENTSTRENGTH DUETO BEN9-BTCKLINGOF WE6


REDUCTION
11 / PLATE GTRDERS ,*:.!

(
( - f.) 0^55 for simplicity' The elastic (F1.8), Eq. 9.?.12,or the combinationof ASD-Formulas(F1-6) and (F1-7).
approximating the quantity (4 -T '*'eb
the Euler column Eqs. 9.7.20 and 9.7.221,is still applicable; hot'ever. generally the deep
( lateral-torsionalbuckling equadbn.Eq. 11.4-9,ii essentially (F1-6) and
fi*gt (i.e-, the flange plate and one-sixth plate girder has little torsional strength.Thus. ASD-Formulas
farmula recognizingthe-compression usuallv
( by using rr for the radius of gyration' (F1-?),which are basedon column strength of the compressionflange
of the adjacent r.f,1 ur u .oiu*tt
ruougtr for the lateral-torsionalbuclting limit state' the
plate girder controls.This is particularly true as the lateralll'unbracedlength Ln becomes
( and L, arc longer.
relarionshlpsin LRFD-Appendix G betwc€n moment streogth
( there is oo reason why thg beam The columnstrengthformulasof ASD, Formulas(F1'6) and (F1-7),usert
sirrtplifiediro* thosefor beamsin LRFD-FI, "slender" web plate
gr.ivisionscould not alsobe used for the plate girder. The as the radius of gyration, exactly as used in LRFD for the plate girder
( provisions lateral-torsionalbuckling limit state.
r.rtuld resrrict the maximum moment tttingth to {'S, if the be11 "compact" or
r plate is The flange local buckling limit state is consiCerednot to control rvhen
of i.RFD-F1 were used,ratherthan Mo when the web "noncompact" sectionsin
.,n;nconrpact" in.Fig' 77'a'2 bj/2t, does not exceed gs/,ttFt as given for
lthai is, *h.n tr < tr, foi the web).A comparison
provisions of LRFD-Appendix G rvith ASD-85. This is the sameas rhe LRFD-B5 limit I, f.or undorntlr contpressed
of ihe lateral-torsionalbuc[ing
( LRFD-FI for a thin rveb (! x 100) plate girder show good agreemenl' unstiffenedplates.The LRFD tr, limits for beam flangesare the lessrestric-
girder limit fq
( For the 7o^g, local iuckling itmit itotr, the plate it tive valuesgiven in Table 9.6.2.
The limit l' -fot plate
iCenticalto that u"sedfor rolled bJams(seeTable 9'6'1)'
beams'
( girders approximatesthe expressionsgiven in Table 9'6'2 for rolled 11.6 MOMENTSTRENGTH DUETO
REDUCTION
on elastic local buckling of the flange' Eq'
The reduction in strengthbased BEND.BUCKLINGOF THEWEB
( tolhat of LRFD-Appendix
-in F for rvelded girders' some-
11.4.i5.is identical
the
( what lorver than used for rolled beams Rppendix F or for obtaining Sincethe plate girder web usuallyhas a high h7t* ratio. buckling may occur
efficiency factor Q for unstiffenedcbmpressionelements. as a resultof bendingin the planeof the rveb(seeFig. 11.6.1).The slenderness
(
ratio tr, above which such buckling may occur is developedin ilhat follorvs.
( Furthermore,after this elasticbucklingoccursthereis post-bucklingstrength.
TASLEll.4.lSLENDERNESSRAT|oL|MITSIeANDI,FoRFLANGELocAL
BUCKLINGAND LATEML-TORSIONAL BUCKLING Llr'{lT
STATES When the ptate girder is proportionedto most efficientlycarry load, the web
(
UNDER LRF}.APPENDIXG2 FOR PLATE GIRDERS rvill buckle beforethe nominalmoment strengthof the girder is reached.
(
Flange LocalBuckling Lateral-TorsionalBuckling
Yield
( Stress t, I. tr,
Fvt 300 Lb 756
( br 65 -b,- € 150 Lb
_-.7:
(ksi) - e - '
rr rr
2\ ar VFvt fjFr,
( liFyr /Frt

( 10.8 25.0 50.0 127


36
10.0 23.r 6.3 tL7
( 42
9.7 22.4 4.7 113
45 Figure11.6.1Webplateunderpuremoment.
( 9.2 2r.z 42.4 107
50
8.8 20.2 40.5 102 Typical of any plate stability situation, the elastic buckling stress is
55
( 19.4 38.? 97.6 represented'by-
60 8.4 Eq. 6.74.28,
8.1 18.6 37.2 93.8
( 65
6.5 15.0 30.0 75.6 rzE
100
( F"r: k [6.14.2s]
r2(1- ,i)(b/t\7
( where for this caseb = /l.
( The theoreticaldevelopmentof the k vatuesfor bending in the plane of
- ALLOWABLESTRESSDESIGN the plate is giv.enby Timoshenkoand Woinowski-Krieger.*For anv given type
11.5 MOMENTSTRENGTH of loading, k varieswith the aspectratio. a/h (seeFig- i1.6.1).and rvith the
1
Design is treated
( The moment strength of plate girders under Allowable Stress
presented for beams in Sec' 9'7' Desigl for the lateral-tor-
, ( identically with that 'Rcference6.66,pp. 3i3-3'19.
limii state using the larger of two formulas [ASD-Formula
sionai buckling
11.6/ MCI".IENT
i 1 //PLA.T€ Gi:Rg=95 STRINGTHREDUCTIONDUETC 3[I:3-gg6;lLING OF
WEB C,
(':
supportconditionsalong the edges-If the plate can be consideredto have full ( ,
fixiti'(full momentresistanceagal:st edgerotation) along the edgesparallelto
o ' F v--P_]
rhe directionof loading (i.e.,at the edg.-sjoined to the flanges),the minimum
; )
/l
K
\l
h r ,
-.> t
value of k is 39.6 for any a/h ratio. If the flangesare assumedto offer no i 6 c
ksi I = plate thickness (
= Q ^

resistanceto edge rotation, the mini:nun k value is 23.9. The variation of k . : 3 . @

with a/h ratio is given in Fig. L1-6.2.


x t r : l

> U ;
(
(
i - - " , hlt (
Figure 11.6.3 Buckling of platesunder bending in the plane
of the web. ( r

(
(
FY
_1r ' v
FY

J:t. c !

I
l
FI
l 1g r -lt-
t r t
( :
(
f:-
t '
FI Pi.ol"
f -
\ H
tl
Y I
.l
FT
E A A (
i
I
I
EJ
E
E
E
t
Futl plistic
(
l -
rnomenl
z6 e = 3 (
t -
I
Mn= Mo
l

239 ;-
l :
I

1g = 3!rrple sup3ort
i :
I
I
.3.6
I
i

,
Figure11.6.2Bucklingcoefficiensfor platesin pure bending.[From Hundbook
of t

Srructural Vol. 1 [6.69](p. 92)j.


Srability*, I

h 2000
t F FY
r* ,F
Thus the critical stress(using E : 29.0AAksi) may be said to lie berween i

i
)
Mn

4
1t rl
a
tr EI Ior alh ) 1.5
627,000
j
H No bend.buckling forali ( 1.5
4, : -;;5 ksi for k : 23-9 (simplesupport at flanges) t-F V of the web
(h/r)' FI
t -
A
J-
EI Vertical
.rnd fl ange
Strain buckling
i039.000
4, : --? ksi for k : 39.6 (full fixity at flanges) l"
I
hardening
g__ Design region for
may
occur
(h/t)' I, 1 minimum weight girders

While each particular girder *ill have a different degree of flange re-
strainl, full,v rveldedflangeto web connectionswill surcly approachthe full Webslenderness
ratio,l,/r*
fixity case.It will be reasonablethglr to arbitrarily selecta t valuecloserto
Figure 1't.6'4 Nominal,ybment srrcng\ Mrof girdersas
39.6.sa,vS0 percentof the diffeieft to*-ard the higher value.One might say affectedbv srength of the
wcb plate resistingbending momenriJ the piane"oftd;.b-
th a t A36 sreel.

950,000
F_: ---- kSi (rr.o.r)
(h/ t)'

is represcntativeof the stress wheal elastic buckling is imminent due to


(
(
658 il /P|ATE GIRDERS 11.6/ MOMENT
STRENGTH
REDUCTION
DUETO BEN}EUCT.I:NGOFIVEB
(
( bending in the plane of the web. Such "bend buckling" cannot occur if A,

( %s0,.=gn
h fEamd. 970 i l I
( - \ 1 , - : (1 1 . 6 . 2 ) i l l
|/ 'Q,, ksi
tn i l l
Vr.' i l i
( reutralll
Neutral ^r^ h
x,s
axrs ,, fi,' i=320
( where t*. : web plate thickness.
LRFD-Appendix G2 usesthe coefficient970; bowever,ASD-G2 uses982. I
I
( JTrelatter is obtained by substituting F",/7.67 for the allowablebendingstress
i
I
I

( 1,,- The tsso significant figure 970 seemsreasonable.Figure 11.6.3shows the F i g u r e 1 1 . 6 5 E f t e c t ; i . es e c t i o ni c b e n d i n z


"bend buckling" of the web. when venical flange buckling is imminenl
elasticstability relationshipfor
( Since the rveb carries only a small part of the total bending moment to
( rvhich the girder is sub.jected,neglcct of the transition zone arising from Noting that r*,&: A* and lettingp: A*/A, gives
inelasticbuckling *ill not be significant.
( Buckling of the web doesnot end the usefulnessof the girder. Fig. i1.6.4
A
z
r
l6J
^ ^

k 2 +k ( ; . : - f
( shows the relationship betweennominal moment strength M, vs h/t*,. Ttus *) p 1024
figure assumesthe lateral-torsionalbuckling and local flange buckling limit
( statesdo not control. 2
When the post-bucklingstrengthof the girder is considered,the strengthis e, : i m ,- , 3 * -
| - t 2 l
(
raisedfrom line BC of Fig. 11.6.4to line BD. The actual position of line BD V t o u 1 6 0 V l: ;i
( varies wth A*/A1, the ratio of the web area to the compressionflange area. (b) Determine the effective moment of inertia.
(
(
E EXAMPLE II.6.I I , : A t ( k h ) ' * k h )+3 A t (-r k ) 2 1 , t . t2n - o^l'
Using h/t,:320, determinethe expressionfor IUJMy (point D of Fig. i,,( Y I

( i1.6.4) in tei-msof A*/Ar. Using t*,h : A* and p : An/Ar,

#t*--)']
(.
SOLUTION r u - A , h 2 [ ; - ' + f t 2+ ( 1 - k ) ' +
( -: (b)
With h/t*: 3?0,"bend-buckling" occursat a low level of flexural stress. \.
( Such buckling does not signify the maximum bending moment that can be
carried; however,under additional load the flexural stresson the compression :;; (c) Determinethe nominal moment strength Mn. Assuning the extreme
( side of the neutral axis becomesnonlinear. In order to retain the use of the
1-

.: fiber in compressionstressedto the yield stress{,


( flexure formula, Mc/1, a reducedeffectivesectionmust be used.The reduced ''''"'
section eotirely neglectsmuch of the web in the region where the buckling Mn: t (')
( (out-of-planeness)has occurred.The effectivesectionshown in Fig. 11.6.5was
:1
(r - k)h
( proposedby Basler[11.7]. E:T
(d) Determinethe momentstrengthM" assumingthe eoriresectionelastic
(a) Determine location of neutral axis. Equating stai.icmomentsabout lhe .:=
: (and thereforeeffective)with the extremeiiber stressequal to .4,. In devetop-
( neutral axis gives -5
:8. ing the expressionthe flange-areaconceptis usedas sho'*'nin Fig. 11.6.6.The
( ,v momentstrengthof the web is approximately(Fig. 17.6.6a)
t...(kilz 3 | 67
A t ( k h+
) t*- : A r 0 - k ) h* - k h\ l t * *.
( nhlao M*"b: fS,: f (It*h') fOi
r*
"*
( ."4
which assumesweb depth, distancebetween flange cenrioids,and overall
._-fi
Divide by Arh: depth are the same.The momentstrengthof ihe equivalentflange'areas)slcln
(
( k+k,?*t:(1- /.)+;(* - 4'+ *
:a
(Fi g. 11.6.6b)
is
M"qu;": lAlh (e)
*1t
( '{&

, ( *c
::€
s
'rari,
!t

670 11/PLATEGTREERS 11.6/ MOMENTSTRENGTHREDUCTIONDUE TO BENDBUCKLING OF WEB (


(
From Fig. 11.6.7,the variation in MJM, might be approximated by a ((
V%-
A l strai'ghtline for A./At from zero to threewith a slope of -(1.00 - 0.73)h.a
Ai=i : - 0.09. i
I
(
I Thus, at h/t*: 320,
Mn- - (
My
1.0 o,.os+
-'-- 1,)
Ai=+
1
Al
It may be observedthat the straightline agreesbetter for h/t_: 360, the
(
(
ry"-) situation for rvhich this linear equationwas originally developea
does for h/t*:
1fi.Z1,than it
(a) Actual condition (b) Equivalentcondition 320. For higber strengthsteels,for which the maximum h/t* l :
to prevent vertical buckling of the flangeis lessthan 360, more of such a stiffei (,
Figure11.6.6 Equivaientflangesareato replaceweb. web participates with the compressionflange, causing a greater reduction in
MJMr. a
Equating Eqs. (d; and (e) givesfor the equivalentflange area,A'J, The linear reduction basedon Eq. (j) does not seemconservative,but is
(
within severalpercent of the more accuratecurve using 301* as the effective
A,r: !t*h: IA* (f) deptb of web participating with the compressionflange. (
The totai moment strength of a girder rvhere the stress f : F, then ', Tests [11.7] have verified the colrectnesssf this linear reduction method
..-uqi ngh/tn:360 asit s basis.
(
becomes !

M,:,,1n,.
+l- (e) Reduced Nomlnal Strength M,, when h/t_> g7\/iFy (
(

: F,Ayh(t
' \ * lj tol By referenceto Fig. 11.6.4,it may be reasonablyassumedthat MJM, varies (
o/ linearly from point .B to D. Thus the reductionin MJM, per A*,j,e1'per hit
greater than that at point .B is ( '
The vertical orcinate of point D in Fig. 11.6.4is obtainedby dividing Eq.
/c) b y E q. ( h) : t'oq",:" (,
!--!n,: g : 0.00057(say0.0005)
320 - t62 158 (
.\{
n Thus the region from point B to D (Fig. 11.6.4)assuminglinear (
r4 (i ) !^/Y,,for
vanatton,ls
(
'.v'hich
is plottedin Fig. i1.6.7. Mn
' ( L( L- go \
1 ' o- o )oos (11.6.3) (
i: n ,\ , * / . : ]
(
SinceMr: 4E, Eq. 11.6.3may be written (
t-
^ t L - o.ooosL- T I
Mo:s,r,l1.o (
. +(
Ar\rt*, ,'
(11.6.4i
14. i
Equation 11.6.3assumesno influence of the lateral-torsionatbuckling an4 (
flange local buckling limit states.When the controlling limir state preventsthe
flange stressfrom reaching (
4, then that soatrslling ti*it state critical suess
{, should replace4, in Eq. U.6.4. In generalthen (
r.0 2.O 3.0

_ e7o
(
p = A-lA1 Mn:s,F*[tr-o.ooostt:
il (ll.6.s)
Figure 11.6.7 Reduction in nominal moment strength considering post-buckling
,tr/J (
strength at maximum i/r*. for A36 steel. : SrFoRpc (11.6.6) {
(
(
11 7 / NOU:}rAL }dOMENTSTRENGTH- HyBRtD GTRDERS 673
672 11/ PLATEGTRDERS

ally been treated as the former. The idea of using a reducedsection s'hcr
buckling has occurredto causethe stressdistributionto be differentfrom ths
elastic situation is the same concept used for the stiffenedplate elementii
Chapter6, Part il.

t
t
i
i 11.7 NOMINAL MOMENT STRENGTH- HYBRID GIRDERS
l l
Eq. 11.3.10
As discussedin the last sectia:i.a girder havinglarge h/t, ma)'have its s'cb
I

,7 14.000
- - 1 #

l-
,-Fr(F,
- 16-5) buckle due to flerural stress,therebyincreasingthe load-carr-'-ing requirement
of the compressionfla::ee.Tnjs ertra load-carryingrequirementfor the flan-ee
also may occur shen a hybrid girder is used.A hybrid girder is one in rvhich
the flanges are of a Hgher s'rreagthsteel than the web. The use of a hybrici
girder has particular econoiaic advantagesin composite construction, a-i
describedin Sec.16.9.
The specialbeharioral feature of the hybrid girder is the y'ieldingof the
lower strength '*'eb beiore th: niaximum flalge strengthhas been reached-
When the mome;rt stre:lgthof the hybrid girderis achieved,the web rvill have
v
.-
rt
participatedto a lesse:exteni ihan in a girder using only one gradeof steel.
5
r
a Frost and Schillirigil1.81.Schilling[1i.9], Carskaddan[11.10].and Toprac
and Natarajan [1i.1lJ bave studied the hybrid girder.The state-of-the-art and
designrecommendaticasfor hi'brid girdershavebeengiven in a Joint ASCE-
AASHO Joint Commitiee[11.12J.
There are tfro pri:cipal e;fecis of using a lorveryield stress*'cb than is
usedin the flange.The cnset cf lielding in the rvebwill occurprior to yielding
in the flanges. For era::iple. ";.'henthe web is 436 steel and the flangeshave
F,. : 100 ksi. t\e web ira;- iielC at about 40% of. the nominai strength ill"
based on yieldin-z of the fian3es.* This meansthat the web wili yield euenaI
serciceload.
The design of h-;:lrid g-iiders,accordingto Subcommittee1 of ASCE-
AASHO Joint Comrnirtee[11.i2]. shouldbe basedon the momentcausingthe
initiation of flange y:eiding. This may be accomplishedby either of tu'cr
procedures:
30
1. The nocrinai suengih 7!, may be computed by setting the extreme
ralio'h/L
slenderness fiber strain e-r, equal to F,r./E,- u'here & it the yield stressof the flange steel
(seeFig..l1.7.1b). At rhis slagr much of the lower yield strcssweb will have
limit
Figure11.6.8 Reducedcriticalstres Rp6f, to account-forthe bend-bucklng exceededitb yield strain €r.*: Fy*./E,, in rvhich casethe stressdistribution
stite whenh/t* > g70/\E ,3gs61ding to LRFD-Appeodix G2'
over the depth of the rction is nonlinear,as shownin Fig. 11.7.1c.
2. The nominal siiength 1{" may be computedas a homogeneouselastic
prwiously sectionentirely of the ilange steel.that is FytS,,reducedby multiplyingby a
where Rro is the reductionfactorbracketedterm in Eq. 11'6'5,and reductionfactor.
is grven in LRFD-Appendix G1
given as p}. 11.4.3.This reductionfactor Rro Both the AISC AJowable StressDesign(ASD-G2) and Load and Resis-
is shown grgtricaUy in Fig. 11.6'8 for LRFD'
ind ASD-G2. The relationship tance Factor Des:gn ilRFD-Appendix G2) nrethodsuse the latter approach.
either
In summary,when h/t* ixceeds970/{F*, one may view Eq. 11.6.6
S, multiptiea Uy a reduced stress F-Rpo'-or (2)
as (1) the full sectiontnoduirt
j,R* multiplied by the full stress ^f,' Philo'
as a reducedsection moCulus
sophicallyit should be considereO ttti latter; horvever,in ASD it has tradition-
11 B / NO|"4INAL STRENGTH- ELASTIOAND INELASTICBUCKLING
SH-trAR (
674 i17' PLAT€GiRD€RS
(

Thus, the moment strength M, of an hybrid girder may be expressedas rveb adjacent to the flangesrvill have strain exceedingthe yield sfi'ain €.,*,: (
for F,*,/E, in the rveb.Logically the slenderness limit to prevent buckling must
L,q. 11.4.2(or Eq. ii.6.6) multipiiedby a reductionfactor R" to account (
reaching the flange yield stressat the extreme tflrn U. Iov,erthan 910/r,E Dawe'and Kulak [11.14Jhave indicated that
ylclClng in rhe web prior to
fiber. becauseof the restrainingeffect of sturdy flangesthe web may be expectedto (
l { n : S ,&R p c R " (tt.;.t) undergoplasticstrainwithout buckling.u.n *h.n theh/t* tutio it 800/rlF*
(
Zahn t11.151has not ed t hat when Fil: 50 ksi ( f langes)and Fr n: 36 ksi
where (rveb)the samelimiting slenderness ratio is obtained, (
FactorDesign(LRFD-AppeodLr G2),
far lttad and Resistance
.(11.7.2) /soo \ /gzo \ (
+ 8x0.81- a)
R. : 1 - 0.1(1.3 l--:1331=l /=-:\371
I (
for Allowable StressDesign(ASD-G2) \iF'- I \,lh
12+B(3a-43)
(
(11.7.3) Thus, rather than havea separatelimit equationrelating to bend-buckling
R,:
12+2p of the rveb of a hybrid girder using Fr., AISC concluded it would be (
B: A./Ar, the ratio of the cross-sectional areaof the ri'ebto the cross- satisfactoryand simplerto usethe samelirnit equationfor both homogeneous ( r
sectionalarea of one flange and hybrid girders.The proper result would be obtainedby alwaysusing the
a - Frn/ Fr1, the ratio of the yield stressof the web steelto the yield stress limit equation,
flange yietd slressFr, in the h/t* slenderness
(
of the flange steel e70 (
/ft\
Rp<;: reduction lor web insrabilitywhen h/t*> about 97A/{fy (see Sec' l - t : -

11.6) \ ,* /o'"0;oi,',uu"
iT, (
Fn : critical compressionflangestressbased6n lowestvalue obtained from (
the lareral-torsional bucklingor the flangelocal buckling limit states. The specialfeaturesof hybrid girdersrelating to compositeconstruction
are containedin ChaPter16. (
The ASD reducrionfactor was recosrmendedby the ASCE-AASHO Joint
Committee [11.12]while rhe LRFD reduction factor was recommendedmore (
F A C T O R SR eI J S E DF O R L R F DA N D A S D
recentlyby Cooper,Galambos,and Ravindra[11.13].A comparisonof the trvo TABLE 11.7.1 REDUCTION
(.'
.*pr.tiions is given in Table 11.7.1.The LRFD expressionis slightly more t
c' :
a r
Jo /
t - a

au:
A
v.tz
1 A
c:36/ 100:0.36
conservative(lower) than the ASD equation. LRFD ASD LRFD ASD (
In applying the reductionfactor Rro to accountfor bend-bucklingof the P Eq 11.7.2 E q .1 1 . 7 . 3 E q . 1 1. 7 . 2 Eq 11.7.3
(
web, the'ieriua-tionof the rvebslendern.ttlimit of 970/i\. involved.theplate
yield stress{., which meaosthe web.On the other hand, examinationof Fig. 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 (
if .f.t shorvsih"t *h.n the flangereaches{t the strain on the portions of the 0.5 0.98 0.99 a.92 0.96
(
1.0 0.98 0.99 0.90 0.93
1.5 0.98 0.98 0.87 0.90 (
i^n
(, - .^;l-'.."_= 0.003a5 ?.4 0.97 0.97 0.85 0.88
: Y . - w e ir = 100ksi (
I

, l 'a :
l l F,./F.r1 (
JO
'-:29306
rP : A"/Al
(
:0.00124
(
11.8 NOMINALSHEARSTRENGTH_ ELASTICAND INELASTIC .(,
BUCKLING

(c) Strcss
Typical of I-shapedsections.the web carriesmost of the shear.Since the plate I
(b) Strain
girOerinherentlyhas a thin web (hJt*> 970/iFy), stability is of primary (
Figure 11.7.1 Hybrid sectiosshowingstrain and stress*'heo {y is reachedat extreme conce.rn.
fiber of section. (
(
(
\
(
F ' - '
(
SfiEAR STff€riGTH - ELASTICAND INELASTICBUCKLING
677
11.8/NoMINAL
\
676 ll /PLATEGIRDERS
(
(

(
(
(
(

(
r(
rf1
li
r
ll

, . : , F l e n r e n li n
H
( b ) P r i n c i P asl i r e s s
( c ) P r i n c i p a sl l r e s s
on pane!in Pi:'e
I
I
II

I
l. r
I
* d 4

(3)
'

alh < i
l
L----3---_-_

li'r -; ir
"'1
l

pure shear . srrea Figure11.E.2Two casesof in"erc':diatestiffecerspacing'


::rtJt#?t'"
( girdcr web panel'
;rgure 11.8.1 Classicalsheartbeory applied to Plate the developmentof r*'hich has been given by Timoshenkoand Woinou'ski-
(
Krieger.'
( t o put Eqs.1i. 8. i anC11. 8. 2in
por 6ssi enp ur posesit r nal'be desir able
\\'hen
tcrms of h, the unsupported'aebheight.and a. the stiffenerspacing'
( transversestiffenersand this is done tlvo casesnust be c,lnsidered.
Considera rvebplate panel of length 1.t..r*:.1 suPportsti'e" bet*'een
plate
( having a clear h;tgh,-;- [.,*..l.lorigitudinal longitudinai stiffeners)' , 11. 8. 1becom es
l . l t a/h < 1 ( seeFig. 11- 8. 2a)Eq.
stifferier, or between
flanges,flange unOiongitudinal bendingmoment'the
C as shorvnin Fig. 11.8.1.In regions
"irtigri shearand low
+ q.o(a/n\?1
,2rLs.tq ytl
be Inuestigated assuming it is acted upon (11.8.3)
( buckling strengthor ,n. p-rt may i:{1 - p')(o/t)t (nio)=
11'8'1'
iy ttt.ui alonelpure shear),as in Fig'
(
( , 11. 8. 1becom es
2. l t a/h 2 1 ( seeFig. 1i- E. 2b)Eq.
Elastlc Buckllng Under Pure Shear ,'e ttS:q+ A.A(n/o)=\
( ( 11. 8 . 4 )
plate is given by Eq. 6'14'28 as T-:
The elasticbuckling stressfor any 1 2 ( 1- p ' ) ( h / t ) '
(
n2E
( ' Io.ta.zal
r", 12(1- p')Q/t)' It is apparentfrom Eqs. 11.8.3and 11.8.4that if one desiresto useh/t asthe
( for k are necessary'
stabiliiy ratio in the denomiilator' then two expressions
( For all rangesof.a/h. Eqs. 11.8.3and i1.8.4may be rvritten
*'ritten
(seeFig. 11.8.1),84.6.14.28 may be
where for the caseof pure shear
) n t
ii-EK
( (11.8.5)
(using r in place of F for shearstress) '.-
12(1- p'\(h/t)'
( n2E
( r t . s .)t rl,'herc
( : Tn: k
/ short dimension\z (11'ti'6)
- u')t----;-,l
12(1 k:4.0 + 53a/(a/h)2 f a ra / h < 1
("
fora/h>-7 (11'8'?)
( .k:4.0i(a/h)2+5-34
but
where for the caseof edgessimply supported(i'e', displacementprevented G'1'
( Equations11.8.6and 11.8.1 are used in ASD-F4. In LRFD-Appendix
rotation about edgesunrestrained)
(
/ short dimension\2 (11.8.2)
( k - 5.34
+ o o[;G o*rr*
I
' ( ' )
678 11/PLATE GIRDERS. 11.8/ NolvllNAL SHEARSTRENGTH- ELAST|CAND INELAST|CBUCKL|NG a-
679
(
TABLE1I.8.1 EIASTICBUCKLING
COEFFICIENT
K FORSHEARSTRSNGTH /-' l
I (

ASD ASD t--"- v" - C"(O.6F-)A*


'l
LRFD (
\i
Ratio Eq. 1.8.6 E q .1 1 . 8 . 7 Shear yield
Ec.11.8.8

a/h a/h31 a/h> 1


LRFD K
E q .1 1 . 8 . 1 2 , t-t ('
ASDK 187 fk
"": E4,V r-
\ r
E
0.2 137.5 1 3 0 .0 0.94 (inelastic buckting) C'
0.4 37.4 36.3 0.97
0.6 1 8 .8 1 8 .9 1.00 (
0.8 12.3 L2.8 '"'
1.04
1. 0 9.3 9.3 10.0 1.07
C..=
C
L.2
L. 4
8 .1
7.4
8.5
7.6
1.04
1.02
r
1.6 6.9 7.0 1.01 (
1.8 6.6 6.5 1.00
2.0 6.3 6.3 0.99
fi
2. 2 6.2 6.0 0.98 (
2.4 E q . 1 1. 8 . 1 8 ,
6.0 5 .9 0.97
2.6 5 .9 5.7 0.97 (
2. 8 5.9 5.6 0.96
3. 0
(
5.8 , 5.6 0.96
h/L (
Figure 11.8.3 Buckling of plate girder web resulting from shear alone-LRFD- I
Appendix G3.
thosett*'oequarions
arereplaced
by thefollowing: /1 \
5 f(
I;:5 * --; ( 1 i. 8 . 8 ) proportionallimit as shownin Fig. 11.8.3,
(a/h)' (
*'oo?k
As shorvnin Table 11.8.1,it is clear that within the accuracythat the 'r: (11.S.10). a
( h7t *) 2 Fr *
tneoretiqrlelasticbuckling solutionagre€s*ith a real plate guder, Eq. 11.8.8is
an acceDrable sirgle equationsubstitutefor Eqs. 11.9.6and 11.g.7. ASD-F4 usesthe coefficient45,000insteadof 44,000.The slightly larger value (
For use in designequations,Eq. 11.8.5has been put into nondimensional is obtained when r, is taken as Fr/r/T. r r
I
form, defining €" as the ratio of shearstress ro al buckling to shear yield
siressr}.. (
Inelastlc Buckling under pure Shear
,16 t2Ek
(
cu: (rr.a.l) As in all stabiiity situations,residualstresses
and imperfectionscauseinelastic
ry ' r(1 2 )(i - r,t)( h /)' buckling as critical stressesapproach yield stre5. R transition cune fcr (
inelasticbuckling was given by Baslert11.31basedon curve fitting and usir-: (
*'luch it c,. f.or elasticstabilitv. Substiturionof E : 29,000 ksi, p : 0.3, test results from Lyse and Godfrey [11.4]. In the transition zone between
r., : 0.6{* (see4.7.7.9), and usingthe zubscriptw for both the yield stress elasticbuckling and yielding, (
{*. and the plate thicknessl* to identify this behavior as occurring in the
rli5, gir':s r", :
y limir
Tcr(idcal
,la oro,p.
clastic)
(11.8.11) r
(
;.2(29,ooo)k
-o
0.64,,(12)(t- 0.0e)(h/t*)'
:
l.
'For SI unils, 303.000& (
which g:vesQ, as givenby LRFD-AppendixG3, valid for r., below the t"
l.'
{.- in MPa, ( - o
"o
(h/t-)2 Fy_
(11.8.10)
(
t:
I
r: (
t:
(
(
(
11.8/ NOMTNALSHEARSTRENGTH- Ei-a,STtCAND |NELAST|CBUCKLING 681
( 680 11 /PLATE GIRDERS

(
in which is LRFD-Formula (A-G3-l) as well as LRFD-Formula (F2-l) for
( The proportional timit is taken as 0.8r.r, higher than for compression beams.This rvasfirst discussedin Chapter7 (Sec.?.7).
11'8'11by rr
flangis, b"*us" the effect of residualstressis less'Dividing Eq' The h/t* relationshipthat dirtdes elastic and inelasticbuckling may be
( to obtain C, aod using Eq. 11.8.10gtves obtainedby ietiing C, equalto 0.8 in Eq. 1i.8.i0, grving
( 44.000ft
A T , ' ----_--;
(0.E) h t

L . . = - : ' ' - :734


ll

( 1 1. 8 . 1 s )
( ,y F,,*(h/t-l' v
t -rt "

( ,.
187
( : - (11.8.12)- The LRFD relationshipbetrveenbuckling strengih in shearand rveb slender-
h/t- ,* nessratio h/t* is shorvnin Fig. 1i.8.3.
(
in Fig'
( which is given by' LRFD-Appendix G3 and is shown schemat'cally
the number
two'significant-figure
11.8.3.ASD-F4 uses 190 iniiead of 18?;
The 187 Shear Strength - Allowable Stress Deslgn
( seemsmore in keeping \oith the true accuracyof the reiationship'
arisesfrom using instead
4'1,000 of 45,000in Eq' 11'8'12' In accordancewith AilowableStressDesign philosophy presentedin Secs.1.8
(
and 1.9,and discussed for shearin Sec.7.7, the strengthrelaticnshipmay be
( Design dirided by the safetyfactor to put the equarionin the sen'iceload range,
Nomlnat Shear Strength- Load and ResistanceFactor
(' buckling
The nominal shearsrength Vnof,agirderbasedon inelasticor elastic (i1.8.re)
(' of the web maY be exPressed \ * : * ) , "
Vr: rrrA* (i1.8.13)
(
( or using Cr: ro/t*, where l/Q : overload factors divided by resistancefactor
Vn : C.t,A n (11.8.14) FS : 1.67 : nominal safetvfactor in beam desizn
( I/ : serviceload shear
(' Approximating ?., s 0.64, grves
To obtain Eq. 11.8.19in "stiess" format, diride both sidesby the rvcb
Y n : C , ( a . 6 F : ,A
)* (11.8.15)
( area l*.; thus,
for elastic
( which is LRFD-Formula (A-G3-3).In Eq. 11-8.15,C, is Eq' 11'8'10
( buckling when C < 0.8, and is Eq- t1'S'12 wben C, t 0'8'
would
-:
.!:n (r":*)=(c:#) ( 1 1. 8 . 2 0 )
EqJation tr.g.ts will apply also to rolled beams since rarely
( wishesto have an explicit expression for
transversestiffeners be used.-I] one where the allowablestress4, may be obtained from putting Eq. 11.8.14into
1 (i.e., the web yields in shear and no buckling
h/t* conesponding to C": ':_: E q. 11.8.20,
(
occrirs),eq. tf .S.f2 may be solved f'or h/t* when Co: \,
( C,trA* Cra,
h k t':
F
( 1 1. 8 . 2 )1
(
-=187 (11.8.16) 'rr,, 63[: 5,
tu) F'* ..::id
.]a:

( .€ Using rr: Fr/'E insteadof 0.6{. as used in LRFD, taking FS : 1.67,and


shear
When h/t*.does not exceedthe value from Eq. 11.8.16,the nominal $
recognizingthe traditionalupper limit of A.qF, f.or F,,
(
strength is
( v,: o'6FrA* (tt.s.tr) F,C,.
-_aig
F,: < 0.40t ( 1 1. 8 . 2 2 )
(
_.!3
#
:.**
,,;:
eS,:
-k
rrhtchis ASD-Formula(F4-2).The expressions for C. are givenby 8q.i1.8.10
(11.8.12) - qrr
.For SI unirs, with F,- il MPa, ":riG for C, < 0.8 using 45,000insteadof the LRF-D 44.000,and by Eq. 1i.8 for
( -*i,:
s'
..:Jir-
t ( #
.'H1.
.;,s.
U

I' i / PLATEGIRDEFS 11.9/ NOMTNALSHEARSTRENGTH- INCLUDTNG ACTION


TENSION-FIELD I

- TNCLUDING (
C, > 0.6 using190 insteadof the LRFD 187, 1 1 . 9 . N O M I N A LS H E A RS T R E N G T H 1

45,000k for Q' < 0.8 TENSION-FIELDACTION I


/ a r - -
vc' (11.8
.231*
(4,")Ut/t*)' (elasticbuckling) The elastic and inelastic buckling strength of the web subject to shear is
('
representedby ABCD in Fig. 11.9.1.A plate stiffenedby flangesand trans- (
190 k for C" > 0.8 versestiffenershas considerable post-bucklingstrength.
f
_,,_ - - (11.8.24)- (
h/t* Frn (inelasticbuckling) According to Basler[11.31,the ability of a plate girder to behavein a
manner similar to a truss was recognizedas early as 1898. As shown in Fig.
{
11.9.2,the tension forcesare carried by membraneaction of the web (referred
k is given by Eqs.11.8.6and 11.8.7,as folloivs:
In the C..expressions, to as tension-fieldaction) while the compressionforces are carried by the {
fo r a / h < 7 transversestiffeners.The work of Basler[11.3]led to a theory that agreedwith
k : 4 .0 + 5 .3 4 /(a /h )t (
tests and provides criteria to ensure that truss action can develop. The
inclusion of truss action raisesthe shearstrengthfrom that basedon buckling i
k : 4 .0 /(a /h )t + 5 .3 4 f.o ta / h > - 1
(ABCD on Fig. 11.9.1)to approacha conditioncorrespondingto shearyield
(
in classicalbeam theory(ABE of Fig. 11.9.1).
Previously,in Table 7.7.1 af.Sec.7.7,maximum h/t- valueswere given The nominal shear strength ,/n may be expressedas the sum of the (
suchthat rolledbcamswithoutstiffenerscouldbe designedusingF,':0'40F,' buckling strength V,, and the post-buckledstrength Vlt from tension-field
5.34'From C,.for
When no stiffenersare used.a/h is largeand k approaches (
..-action,
inelasticbuckling(Eq. 11.8.24)'
Vn: Vr, * V4 (11.e.1)
190
(- "- - - (i1.8.:,5)
h/t*

Strainhardenrng,C, t t
(used in ASD only)
L ,singE q. 11. 8. 22 .
{,. 439 1.0
: 0.40F,, r-. 0.8 __J_\
2 . 8 9( h / t ) , , i F r * L ' f= . - . C Post-buckling
strength of girder
i
No (cross-hatched part)
buckling (
h 380 from high slrear
- : € ( 11 . 8. 2 6) * (
t tlFy,.
A/t
Web slenderness, I (
-l Figure11.9.1 Shcarcapacityavaitable,consideringpost-bucklingstrength.
of Table .l -1 for Allo*'able
Equation11.8.26givesthe madmum h/t * va.lues (
StressDesign.

(
'For Sl units, u'ith
{*. in }vtPa. (
t
3l |.000k
'/' '- -- - (i 1.5.:3)
n (.i:./t)!

-<,u0 t
\t\ (
(
'g :- (1i.s.:4) ,/
(n/t) fy* {
Stiffeners
,r l00O I
{r 1.s.26) Figure11.9.2 Tension-ficldaction.
'r iF
(
l'l- )
{
{
\l
(
:
i(
i ,-.

( r r /Pt TEGTRDERS I 1.91NOMTNALSHEARSTRENGTH- INCLUDINGTENSION-FIELD


ACTION 685

(
( Tension-Field Action: Optimum Direclion
( Considerthe tensilemembranestresso. rvhichdevclopsin the *'eb at thc angle
y,3S shou'nin Fig. ii.9.4. If such tensilestressescan developover the full
(
hcightof the wcb, then the total diagonaltensileforce?'rvouldbe
( (1i.e.3)
T:o,i*Acos7
{ the verticel component of n'hich is ihe shear force Iz, given by
( L/: T sily: o,l..hcosysiny ( 1 1. e . 1 )
(
( - ) .
(
t \4u
1o, I
( - f
I ;; Fi3ure 11.9.4 lvlcmbralc stressesin
i!
( -t te*ion-fie!d action.
i

If suchdiagonaltensilestresses could developalong the fianges.vertical


( stiffnessof the flangesrvould be requked. Sincethe flangeshavelittle vertical
stiffnessand are acting to their capacitvin resistingflexureon the girder.the
\
tension-fieldactuallycan developonii' over a bandri'idth suchthat the vertical
( componentcan be transferredat the verticalstiffeners.The stiffenerscan be
Figure11.9.3 Tension-fieldin test plate girder.(From Ref. 11.3,Courtesyof Lehigh
(. University) designedto carry the necessar)- compressiveforce.It will be assumedthat the
tension-field(or partial tension-field as some may prefer to call it) may
( developover the band width s, sho'*'i in Fig. 11.9.5a.
( The membranetensiie force tnbutary' to one stiffener is o,s/*, and the
The nominal bucklingstrengthis givenby Eq. 11.8.14with Z, : V"r, \
partial shearforce AV,1,developedb-; compression in the stiffeneris
(
Vr, : CrrrA n (i1.e.2) 5V,! = qsl,u sin y (11.e.5)
(
( where C,: r"*/r, and is given by Eqs. 11.8.10and 11'8.12for elastic and
inelasticbuckling, respectively.
( "=i= a s p e crt a t i o
The shear strength 2,, ansing from the tension-field action in the web
y = angie ot tension tield
( developsa band of tensileforcesthat occur after the web has buckled under
diagonal compression(principal stressesin ordinary beam theory). Equilib-
(
rium is maintained by the transferof force to the vertical stiffeners.As the
girder load increases,the angle of the tension-fieldchanges'to acconmodate hcosT
(
the greatest carrying capacity. Figure 11.9.3 shows a 50 x 50-in. (approx.
(. L.3 x 1.3 m) panel with a i-io. (6.4 mm) web which has buckled under
diagonal compressionrvhen subjectedto pure shear. It also illustrates the
anchoragerequirementwhereinthe longitudinalcomponentof the tension-field
L-"-J
( must be transmitted to the flange in the adjacent panel, as shown by the ,)
( vertical breaks in the whitewashat the flange in the corner of the adjacent (r)
\ _
panel where the tension-fieldintersectsthe stiffener and flange. :, Figure11.9.5 Forcesarisir3 ficrn tensicn-held.
(
r.(
I -
r"
I
(
t. 11 /PLATE GTRDERS SHEARSTRENGTH- tNCLUDllic TENSTON-F|ELD
11 I / NOI."'ilNAL ACTTON 687
I (,
((
and the angle y is the angle providing the maximum shear component from
the partial tension-field.
From the geometryshownin Fig. 11.9.5b.
s:hcosy-asiry (11.9.6)
where a : stiffenerspacing.Substitutionof Eq. 11.9.6into Eq. 11.9.5gives
6 V { : o , t * ( h c o s y- a s i n T ) s i n y
,
(h \
: o , t n t t r t 2 . y- a s i n 2 r J (11.9.7)
Vrt I
TI
For maximum 5tr',7,it is requiredthat d(Av,r)/dy : 0. Thus F--{
+-
dFt + P,
t h \
- ,^ , -
N"\ d , t * [ ; ( z ). *n to 2 7 - 12na so ii nn. ,rnc o s Y:i o (11.e.8)
d-: - 1 Figure11.9.6 Forcein stiffenerresuitingfrom tension-field
action.

0: f t c o s 2 y- a s i n ? y
o r h l ..Shear Strength from Tenslon-FleldActlon
l'., 'fi'Ylt Using the free body of Fig. 11.9.6,horizontalforce equilibrium requires
tanly:L: (11.e.e)
a/h AFf: (o,tnasin7)cos7
+
From the trigonometryof Eq. 11.9.9,
: o,!*sin2y (11.e.13)
L

sin27:+ (11.e.10)
It + ( a/h)' Rotational equilibrium,takenabout point O, requires

:;f'ffi)
also ''!^o
L F,: - : a (11.e.14)
1 - cos27 tz 2
sin2l : (11.e.11)
Solving Eq. 11.9.14for A{ and substitutingtto tO. 11.9.13gives

The marimum contributionLV,, f.romtension-fieldaction is then obtainedby v,la


-= -or-T-stn
V ^ : - ,/..y
r-. ( r 1 . e . 1) 5
into Eq. 11.9.7. ,,ttg
substitutingEqs.11.9.10and 11.9.11 h
h t . . .r -
sv,t:",+LIT+T"/T - "/hl (11.e.12)
Solving f or V,, and using Eq. 11.9.10for sin 2y gives

It is not practical to useEq. 11.9.12directly, since the shearcontribution (11.e.r5)


from the part of the section(suchas M-lvI of Fig. 11.9.5)that cuts through
the trianglesoutsidethe band s must be added.The state of stressin these
trianglesis unknown, requiringan alternateapproachto finding the total
Failure Conditlon
shr'rr V,, when the optimum angle7 is reached.
An alternateway, as usedby Basler[11.3],is to cut a free body as in Fig. The actual state of stressin the web involvesboth shear stress r and ;rormal
1i.9.6. The section"istakenverticallvmidway betweentrvo adjacentstiffcners stress%i thus the failure of an elementsubjectedto shear in combination with
and horizontally at mid-depth. The mid-depth cut prorides accessto the an inclined tension mt:st be considered,as shown in Fig. 11.9.7. Two basic
tension-field where the state of stressis known, and the shear resultant on :rssumptionsare involved: first, 1. remains at constant value from buckling
each vertical face equals V,,/2 from symmetry. load to ultimate load and thereforethe tension-fieldstress o, acls in addition
e
(
fi /PI3TE G|RD€RS 11.g/ Nor,/tNAL SHEARSTRENGTH- INCLUDINGTENSTON-F|ELD
ACTd3N 689
(
(
and for the stress condition that or: r", * o, and of : -r=. Eq. 1i.9.18
(
becomes
( -rhF-- ot
- : 1 -
'ct
:1-C" (i1.9.19)
( Fy Frrt
(
Force In Stitfener
Using Fig. 11.9.6,vertical force equilibrium requires the fc;ce P" in the
(
".,1f]1,., stiffenerto be
I it ll P": (o.tnasiny)sin7 (11.9.1t))
(
(
T
Pure drear
,;/
\'
Principal stres-ses
v/", Then, substituting the trigonometricidentity,

I .) 1-cos27
(a) At imminent buckling ( b ) A t u l t i m a t es h e a r Sn- Y: ---;
(
Figure11.9.7 Stateof sfess. gives
(
i

- a/h
(
to the principal stressesrcr; seconci,the angle 'l in Fig. 11.9.7brvill be P , : o tat*.
,+l \l |l 1- I 1 11 . 9 . 2) 1
( consen'itively taken as 45" eventhou-ehit rvill ahvaysbe lessthan that value. \ 4 / L f f i t
The generally acceptedrelationship for failure in plane stress is the
( "energy of distortion" theory (discussedin Sec.2.7) shown as the ellipse in SubstitutingEq. 11.9.19into Eq. i1.9.21gives
( Fig. 11.9.8,which may be written Fr*(7_C,.)ot*|,
',,_
r _ __:4:1 ( 1i . e . 2 1 )
( o l + o ! - 6 1 0 2 : F r? (11.9.17) 2
L iii+(a/h1?l
( where o, and oz ate principal stresses.Point ,,4representsihe caseof shear
alone and point B representstensionalone.The actual statesof stressin pl4tp rvhich is the force in the stiffenerwhen nominal shearstrengi:rl; is reachcd.
( girder webs fall on thl eilipsebetweenpoi:rts A and B, and a straight line is a.. including tension-fieldaclion.The yield stress4., ir that of the $'eb.
( reasonableapproximationof the segmentAB, More recent.work as discussedin the SSRC Guide [6.8j ha-sshown that
Eq. i1.9.32 may be simplifiedby using a/h : 1; in u'hich case.
( ot: F, + d2(6 - 1) (11.e.18)
( P , : 0 . 5 F r " ,-( 1C , ) a t , . -( t (11.e.23)
#)
( SloPe = t.@tt 01
tt"lo, ,G-t P,:0.154,"(1 - Cu)at* (1r.e.24)
( at = -o?
(pure sheat

( :t*) Nominal Shear StrenEth,tncluding Both Buckling and


Post-Buckling Strengths
(
I Since thlr-web plate girders exhibit some strength in shear b.:foie diagonal
( Fr16 o

4,,-
buckling occurs(trz"from Sec.11.8)and additionalstrengthil lhe post-buck-
( ling range (V,, from Eq. 11.9.16),their actual strength is ti:e sunr of both
componeots.SubstitutingEqs.11.9.2and 11.9.16into 11.9.1srves
(
( (ir) (h) vn: ht*ft,c.._=-f-l (1i.e.2s)
( L T N I+ ( o / h ) ' l
Figure11.9.8 of distortion failure criterion.
?.rgy
t /
rr

t1.g / NCI.{INALSHEARSTRENGTH- ACTION


INCLUDINGTENSiC|.I-FIELD 69l
i 1 ,/ PI-AT; G:RDERS

Fr/'/3 gives The force P, in the intermediatestiffenerswhen tension-fieldaction is


Substituting Eq. 11.9.19for o, and using tr: utilized is given bl'8q. 11.9.24.The stiffenerarea 1,, requiredis
(
Ic (11.e.26) P ' 0. 15^q, . *(-1 C, , ) at n (
Vn: Fr*ht"lt * R e q u i r e ^d" , : : - (11.e.28) (
f r.,,
L' 4o,
A summary of studiesof tension- in the
is presented When the panel has more strength QV, than is needed to carry the factored I

S.SRCGuide [6.8, P' 194]. shear V,, the stiffener aree A,, may be reducedby multiplying by (V"/QV,).
Also, the derivationassumeCthe stiffenerwas aligned with the centerof the
web: rvhenstiffenersare used only on one side or if angle stiffenersare used
(
Load and Reslstance Factor Deslgn
there is an eccentric effect and the stiffener area must be increased.In
When tension-field action is d,evelcpedby using appropriately spacedand addition, the area (18r- x t*) of the web tributary to the stiffener may be
by
sized transversestiffeners,the norninalstrengthin shearmay be expressed subtractedfrom the required 1,,. Thus, LRFD-Appendix G4 gives the re-
Eq. 1I.9.26. Factoring 16 from the denominator, and then approximating
quirementas
F,/,t5 as 0.6{, givcs
r-c, RequiredA,, : c.) t'i) (11.e.2e) (
{
+,
Vr: 0.6F.r*A*lC
1.15f1+ G/h)'
,nsz, ft(o,rrA*(r-h \
\ ) '.--*'here
D : factor to accountfor eccentricloading on stiffeners
nlrich is LRFD-Formula (A-G3-2) from Appendix G3. curves for Eq. I1-9-27 : 1 for stiffenersin pairs o^. each side of web
ere presentcdin Fig. 1i.9.9for {. : 50 ksi steel. : 1.8 for singleanglestiffeners
I

: 2.4 for sing.leplate stiffeners


Fr,,: specified;"ieldstressfor stiffenermaterial
Note that Eq. 11.9.29uses/l insteadof.a, a reasenableapproximationand
(.'
a simplificationrhat makesthe stiffenerarea 1,, requiredproportionalto the
za ua, | = zat
u'eb area I *.. (
Sometimes are alternatedon eachsideof the web to gain better
sriffeners
r,lax - economyor they'are placedall on one side to improveesthetics.Wheneverthe I

|
lor stiffenersare nor placed in pairs a greater cross-sectionalarea must be (
provided to account for eccentric loading. Referring to Fig. 11.9.10a,the
i =t symmetricalpair of stiffenersreachesits yield condition ivith the force P,,
(
L

Pr : ?v't Fr r , : A*Fyr , ( f or concent r ic


load) ( 11. 9. 30i (
l.g I(
On rhe orherhand.an eccentricallyloadedstiffenerbecomesplasticwith a
stressdistriburionas shoun in Fig. 11.9.10b.For this case.force equilibri'.:n; (
-
a
: l - l
i26O\2 requires
h \n/t! l\'
P, : ( l! , - x) t 4", - xt Fr r , ( a)
(
and mon'lcntequilibriumrequires
i=5otsi ")
. { rr ij ',\, [ , " - : ) : 4 *' r,' (\ r - x ) , ( " ' - ,ol
zl \ 2 I (
5r ea 100 12c 140 i60 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320
Solvtngthe quadraticgivesx : 0.293rt'.Substitutionfor x in Eq. (a) gives
Web slendemess,h/t
p, : [(w - 0.293w)t - 0.293wt] Fy,t (
Figure 11.9.9 Nominal shear strengl& V^, including tcnsion-field action, divided by
o.Ib "t." A*. lor plate girders having 4, : 50 ksi (345 MPa), according to LRFD- : 0.414u'i
Fy,t: 0.4l4Alf.y,, (for eccentricload) (11.9.31)
1
Appendlr C3.
(
i
(.
(
-.t':i+qi
( 692 fi /PLATEG|RDERS
--F i-'l
- |NCLUD|NG
11.g
/NOMINALSHEAR
STRENGTH TEIjS|ON-FIELD
ACTION 693
#t
':*l
(
-i*,".::l-B
'.
I

( n "',r(- Crosssectiong ,:,I

Stiffer*rs ..:. l
( a_11-z
-J{L4J -r-_T -_- j --\-
( I w-u-w_-l
l[ - -;
,
( Ar, = 2wt lF,+or=,,, - t
0

(
t- L
0.s

(
(
.,,aih#-rr;' I
tul-
I
I
0.3

0.4
( l ' " - 'I ' I
lil--+__-_{ I

r oi r 0.5
( I a ) A x i a l l y l o a d e ds t i ff e n e r
0.6
(b) Eccentricallyloaded
Stiflener
t 4.7
( 1
I
-l

Figure 11.9.10 Intermediate stiffenersat nominal shearstrengthtzn,inclurtingtension- 0.8


121
( field action 0.9
I
(
(
I
101-
If single plare sriffenersare usedon on. side only, equatingEqs. 11.9.30
( and 1i.9.31 sho*'s n
/260\?
\hi )
( =
A',, (1i.e.32)
#:2.4A,,
(
( To correct for eccenlric loading of stiffeners,the factor D is used in Eq.
17-9.29; 2.4 for single plate stiffeners.For a single angle rvhosecenter of
( gravity is closer to the web, the muldplier D reducesto 1.g. Eq. 11.9.3, 243
(
( Atlowable Stress Deslgn
Eq.t 1. e.1=
4, r u
( The allorvable shear stressrvhen tension-fieldaction is used is based.onthe
strength V^ glven by Eq. 17.9.26.When the strengthis divided by the factor of
(
safety 1.67 and divided by the web area A*: itn, the allowableshearstress
( 4, is
50 100 150 200 250 30c
( n. l-
'': ffilc"+ r-cu I Webslenderness
ratio.hit
(11.e.33)
( 1.15/1 Figure 11.9.1t 'Allorrable shear stress
+ (a/fiz l {,, iacluding tension-field action. f o r p l a t c
girders having 4. : 50 ksi (345 MPa), according to ASp-C:.
(
which is ASD-Fo_rmula(G3-1). Equation 11.9.33is shown graphicallyin Fig.
( 11.9.11for {. : 50 ksi steel.
( The maximum force in a stiffener when tension-field action occursis given
by Eq- 11-9-22-This force is reacbedonly when the nominal srrength of the
( girder is reached and the stiffener yields. Thus, the area required for the
stiffener is obtained by dividing the force p" by the yield ,trrr,
( 1,,, of
(
' (
t 11 ,z P1-otu G:ffDERS e
7 69.1 1 1 . 1 0/ S T R E N G T H
tN COMBTNED
BENDTNG
AND SHEAR 695

I ( t

i rhe stiffener,the sameas is done in LRFD. Thus, the stiffenerarearequiredis


r"1 ( ,

( t - C , )a t* | . ( l

A , ,: 3 : !'
\,,-8, r
:/h-] t, r',. s . 3 4 )
l'-61
( l

: yield stressof the web material


a'
ri'here Fo.*. ( )
Fy,,: yield stressof the stiffenermaterial
(
F4uar.ion11.9.34may be rewritten" letting Frn/Frr,: f, *ultiplying and Normal stress Shearsrress Normal stress Shearstress
dividing by A, and introducing the ecceotric stiffener multiplier D rvhen ( r ) S i m p l ep r o c e d u r e
(
(bl More accurateprocedure
stiffeners are not placed in pairs, gtlug ( t
Figure11.10.1 Shearandmomentstrengths
undercombinedbendingand shear.
1 - c . . la (a/h\2 I ( t
R e q u i r eAd, , : - , - lDYht*, (11.9.35)
I; # + (o/h)'
Lu i ; 1 ) Eliminating r' from Eqs. i1.10.1and 11.10.2gives \
(G+2).
v,'hichis ASD-Formula I V,\ (
\\ ) b : |\ #r - l n (rr.ro.:) (
l
. . | ,

1 1 . 1 0 S T R E N G T HI N C O M B I N E DB E N D I N GA N D S H E A R The nominal momentstrengthn{i in the presenceof shearfrom Fig. 11.10.1a (


is ( t
In thc vast nrajorit;"of casesthe oonrinal strength lv{, in bending is not th\th\
influenced by shear. nor is the nominal shear strength Vn influenced bv
"bend-buckling"may occur,
M,:A,Fyh - ,,,*(+)(+) ,,rro4)
+ Flt*(;)t? ( - i

moment. Particularly,in very slender*'ebs where (


the bending stressis redistributedas in
discussed Sec.11.6,so that the flanges w hi chupon subs t it ut ion
of Eq. 11. 10. int
3 o Eq. 11. 10. 4and let t ing A, , : ht n (
carr)' an increasedshare.The shea-istrength of the web. however,is not gives
reCucedas a resultof " bend-bucklins"becausemost of the shearstrengthis (

ftf'-(+)'ll
from tension-fieldaction vrith only a small contributionfrom the portion of I
"benci-bucriing"ma)'
the r',eb arJjeccntto ihe flange.In stockierwebs no M': F . . A , h l 1+
, . t l
( r r . r:o; ; ( ,
occur, but high u'eb shearin combraa::oirv,'ithbendingmay causeyieldingoi \
( l
rhe *'cb adjacent to the flange; ag{! resuiting rn a rransferof part of the
The nominal strength M" equals M, rvhen the extreme fiber reaches the vieitl
r'.'eb'sshrre of the bending morir3r! to tne flange.The strength of girders ( - t
stress 4,, *d with the web fully participating, is, according to Eq. (g,.
subjcctto combinedbendingand sh:- is lhe subjectof the third major paper
';.. B gs ier E xampl e11.6.1, f'
[ 11. 19] .
Sincc ii:stability is precluded,n plas:ic analysismay bc used. \\'hcn ( i

subjectedto high bendingmoment,tbe web yreldsadjacentto thc flangeand rs ] r n :t r r r =


Fldr(t.:?) (11.16
0)
( )
therefore unable to carry shear.In the mid-depth region of the web the shear
causesyielding: thus this part of the *-eb is unableto carry bendingmoment. As the percentageof the shearstrength li that is utilized increases,t!-: (
Iteferringto Fig. 11.10.1, the noclinalshearstrengthV,i rn the presenceof norninalmoment strengthM/ decreases.
rs In the absenceof instabitity. but in (
bcndingmonlentma1'be erpresseC the presenceof high shear,the nominal bending moment strength may he
expressedas ( i
- '
.v.',jt w ( 1 1 . i 0 .)1
(
\\'i-cn no bcnding moment is present, that is )b : /r, the nominal shear
streiiglh tr" s'ould be
(n.ro.r) ( '
Vn : rrt *h (11.10.2) ( i
w herep: A * /A t.
(-\
( ,
( t
(

\
il /PLATE GTRDERS 1 1 . 1 O/ S T R E N G T Hl N C O M B T N E D
B E N D I N GA N D S H E A R ov/
(
(
TABLE11.10.1 VALUES Ar Mi/M"tN ACCORDANCE The reductionequationthen becomes
( y,/fTH
EO.11.8.11 FORVn'
/Vn > 0.6
M; ,i 5
Y : o o s) r o
( For For - (11.10.i0)
Aw vn' 'n
,\: S
( P : ; * 0.8 = 1.0
vn V
(
0 1.0 1.0
M: Is r,^,\ i
J
\
\

(
0.5 0.964 0.923
-
Mn
+ _ t _ | -<
8\ l/,,/
II r.o + ;d( 0 . 6 ) : 1 . 3 7I 5 1 (tl.i0.11)
( 1.0 0.935 0.856
( 1.5 0.908 0.800
n'here II,: : nominal flexural strength in the presenceof shear
2.0 0.885 0.750
Vn': nomtnal shearstrength in the presenceof flexure
( Mn: maximum nominal flexural slrength
( Vn: maxlrnum nominal shearstrength

(
Load and Reslstance Factor Design
( 0.75 Accordingto the provisionsof LRFD-Appendix G5. u'henplate girdershear
B
( U.D
strength V, dependson inclusionof rcnsion-fieldactiott the rr'ebmust .sarisfl'the
( t4; i nteracti oncri ter ion,givenby Eqs. 11. 10. 8.i1. 10. 9.and 11. i0. 11.f or shear
M: combinedwith tensionfrom flexure.
04
( Recognizingthat in the design of a girder v,' and Ml are the requirecl
strengthsin combination,these primed terrx should be replaceclin Eqs.
( n a

11.10.8, 11.10.9,and 11.10.11 by vr/q aad tvIJo. respecrivcly. The resisrance


( factor f for this shear-tension relationshipis 0.90. the valueused for flexure.
0 3.2 0.4 0'6 0a 1'0
Figure 11.10.2 Moment-sbear strengtb Thus,the interactionrelationshipfor LRFD is:
( , u' interaction relationship ,_,
r^
l. For V,/+V^ < 0.60,the basicnoninteractionrequirementapplies,
( ,
lrt" < 8]'ln ( r i . 1 01 2 )
(, When Ml : Mn, V:/V,:0.577, or approximately0.6. When more than
( , 60 percenr of the maximum shear strength I/, is used, the availablenominal -: 2. For M,/qll, < 0.75,the basic noninteractionrequirementapplies.
strength n4: becomes less than Mn. Table 11.10.1gives some values for
(, V us g l ' n (11.10.i3)
M:/M, for various valuesof p in the practical range,with graphical illustra-
':
( tion in Fig. 11.10.2. 3. when Eqs. 11.10.72and 11.10.13are not applicable,rhar is. eitherthc
The relationship in Fig- 11.10.2may be expressed: factored shear Z, exceeds0.6EV^or the factored moment M, cxceeds
(, For Vj/V, < 0.60, 0.75+Mn,then F4. 11.10.11 applies.Replacingrhe primedrermsin Eq.
( , M!: Itto (1i.10.s) 11.'10.11with QM" and EV, gives
V. . | =
For Iv{j/M^ < 0.75, '4 M,
\.'
v n ': v n (11.10.9) o 6 2i s \ i r r z s (i 1.10.14)
ft.
i_

-a?
( , _t3_

When Eqs. 11.10.8or 11.10.9are not applicable,the interactionrelationship


( , must be used. lf one uses a conservativevalue of p - A*/At = 2.0 and :a which is LRFD-Formula (A-Gs-i). The resisrancefacror0 : 0.90.
(, considersthe strength reduction from points A to B of Fig. 11.i0.2 as a Conditions 1 and 2 may be combined into a criterion to determine
straight line, the slope of AB would be -&
r-_'{. rvhetheror not Eq. 11.i0.14needsto be invesrigated. Assumingthe inequali-
(; -ro'25 ties relatingto 0.6fv, and 0.75q.h,1,
.:, 3 : for F4s. 1i.10.12and i1.10.13are not
(; Slcpe of,AB = rEg
:i&. satisfiedgivesa pair of equationsbelou'.each folloivcd by the associated
basic
u.40
, ( #7i*
.{!lg
'1W
'rA
,'F
i i .i 1 / TNTERMEDTATE
TMNSVERSE STTFFENERS ovY (
698 11 / PLATE GIRDaF'S
f

,}i
( ,
a
be satisfied.
u'hichmustahvays
E

requiremcnt ASO Formuta(G$,1) (


*
i

1.0 fb
_ (0.825 -O.375f,/F,lFl
vu> +4.6v, (tt.to.tsa) u.ou^/ (
0.6AF,
.
M" < +]v{^ (11.10.1sb) 0.75 = 1 . 3 7 5- o . a z s 4
(
L{u> +0.75lvI" (11.10.16a) 0$0 F" (
vu < +vn (i1.10.16b)
( ,
Dividing the first by the secondfor eachof the pairs of Eqs.11J0.15and (
I 1 . 1 0 . 1 6g i v e s
,u
0.6 (
f,
,- 0 . 6 v n (11.10.17)
!tl, lr{^ F, (
Figure11.r0.3 ASD relationshipfor combinedshearand tension. (.,
,,
,0.islvt, ( 1 1. 1 0 . 1 8 )
Vu Vn
\.
gives which is ASD-G5, Formula (G5-1). Note that f, and
and puttingit with Eq- 11.10'17,
ln'erting Eq. 11.10.18, '. flexural and shear stresses .f, are rhe maximum (
in the web. The adjacent relatively stiff flange
0.6v, vu vn '-?revents stability from influencing the strength of the rveb (
- (11.i0.1e) under combined
It[^ M"- 0-'l5M^ stress.When nondimensionalized, Eq. 1lJA.22 may be usedin the form shou-n (
in Fig. 11.10.3(note comparisonrvith Fig. 11.10.2).
rrhich is in l-RFD-AppendixG5. \lhen the V:/il|,, ratio iswithin the rangc (
o f E c 1I.1 . 1 0 . 1 9E, q . 1 1 . 1 0 . 1m4 u s tb e s a t i s f i e d .
(
1 1 . 1 1 I N T E R M E D I A T ET R A N S V E R S ES T I F F E N E R S
Allowable Stress Design (
-fhe Plate girderswill usuallybe designedto haveintermediatestiffenersas shoq.n
samestrengthinteractionequation,Eq. 11.10.11, usedfor combinedshear in Fig. 11.1.2and the phoro on p.652. The two stability parametersfor rhe (
:rnd tension in LRFD has beeu used for many years in Allorvable Stress web are h/t, and a/h as discussed in Secs.11.8zrnd11-9.Bucklingresulting (
Dcsign. from shear can be avoided rvhen these stability parametersare kept lo',v
It lt; cqualsa serviceload moment !v{ dmes a factor for safet,'-FS. the enough;alternativell..the shearstresscan be kept below the critical buckiing (
nominal strength,l/n equals Fr-Sr,V: equatsthe serviceload shear/ timesFS. stressr.,. since rolled beamshave low h/t* nuos, buckling resulting fronr (
and the nominal shearstrengihr,, equalsfoA*, then Eq. 11.10.11becomes shearrvill not occur.When the spacinga of stiffeinersmakesi7t*.low enough.
and their size is adequateto allow them to act as compressionverticalsin a (
<1375 (11.10.20) trussas discussed in Sec.11.9,post-bucklingsrrengrh(tension-fieldaction) is (
i3+0625(H) availableand mav be utilized in desien.
(
Replacingrhe termsin Eq. 11.10.20 sith the serviceload bendingstressf o fot
Y{)5,, the maximum allowablestressin flexure for a plate girder 0.60{, for Requirements to Omit lntermediate Stiffeners _ LRFD (
F,iFS, the serviceload shearstres /o fot V/A*. and the allowableshear
Stiffenersneecinot be used when the flexural strengthof the section can i-.,c (
becomes
:tr€SS1',,for r",/FS, Eq. 11.10.20
achievedrvithout diagonalbuckling resultingfrom shear.Stiffenerswould noi (
fo &j < 1.375 / r r r n ^ r \ be required, according to LRFD-Appendix G3, and shown in Fig. 11.g.3,
+ 0.625f ( t i. Lu.l,l ,
when (
0.604 \4 /
a

; h k (
Solvingfor /,, gives -s187
I ln ,* Irr.a.ro] (
- t;)r,< It
f o < (ortr 0 375 0.604, (1r.10.22)
(
I when stiffencrsare not used,the buckringcoefficient/<,given by Eq. ll.g.g, is
(
I,
F (
(
(

\ 11.11/ TNTERMEDTATE STIFFENERS


TRANSVERSE 701
700 t1 /PtAiE GIFO€RS
(
( In.summary, intermediatestiffeners are not required when both of the
to he taken as 5. This value would be approachedrvhen a/h becomeslarge.
following requirementsare satisfied
:
( When ft : 5, Eq. 11.8.16becomes
h
( h 418 1. - <260 {i1.r1.4)
- . '- - (11.11.1) l a
t l E
t w
( V''''
2. v, s C,,(o.6Fy*)
A* (11.11.s)
( which is the limit given by LRFD-AppendixG4. Whenthe limit of Eq. 11-i1-1
Equat ion1i. 11. 4*'as r econ-
rvhereC , i s gi venby Eqs.li. li. 2 and 11. 11. 3.
is not exceeded,the naximum nominal shearstrengthI/" is achievable,
( rnendedby Basler[i1.i6] as a practicallimit. He reccmmendedthat fabrica-
V n : 0 .6 F rA ,, Irr.a.tz] tion. handling,and erectionare facilitatedrvhenthe smallerpanel dimension.
( a or h, doesnot exceed260t*. When stiffenersare not used. ft is lessthan a.
g hich is LRFD Fornula (A-G3-1).
t When less than naximum shearstrengthis required.intermediatestiffen-
( crs are not required when Requirements to Omit Intermediate Stitfeners - ASD

( Y, s C,(o.6Ft)A* Irr.s.rs] Intermediatestiffene$ are not required under ASD-F4 *'hen both of the
following requirementsare satisfied:
( urrless h/t excecds 260. Intermediatestiffeners are required rvhen h/t*
cxceeds260. h
1. -<260 (11.i1.6)
( The expressionsior C, to be usedfor unstiffenedgirdersare Eqs. 11-8.12
for inelastic buckiing and 1i.8.10 for elasticbuckling*'ith k = 5, as fcllows:
( F.C..
2. f,=;'gso.4or, (1i.11.7)
4i8 h 523
( l. When -- -< - 1 p' (i.e.,inelasticbuckling)
t* wheref,: V/A*. The ratio Cu: rn/ry in Eq. 11.11.7is givenb,vEqs.11-8-23
( lF , * l F r*
and 11.8.24.When a/h becomeslarge, k approaches5.34. simplifying C. to
418
( ( 1 1 . 1.12 ) - become
C,,:
h 439 for C, > 0.8
C 3 w
,til, c,.: h _ (inelasticbuckling)
( 1 i . i 1. t t )
(
h 5V3 +-.'lF*
(
2. When - > (i.e.,elasticbuckling) . 240,000 for C,, < 0.8
( t* - ,F
\' )'* a
-t' = - (1i.11.e)
(h7t*)z Fr*. (elasticbuckling)
( 220,000
rv, -
a _ _
(11.11.3)-
(hyt*.)z Fr,* Placement Criteria Including Tension-FieldAction - LRFD
(
When the factored shear Z" exceedsglz,, *'ith I : 0.90 and Vn given by Eq.
( 11.11.5with /< : 5, stiffenersare required.When h/t,, exceeds260, stiffencrs
'For SI uniu, rrith {.*. ia MPa.
( are always required. The use of intermediatestiffeners reducesthe a/h ratio
l10O ,r faoO
l.When-;:3-3 -.
and increasesF;. Equation 11.11.5logically applies for situations rvirlr and
( ti4*
'ry
,tr- v'ithout intermediate stiffenerswhen the objective is to prevent buckling
( il00 resulting from shear.
C,'=T- (ll.ll.2)
Under LRFD-Appendix G3 both buckling strength and post-buckling
( strength are recognized.The post-buckling behavior. knorvn as tension-field
I'1"* action, is.similar to frussaction as shown in Figs. 11.9.2and 11.9.3.and the
(
,t 1400 total nominal strengthI/, is given by Eq. 17.9.27,
(' 2.When-).:'
,.
i i,. I l - q
( 5?8,000 vn= o.6Fr*a*lC,
+ Ii r .l.zz1
c,.
"
= -_---;- (il.11.3) i . 1 5 i r 1+ ( a / h ) 1
( (h/t*)'F,".

t 1
\
7A2 11/ PLATEGIRDERS 1 1. i 1/ TNTERMEDTATE
TRANSVERSESTTFFENERS 703
( t

which is LRFD-Formula (A-G3-2). Since C, is a function of h/t*, Vn is a v: AllowableSrressDesign (ASD-F4) (


function of both h/t- and a/h, maktng evaluation difficult without a design
(
aid. The desig;rshear EV^ is tabulatedin LRFD "IIUMEzuCAL VALUES" ,,: # <o.4oq,
TABLE 11 for 4 : 36 and 50 ksi. Irr.rr.z] ( ,
While theoretically the only upper limits on h/t* are those of LRFD- where Q,,is givenby Eqs.11.11.8and 11.11.9.
Appendix Gl to prevent verticalbuckling of the flange,practical considera- (
tions relating to fabrication,handling, and erection [11.16]give rise to the (':
traditionalASD restriction Stiffness Requlrement
( ,
o /260\2 Intermediate stiffeneis must be sufficiently rigid to keep the web at the
; = [ v , - J= ' ' o (11.11.10) stiffener from deflecting out-of-plane when buckting of thi web occurs.The
stiffener must have a rigidity E{ that is related io the rveb plate rigidity
a
(
LRFD-Appendi-r G3 does not allow use of tension-field action when Eq. Et2a/112(1- pt)1.
11.i1.10is exceeded;it also rcquiresusingk : 5 when the abovea/h limitis ( t
l. Load and Resistance
Factor Desigtt(LRFD-Appendix G4)
cxcccded. The ProposedCiteia for Load and ResistanceFoctor Design of
(
SteelBuildingStntctures111.171, rhe sourcefor the AISC LRFD plate girder I r, > jat! ( 11. 1 1. 1 1 )
provisions,indicatesEq. 11.11.10as a limit. The LRFD "NUMERICAL (
VALUES" TABLE 11.also use Eq. 11.11.10as a lirnit. The authors recom- .\\ where {, : moment of inertia of the cross-sectional:rrea of a trans!,erse
stiffener taken about the center of the web thicknesswhen (
mend not exceedingthe a/h limit of Eq. 11,11.10even if the Specification
may permit it. rhe sriffenerconsistsof a pair of plates, and about the face of (
the stiffenerin contactwith the web when singleplate stiffeners
are used ( '
Placement Criterla Includlng Tenslon-FleldActlon - ASD 2.5
"/ : - - - = -2>0.5
(11.11.12) ( '
As discussedin Sec.11.9,the basisfor strength to include tension-field acrion ( a/h)"
(
is the same for ASD and LRFD. For Allowable StressDesign Eq. 11.9.33is AllowableSrressDesign(ASD-G4)
used for intermediate stiffener placementwhen tension-fieldaction is in- (
cluded,
.,= (*)' ( 1 1. 1 1. 1 3 ) (
I-Cu
Fo:
*(". r----.; . e3 3 l
r11 (
1 . 1 s / 1+ ( a / h ) ' Various theoreticalrelationshipshave been developedfor the ratio y0 of
) (
the stiffener rigidity ro one panel of web plate rigidity, which may- bc
which is ASD-Formula (G3-1). In addition, Eq. 11.11.10is the a/h limit of expressed (
ASD- F 5.
EI,, El,,[tz(t - p2)]
ru (11.11.14) (-
En d P anels
Da Et!a
(
where {, : optimum stiffenermomentof inertia
Figure 11.9.5shows that at ihc junction of intermediatestiffenerand flange, n : hl/tl2(1 - p2)l : flexuralrigidity per unit lengthof rvebpta:e. (
equilibrium requi:es an axial tension to develop in the flange of the adjacent
panel. When no such flange is available,as in an end panel, the tension-field Equation11.11.11usedin LRFD is essentiallyrhe follouing proposed (
i.,.
clnnot adequatell'develop.Both LRFD and ASD, therefore,consider that Bleich[6.9,p. 41?] (
only buckling s''-;ength (no tension-fieldaction) is availablein that end panel. { t \
'i'hus.
for end p::'rels(that is, panelshaving no adjacentpanel): to:o[ ( 1 1 . 1. 11s) (
@-s1
l. Load and Resistance
FactorDesign(LRFD-Appendix G3) (
Accordingto Eq. 11.11.14
rith p : 0.3.
(
Ir, : C"(0.6Fy*)A* [rr.rr.s]
where C, is giren by Eqs.1f.f1.2 and 11.11.3.
Requiredf,:ffi:# (11.11.16i (
I
It
ta
It
(
t:
'. ( ,
?--

( ,
(
. I
STIFFENERS 705
TMNSVERSE
1r.1r / INTTERTJEDTATE
..I4 11 /PLATE GIRDERS

where Cu: valuesfrom Eqs.11.11.2and 11-11.3for LRFD


lcsd.sution of Eq- 11.11.15into Eq' 11'11'16gives : valuesfrom Eqs.11.11.8a:rd 11.i1.9 for ASD
I z . s o - 1- '^s^3\ JIc t i D : factor to accountfor eccentricloading on stiffeners
t',=[@ (11.11.17) : 1.0 for stiffenersin paks oo each sideof web
: 1.8 for singleangle stiffeners
: 2.4 for singleplate stiffeners
Factor
u:ch ers simplified by vincent [i1.18] for use in_AASHTO Load Fyst: specifiedyield stressfor siiffener steel
::rign for Bridges to becomeEq. used
11.11.11 in AISC Load and Resistance
-':c:ryrDesign. Equation 11.9.35 for requird Ao, is based on the assumptionthat the
of Eq' 11'11'13multiply and panel is loaded to its str€ngth;rvhenfuil strength of a panel is not required the
In order to rationalizethe ASD requiremeut
area 1,, required may be reducedprop'ortionally-
* '-:rieEq. 11.1i.1 bY ft2 giving
h4
.,'
I :
L - 2(a/h)21 (11.i1.i8) Connectlon to Web
ft/ir(o/tjl''t
t When tension-fieldaction is utilized. tbe force { : requved A,, times {'',
rnust be transferredbetrveenthe web and the stiffener.Basler[i1-3] recom-
Eq. 11'11'13,let
In order to compare with the AsD requirementof mendedthe.forceP, be consideredtransferredover one-tir.irdthe girder height.
Substitutioninto Eq'
i: 200 and a/t*.be 170; aih:0.85.
consequently, On that basis, Bailer tl1.3] recom;irendedthat intei-mediatestiffeners be
; designedto provide a shear/oru (kips/in.) strengthf," grvenby
: . 1 1 . 1 8g i v e s
/ft\' ( 1 1. 1 i. i e )
t F ?
i trl
1 . =l 5 3 , | / - . . : 0 . 0 . 1 5 f t -i /: ( 1 1. 1 1. 2 0 )
Y L

proper order of The Specifications[1.5, i.15] require:


]ne Allowable Stress Design requirementseeinsin the
must include the stiffener spacing Factor Design.There is no LRFD shear llorv
."gnrtude; clearly any ratioial requiremegt l. Inad and Resistance
.. a-rdoes the LRFD requirement' requirement,though one could use Eq. 1l.ii.20, consideringfn, N fR,,,' for
fillet welds (seeChap. 5). In geaeralwhen intermittent fiilet welds are used.
tlie minimum segmentlength ind miaimum clear betwe€nsegmentswill iikely
$trength Requirement be sufficient(LRFD-J2.2).'
after buckiing of the 2. Allowable Stress Design(ASD-G4). Taking the shear strengttr florv
.:termediate stiffeners carry a compressionload only "tension-field action" in- requirementfnu of Eq. tt.ti.ZO, aad dividing by the factor 1-65 to put the
.reb has occurred. As the iost-buckling truss-like cquation into itre serviie load range so that the shearflow becomesthe service
in-th-1stiffener'
-.reasss, the stiffener force increases.The naximum force P, load valuef ,, gives
-sacbedsimultaneouslywith reachingthe nominal shearstrength Vn,is givcn
be the force P, divided by the
t Eq n.g.zZ. The stiffener area re{uirednill
'.icid itress
$", of the stiffener
steel, as follows: t l
-:1
::-
t
fur:'iH ( 1 1. 1 1. 2 1 ) *
i

l. Load and Resistance Factor Design(LRFD-Appendix G4)' rvhich is ASD-Formula (G+3).


= :
Fl i

18'3)Ii1.e.2eJ For both LRFD and ASD, note that ^E is the yield stressfor the rvebsteel
( Required4,,: DA*(l-c,) in ksi, ft is in inches, and fnu (for LRFD; or f,, (fot ASD) are kips/in' As
h
.€i: !

'(.tt 1--
( 'l"j'

'.::
( 2. Allowable StressDesign (ASD-G4)' ;. 'For SI units, with
{ in'lt{Pa, i io mm, ed !,, s klr/m'

( | - C"{a (" /h )' tTF..r'


['.l.lsJ
:.lr

Re4uired 4,, =
2 lt- s1,
f,,- hitl*,l ( l l . 1 1. 2 1 )
( 1,/1+ ( o/h)' ?,rn- :'::#

.:41
:4

i.( -id6

t'-,
/
,s
'/.e
1....;
t{;\
:ii
!I

1 1 1 2/ B E A . R : i I G
S ; . T F E N E RD E S I G N
(
706 11/ P|-ATEGIRDIRS
( ,
crippling, web buckling strengths,bearing stiffeners must be (
with the arearequirerne:lt, whenpanelsadjacentto the stiffenerare not loaded 'prorided. or sidesway
ro their full strengih.rhe shearflow used as the connectionrequirementmay Local web yielding and web crippling were discussedin Sec.7.8 (
be reducedin proporrion rhat the strengthrequiredis below that provided- since they are also of concernon rolled beams.Local *'eb yieiding (formerly
called web crippling) is providedfor in LRFD and ASD-Kl.3; web crippling ( ,
(formerly called web buckling) is in LRFD and ASD-K1.4. Sidesway*'eb (
Connectfon to Flanges buckling generallyis of concernonly on narrow flange plate girdersand is in
LRFD and ASD-Kl.5. Thesethreephenomenaall are related to the strengrh (
Interrncdiatcsriffenersare provided to assistthe web; to stiffen and create
of a thin web in the vicinity of concentratedloads.
nodel lines during buckling of the web and to accept compressionforces (
Beanng stiffeners,unlike intermediatestiffeners,should be close fitting at
directly frorn the rueb.At the compressionflange,Weldingof the
transr^rittecl
the bearing end, and when the concentratedload is compressionagainst the (
stiffener acrossthe flangeas shown in Fig. 11.11.1providesstability to the
flange the stiffener may either be connectedto, or bear again51,the flange
stiffencr and holds it perpendicularto the web; in addition, such welding (
transmitting the concentratedload. When the concentratedload is a tension
proridcs restraintagainsttorsionalbucklingof the compressionflange.
pull on the flange the stiffenermust be attachedto the flange being pulled. ( ,
Compression For plate girders the usual situation is compressionagein5l the flange. In
f lange general,compressionload transmittingbearingstiffenersshould extend"ap- (
proximately to the edgeof the flangeplates... " a@ordingto the 1978AISC (
Specification(ASD-I.10.5).Thereis no suchrequirementin current Specifica-
..tions but the authorsbelieveit to be good practice.
(
Intermitient'.';eld
s€grnenis Column Stability Criterion (
Bearing stiffeners transmittingcompressionloads are designedas columns (
6r- inaximum
Figure 11.11.1 Intcrmediate stiffencr under the provisionsof LRFD and ASD-KI.8. The column consisrsof the
I 'rr rrr'rr'r"w
connectionto flange. stiffenersplus a portion of the web tributaryto them,as deiined in LRFD and (
l i
ASD-KI.8, and shownin Fig. 11.12.1.
(
On thc tension flange. the effects of stressconcentrationincreasethe The effectivelength KL of the "column" is lessthan the depth ft of the
i.e.,weldingin no way helpsthe tension *'eb plate becauseof the restraintprovidedby the flanges.The effectivelengrh (
irrtigueor brittle fracrurepossibilities,
rienge.Sincethe t'ork of Baslert11.19]hasshou'nthat weldingof stiffenersto KL. accordingto LRFD and ASD-K1.8,is to be taken"equal to 0.751r". (
tlre tensionflangeis unnecessary for properfunctioningof stiffeners,LRFD-F3 The slenderness ratio is computed,
"short of the tensionflangeprovided
and ASD-G4 pennir stoppingstiffeners K L h \
bearingis not neededto transmita @ncentratedload or reaction."The weld - :0.75_ I ( 1 1 . 1 2 ). i (
"shall be terminatednot closer r r
bv n.hichthe stiffeneris attachedto the rveb
rhan 4 rimesthe web thicLqessnor more than 6 times the u'eb thicknessfrom (
tire ne:r toe of the rveb-tc-flengerveld." Eearingstiffene; (
For situations where the stiffener servesas the attachmentfor lateral crosssection

bracing.the *'elding ro rhe compressionflange should be designedto transmit (


Endof
1 percentof the compressiveforce in the flange.For important lateral bracing gi rder Vrleb (
,lesignin situationsinvoir-inglong unsupportedlengths,the strengthof lateral -7-n-r
Zz-rr&*=
hr;rcrngconnectionsshouldbe designcdusing the principlesof Sec.9.13. (
F lange
(
1 1 . 4 , 2B E A R I N G S T I F F E N E RD E S I G N o.r.{' (
L-,r,-'-] "approxirnate!y
to
e d g eo l f l a n g e. . . "
25+
(
Concer:tratedloads, such as at unframed end reactions,must be carried by (a) End stiffener (b) Interior strffener
stiffenersplacedin pairs.r*treneverconcentratedloads,suchas end reactions (
or crrlumnssupportedb1' plate girders,exceedthe local web yielding, web Frgure 11.12.1 Bearingstiffenereffectivecross-sections.
(
(
(
_(
u -
\ f
( ::_-.=:.
708 ll /P|-ATE GTRDERS 11 13ILONGfTU$NALWEBSTTFFENERS 709
(
( "slender"
rvhere ft : rveb plate depth .4,SD-85.\\rhen the thicknessexceedstbe limit of Eq. 11.12.6,the
( r: radius of gyration of the shadedportion shown in Fig. 11-12.1 compressionelementwill have reducedefficiency (i.e., I < 1 as discussedin
talcenabout the mid-thicknessof the web Sec.6.18) and must be treated in irith
accordance LRFD-Appendix 85.3a or
(
t:, ASD-AppendixB5.2.Becausea bearingstiffeneris an important elementof a
The effective area A, required is then computed using the column
t,',(
plate girder,&e authorsrecolnmendsatisfyingEq- 11.12-6so that Q :7-
strength P" in accordancewith LMD-E2, or the allo'wablestress ^Q for a
",( column in accordancewith ASD-82. t

'.( Bearing Crlterion


. Factor Design. The strengtb requirement is
I-oad and Resist:ance
( In order to bring bearing stiffener plates tight againstthe flanges,one corner
srPn)_Pu (11.12.2) of each stiffener plate must be cut off so as to clear the flange-to-rvebfillet
'.( weld. The remaining area of direct bearing is less than the grossarea of the
ivhere g. : resistance factor : 0.85 stiffenerplates.The strengthin bearingunder LRFD-J8.l or the sentce load
, ( P, : F,,4, stressin bearing under ASD-J8.l must be satisfactory.
( P, : factoredconcentratedcompressionload
Fo: columnbucklingstressaccordingto LRFD-E2 Factor Design. The bearing requirementof LRFD-
I-oad and Resistance
,(
A": column area;i.e.,the shadedareaof Fig. 11.12.1rvhichincludes J8.1i s
,i1 the stiffenerplatesplus the tributary rveb area. QRn>- Pu ( 1 i . 1 2 . )7
, ( Thus, the requiredeffectivearea ,4" is
'( rvhere S : 0.75
Required
Au: L (11.r2.3) Rn = nominal bearingstrength:2.0FrApt ( 1 1 . 1 2). 8
0.f* P,,: factored concenrated load
,(
A ph : contact area of stiffener bearing againstthe flange
( is
AllowableSlressDesign. Theallowablestressreqrrirement
:
( fosFo (11.12.4) AllowableStressDesign. The bearing requirementof ASD-J8.l ls
:
,. ' ( . ' s 0 -90Fy (11.12.e)
. t., w her e f " : P / A ,
'i( P : ,.*.le concentratedload ".
,:( A,: column area;i.e.,the shadedareaof Fig. 11.12.1which includes where fr: P/,a
the stiffenerplatesplus the tributar-vweb area P : servi!3 *n.tn,rated load
( Fo: allorvablecolumn stressaccordingto ASD-E2 A pt: contact areaof stiffener bearing against the flange
;:( Thus, the requiredeffectivearea A" is
'::\
{
;:i

, n -(
P 11.13 LON GITUDI NAL WEB STI FFENERS
RequiredAr: Tra (11.12.s)
'.(
Longitudinalstiffeners,as shown in Fig. 11.13.1,can increasethe bendingand
( shear strengths of a plate girder. In general, they are not as effective as
E
!-ocal BucklingCrlterlon ;l-F
rransversestiffeners; however. they are frequently desired on highrva-'-bridge
( girders for estheticreasons.Studies of longitudinal stiffener effectiveness.as
Sincethe width w of the stiffenerplatesis governedby the plategirderflange
( relatedto stiffener size and location, have been made by Cooper[1i.20. 11.211
width (seeFig. 11.12.i),the minimumthickness to preveotlocalbucklingis ..s
and others at Lehigb University. Thesestudiesand others are sunlmarizedin
( w -j3 '[6.8,
(11.12.6) the SSRC Guide pp. 211-2231 and by Bleich [6.9, pp. a18-423]. The
Mint:
( 954Fy ,i{F
ASCE-AASHTO Task Committee 111.221provides a full reviewof the theory
:s and designof longitudinally stiffened plate girders.
:if
( as governedby tr < tr, for a uniformly stressedunstiffenedcompression isf The principal use of longitudhat stiffeners is in highrvaybridge design.
#
( elementaccordingto LRFD-B5 or to satisfythe "noncompact"limit of ,s where transversestiffeners are used on both sidesof a steel girder exc€pt on
F-*,
'.'3"'3-
(
.',liL
710 1r / PLsTf GtRDEfrS (:
/ pRopoR-fror.ttt:c
11.14 rHE sECTtcN 711
( i

i n E q. 11.11.16
(,,
gives
'lo.3*h (
Required I-.: (11.13.2) (
10.92
The AISC Specifications ( r
[1.5,1.15]give no informationregardinglongiru-
dinal stiffeners. For highway bridges,AASHTO-10.48.6.3gives the loiloi.rng (
expressionfor Load Factor Design:
I ( b ) Cross
. B
(c).Buckled (
seciion
{r1 S:de view

Figure11.13.1 Effect of longitudinalstiffeneron plate girder web stability.


shape
Required /,, : ,'-nlz
+(!)'- 0.13] (rr .r:.t; ( ,
(
The moment of inertia 1,, is to be that of the stiffenerplat{s) combinedg,ith
( .
the exteriorsidc of the exteriorgirder for more pleasingappearance.Rarely a centrally locatedrvebstrip not more than lgl." in width.
are longitudinal stiffenersused on both sides of a u,eb as show'nin Fig. The location of the longitudinalstiffenershall be at m : hls, and the ( ,
11. 1 3 ..1 local buckling requirement(AASHTO-10.4g.6) is
The pnmary function of longitudinal stiffenersis to-control lateral web
(
t9
Cet-lections [11.22J. and hencethe bend-bucklingstrengthas discussed in Sec. Nfin I : ----: (11.13.4)
11.6. 82ll
' uF..,/'
. ksi
(
As discussed in Sec.11.6,the elasticbucklirrgstrengthof the rvebplatein
b e n d ing( F ig. 11. 6. 1ma
) y b e w ri tte n In a<jdition. the radius of gyration r of the stiffener combined g'ith a cenrrajlr
located web strip not more than 181*.in width shall be at leasr
n2Ek
F", (11.i3.i)
1 2 ( 1- p , ) ( h / t ) ' Minr> (ir.r;._;i
727flFrkA
If the plate is stiffenedby a longitudinal stiffener, as shou'n in Fig. 11.13.1,the
valuc of k rvill be significantly greater than for the unstiffened case. The Note the AASHTO coefficients
havebeenconvertedfrom their statedr-alues
stifft-nerused should be stiff enough so that when buckling occurs a nodal line to accommodateusing in ksi as usedthroughoutthis te.xtinsteadof psi as
w'ill bc formeci along rhe iine of the sriffener. 4.
in AASHTO.
Under bending alone, the value of the buckling coefficient k .has been
iound to be as high as 142.6 for the case where the flanges are assumed to
nroridc luii restraint to rotation at points I and B of Fig. 11.13.1c and 1 1 . 1 4 P R O P O R T I O N T NTGH E S E C T I O N ,
ti: l;,'5. For the case where the flanges provide no moment restraint at .,{
r:l'i -,' (simply supported) the stiffener iocated at m : h/5 is arsc the The cross-section of a girder must be selected
':llliltrln itx:tion. Such stiffenerplacement in the compression suchthat it adequatelyperforms
zone servesthe its functions and requiresminimum cost.The function requirementima1-he
''r:i.L,,,li :it.tintarningthe fuil effectiveness
of the web in resisting bending summarizedas:
.ic'SS.i',i.--ll i> reCrl' t.lle stiffener's principal function.
lcr *'cbs sublected to shear aion':, tile iongitudinal stiffener should be l. Strengthto carry bendingmoment(adequate sectionmoduiuss*;.
located at mid-height. For combined shear and bending the .stiffcnershoulclbe 2. Vertical stiffnessto satisfl'anv deflectionlimitations(adequut. *.r-
rr-rcstcdso that h/5 < m < h/2; because ment of inertia 1,).
of its principal function, ho*'o,er, it
.liouicipreferabl-vbe closer to h/5. 3. Lateral stiffnessto preventlateral-torsional bucklingof compressicr
For design there are t*'o requkements: (1) a moment of inerria to insure flenge(adequateleteralbrlcing or low Lu/rr).
;dcquatc stiffness to create a nodal line along the stiffener, and (2) an area 4. Strengthro carry shear(adequatervebaria).-
adequate to carDf arial compression force while acting integrally'*.ith the rveb. 5. Stiffness to improve buckling or post-bucklingstrength of the *.eb
The design requirement for stiffness can be expressed as a function of the (relatedto h/t and a/h ratios).
rigidity of the u'eb. using the same approach as discussed for transvcrse To satisfy these function requirementsat minimum cost, it will be as-
stiffeners. Substituting the web height /r for thc transverse stiffener spacing a sumed in rvhat follows that minimum cost is equivalentto minimum *.eight.
(
\r
11IPljTE GTRDERS 11 I3 / LONGITUDINALWEB STIFFENERS 709
(
( "slender "
rvhere i : rveb plate depth A S D -85.W hen the t hickn. r r . *. . . ds t he lim it of Eq. 11. i2. 6.t he
( r: radius of gyrationof the shadedportion shownin Fig. 11.12.1 el ei n ent '*illha'; er educedef f icicncy'( i. e. < | as discusscd in
conrpressi on Q,
( taken about the mid-thicknessof the web Sec.6.18) and must be treated in accordance rvith LRFD-Appendix or
Il-5.3a
ASD-Appendix85.2. Because a bearingstiffeneris an importantclementof a
( The effective area A, required is then computed using the cc'lumn
plate girder.the authorsrecolrunend satisfy'ingEq. 11.12.6so that Q: l.
strength P" in accordancewith LRFD-E2, or the allowable stress { for a
( column in accordancewith ASD-E2.
( Bearing Criterion
Factor Design. The strengthrequirementis
Iaad and Resistance
( In order to bring bearingstiffenerplatestight againstthe flanges.one corner
QrPn >- Pu (11.i2.2) of each stiffenerplare must be cut off so as to clear the fiange-to-rvebfillet
( rveld.The remainingarea of direct bearingis lessthan the grossarea of tlie
( g'here 0. : resistancefactor : 0.85 stiffenerplares.The strengthin bearingunder LRFD-J8.l or the serviceload
Pn: FnAe stre$sin bearlngunder ASD-J8.1rnustbe satisfactory.
( & : factoredconcentraledcompressionload
F",: column bucklingstressaccordingto LRFD-E2 Factor Design. The bearingrequirementof LRFD'
Load and Resistance
(
A": column area;i.e.,the shadedareaof Fig. 11.12.1rvhichincludes J8.i is
( the stiffenerplatesplus the tributary rvebarea. Q R N > _P ' (il.i2.7)
( Thus, the requiredeffectivearea A " is
( u'here 0 : 0.75
R e q u i r e dA , : L (11.12.3) R,, : nominal beanng strength : 2.0FrA ea 111.i2.8r
( erf o
P, : factored concentrated load
( Aph: contact area of stiffener bearing against the flange
AllowableStressDesign. The allowable stressrequirementis
( fosFo (11.12.4) Allotyable Slress Desigri. The bearing requirement clf ASD-J8.1 IS

( f, < o'90F, ( i 1. 1 2 . e )
where f": P/A, "'
( P : serviceconcentratedload "
( A,: column area;i.e.,the shadedarea of Fig. 11.12.1rvhichincludes w here fr: P /Aog
the stiffener platesplus the tributary web area P : servibeconcentratedload
( Fo: allorvablecolumn stressaccordilg to ASD-E2 A pt,: contact area of stiffenerbearingagainstthe flange
( Thus, the requiredeffectivearea A, is
( P 11.13 LONGITUDINAL WEB STIFFENERS
Required /, (i1.12.s)
( Fo
Longitudinal-stiffeners. as shoun in Fig. 1i.13.1,can increasethe bcndingand
( shear strengrhsof a plate girder. In general,they are not as effective as
Local Buckling Crlterion rransversestiffeners:horvever.they are frequentlydesiredon highrval'bridge
( girders for estheticreasons.Studiesof longitudinalstifiener effectiveness. as
Sincethe width w of the stiffener plates is governedby the plate girder flange
( relatedto stiffenersizeand location,havebeenmadeby Cooper[1i'20, 11-21]
width (seeFig. 11.12.i), the minimum thicknessto prevent local buckling is
and othersat Lehigh University. Thesestudiesand othersare sufiImarizedin
( r h e S S R C G u i d e ' [ 6 . 8 , p p . 2 7 7 - 2 2 3a1n d b y B l e i c h[ 6 - 9 , p p ' a l 8 - 4 2 3 ] .T h e
Min r (11.12.6)
( es/iFy ASCE-AASHTO Task Cornmittee1LT.22l providesa full reviewof the thecry
and designof longitudinall;-stiffenedplate girders.
( as governed by tr < l, for a uniformly stressed unstiffened compression The principal use of lcngitudinal stiffenersis in highrvavbridge design.
( element according to LRFD-B5 or to satisfy the "noncompact" limit of *'here transversestiffe:ers aie used ua both sidesof a steelgirder except on
, (
710 l1 / PLATEGTRDERS 1 1. 1 4/ P R O P O R T ' O N | NTGH ES E C T T O N
\
711
( r
- (
Longitudinal stiffener

>t
\ 'l-.: (
fott*h
Required
' r' (11.13.2) (
Nodal 10.92
point
o'' - i L ,
-ll-,
.r_-l.L-r
The AISC Specifications [1.5,1.15]giveno informationregardinglongitu-
dinal stiffeners. For highway bridges,AASHTO-10.48.6.3givesthe folloning
(

(
i

, B expressionfor Load Factor Design:


(b) Cross '(c)-Buckled (
(a) Side vie$, sectron shape
Required ,(;)' - o.rr]
1,,: t3*hl, ( 1 1 . 1 3). 3 (
Figure11.13.1Effectof longitudinaistiffeneron plategirderweb stability.
(
The moment of inertia {, is to be that of the stiffenerplat{s) combinedwith
a centrally located web strip not more than 181_in width. ( ,
the exterior side of the exterior girder for more pleasing appearance.Rarely
are longitudinal stiffeners used on borfi sides of a web as shown in Fig. The location of the longitudinalstiffeneritruu ue at m: h/s, and the (
11.13.1. local buckling requirement(AASHTO-10.48.6) is (
The primary function of longiturlinal stiffeners is to control lateral web
deflections[11.22],and hencethe bend-bucklingstrengthas discussedin Sec. \{in t : ---: (11.13..1) i

82/f F, ksi
t 1.6. (
As discussedin Sec.11.6,the elasticbuckling strengthof the rvebplate in
In addition, the radiusof gyrationr of the stiffenercombineds'ith a cenrrall', (
bending(Fig. 11.6.1)may be written
located web strip not more than 18r- in r+'idthshall be at leasr
12Ek (
F", (11.13.1) a
-------:-
r2(1 - P,)Q/t)' Minr) ' 7 1 ' 1/ ! F
,u, /y,
(11.13.5) (
ksi
).,
If the plateis stiffenedby a longitudinalstiffener,as shos'nin Fig. 11.13.1,the (
value of k will be significantly greater than for the unstiffened case. The Note the AASHTO coefficientshavebeenconvertedfrom their stated values
(
stiffenerusedshouldbe stiff enoughso that when buckling occursa nodal line to accommodateusing in ksi as usedthroughoutrhis tert insteadof psi as
4,
will be formed along the line of the stiffener. in AASHTO. (
Under bending alone, the value of the buckling coefficient k .has been
found to be as high as 142.6 for the case where the flanges are assumed to (
nrovide full restraint to rotation at points A and B of. Fig. 11.13.1cand 1 1 . 1 4 P R O P O R T I O N I N GT H E S E C T I O N , (
'n: h/5. For the casewhere the flangesprovide no.moment restraint at A
:rnd ts (simply supported)the stiffener located at m: h/5 is also the The cross-section of a girdermustbe selected
suchthat it ad.equately
performs
rptlrnulnlocation.Suchstiffenerplacemeutin the compressionzonesen'esthe its functions and requiresminimum cost.The function requirementimar. b,:
',:rrDoseoi nraintainingthe fuil effectiveness of tbe web in resistingbending summarizedas:
.:ress,uiuch is realiy t-hestiffener'spriocipal function-
l. strength to carry bendingmoment(adequatesectionmodulus s,).
3or rvebssubjectedto shearal.oc:, the longitudinal stiffener should be
2. Vertical stiffnessto satisfl' any deflectionlimitations (adequui" *.t
locatedat mid-height.For combinedshearand bendingthe stiffenershouldbe
ment of inertia 1,).
located so that h/5 < m < h/2; becauseof its principal function, however,it
3. Lateral stiffnessto preventlateral-torsional buckling of compressicr
shouldpreferablybe closerto h/5.
flange(adequarelateralbracingor low Lo/r).
For designthere are two requirements:(1) a rnoment of inertia to insure
4. Strength to carr)' shear(adequatervebarea).
adequatestiffnessto create a nodal line along the stiffener, and (2) an area
5. Stiffnessto improve buckling or post-bucklingstrengrh of the ,*.eb
adequateto carry axial compressiooforce while acting integrally with the web.
(related to h/t and a/h ratios).
The design requirement for stiffness caa be expressedas a function of the
rigldity of the web, using the same approach as discussedfor transverse To satisfy these function requirementsat minimum cost, it *ill be as-
stiffeners.Substitutingthe web height A for the transversestiffener spacinga sumed in what follows that minimum cost is equivalentro minimum weight.
(
(
THESgcrloN
11.14/PROPORTIONING 713
(
712 11I PIATEGIRDERS
(
which if. A,,: th,and rhe squared terin is neglected' beconres
(
FlangeArea Formula ,, -
A*'
(11.14.6)
( 6
F o r s i m p l i c i t y i n d e s i g n i t i s c o n r . err.ra-lb,
n i e n t t owhich
r e p l aallorvs
c e . d r the a l s y s t etom o f F i g .
e r emoment
rig.
( 11:14.1auirh a .uirii,ii. sysrem, the flange
**, *: r,Jrces "tr*ttaof the couple acting at
( be replaced by , ;;p1. as axial load situations' If
the Next, solvingEq. 11-1a'2for l1 gives
th.n u.
centroids. The forces'"* the forces of the M
i, upproJrutety 1a + d)/7, Ai ( 1 1 . 1 4i. 7
( distance berweenflange forces Ar:
couPle are l ( n+ 7 ) , "-
(
(11.14.1)
( c = r: (*$72 rvhich,usingEq. 11.14-5and f^'g: f^u(h
+ d)/\d' gives
plate aret A t I M t d- l\ - - i Ar -* ll [ 2 h \ t
( theseforcesact is equalto the flange
ihe effectiveareaon rvhich of the web in resisting A' , : l . - - 7 1 {11.14.8)
the effectiveness 6J\ft+dl
( plus addirional area A', torepfesent LJ^un\.hJ
i
moment.
( stresson the totai effectiveareais slightl-vthe value of A''
The average Letting the squaredterm equal unity overestimates
( M 1- \ while letting d/h:1 undeiestimates the value.For preiiminarydesignpur-
F o rc e I (11.14.2) : -ft;dw\*T,) poses thesesimplificationsare justified to
give a simple expressionfor the
( -fu'r=Ar*
iequired areaof one flangePlate,
( T h e a r e a r { i m u s t b e t a k e n s u c h t h a t t h e bsystems:
endingmomentcarriedbythe M A.
At: (11.14.e)
real and substitute
( *"U ir'ift. ,utJ for both the fr 6
i hl thz (11.14.3)
( : /-*\
,ly'o"rrr-r,.* g lt f is taken as the avefagestresson the flange' the
AJ U In the useof Eq. 11.14.
checkinga section'of course'the
( d/lt termrvillbe *ltf' u.tounted for. When
: hr'\ryj't ( ry) (it.t+.a1 and the ma'rinium strength for
( Msubstituterl.rr.r" correct momenl of inertia must be obtained
LRFD or the stressfor ASD computed'
( gives
EquatingEqs-11'14'3and11'14'4 a
( h [th2\1 zd \lr 2 \ 't' ( 2o (11.14.5) Optimum Girder DePth
\'
( A i :; i ? ) \ f f i l i m l - -7 \ ; . d J ' - ' The variation in girder cross-sectionalarea is to
be examinedas a function cf
give minimum area' Extenced
(.' rveb depth to a.i.r*ine the depth which will
rrearment of this subject has been grven uv l-tt.99. t11.u' e-t-tt]::' Lin' and
"ScttiUio!
, - , (b-:-d\ Fleischer
( 'lve -'nrr
1 24 I Scalzi [11.23]and Blodgett [11.24]. [11'25], Azad [11'26J'
cf
'( t
f^r,
l.---1
t A ,
r--1
--t i M [i1.27i, and Ander*n uio cirong iri.ia:
nuJ" ptglied extended treatment
web of lo'*'er
girder having a
-tr-
l l
n lh + d'tl2 optimum propor,io*ng, including the irybrid
rT
I l \ r
I
t\
|
I
|
\'.,.._
\--1
\-l
t \
y'ield strengththan the flanges'
l \ l
I V-----i
l \ l
I H
Theaveragegrossa'eaA,ofthegirderfortheendrespanma;-be
I E
l r

{
I t i
tt i l
l I E n'*a
| \:
ti expressed
r I
f|
t
ii
l
ll
,
r B
\
,
Arm= 7-
l
Il
I,
i '
i ' .\
Ar: zc/t + Crht
(11'14'1ot

I '-1r
I

I E \
(v.
\ Il f=, r
I
| - r
t-1 l l \ size at regions ef lsrver
r\ t t l where Cr : factor to account for reducing flange
I H
I H A , l i \
'
' i i
L--IL
t
I
I
H
t--------{
H
L-- J u w E
T=c than maximum moment
web -.hicknessat regions oi
1
(b) Ftange'areasllstem Cz : factor to ac@unt for reducing
(a) Actual sYstem reduced shear
I
'|
formula development'
i ) Figure 11.14.1 Flange-area
{ ,
,.!
t 1 7'PI-AT€ GTRDERS
1 1. 1 4/ p R O p O A T i O N i N G
T H ES E C T I O N 715 (
?" 714

( :
Eq. 11-14:9into Eq. 11'14'10gives
Substit,uting weigh.tis 3.4 lblsq in./linear ft (0.00784kg/mmz/linear metre). ( ,
l I{ ftl\ tw (
A -R : ? C t ;l - - i + C h t (11.14.1i) 6.8h2
--;-:
' lbift:3.4As: 8 . 9 1 1r 2 a (11.14.19)'
,,1'h 6 I
P w l t P w
(
To find thc minimum averagegrossare3, using inch units for the variables.Stiffenerswill generallyincreasethis value ( '
'l':o (11.14.12)
by 5 to 10 percent. M and f arc defined for LRFD and ASD following Eq. ( ,
11.14.17.
- ' t
(b) Case 2. Mininum web thickness; t : const. Differentiating Eq- (
(a) case.,l. h/t' Assume Fn: constant
No depth,.rrri.,iollo*ot large 1 1 . 1 4 . 1 1A, A s / A h : 0 , g t v e s ('
becomes
: h/t; t : h/8.. Equation11'14'11 -zc&f
iu ft2\ ltz - T i l - - T *c{
c2t:o (tt.ta.zo) (
Ar: rrr\* - - r'O (11.14.13) ( '
6p_)
6c;t4-
n:
, [ (rr.ra.zr) (''
aAr
-v-
zCJrIf 4cth
l,
2Crh
----.1-: (11.14.14) UTW7J (
p*
- , ! -

6P,' a -- 1
ah f'h' \. If cl: \-1 rt

(
0 : - 6CJrtF-- 2crh37+ 6C2h3f (11.14.1s) h - (1r.r4.22)
(
from which

n:
'i-# (11.14.16)
The
where M and f aredefined for LRFD and ASD following Eq. 11.14.17.
weight per foot can be obtainedusing l, from Eq. 11.14.11,
(
(
U7@,-c) [-ut ( ,
-- / -r - 1 -- 1 r r lbTft:3.4As:4.53ht.:
7.85 (11.14.23).
and if oneneglectsthesectionreductionin regionsof lower stress,C, | I ( ,
bec om e s
Eq . 11. 14. 16
using inch units for the variables.M and f ate defined.as before, for LRFD (
o : .yt { rwr (i1.14.17) and ASD follo*'ing Eq. 11.14.17.. Again, an estimate for the wei*ehtof
stiffenersshould be addedto the equationvalue.
(
(c) Case3. Heary shearwhich governsweb area; An: constant : w€b (
area,ht. Equation 11.14.11 becomes t
q'here lv{ : MJq: factoredsen'iceload moment divided by 0:0.90 for (
LRFD, or
serviceload moment (unfactored) for ASD A,=zc,(# *) . czA* (11.14.14) I
t -
J _ averagesuesson flange using 4, as extreme fiber value when (.
nominal momenr suength is achieved according to LRFD- (
AppendixG2 for LRFD, or
averagestresson flaage using 4 as e.{trcmefiber allowable 'For SI units, the massper rnetreis (
valueaccordinqto ASD-G2 f.cr ASD
(
M2
UsingEq.i1.14.13withC,-C2:landsLrbstitutingforM/ff'romEq. kg/m:1.72 (11.r4.1e) (
1 1 . 1 4 . 1g7i v e s Ve
4h7 ltt 1rz 2ht (
A,:8"-*. (11.i4.18) Mt
B_:i kg1'm- 0.0181 (n.14.23) (
7
(
from s'hich the girder wcight per foot can be estimatedusing the fact that steel using mm units for tbc variables
(
( )
(
(
(
,N..TA TH= SECTION 717
IPROPORTIONING
t 716 l1lPtiTE GIRD€RS

(
from maximumdepth' Jr' The total flangevolumein the length t is
( from which it is apparent $41 minimum .d, results
Tb.is caseusuaily does not govern- , " .- vol:At(L-x)*Apx
( value of c1 may vary
If the same kind of steel is used throughout, the
( from 0.? to 0.9 when used with ttt. o,^r,i-uri positive
moment:0'85ro 0'90 is ,u(r - x) ? ( L _{ ) +rl i -.t\ -'t*
_ A,.
except on contlnuous
(
tt" uru"f range. The value of C2 is not as likely
with
to vary
maximum positive moment' i u\Tl_i'
structures where it might be 1.03 when used
Becauseof the complexity
( or 0.95 when use.dwith maximum n"i.ti"t moment' :n iLz-xL+xz\ _1g (11.14.27)
it migbt be sveli to mke
of evaluating C, *J C, for continuous structures' hI\ L J 6
( them as unitY-
For minimum volume,
(
d ( Vol) L
( _f:0: 2 x_ L ; ,:
,
Flange Plaie Changes ln Slze
( of flange plates in the region of low
It is usually eronomical to ieduce the size rvhich means
to trilp the designerto determine
( moment. While no specific rules can be made M A -
simplerelationshipsare
( when it is desirableio changeflangeplate.tit:, :.t 3n Ar, zhf 6 1
possible.if only ooe change in flange size ts clesreo' ( 1 1. 1 . i . 2)S
( (a) Case/. Linear va]iation io"torn.ol-two flange plate sizes'C.onsider t
trl M A . )
assuming both plates are full;* utilized for h f 6
the situation of fig. if .fq.2a" and
( be used for eachplate'
bending moment, iire flange-areaformula can (sec
(b) Case2. Parabolicvariationas for uniformly loadedsimple beam
( M A N
/ l
-
- (11.i 4.25) Fig. 11.14.2b).The total volumein the length I is
w- 6
lal
(
M i L l - Lzx + zLx? - x- l- \-
1 ,
. , 1. L
(( vol: r 2
M (x/ L) - A
6
*
(11.14.26)
tl- t- I 6
(' Att: ; , L
hf d (Vol) ., 4 y z
: ' u^ : ' T - -
.-- t
.._ ,i
( : - l
;Lxi . i ;)
: I
1 : l
a, J J

( *;:- I
and
=ii A,, 5
( ---t = - ( 1 1. 1 4 . :)e
;_:..I At 9
( Atr Af
*.:- t
t
(c) Case-i. Parabolicvariation as for uniformly loaded candlever(seeFig.
_-:

( r'-.-l It
I

r'i I 11.74.2c).The total volume in the length l, is


( '-=
a ; l
|
+ l M lL2-L2x+x A*L
( .,.; I Vol : _ l

,*fr)'
: l
-.;.- hf\ 6
( ;'t |I
.,i

" -*. :
--r
I
L
( M = maximum
rnoment
[.]
I
,:li i 1#-o:3xz-Lz; x : T
vJ
,*s I
( '+iFi '
and
.
q*' .
( (a) j* Art 1
3 _--=- (1r.1.1.30)
determining cbaogesin flange plate -:*'
.t:*. A t 3
, ( Figure 11.14.2 common moloent variations for
;a|j
size. .6
( :.F-
,'( ;e
+its
+€
Fi

718 11/ PLAIE G;fiDEFS DII;IGN EXAr.'i;LE- LRFD


11.15 / PLATEGTRDER 719 (
(
r t w
w (,
The foregoingdevelcpmentscan prov'idea guide for changeof plate sizes.
Sincemaking a.changeinvolvesa grooveweldedbutt joint of the flangeplates, ( '
enoughmateriai must be savedto more than offset the rveldingcost.
As a rule of thumb. unless200 to 300 lb of materialare savedin a flange (
plate per added splice the added cost of the butt splice(consideringa plate
l l
I 00'-0.._j-_
- '
I 00'_0,,__."-l_
{ Verticatsuppon
(
about 2 ft wide and 2 in. thick) is not justified. i t
8 r. 25'-0" = 2@'-0" -------__-i_ Lateral srpport
(
Figure11.15.1GirderloaCing
andsupportfor designocemple.
Flange Ptate ProPortions (
According to most of the theory developedearlier in this chapter, the flange (
each span as shown in Fig. 11.15.1.Lateral support is provided at each
plare can be any width and thicknessas long as it contributesto the girder the
Horvever,uearlyajJ support and every 25 ft betu'eensupports.The girder is to have constantdepth (
prcpcrtiesnecessaryto satisfythe functionalrequirernents.
web plate for the two spans.Use .{36 steelin the positive moment zone and
tcstinghas used flangeplate dirnensionswhich rvereconsideredreasonable. (
A572 Grade 50 for the negativemoment zone. Use Load and Resistance
In order to assistthe engineerwho is unsure of what constitutessuch
Factor Design. ( ,
rcasonabledimensionsthe follor*"ingguidelinesare suggested.
Additional specificationsand generalconunents: (
l. Typicall.vthe ratio of girder flangewidth to,girder depth, bi/d, vaies
l. The iive load is to be applied in its correct manner; that is, applied as
from about 0.3 for shallorvgirdersto about 0.2 for deepgirders. {
necessaryto obtain the maximum and minimum moments and shears
2. Plater*'idthsshould be in 2-in. increments.
at every location along the girder.This will mean two live load casesfor (
3. Plate thicknessincrencnts shouldbe as follorvs:
the factoredbendingmoment envelopeas shown in Fig. 11.15.2.For
t<*io. (
*in. the shear envelope,the maximum values at the exterior and interior
supportsare obtainedfrom the two bending moment loading cases.For (-
*in' i:t'llitt' ail other shearenvelopevalues,the live load was placed using partial
loading in the mannerdictated by the shearinfluence lines.* (
lin. r>1]in.
) Assume * in. is minimum practical web plate thickness. (
4. Where lateralstability is of concern,the flangeplate width-to-thickness 3. Assumeno depthrestriction;also,that any deepthin-webgirder that is
ratios bt/2tt shouldbe kept at about the l,o valueof LRFD-B5.or at selectedcan be feasiblyfabricated,transportedto the constructionsite. (
about or:e-half to two-thirds of the bt/Ztt "noncompact" limit in and erecredwithout excessive difficultv or cost. ('
ASD-B5, in the maximum momentregions.This wili permit reducing
the thicknessof flangeplatesin regionsof low moment.For suchceses, SOLUTION (
flange plate area reduction should be made by reducing the thickness (a) Factoredl-oads.Using the basic factore,ilgravity load combination of (
rather than the width. LRFD-A4.1,
5. For laterallystablegirders,the flangeplate areareductionin regionsof I
lower rnoment may be accomplishedby reducing the thickness,reduc- Uniformliveload wu: 1.6(3.2): 5.72kips/ft
(
ing the qidth, or reducingboth thicknessand rridth. A slightadvantase Uniformdeadload BL : 1.2(0.8): 0.96kips/ft
in fatigue strength accruesby reducing the width rather than the
thickness[11.24].The transition slope should not exceed1 in 2l for live load Wu: i.6(60) : 96 kips
Concentrated
(
either '*idth or thickness,and is usually 1 ix 4 to 1 in 12 for the
deadloadWu: 1.2(15): 18 kips
Concentrated
t r ans it ionin w i d th Ii 1 .2 1 ]. (
(b) Srructural,{nal.t'sis.
Any rnethodof staticallyindeterminatestructur3l (
analysiscirn be usedto obtain the elasticmoment and shearenvelopesunder
11.15 PI.ATE GIRDER DESIGN EXAMPLE _ LRFD factoredloads.The resultsare presentedin Fig. 11.15.2. (
(
Partiallydesigna two-spancontinuousweldedplate girder to supportuniform
lo.ri rv of 0.8 kips/ft dead load and 3.2 kips/ft live load, plus two fixed 'See Chu-Kia Wa-og and Charles G. Salmon, Introcluctory
Structural Analvsis.Engle.q'oodCliffs. (
concentratedloads lV of 15 kips dead load and 60 kips live load in
p.--'.sition NJ: Prentie-Hall Inc., 1984,pp. 258*275.
(
(
(
\
(
'(-
11//PI3TE GIRD€RS 11 15 / PLATEctRDER DESTGNEXAMPL=- LRFD 721

\
( Sym.about (c) Estinute of Weight. The mirximum factored mornenrs duc ro rhc
E
superimposcd loads (that is, n'iihout girder weight; of Fig. ii.15.l ft'r rhc
( t positiveand negativemomentregionsare
+ lV, : +7640 f t - kiPs
a 25'-0"-i I - lt f , : - i0'E00 f t - kiPs
r0o'-0"--i
I I Sincethereis no depthlimitation.rhe depth basedon ma.rim::n hr/t, nray'he
Assumectgirder weight : 0.300k/tl
( desired.The LRFD-AppendixG1 cr ASD-G1 limits are obtal:ed.rcfcrringto
T a b l e1 1 . 3 . 1 ,
(
,7550
\lax h/t * : 322 (333'*'hena,'h < 1.5) A36 sieel
'7r1F,
( 8 / L L - sc anl -Dl
Max h/t*.: )43 (283r''hena/h < 1.5) A572G;ade50
-{ o :'----- \
'---.,
I
o
4 t , \ 3860 There*'ill be strengthreductionfrom the bend-bucklinglirnit s',ateivhcn /rrlr*
( > t
l + ::\\ exceeds970/E accordingto LRFD-AppendixG2. oi 160/,F, accorcling to
2
O J
\ ASD-G2. For this designthoselimits are
(
(
6 -
-2
0
i H h/r, > 162 A36 u'hen 4, : F,

(
9

o <
:
LL-span2 + DL eSaOI h/t*. > 137 A572Grade 50 u'hen F,, : F.
u -6 6 7 10
( tL
-8
For a rvei ghtest im at e,t r y P- : h/ t . : 300 and use Eq. 11. 14. 19.lt l :
LL-spans t RequiredMn: M,/eo:7640/A.90: 8490ft-kips,and .f : Rr,rI., = 34 ksi
( - tu
from Fi g. 11.6.8:
11260
( J ]

(Requiredltl,)-
',,lso*,-r
( JUV \ n l t T f t : 8 . 9'i Ii : 8.9ir -;----:- : 216lb /tt
t 1 ( R o,r4, )tF-
Y v. (34)"300
(" O)
zvv

9 100 r\ssumingthe girder rveightis 300 lb/tL givesthe maximum i:ciorcd positii'c
(
moment M u : 7900 ft-kips. Recomputingthe aboveformula gives
o ^@ 0
( G
3 -1oo WtTft = 280 ib/ft (from formula)
( >'
q) - AAA
lUV The negativemomentrvill requirea slightll'heaviersectioneien though thc
( o - 3C0 ratio of maximumpositiveto madmum negativemomentis appri;xinlrtclvthc
€ 'l'hc
(
LL
_ 400
sameas the ratio (i.e., 50/36) of the yield stresses
for the mei:;-ialsuscd.
u'eb of the Grade 50 regionof the girder must be thicker then ihe A36 rcgion.
( - 500
Allorviqg somethingextra (10% is a reasonableestimate)icr thc stiffcncrs
-600 u'ould give a-value slightly above 300 lb/fL. Use w: -i0U lh/ft as the
(
..4'
's.
estimatedgirder weight. The factored moment I{, and faciorcd shear Vu
continu-
{ Figure 11.15.2 Factored lnoment aad factored shearenvelopesfor tu'o'span envelopes are givenin Fig. 11.i5.2.
ous bea-mof illustrati'tts o(a$ple. (d) Determinell/eb Plate Si;es. For *,!/, rvith ,436 steeiassunrcCr: Cz
( A
: 1 and use Eq. 71.74.17.Evaluate the optimum value for /r using various
E
( s:l h7t* values,for example,using h/r*.:320 gives
'+--
( ..f
(RequiredIr{,)p* 31eoa/0.e0)(12)320
a?
ft- : 1 1 4i n .
( :'t 2(34)
( :f

l r &
;fi.
( '; tLS
-,
11.15/ PLATE
GTRDER
DES;GN _ LRFD
EXAMPLE 723
I

722 i ] ,,.PLATFGiRDENS

on the basis of thesepretiminarycomputations,a depth of 100 in. is


Formula T
, u' chosen. The formula indicates somewhatdeeper; however, the low shear
t
Actual l
h h t tt.
, indicatesthat the rvebcan be thinner. Sinceintermediatestiffenersare to be
h 4*'
- _
- n
I).
t: used, the reader may note that when h/t* ratios are larger the stiffener (
( in. ) (in.) (in.) (sq in.) (ksi)
a
I spacing requirement over most of the girder length will be controlled by Eq. (
1.
11.11.10and will not be dependenton the magnitudeof the shearforce.Thui
i2r) 114.1 114 3 /8 42.8 86 304 the dceper the girder the longer must be the stiffener plates, with little {'
) '
3 33 115. 7 114 3 /8 4 2 .8 E.6 304 advantageto offset the extra weight.Generally,multiples of 2 in. should be r'
\lir-t for 3/8 in. 125.0using h/t- : 3 3 3 used for the rveb plate depth.
r24 3/8 46.5 7.9 331 combined shearand moment strengrh(LRFD-Appendix G5 and AsD- (
lvlar for 3./8 in. 120.8using h/t* : J Z L G5) must be considered in regions where high shear and high moment I
r20 3/8 45.4 8.2 320 simultaneousl;"occur. In this design,sucha locationis adjacentto the inrerior
\{a.r for 5 /16 in. n4.2 using h/t, : - 1 - 1 J support. The factored shear trl should be kept somewhatbelow the design
104 s/r6 32.s I I.1+ 333 shearstrengthevn so that the factoredmoment Mucan equal eM^.
\{i:-r for 5/16 in. 100.6using h/t* : \ t /
Allowing for some flexibility in the design,use & : 100 in. which rvill
100 s/r6 31.3 11.8 320 mean that the u'eb slenderness h/t* is near but not at the upper limit. Try

Basedon the positivemomentrequirement,the economicaldepth appears


f x t00 (h/t*: 320)f.or*M, 4,
: 30 tcsi
ar first to be 114in. from the formula.However.if the ligJrtest rveightgirderis
i x 1 0 0 ( h / t * : 2 6 7 ) f o r- M , {,
: 50 ksi
desired the rveb 3rea must be used efficiently. Once the * in. thicknessis
obrainedfrom the i14 in. Cepth,the maximumdepth for a ]-in. web shouldbe (e) SelectFlangePlatesfor NegatiueMoment. M,:11,260 ft-kips, web
clcrermined.u'hich sives an fi of 120 to 124 in. This is ccnsiderably'deepcr plate: ; x 100 ( A*:37.5 sq in.). The lateral-torsional buckiinglimit stare
rhen the formula value. Also, there is considerablereserveshear strength; must be examinedwith regardto the 25-ft distancebetweenlateral supporrs.
V'JA* will typicallybe satisfactoryas high as 12 to 16 ksi. Note thaLQV,/A* Tlre slenderness parameterl, involvesthe radiusof gyratio{r r7t as diJcussed
crn h e about16 k s i f .o rh r/t* :3 2 A a c c o rd i n gto L R FD TA B LE 11-36'\\' i th foiiorving Eq. i1.4.i5, and as traditionally controlling in Allowable Slress
rhe designfactoredshearstressonly about 8 to 9 ksi with rhe t-in. ueb. it is Designfor plate girders.If a typicalratio bs/d = 0.25is assumed,then b, : 24
r
probablethat a lightergirder will result using a thinner (say * in.) u'eb.The in. Using the radiusof gyrationof a rectangleabor:tits mid-depth,
il-in. rvebwould indicatea girder shallowerthan 114 in.. say"around 100 in.
I
I

Evaluareoptimum /l for the negativemoment region initially using Eq. I r : b7/,172


:0.289bt
t:
11.14.17riith ,lf : .\,!u,/Q : 11260/' 0.90 and h/t,: 249. ! '
r.. which givesr = 6.9 in., say 7 in. !
I
l
Formula vu
I
I

it iI t
t
/4\9 Actual I E s t i m axt :eLdu : " 9 4 :o,
1
4 *
I
l r
r r 7
- , ? h t "
', a,a
Iv t lrr
i.tn.) (ln./ (s qrn .) (ksi) I
a
!,.. Check l,o for the lateral-torsional
bucklingiimit state,

240 104.0 104 7/1 6 4 5 .5 tz.1 238 300 300


aA1
xo:@: : 42.4
283 109.9 108 7/1 6 47.3 i1.6 L+I
150
\"1.ir:
ior ?,'',6in. 123.7using h/t* : ,/-63
lll 7/16 53.4 10.3 219 since I slightly exceedsl,o, the moment strength might be reduced:
i . . . : r : . . t l ' , : - 'i 6 i n . 106.2usingh/t., : L L + J however, the moment gradient is favorable. Referring to the 25-ft lateralli
106 7//16 46.4 11.8 242 unbraced segnent adjacent to the interior support in Fig. 11.15.2.rvhen
for 37'Ein. i 0 6 .1u s i n g ' h /t* : 2 8 3
(
Ilx maximum If" occursthe moment gradientis closelya linear one varying frcpn
106 3/8 39.8 13,8 283 11,260 ft-kips to zero. Thus, Ca: 1.75 for that segmentwhen *uii*u* (.
\{e.r for 3 /8 in. 91.0usingft/t, : 2 4 3 moment is acting.It is higtrlyprobablethat the lareral-rorsional
buckling limir
90 3i8 33.8 16.3 240 state doesnot,affect the strengthof this girder. i
(
(
I

( 11.15/ PLATE
GIRDEB
DESIGN - LRFD
ExAr,lPLE 725
I I ,/ PLATEGIRDERS
(
(
buckl i ngl i mi t sta t e
The high slendernessratio h/t* tot the web will, however, reduce the
(
momentstrength.To obtain an estimatedreductionresultingfrom this bend-
bucklinglimit state.seeFig. 11.6.8(LRFD-Appendix G2). For h/t*:267, F.,:Cr\r['-
](Ftlj= r, Iit.+.;]
R ro 4 , = 4 8 k s i f 1.'i1 d-a'tat,\
L 0 ) l -i ; { -
F , , : 1 . 7 5' '( 5 I | : t.7i(16.2), 1,.,r
2 \ i 0 ? - 4 2 . 14 1
Using the flange-areaformula, Eq. 11.14.9,givesthe requirementfor one
flange as Thus, .Q- based on lateral-torsional buckiingis F,t : 50 ksi.
Compute -f, for the flange local buckiing (FLB) limit state (LRFD-
MJSt A n 1 1 , 2 6 0 ( 1 2 ) i 0 .-9 03 7 . 5
Al : -a1101)- : 2 5 ' 4 s qi n ' Appendi.xG2) *'hen trrr, t tro. This u'as satisfiedin rhis design rvhen tlic
R to'Qr/r f 6 flangeplaiesu'ereselected; othenvise lils limit stateinustbe treatedaccordin;
ro E qs.i i .4.i 0 i hr oughii. 4. 13.
Somepossiblechoices: Next, evaluaie tbe strengthreductionresultingfrom the benC-buckling
' l i mi t state' * henh / 't *> 970it , F, , .usineEqs.11. 4. 2and 11. 4. 3,
1| x 20' n , : 2 5 ' 0 s qi n ' , b1/2tr: 8'0 '
A,. 37.5
1l x 22, A t : 2 1 . 5 s qi n - , b1/2tr: 8.8 o':4:
n3:1'36
1| x 24, A 1 . : 2 7 . 0 s qi n . . bt/Ztr: 10-7 [n' 970\
R p c : 1 - o . o o o"5, f - =t [ 1 14 . 3 ]
bt/Ztr: 13-0
; E,|
1 x 26. At- 2 6 .as q i n .,
In evaluatingEq. 11.4.3,the f, is the lesservalue from the lateral-torsional
T r-y p l a t e s - 1 1 x 2 7 : A t : 2 7 . 5 s q i n . buckling (LTB; and the flangelocalbuckling(FLB) limjt states.In this design,
in this selection,the'width-to-thickness ratio )r: bt/2tt should be kept 4, : F, : 5A ksi. Thus,Eq. 1i.a.3is evaiuatedusinga, : 1.36,h,/t. : 26J,
: :
and .Q, 50 ksi. to obtain Rpc 0.912.
nearthetrovalue(9.2for5:soksifromTableli.4.l).Somestrength
reduction riay be tolerated fiom the flange local buckling limit state'.bgt The moment of inertia of the cross-section
must be evaluated.
preferably
' not. ^ '*
Checl .Q, for buckling
lateral-torsional (LTB) limit state (LRFD-Appen-' l : x22: /2)2 : 140.960
27.5(2)(10t.25
dix G2), Eqs. 11.4.4through11.4.9: x i0o' (0.3?5X100)3712 : 31,250
I:::ifroin.o
I _ 172,270_.
tT: : 5 . 7 3i n . s _
r,: : 3-?60
in.
'
::g
@1fi: 50+ 1:5
.-** Then. using Fq.1I.4.2, the nominalstrengthM^ can be evaluated,
300
\p: -F : .12.-l
ti'il /1? : 12,770ft'kips
i{n : 4,5-.Reo : 50(3360)(0-912)

Q:\t,:0.9 0( 12, 77A) : 11, 490f t - kips> ( LI , : i1. 260f t - kips)


, Lu 25(12)
ALrB: = : 5 2 . 4 t ( t r o: 4 2 . 4 ) r'* Acceptplates1i x,.22.
; sJ3
(.f) Select Flange Plates for Positiueltfantent. tr{,: 7900 ft-kips. web
plate : ; x 100 (l *, = 31.25sq in.). Estimatethe flangewidth to be about
Sincel, > trp, F., may be reducedbelow!.. Howlver. in this caseat the '
E-!

22 in.. the same as for negativemoment region, which makes L5/r, = Jl


negative*oitt.ni'roni cu : 7-75;thus Cr{, is -quitelikely abovd'4'. (ttte .*' ,:!:

as computed in part (e) above. in this positive moment region C5 : 1.0,


upier Umir).Checkgq. ir.q.Z, firsr computingtr, for tbe lateral-torsional
:.3-

,:;#
-#
F

724 11 .,'plqrE c:.qtii:


11.15/ PLATEGTADERDESIGNEMMPLE _ LRFD 727 \
(
rvhichmeansF" for ihe lateral-torsional buckling limit state might be a little Ths moment of inertia of the cross-section
must be evaluated. i '
b e l o*' F , , .
Referringlo Fig. 11.6.81e s5timstethe effect of the bend-bucklinglimit li x 24 : 27.AQN101.125 {
/2)2 : 138,050
state.
= 34 ksi
fr x 100: (0.3125X1AA)37t2
: 26,040 ( '
R*F-
I : @oilo itt.o ('
formula,Eq. 11.14.9,gves the requirementfor one
I
Using the f'lange-area
_ I 164,090 (
flangeas c"x - -
(nn * ,,) 50+ 1_125
n{JQ, An 79oo(r4/a.90 31.25
"t l - - -- o : 25.5sqin.
R 16f,/r 6 34(101) Then, using E4,.11.4.2,the nominal strengthM^can be evaluated,
(
( , ' n , , . n r r s s i b l eC h C i C e S : L[n: 4, ERp6 : 36( 3210) ( 0. 90s) / t:z8750 f r _kips t'
1l x 20, At:25.0 sqin., b7/2tr: 8.0 QrMn: 0.90(8750): 7870ft-kips = ( Mu:2900 ft_kips) ( ,
l! x 22, At:27.5 sqin., by/Ztt: 8.8 The slight understrengthshouldbe acceptable. The practicalsolutionwould be (
to use the same 1i x 22 usedin the negative*o*.nt zone.However,in order
lt x 24. Ar:27.0 sqin., by/Ztt= 10-7 ( ,
to kccp the calculations for positive and negadve moment zones cleariy
I x 26. Ar:26-A sqin., bi/ztt: 13-0 separate,rhe 1 ! x za is selectedfor the positivemoment zone. ('
-l-ry \
plates-l| x24: At:27.0 sqin- Use plates,1* x 24.
Tire citoiceshereare identicalto thoseli;ted for the negativemoment (g) Intermediate Stiffeners-Placement in Posiriue
Montent Zone. Web
.,.t)oc.Here,however,the 1! x Z+ may provideenoughstrengthbecause plare: fr x 100, (
4 * : 3 l . Z S s qi n . .4 , : 3 6 k s i .
X: b,/2t1: 10.7doesnot exceed trr:10.8 for ,{36 steel.That lighterplate Exterior end, v,: 369 kips (Fig. it.ts.z). In end panelsposr-buckling
u rii beinvestigated however,thepracucalchoicewouldbe the (
in thisexample; strength(i.e., tension-fieldaction)is notpermittedto be used.Equation11.11.5
sarne1l x 22 usedin the negative momentzone. representsthe nominal shearstrengthz" of suchan end panel, (
Checkd for lateral-torsionalluskling (LTB) limit state(LRFD-Appen-
vn : C,.(0.6Fr*) t'
dix Gl). Eqs.11.4.4 through11.4.9: A* Irr.rr.s]
r--
t -(zq3(1.i2s) ' : :*-
Required C,.
VJQ,
: ----:
36e/0.e0
: 0.007
o.6F).*A* 0.6(36)31.25
I
(
l/ Lz - <'rA:-
'
Il 27.0+31.2s/6 The coefficientQ is given bV Eq. ll.g.10 for,e, < 0.g, (
300 4,000k I
\o: 50.0 ^ 44,000k k
----
6: L,,:" ("
( h7t*)'Fr* (320)16 83.s
Lb 25{12) ''
l'r 'n: : 47'3' (tr": 5o'o) /c - 0.607(S:.9)
Required
t'
f,: d : 50.9
(
Sinc: I < trp, Frr: Fr: 36 ksi. 5
N..r:t,evaluatethe strengt! Leductionresulting f-rom the bend-buckline
bend-bucklinp &:50.9:5+ {
I
(o/h)'
lirnit statewhen h/t-> 970/lF-, usirg Eqs. 11.4.2and 11.4.3rwth h/t*: (
{ l r
a
Max; :0.33
A_ 31.25 tt ( :
a '- : J :1.16 (
Af 2 7 .0 Maxa:0.33(100):33in.
970\ Use2'-9". (,'
/
-
Rpc: r - 0.0005(1.16)t320 : 0.e08 Frequently,this maximum a/h can be obtained by using LRFD
6 ) *NUMERICAL {
vALUEs" TABLE 10,whichconrains
+urUA* uilu., u, " ((.

b (
I
(
( 1I .15 ,/ PI-ATE GiA,DERDESIGNEXAMPLE- LRFD 729
728 11rrp4't= clRDERs
(
( Use Eqs. 11.9.27and 11.11.10{LRFD-Appendix G3) for this interior p:.rnel
( functionof h/t,, anda/h.In thiscase, (thereis an adjacentpanelin the oiher sp::.i):
RequiredO,.Iz" !, 369
( : : : 11.8ksi Requiredq Iz, v,. -<.lg h 100
An A* 31.25 : i4'5 l:si' : :267
4.. ;: ,,- ,* 0^375
(
Then enter TABLE 10-36with h/t*:320' look for 11'8 ksi' and determine
(
a/h.lnthis case, as
values high as 11.8ksi indicate only that a/h is lessthan Using LRFD " NUMERICAL l'.{LUES" TABLE 11-50,again find rhe
( 0.5. Thus, a detailedcalculationas abovervould be necessary' nraximuma/h is controlledb1'th: arbitraq.'limitlseealsoFig. 11.9.9).
assumption)
Pane!2: Assumethe shearenvelopeis linear (a conservative
( under the concentrated load' Thus' at a i 2'.':
over the 25 ft tc the bearingstiffener Max;:1r,, I : i
( 2.75 f.t from the suPPort, % 1l : 0 . 9 5
( 369 - 228
vu2: 369- (2.75) : 353kips This panel adjacentto the inte;:or support.on a continuousspanhas high
"
( shear and high bendingmonrenra: the sa:nelocation.Thus. LRFD-Appendix
in all-panels
( Equation 7I.g.27rvhichincludestension-fieldaction is applicable" G5 is likel;'to control stiffenerspacing.Ti-rus.Eq. 11.10.14must be investi-
the
except panel
exterior treated above' Use LRFD NUI\'IERI- gated.The designstrengthei,jl^ l,lascoinpuredin part (e) io be 11,490ft-kips
of this girder,
h/tw: 320 and 'rhus,
( CAL VRLUES" TABLE 11-36,enteringwrLh at the maxtnlumnegativemomeni ic:ca'ricn;

( Required0.4 _ lu : 353 t'{-:


: 1 1 . 3k s i ii=rg : o.e8
> 0.75
An An 31.25 QtMn i: - : 9U
(
( Find no valuestabulatedfor 11.3ksi and h/tn:320' This meansthat the
Sincemore than 75Voof the mom.rt strelgth is used,the full shearstrength
controls,
upper limit accordingto Eq. 11.11-10
( may not be used,as shorvnin Fig- 1.1.i0.?.Actually.thisis a resrrictionrelated
to the rueb; however,for practicai purposes in LRFD the overall moment
( LT

i =l#)': (#)':066<30 strengthis usedin the interacrion::imuia- Eq. i1.10.i4.In ASD, the srressori
( tlzev;eb is used in the moment-rel"ied tei-nrof the interactionequation,Eq.
11.10.21.
( a = 0.66(100): 66 in. (5.5 ft)
The flexure-shear strengthint-sction limitation can be satisfiedeitherby
is required at
( Since iateral support occursevery 25 ft and a bearing stiffener increasingthe momentstrengthii.e., reduing the percentutilization)cr h1
arranged to fit these
concentrated loads, the stiffenei spacing is usually increasingthe shearstrength.The p:acticai procedureat this stageof dcsigni.s
( remains' Four spaces
limitations. Consideringthe first stifienet al2''9",22'-3" to place the intermediatestiffenersat suffiiently closeinten'alsto malie the
will be less than 72'-3". Thus, five spaces must be percentutilization of the shearsireagth lc*' encugh to satisfythe interaction
( at the maximum of 5.i ft
used. It is preferableto use 3-in. multiples for stiffener spacrng' equation.
( 2 Solving Eq. i1.10.14 for the required VJ+.V, gives
Use stiffenlr spacesas follows stalt@
(
( still govems. h . o 6 2 i | , * i= , , , , I rr . i o . r a ]
( Us e5 s pac es @ 5 ' -0 " .
beiow the rI'
F* th. *gioll from 50 to 75 ft the maximum shearstressis still 1 . 3 7 5-
(
value in panel 2, so that a/h manmum still governs' n.quir.d QlM^
:2.2 - 1.6(0.98):0.63
( Use5spaces@5'-0".
Zone. W eb
fr 0. 615
( $'t)Ir*r*rdiateStiffeners-PlacementinNegatiueMoment
p l a t e : * x 1 0 0 ,l * : 3 7 . 5 s q i n . , 4 - 5 0 k s i ' The design strength6,Vn that musi -heprovided in this panel is
( Interior end:
* RequiredQ,Vn: V;0.63 : 549/0.63: 871kips
( 4 : 549 kiPs 'E
h ( >-'*
g.Fjr.
}
.- U

730 11/PLATE GrnOEriS :+


.;**.
- /
t

i*
"NUMERICAL VALUES" twth h/t-:267
VALUFS" TABLE 11-50wth h/t-:267 support the factored
support factoredmor
using LRFD
Using LRFD..NUMERICAL f€
l€
and
and tg
iE
lF .-:- : '-.-
Required
Required 871/375:23.2lcsi
Q"VJA*:871/37.5
Q"VJA*: :23.21,si f$
t+ ^ t *M , ;J;;; v''J
i€ QtM,
Q 11,490
1 1,490 /
Find
Find maximum
maximum Lt/
r-lrr|.l Ir,r.LrLLuLe]Jj a/ht. =
a/h -= 0.45
0.45
\t.al (estimated)
(estimated)
\wrruusrvs IE
Ie' r-a^+i^- reqt
1.1,p intgraction
iara:an+ina -^^..:-^-^-. __j,! t
j.* The
Thg interaction requirement will aiso control this panel. The maximum i'
t*
in order to obtain a more exactcomputation, Eq. ll.g.27 must be solved by VJE.V, is
VJE,V,
ig
trial. ln this case,evaluatethe strengthprovided w:hena/h : O-45, i€
5 s ig r.37s__:
v:,: Ql
k' \ :' -sJ*-- ' : 5 + -.":29-7 it rR\ !eYquu* iurre' 'd -
fuJh)r-'' (0.cs)2-L'' W^- 0.625
lB
AssurneC < 0.8 by referringto Fig. 11.9.9;then using Eq. 11.8.10for C,., The designstrengthQ I
i'i
(
44,000k 44,000(29.?) i: Required
' g,V,:
' u ' n VJ0.g1
'u/''-'
C
uu, , : . # : _0 A.,t<
.366 li
(267)250 "NUMEzucAL
thlt-)z Fr* l€^ .
Using LRFD vAI
Lr.- and a n o l
l*E
I l - c, Required q
V n : 0 . 6 F , * n * | C , + f \ f i | t L 7 . g r- 2n.rrr
L.L L ' 77' L |t t F . . . . - . - . . R e q u i r e d q
1 . 1 5 V 1+ \ a / h ) - I tFind
r i n r rmaximum
1 l: r n e y i r n , a/h , :0.95]
l1zaon67)2 (
la
l { o . , u u * 4 l : n , , * o , h ' h u s , t h e a r b i t r a r y u p p e r l i m i t , E q . l 1 .:0.e5(100)
l1.l0cc
\ 1.rs/1+ (0.4s)z I l; Maxa : e5ir
with the first stiffenerat
evn:0.90(977): 880kips> (Required
ev,:871 kips) oK l] dltl11..: to-thebearingstiffenerat theconcentrated
l:
i;i,x';".;fi;"_,'#HTlil:ffi#;J:1il::.J.
;'
loadwill require3 spaces
i,
momenrregionis ii ?''6".on the fr webpa
I

'vr'!\ sa -: v..',\rvv'/
Max 0.45(100) -: ''J
45ru'
in. thearor
i' TJ:i",:"::o-oijj,:*',j:41',*:tf:
The arrangement of intermed.iatestifflner
l,
Use3'-9". l: 11.15.6.
Pcnel2: Assumethe shearenvelopeis linear (a conservativeassumption) bcyi1\ of.Ftat
l; ,^__q),
dependent
ovei rhe 25 ft to the bearingstiffenei under the concenrratedload. Thus. at on the type
VrVl Lllv &J Lt lV lllv L/96LflLfb JllIMvr usvl uv wuwult4lw lvss. ^^le. sL '
h
11 .:,

3.7i fr from theinterioruupport, with the Ar72 sections.


li
it
- 3s7
s4s L ;T:":":::",:i::: irll-::'11'1":0":emrebtbe1
fi;;';;;;;,i"r'
"d".n'"" i
. , , . , : 5 4 9- - - ( 3 . 7 5 ) \-"-/ : ---'-r"
t'u! 5 2 6k i p s l:
25
.L) offset
u.r.r.strtreducesstressconcentrauon
rc(]uscs slress concentration
and
and
Ii
lt
-.c LRFD"NUMERTCAL TABLE11-s0,
vALUES" tl.rth
enrerins h/t.:
[, *:tlltr:#Jlt"-ll';
15? and l' D - ^ - previous
--^-i-, - ,
From calculationsfor stiffenerspacingit is apprrentthat splici::g ,(
- r"+'va' [ : : : : ] : . :stiffener.
: * : : : : ' l IPerhaps,
: . 1 ! n f rhowever,
o m t h eiti ncan
t c rbe
i omadr
rsuppJ,.,j"'iil;;;'I*;:;;;;;;
A* 1- 37S I,
Try.5''6" frol the concentratedload (19'-6" from ilterior support)rvhich {,
F
Find no valuestabulatedfor 14.0ksi and h/t*: 267. Hawever,as in the first would be the maximum
kl l
panel, suength in combined shear and flexure is likely to control. From the *-in. web. Seepart (g).
^^--l arronnr}. :- ^^-L:-^'l .}.o^r ^-A Fto-"-- io llL-l., ra nnnrrnl E'-nm tha .l-i- ..,-L Q^^ -^-. /-\
t
momentenvelope,Fig. 11.15.2,
it is reasonable
to usea linear fr:,t a qary]
:T:ri:" f ?..-Te. 9t
11,260ft-kips to zero over 25 ft to the concentratedload. At 3.75 ft from the I' trated load that is 25 ft ' uuylrvr i. I rrL rrld,\llllulil :rf\rltltrllt Ul
[ \

l
i
(
732 u /PLATE GTRDERS r1.r5lPLATEG|RDERDESTGN
( EXArv{pLE_
LRFD 733

(
about 3500 ft-kips occursonly rvhenno live load is on span 1; thus. the shcar This stiffenerarea ratio requirementfrom the rabre
is the sanieas u:ing E.r
( will be low. The most criticsl casewill be the loading for maximum negative 1-1'92i (LRFD-AppendixG4)- The requirementmay
moment in combinationwith the high shearfrom the shearenvelope.For that i - retiucedin propcrri{\:.r
be
that the shearstrenglhis underutilized,
(
situation, the factoredforcesare
( vu/A*. 11.4
Mu = 1800ft-kips; I{, = 430 kips
( (scaledfrom Fig. 11.15.2) +,v^/A*:TAa:0.70
The stiffenerarea ;i,, requiredis
( Mu 1800
< 0.75 RequiredA ", : 0.049(0.70)l_
( Qr,M, 7870(from part f)
: 0. 049( 0. 70) 3i. 25
: 1. 07sq
( The combinedshearand flexureinteractionrelationshipdoesnot ccntrol. For in.
shear strength,use LRFD "NUMERICAL VALUES" T.A.ijLE 11-36 rvith This arearequirementassumesstiffenersare to be used pairs.
in Furthermore.
( local bucklingof this unsriffenedelemenl.mustbe precruded;
h / t * : 3 2 0a n d i.e.. ), s,\,.
( accordingto LRFD-B5.The width b and thickness r, as shou.nin Fig. i1.i5..1.
Required0,,4 v, 430 nrustsatisfv
_ _ : 13.gksi
( A*. An 37.25
(
(
Find a/h > 0.7; therefore. madmuin a/hbased on Eq. 11.ii.1C controlsas in
part (g). Maximum a/h : 0.66,giving it : 66 in. Thus, splicethe q'eb at 20 ft
=(^,
(^:i) : -:
e5
tr
\ 1t . v s !
e5
_ _ _ : __ .j { - i.i i
,Y,J ?U A
'"'"1
I

from the interior support.The arrangement indicatedbeiorvusesthe minimum


( number of stiffenersbasedon LRFD strengthand other limitations. cven Si: ffener

( though the 7'-10* spacesare of undesirablemultiples.A desirable6-in. offset


rvill exist betweenthe spliceand the neareststiffener. a
i;angs rarlth -.-
( Usestiffenerspacesas followsstartingfrom the interior support: 1@ 3'-9", !
T

( 2 @7' - 10! " , a n d T @ 5 ' -6 " . i


I
: t

( A summaryshorvingcompletestiffenerspacingappearsin Fig. 11.15.6. . t


. ' !i

(j) Size of IntermediateStiffe,ners.


Frequently.4,36 stiffeners are suitable, Figure11.15-3 cross-section
of interrnediatestiffcncrplarcs.
( with higher yield siressmaterial offering little if any saving.Try ,{36 steel{or
( all stiffeners. The requiremenl for stiffness,Eq. 11.11.11gives
Panel2 from exteriorsupport:This is the first panelin rvhichtension-field
( action is presumedto occur. I r, > jat3*
l r i . 1I i I J
.
( Having reducedthe spacingof the first stiffenerto 2'-6" f.rorn2'-9", the w'here
maximum shear force in the panel will be somewhathigher than used for the
2.5 2.5
( panel 2 computationin part (g). Thus, 'i : - - I' : ------...- -- ") :25.g
(a/Dz Qo/tW
( 4 : 355 kips
( vJA*: RequiredE.V^/A'*: 355/37.25: 1i .4 ksi 1, ,> 25. 8( 30) ( 0. 3125)
: 323. 5in. a
To find minimumacceptable
stiffenerw,idth(Fig. 11.15.3t.
( a/h : 30/100: 0.30
h/t*: 100/0.37i5: 320 r 23.5
( R e q' u i r e d 1 2 :
"t
: -?'?' vo" ' i' n l
"NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE 11-36 rvith the above Ar, 1.07
( Entering LRFD
values,find for a/h :0.5 (the smallestvaluein the table). 't 'W
j
,y?
( Provided 12 :
OuVn/A*= 16.4ksi 72tHr lz
(
A,,/A* = 0.049 W : \'Tfr211 : 16.2in.
Required
(
t (
tf

734 11,/PLATEGIRD€P.S 11.15/ PLATEGIRDERDESIGNE.XAI/PL: - LRFD 735 \r

_ (
< 15.8 the thickness where (1'
This rvouid indicate 8-in. $ide plates, aod to satisfy b/t
would be about 0.5 in. These would be inordinately large and A,, would be 2.5 /'
2.5 \
about 8 sq in. Try pairs of plates * x 5, grving b/t :13.3 rvhich is less i: -z- -2:10.3
fu/hf Gsllooy (.
than 1,,'.
Check the momentof inertia {,, _ tw i 0. 3125( 10. 375) 3 (t

-'t
f : -

OK
tw3 0.3?5(10.372s)' rz .12
f : - : : 3 4.3i n.a
"t 12 12 Th. * x 5 plates are sadsfactoryfor useon the f-in. web of Grade 50 in the
negative moment zone.
Thus, the provided /,, exceedsthe required23j in-4 If the bft tmit-of 15'8 Use 2 PLs- * x 5 of A36 steelfor all intermediatestiffenersconnecredto rhe
can be acceptedut ik (r.e., l% high), plates * X .5 will be acceptable;the
momenr of inertia 1,, f.or those piates is 28.6 in.4 The authors
prefer the * -i n. w eb.
ru x 5 plates.
f. (k) Connectionof Intermediatestdfenersto web. For tbr
*-ir, ,{36 web,
Since the sriffenersfor tbe panel are about the minimum size basedon using Eq. i1.11.20,
local buckling provisions, the reduced area required for the more interior
panelson the *-in. web is of little consequence' t*
Lrseirus-#"x 5 for ail intermediatestiffenersattachedto the f6-in- web- fnu:0.045i
| ; [11.11.20J
Examine ttre ena panel adjacent to the interior support. Becauseof the Even though there is no specificforce requirementfor connectingintermediate
shear-flerureinteraction requirement the design shear strengthdtrl, require.d stiffeners ex€pt the tension-fieldforce { used for the A, requirement,thc I
rs: use of Eq.i1.11.20 as recorrmended (
by Baslertl1.3l seer$ appropriate.
RequiredQ,Vn:871 kips [from part (h)]
(
RequiredQ,VJA*: 871/37.5 : 23-2ksi f,,,:0.045(roo, : 6.ekips/in.
\m I

a/h : 45/t00: 0.45


The stiffener spacingat the first paneiat the exterior support was finally I

h /t' : 1 0 0 /0 ' 3 7 5: 2 6 7 made 2'-5" insteadof the 2'-9" permitted.Thus thefn, value could logically (.
be reducedin proportion that the shearis underutilized.Using Eq. 11.8.10for
ailz: 0'45 the
.\s in the calculationsto determinethe stiffener spacing,at"NUMERICAL C, < 0.8 *'ith a/h : 3A/n0: 0.30, h/t,:320, and k : 6A.6from Eq.
panel uses 100% oi the sbear strength. Entering LRFD 11.8.8gi ves
:0.5 (the
VALUES" TABLE i1-50 with the above values, find for a/h 44,000(60.6) r
smallestvalue in the table), c': : o12 \
o,i'4'A- = 13 ksi
1320re6)
v ^ : c u ( a . 6 F r _ ) l:_ 0 . ? 2 ( 0 . 6 X 3 6 ). (z3s1): 4 8 6 k i p s
, r . . / . : - *=. 0 . 0 4 (.
vu 369
: : o'84
The stiffener area ,4r, requirecii; QV, 0. 90( 4g6)
t
Requ i re dA ,,: 0 -M A-: 0 ' M(3 7 ' 5 ) : 1' 5 sq i n'
Requiredfnu:6.9(0.84) : 5.8 kips/in.

This arc-arequirementis for F, = 50 ksi stiJfenersusedin pairs. For A36 steel, N{in weld sizea : f; in. (LRFD_TableJ2.5)
: 2.1 sq in. The width/thicknesslimit tr, : 13-4 {
required .1., : 1.5(50,/36)
Deterrnine maximum effectiverveld size(LRFD-J}.4 using shear strensrh
ici f ;, : 5d'ksi. Since sriffnessis controlling rather than strength,use A36 i

stiffenersrvith tr, : 15.8.Tt:* * x 5 platesin pairs. on throat of fillet with E70 electrodes)(seealso text, Sec.5.14), Eq. 5.14.g;
I
Chcck required /,,, r t 5 8'l:
( i / 1 6')
: 707+f : 0. 707
ersaxet r0. : 0. 183in. (,
1,, >- jat): to.3(45)(o.lzs)3: 24'4 rn'a Fer<x 70
(
(

I
(

t.
,{
I
I
736 1r / PLATEGIRDERS
. I 1.1s/ PLATE
GTRDER
DESIGN _ LRFD
EXAMPLE 7g7

( at the joint. Though this requirementdoesnot explicitly occur


The nominal weld strengthRn*.is
Try fi-in. weld of 870 electrorjes. in the LRFD
( specification, it is certainly implied in a provision such as
LRFD-E4 for
R,,,u: a (0.707)(0.6FL'ix
) built-up memberswhereconnection is requircdto be ... .. adequateto pro'idc
( for caiculatedstress.. . ." The factoredload shearflo*, is
l' : 5.44kips/in.
: 0-183(0.707x0.6)70
i (r Sincefour lines of fillet n'elds(Fig. 11.15.3)ale to provide5.8 kips/in" then Shearflou,:€tipr,rin.
I-
5.8i4: 1.45kips/in. are requiredalongeachiing.
'(
i.45 ',i'hcre lru: factore,J
(tOO1: 27% shearat section
' / % of continuous-*-in.rveldrequired:
: 140 0 : staticalmomentof frangeareaabout neurralaxis
' r .1,: momentof inertiaof sectionabout x_axis
r l
For intermittentrvelding.rainimumsegmentis 1.5 in. (or 4 timesthe rveldsize,
',f
i {

if longer;,accordingtoLRnO-J2.2.b; the nominal strengthof this segment


is welding along borh sides of the rveb provides a shear
flow strength.
r"'hich, if it exceels the v,,e/l, requirement,may be
, ( reduced by the use of
4*.R,*': 1-5(5.44): 8'2kiPs intermittent welding. Normally flange to web ri,eldingis
made continuous.
r l
orimarill" becauseautomatic fabricating proceduresusualll. make
'r (
N{axpitch:
8.2
T.j5
: 5.7in. economicalto do so. Horvever,for designpurposesrhe minimurn
continuousweld acceptable
it more
percentof
in eachpun.i bcio'eenstiffenersu.ill be prcscribe,J.
{-rse*: in. -1 * in. segments for conne.,tryi
@ 5 i" pitch,.E?0electrorles.
x 5 If it is nnoreeconomical
r l for the fabricatorto usemoreu,eld.it is permissible to
; ) do so' The following calculationsconservativelyassumeshielded
platesto f6 in. u'eb. metal arc
ii vr For the |-in. A5?2 Grade 50 rreb:
*elding (SMAW) is ro be used.

Min rveldsizea : * in.


; \ (LRFD-TableJ2.5)
.i

(
( .rr: 0.707 : t : a . i 0 7 5 8 ( 5 / 1 6 ): 0 . i i i 3 i n .
+fnxx
: \ 70
l. where the yield stressof the web is usedin fn,'.
io( the
At the interior support.the actualshearstrengthequalsapproximately- ior 870 electrodes.The shear ilow V,e/l,
i {
is
i Y requireclstrength; thus no reduction in f," is appropriate' 'r.
i l
( lr{in rveld sizea:
F t, 58(3/8)
rt in. Q :A r l : . ?) : 2 4 ( 7 . 1 2 5 ) ( 5 0 . 6: 5 )i 3 7 0 i n . 3

= A'707#
dmaxcrr : 0'707--*: : 0'183in' V,Q 36e(1370)
f''cx /u : 3'1kiPs/in'
T i64Poo
basedon the 436 stiffeners.Use *-in. filiet rveldrvith 870 electrodes,
Equating rhe strengthof two fillets to V,e/l, gives
R,,: 0.183(0.707x0.6)70 : 5.M kips/in.

the maximumpitch is
For 1]-in. segrnents,
Requiredc : 0.05in. < 0.193in.
1.5 (s .1 4)
Max pitch : : 2-9 in.
tt 2t Lse * in. rveld,870electrodes
(effectivesize: 0.183in.).The designstrength
?R,,*' for.offioth sidesof the rvebis
which meansnearly continuous*-in-*.;-
: plates
U,, l- irr. continuous weld, E7-0electrodes,for connecting X 5 QRu, : 0. 75( 2) ( 0. 707X0. 1S3) ( 0. 6)
: i0
8. 2 kips/ in.
(ero) to i in. web ({,. : 5o ksi)-
'.: 3'1
welding of the Ivlin ?, continu o u s r v e l d :
A nonge to ll/eb Connection-A36 steel reg,ion.The .13
*(tOO):3g%
flangis to the web must proviCe for the factored horizontal shearflotv V,Q/I'
-r.:1
:;-:.il
, 4-SJ
,{
738 11/ PISTE GIRDEfiS ;- 1 1. 1 5 / F L A T E G T R D E R
D E S : G NE X nr . , t p l E_ L R F D 739 ( t

a
t ( t
4
i
The maximum spacingof weld segments,accordingto LRFD-E4 is ** ( ,
{tztt Lzl$lra \ t
22" f,ange' (
" -s\ lIF-6=
SPacing : 6-6h-l = .12in- I
, ,136
g wactth
t
t
!
n
(
e
*
t

(m) Flange to l{eb Connection-As72 steelregion. 4 (


t 25r* -- 9.37" Figure 11.15.4 Cross-section(trial) of (
. Min weld sizea: s in. (LRFD-Tabte J2.5) q.
s E ffective bearing stiffener at interior support.'
-' ' (
FJt ,6 s (3 /8 \ : *r
omzxctt: : 0307i:- 0'246l4' i
** b should then be (
r
J
: 22 - 0'375 (
The maximum shear flow suength requirenrentis !
b- : 10. 8in. ( say1o in. )
2 ( t
v,Q 549(1390) !

_ : .4kios,/in. i column stability criterion accordingto LRFD-KI.8, 3rd par. (Fig. 11.15.4for
I, 172,000 *
T
(
t
+: cross-section):
=).. ( ,
rvhere t'.'
i r = 0.25(20.375): 5.1 in.
f 1

Q : A/h/z + Vz) :22(t.zsXso.0zs) : 13e0in.3 t (


J .,--. KL 0. 75( 100)
; _ _ 1A 1
The design strength gRn*, for continuous fr-in. weld on both sides of the :: (
web is usingLRFD..NUMEzu'rorruoii.r";;;;, 3-36,
rind (
QR n- : 0.75(2) (0 .707)(0.246x0.6)70: 11.0 kips/in.
Q,Fn: 30.2ksi (for A36 steel) ( r
4.4
Min % conrinuousweld : (tOO) : 4l% 1098 (
,* RequiredA,,: - 36..4
sq in.
3n (
Thc maximum spacingof weld segments,accordingto LRFD-E4 is 36.4- e.37(0.375)
Requiredr = : 1 . 6 4i n . ( ;
I tzt, Lzz$/sl \ . 2(10)
( ,
" -=\ Ii ;f4 '
Spacing : 6.7h.l = 12in.
/so t Local buckling crirerion(LRFD-B5):
( ,
Ilse 16in. weld, 870 electrodes.The minimum percentageof continuousweld
e |-in. A572 Grade 50 web is summarizedin f^:=
\ + f) ^ . :
r/ \
95
" r'
,,1
9
:6:15.8,|
5 \ (
(
Fig. 11.15.6. LRFD-E4 requires at least 22% of continuous weld (11-i".
segments@ 6.7 in. maximum pitch) (
(n\ Design of Bearing Stiffener-Interior Support. As discussedin Sec.
Requiredt:fr:0.63in.
(
11.11.bearing stiffenersare generallyrequired on plate girdersat all concen- Bearingcriterion (LRFD-J8.l) using the contact areaAo6:
trated loads and reactions.Specifically,LRFD (or ASD)-Kl.8 requiresbearing (
sriffeners whenever the requirementsrelating to (a) local rveb yielding in l'oex
Reqd ^^:
APb ,it?L : -- - : ( ,
LRFD (or ASD)-K1.3, (b) web crippling in LRFD (or ASD)-K1.4, and (c)
tAo)E oJ5Ao)36 2o.3sqin.
sideswayweb buckling in LRFD (or ASD)-KI.S are not satisfied.The interior (,,
factored reaction is Ari: 2(r0
7o.s)t (
Reaction: 2(5a9) : 1098kips \est. to allowfor fillet weld
(
Bearing stiffenen should extend approximately to the edge of the flange l0'3
Requiredr : : 1'07in' ( t
plates even though not required to do so by either LRFD or ASD. The width 6
(
(
(
C
k (
74O 11lPLATE GIRD€RS

Column stability criterion governs.So as to properly distribute this reaclion,


try 4Rs- { x 10 to serveasbearingstiffeners.(Alternative,2H-s-11 x 10.)
Recheck r for column stability: o

5 r : X

,@
!
-i r.-tco
o . o
i
- : I : 5'7 ir'' > estimated5'l in' -'l-
: ^ i
1/ 20(1.?5)+ 9.375(0.37t
(t:co

6 b
,o 6,'' o)
^ 3
By inspection,column strengthis adequate. O
F
X r
IIJ
- X o
lO
Use4H-s-{ x 10 for R = 1098kips (n36 steel),as shown in Fig. 11.15.5. 9o:9 i. 9 i 9 o
-ior
( r 5 7 E;E
!( oH(9
't Vc ) =C Vl ,
C':'D C b<-
- 6 FrN s X - - : c ; ^
d: o<
:\
Stiffener o l g r ? F 9 8 . 9
plates 3 i 5fr3'r
. a C '
i( lCross section! -6iU:
;\ I
gEEE
r: r' Web,3/8"
(gtr.Y-
t\ a * 6 S
1 ==oY
ta
a l (J=(! (E
g Variable:
$
i should t
(
ia
match
Figure 11.15.5 Cross-section(frnal) of '
9rpporr
r
ri

L\
width bearing stiffener at iaterior support.
(D

Sz <l;
f

ta for BearingStiffenersto Web-


(o\ Connection
gll@
o cri
a

t' ' 10gg a


tL

s Requiredfnu: : 7.37kiPs/in. C\T o


o
Y ,6t
€ I
t
!:f
c\l

{ for eightlinesof fillet rveld(Fig.U.15.5).Use * in., with maximumeffective (.)
o
r
(o
C\I
8
:( size: 0.216and 870electrodes, asdetermiaedin part (m).Thedesignstrehgth
't' c
o
o
AR
t?
fR,*. for oneli:reof continuous weldis c, (o
;
( G $l
3 5
0Rn*: 0.75(0.?07x0.246x0-6)70 : 5.5kips/in. a
@
o u
N d,
(
a
(D
i

:)r 7.37 o/
It 6 . 4

:\ wetd-
Min %continuous : 25%
€ #(100) r o = 9

r
t
T. at Concentrated l-oads25ft from Supports.At these
..
^

o o l P ". '^- , - ?
t
tr
( o
g,
;
.J

(
Y (p) BearingStiffeners d
c i
, =
G .x

!r
locarions,checkwhetheror not the intermediatestiffeaers*ill be adequateto g
=
t
^
h
J O
i
;
o

.&
{
i' serveasbearingstiffeners.The factoredloadsWu ate o
6 & c
c
{
! o
-

r E 6 o =
I

+ 15(60): 114kips
wu: 1.2(15) : Ct\lcg
;
6 ' B
>

t r -,' l^F i @
o
o
a
)
= (9
( i c', tcg =

\ q o 6
€ E 5 g
d
( / *(5/16)(10.312s)' -
CV
- t.ot *t. o
I rolo.lzs)+ 2s(0.3125X0.3125)
I t l

( o,
LL

( KL
- : - - 30.7s(1oo)
3
( : r 2-27
(
741
a

712 11'l PI-ATEG,tsDEnS SELECTEDF:FERENCES 74s (


i
E
( :
"NUMEzuCAL VALUES" TABLE 3-36,find 11.9- Charles G. Schilling. "Web Crippling Tests on Hybrid Gir6ers," (
Using LRFD Journal of the
Stntctural Diaision, ASCB 90, STl (February Lg6;n,59_70.
+"4, : 28'9 ksi (for A36 steel) " 11.10- Phillip S. Carskaddaa."Shear Buckling of Unstiffened Hybrid Bea6s,,, Journal (
of the structural Dicision,ASCE, 94, srg (August 196g),1gos-tg90.
, A,, : t0(5/16) + 25(5/16)(5/16) : 5.51sq in. 11.11- A. An&ony Toprac and Murugesam Natarajan- "Fatigue Strength of Hl,brid
(
Plate Girders," Jolrtlal of the Strudural Diakion, ASCE,9./, ST;(April 1971), (
Q , P , : 2 8 - 9 ( 5 . 5 7 ): 1 6 1k i p s , ( l v " : 1 1 4k i p s ) oK
1ZA3-L225.
Thr * x 5 intermediatestiffenersare satisfactoryfor beari:rgstiffeneisunder 11-12. C. G. Schilling,Chairma.n."Design of Hybrid SteelBeams,"Report of (
Subcom-
mittee 1 on Hybrid Beams and Girders, Joint ASCE-AASHCj Commitree on
tbe Wuconcentratedloads. (
Flexural Membeis, Jownal of the Structural Diuision, ASCE, g{, 5T6 (June
($ DesignSketch.Every designmust have all decisionssummarizedon a
1968), L397_L426. (
designsketch, such as Fig. 11.15.6.Tbe designof the bearingstiffenersfor the 11.13- Peter B- Cooper, Theodore V. Galambos, and Mayasandra K. Ravindra ..LRFD
exterior support has becn omitted becausethe procedurehas been adequately Criteria for Plate Girders," Journol of the Struciural Diuision,ASCE, 104, ST9 (
illustrated in pars (o) and (p). The girder weight, multiplying a plate cross- (September1978),1389-1402.
sectionalarea by 3.4 to getLb/it, is (for one span): ( t
11.1.4.John L. Dawe and Goeffrey L. Kulak. ..Local Buckling of .W Shape
Columns
: 93.5(40) : 3,7q and Beams," Journ&l of structwar Engineeing, ll0, 6 (June Lgg4), L2g2_r304. (
A512plates:1l x 22x 20' 11.15- Clnthia I. zahn- "Plate Girder Design Usiag LRFD," Engineiring
I x 100xzo' :127.5(2U' : 2,550 AISC, 24, I (First Quarter L9g7),11-20.
Journa!,
(
A36piates: 1l x 24X 80' : 91.8(160): 14,688 11.16. Konrad Basler. "New
Provisionsfor Plate Girder Design," proceedings,AISC
: 1 0 6 . 2 ( 8 0 ): 8 , 5 0 0 (
frx100x80' Construction,1961,65-74.
Stiffeners:' *xS x 8 . 3 3X 3 8 : 5 . 3 1 ( 8 . 3 3 ) 3 8 : 1 , 6 8 2 ('
11'12 AISI. "Proposed Citeria for Load and ResistanceFactor Design
X 4:2l.ls1s.::)4: 991 of Stcel
I x to x 8.33 Building Structures," Butletin No. 27. 1ry35hington,DC: american Iron
and
(
Total : 32,151lb Steel Institute, January 1978.
11.18. George S. Vincent- "Tentative (
Criteria for Load Factor Dcsign of SteelBridges,,,
Averageweight : 321lb/ft. Bulletin No. i,5. V/ashington, DC: Americ"n Iron and Steel Institute, ll{arch (
1969.
11.19. Konrad Basler. "strength of Plate GirCers Under Combined Bend.ing (
and
S E L E C T E DR E F E R E N C E S Shear," Journal of the structural Diuision, ASCE, g?, sr?
loctober 1961), (
18i-197. see also Transactions, ASCE l2g (1963),part II, 720-:i3s.
li.i. I-hcrn:rsC. Sbedd. StructuralDesignin Steel. New York: John Wilcy & Sons, LL.20- Peter B. Cooper. "strength of Longitudiouily Stiffened plate Girders,,, (
Jaunia!
!::c.. i93.1,Cbap. 3. of the structural Diuision, ASCE,93, sr2 (Apnl Lg67),4r9-451.
. Ll. ,:..1.i'inFL Gavlord, Jr. and CharlesN. Gaylord, Daign of SteelSrructures. New 11'21' M- A. D'Apice, D. J. Fielding, a36 P. B. Cooper. "staric Tests on Longirud"i^
(
\/ork: \{cGrae-Hill Book Conpany, Inc., 1957,Chap. 8. nally Stiffened Plate Girders," Wetding Resiarch Council Bulletin No. II7,
(
ri.-r. iicrraci tsasier."strength of Plate Girders in Shear,"Transactions, ASCE" 128, October 1966- Also, Strength of Plate Girders with Longirudinal
Sti,{fenerc,
.);:t iI (1963).683-7i9. (Also as PaperNo.2967, Jountalof the Structwal Bulletin No. 16, Americ:n Iron and Steel Inctitutc, April ib6e, eaper No. (
III.
D:r'isicn,ASCe October1961.) (Includes historical survey and bibliography on longitudinaily
stiffened plare_...
ii.4. i. L_'-seand H. J. Godfrey.
"I-avestigationof \\'cb Buckling in Steel Bea.trrs," 1L.22. Task Committee on Longitudinally Stifflned plate Girdcrs (
of the ASCE-
Tratsactions,ASCE" 100 (1935),675-7M. AASHTO Committeeon FlexuralMembersof the Committeeon Met:,^
"Tbeory of tbe (
"Web Design Under CompressiveEdgeLoads," Engineeringlour- Suuctural and Design of Longitudirallv Stiffened flare
11.5. lvI. Elgaaly. Pitr*
(iirders," Journal of the Structural Diuision,
nal, AISC, 20, 4 (Fourth Quarter 1983),153-171. AScf t0a, itq (Apni l97g), (
"Collapse of Plate Girders Under 697_7L6.
11.5. Terence M. Roberts and Chooi K- Chong.
'LL'23' Boris Bresler, T. (
Edg': Load:ng," Journal of the Structural Diuisicn,ASCE, 107, ST8 (August Y- Ll4 and John Scalzi Design of Stcel Structures,;nd ed.
iqti),1503-1509 New York: John Wiley & Sons,Inc., 196g, pp. iSt_SS+.
(
11.?. Koarad Basler. "strength of Plate Girders in Bending." Transactioru,ASCE, 11.24' omer w. nt_{ry1 Designof wetded stiituro. creveland,
ohio: James F.
128, Part II (i963), 655-686. (Also as PaperNo. 2913, Journalof the Srractural Lincoln Arc Wetdiog Fouadation, 1966. (
Diuision, ASCE, August 1961.) L1.25. cbarles G. Schilling "optirnurn proportions for
I-sbape,JBe,,rns,,,Journar of
11.8. Ronald W. Frost and Charles G. Schilling. "Behavior of Hybrid BeamsSub- the stntctwar Diulsion,ASCE, too, si:z
@ecember u1+1.23g5-2401.
(
jccted to Static Loads," Journal of the StructuralDivision,ASCE 90, ST3 (June L1'26' Abul K' A?ad. "Continuo* Sgl l-Girders:
optimum proportioni ng," Jou.rnal (
1.954),55-88. of the structwal Diuision,AscE, 106, sr?
lrury uaoy, 1543-1555.
I' (
I
l.t
(
(
C
( 744 11/ PT.ATE
GTRDERS
(
( "Design and Optimization of Plate Girders and Weld-
1L.27. Walter H. Fleiscber.
fabricaterl Beams for Building Construction," EngineeringJournal, AISC, 22' 1
(
(First Quarter 1985),1-10.
"Least Cost Computer-aidedDesign
,( 11.28. Katberine E Anderson and Ken P. Chong.
of Steel Girders," Engineeing Jwraal, AISC' 23, 4 (Fourth Quarter 1986)'
( 1 5 1 - 15 6 .
,(
;' (
:
( PROBLEMS
'(
All problems are to be done according to the AISC Load and Resistance
All
Factor Design or Ailowable StressDesi3n,as indicated by the instructor'
given loads are service loads unless other*'ise indicated. A design sketch
ihou1ng all decisionsis requiredin all designproblems.
OJ

Analysis
11.1. (This problem solutionis used for Probs.11.2 to 11.6-)A plate girder €
iuppoit"a as shorvnmusi carry a deadload of 2ktps/ft and live load of
8 ici-ps/ft, not including the girder weight. In addition, a concentrated
dead load of 100 kips must be carried at the end of the cantilever.
Compute and draw to scale for later use the moment and shear
envelopesfor this girder.

1 0 0k
(deadtoad)
_€

:**

.=! I
-,.iF
A s c r m e g i r d e rw e i g h t i s 3 9 0 l b / f t
' .r1;
;: I
I g)
prob. 11.1
-$ :)
o

.-:€. Gl

11.2. (Use results of Prob. 11.1.)For the givenplate girder designedfor the ,{€-
conditions of Prob. 11.1, compute and draw to scale the moment th
s
* o
capacity diagram, $Mn for LRFD (or allowable moment FuS' f9r _=rg
.'f

nSpt vs location alonf span. Neglect any reduction that might result
from combined sbear and moment interaction according to LRFD'Ap- .-s
pendix G5 or ASD-G5. Compare capacity w{th moment'€nvelope .
-
*1F-
-:1

rS
requirernentsfrom Prob. 11.1.
l{lEi
tr
-:*.
' '-:*t:

'e
'1_:
745
746 11/ PLATE
GIRDERS (
PROBLEMS 747
(
11.3. (Use resultsof Prob. 11.1.)For the glven plate girder,computeand * (c) Investigatethe adequacyof the size of intermediate (
draw to scale the shear capacity diagram, qVn fot LRFD (or allowable stiffeners.
(d) Investigate the adequacy pf the size (
of the bearing stiffener
shear FuA*.for ASD) vs location along span base/ on location of (2PLs- | x S) ar rhe support.
intermediate stiffeners. Neglect any consideration of combined shear. (e) Specify the flange-to-webconnecdon. (
and bending moment under LRFD-Appendix G5 or ASD-G5. Com- (0 specify the connection for intermediatestiffeners.
pare shearcapacity with shearenveloperequirementsfrom Prob. 11.1. (
(g) specify the connection for the support
bearing stiffener.
r 1.4. (Use resultsof Prob. 11.1.)Investigatecombinedshear.and moment
+ (
11'8' Using the given information concerningth: portion
strengr.hby checkinginteractionrelationshipat all critical locations. of the plate girder,
* determine how close stiffener .B must 6. to itiffener (
c I in order for the
11.5. (Use results of Prob. 11.1.) Compute and draw to scale the shear * design to be acceptable according to Load and Resistance (
Factor
capacity diagrarq, Q,Vnfor LRFD (or allowableshearFuAn for ASD) .l-
Design.
vs location along spil, for the girder bosedon theflange-to-*ebconnec- {E
(
tion. t-z$xzo
r r.6. (Use resultsof Prob. 11.1.)Checkthe adequacyof eachof the bearing -* (
stiffeners,including connectionto the web.
Given: Steel,F" = 50 ksj. (
*
E
',.t-$ xzo
11.7. Given the data for the 50-ft simply supportdd sp&, having lateral hlt = 243
support at the ends and at the concentratedloads located 18 ft from
. I = 157,40Oin.a (
: R"oF", = 48 ksi according
eachend; to LRFDAppendix G2 (
(a) Investigate the acceptability of the 84in. spacing for stiffener
panel 4. (',
t- z$xzo
(b) Investigatecombinedshearand bendingat its most critical location 12,800 tt-kips (
in the girder.
7000ft-kips Factored {
moment M,{.
(
E6ndingmornenl
Z ts -
stiffeners
Eearing
I
xe ( ,
0 8 k,/ft DL. 1.9 k/ft LL ozor (
Factored
3earingstiffeners Shear shear V, (
zts-ftxc zqs-]xe z1s-ftxa
P r o b .1 1 . 8 (
(
11'9' Using the giveninformationconcerningthe portion (
of the plate girdc;,
determine horv closestiffener ^Bmust i. to itiff.n.,
50'-0" simple span ,4 in order for rlre (
design to be arceptable accord.ingto Load
and Resistance Facror
rJeslgn. (
n--tx zo
11.10.Giv_enthe plate girder interior panel as ( ,
shown,of 436 material.
ftxzo (a) Disregardingcombined Uenaingand
Lateralsupporl shear, derermine the sh:ir
occurs al ends and l': 46'5csin '' strength r', (kips) of the given paner.what percent (
at concentratedroads- A36steel
of the capaci:y
representselastic buckling strength and what percent (
" tension-field comes from
n--f;xzo action"?
(b) (
Prob. 11.7
lf M.J+u^: 0.92 ar rhe extremefiber of rhe web, whar is the
. design shearstrength0rl" (kips)? ( i

( t
( t
(
C
\ 748 1I // PI-ATEGIRDEBS ,PROBLEMS
( 749

(
t-zlxza (b) lv{oment and shear en"elopes are to be
drarvn to scale.
( (c) For continuousgirders. use f,: j0 ksi in the negati'c
moilrc,ntzone and
A36 in the positive ittul:ellt zone. For staticallf
( t h e s t e e l s p r - ' c i f i e idn i l e p r r , b l c m .
ciercrminatc
---""'!Y o
girdcrs
rlu\ usc
Given: Sieel, F, = 50 ksi -,"i
( t-$xsz ( d ) consider- in. as the ni:nimun: rieb rhickness
I A
hlt - 245 available.
/ = 303,3O0 in.' (e) Fo]]ow the proportionineguidelines
( of chaprer 11. unless5.ouclcarrr
R ooFr,: 48 ksr accordtng indicatethat you are ccine othenr-ise
Determine
t c L R F D - A p p e n d i xG 2 for a specificsratedrerson.
( max. spacing (f) Use ,436steelfor stifieneisif possible.
(g) Specifyintermittent*'clding for conncctions
if any'rnaterial sa'ing rcsuirs.
( 2Q,1lrCIft-kiPs eventhou-*ha cost anal_r'sis
t- zlxza may later dictaie.onrinrous*.eldi'g.
( h ) Submit deslgnsketchto approximare
( 13,600 ft'kiPs Factored
scarecn g* x tl papersho*.ingari
rncment M
final decisicns.
( (i) Compute the total al'etage*eig.ht per foor
of rhe girder. ' 'r'Lrsv
includins all
( Bendingmoment stiffeners.
(j) For the twospan coniinuousgirder designs.
assumeone spliceis requii-ctJ i'
( eachspan . An) 'ext r a buit - w'er ded
f lJn_se spiice( t r i. c. , t angcs)shour dbc
Slope65k/tt' rrcatedas adding r0 rb./fr ro the a\.erageweight.(This
( 720 k *.i, .ppri*i,,^,rr"
the addedcostefiectof -suqhsplices.)rvlu sptil.,
Faclored in .*..rs of onc requii.c.cl
( shear Y per span shourd be consideredas adding
6 rb/ft ro rhe "r;rrg;;r;.;
weight.
(' Prob. 11.9

( 11.12.For the caseindicatedbv the instructor.


designa simply supporicd
I-shapedplate girder "rorl-r..,ion and specifv
( rhe locationand sizeof
intermedialestiffeners- omir designof connecrions and bearinf stiffcn-
( . ers. The cross-sectionis to be constant o,,,erthe
entire t.ngtf;. Usc l
depth as dictatedb1, rhe optimum dcprh equations
(' discussedin scc.
11.14-The girder musr carry a unifoim dead ioad
of 0.5 *p/ft in
(- Prob.11.10 \' addition ro rhe girder u.eig_ht.

( ' 11.11.The cross-section near the end of a simply supportedgirderconsistsof


flangeplates,1| x 18,and a web plate. I x 90 (I :735,780 in.o).The
(' Span Lii'e Loading yieid Srress
giider is of A36 steeland has lateral support of the compressionflange
Case ( ft) (kips/ft) (ksi)
( ' every 14 ft. LateralSupporr
(a) Determine the servicemoment capacity of this seciionif the loading
(' 1 6 0 3 36
is 70% live load and 30% dead load. Cont inuous
2 7 0 3 50
( (b) Determine the marjmum distance fron the reacticn to the first Evcry 17.5ft
.3 80 3 60
intermediatestiffener if the end reaction is 120 kips dead load and Evcry 20 fr
( 4' 60 5 36
200 kips live load. Every 20 fr
5 7 0 5 50
(' (c) Using E70 electrodes,determine the necessaryfiange to rveb weld- Evcry 11.5f t
6 8 0 5 60
ing in the end panel. If intermittent n'eldiag can be used,indicate Evcry 20 fr
r\ the length of weld segmentand the pitch distance.
7 9 0 36 Evcry 15 fr
-..5
( ' -,&
Deslgn
( ' 11.13.For the case.assigledbr the insrrucror,
The following requirementsapply to all design problems: :
.it
compreterl,design a n+,o_'p(ltt
continuousgirder, including bearing stiffeneri and
( all connections.In
(a) Consider live load to be applied as Decessaryto give matimum range of addition to the uniform lcad.rng.tolo .o"..ntrared
ioads llt {6a% dead
( ' interaal forces (mcments and shears). ,._€ load, 40%live load) are !'rca:edar ihe distancea
,* from eachcnd in each
' ( rz{.t;
tr
*€
. - 4
t U,
i.

750 | | /
i nr a ?-
Y'.-J^.t =
^166rn^
\tlnLJC.nJ
t :
t.,
ii a,
t.
( r

span. Laieral support is provided at all I'ertical supports,at concen-


trateCloaCs,and at the inten'alsindicatedover the lnterior of the spans. Chapter12
wD wL
Dead Live Span

Case
Load
(kiplft)
Load
(ktp/tt)
Length
(fr)
fv
/f

(kips)
a
(fr)
Laterai i
t ,
GornbinedBending
Support t.:
rt.
t-.
I
and Axial Load
1 1.25 2.25 140 60 35 Every35 ft lii

2 1.25 ))\ 125 60 25 Every25 ft


lii
t:
l;_J

3 1.25 2.25 130 70 30 Even:25ft i"r


(for Case3" only one concentratedload at 30 ft from exterior supports)
4 1.00 2.50 100 100 2A Every30 ft I
t-.

5 0.80 3.00 100 80 Z0 Every30 ft


l r
t..
5 0.80 _?.00 125 0 Every25 fr I .

7 0.80 4.00 125 0 Every25 ft


'0 I
; ,. '\
8 1.25 2.2s 200 Continuous t - .

e 1.25 2.25 200 0 Every 40 ft a


:-
12.1 INTRODUCTION

Nearly all membersin a structureare subjectedto both benrting moment


Revlew of Theory and
axial load-either tensionor compression.When the magnitudJ of one
or the
other is relatively small its effect is usually neglected and the member
11.14.Explain the physicalsignificanceof the following C" valuesfor shear is
designedas a beam,as an axially loaded column, 6, ", a tension member.
in plate girciers.Describethe limit state based on shear strength in For
many situationsneither effect can properly be neglectedand the
eacir cf the follorving categories:(a) C, < 0.8; (b) 0.8 < C, < 1.0; behavior
(c) C. > 1.0 under the combined loading must be considered il design. The
member
subjectedto adal compressionand bending is referred to as a beam-columtt,
11.15.What is the specificbehaviorthat is preventedwhen h/t* is kept below and is the major element treated in thiJ chapter. The general subject
s7a/.,4 rot LRFDor 760/fi roi espt of
strength and stability considerationsand design proceduresfor beam-columns
11.16.Show br: a diagram of forces io equilibrium why stiffener spacing has been extensivelytreated by Massonnet
[12.1] and Austin [l2.z!, and a
requiren:nts are.differentfor end panelsand panelscontaining large recent summary is given in the S.SRCGuide
t6.g].
holes ri:al they are fcr interior panelsof a plate girder. Sincebending is involved,all of the factors consideredin Chapters7 and
9 apply hcre also; particularly,ths stability related factors, such as lateral-tor-
11.1?.ConsiCerthe LRFD-AppendixGl or ASD-G1 limitation on the clear sional buckling and.local.buckliagof compressionelements.When bending
Cisrancebetweenflanges. is
combined rvith axial tension,the chanceof insrabiliry is reduced and yield.ii:g
(a) Sho;' the stresscondition on the web plate thar gives rise to the usually governs the design.For bending in combinutioo with axial
limitaiion equation. .o*pr.r-
sion, the possibility of instability is incr-ased r*ith all of the considerations
(b) St:ie explicitlywhat the number16.5in the equationmeans. of
Chaptcr 6 applying. Furthermore,when axial compressionis present,
(c) If ;i."t* equalsthe limit value,sho*'the effectivegirdercross-section a sec-
ondary bending moment arisesequal to the axial compressiooior*
thtr might be usedto computemoment capacitl.. times the
deflection.
1 1 . 1 8 o. n a c l a t c g i r d e rw i t h { r : 5 0 k s i , i f t h e w e bl t / t * : 1 8 5 , w h a r q i l l A number of categoriesof combined bending and axial load
along wiih
happen to the girder before the nominal moment strengthis reached? the likely mode of failure may be summarizedas ?oilows:
Particul:rly describewhat happensin a panel betweenintermediate l. Axial tensionand bending;failure usuany by yielding.
stiffeners where the moment is high and the shear is low. Be specific ' 2' Axial compressionand bending about o"r *ir; failuri by
and use a sketch. instability in
the plane of bending, without twisting. (Transversely ioaded
. beam-

751
(
( , I

tr AND BENDING
EQUATIONFORAXTALCOIJPtrESSIOf{
12.2/ DTFFERENTTAL 753
( ' 12lCOMSINED LoAD
ANDAXIAL
BENDING
I

(-;
buckling are an ; rlrembcr to deflect ,v giving rise to a seccndrrr\ntontent P-v.Stating thc
( ' columns that are stablewith regar,Cto lateral-torsional givcs
nroment I{- at the location ; of Fig. 12.2.1.
( ' example of this category')
the strong axis: failure by
3. Axial compression'undbending about d: i'
/111r\
( ' lateral-torsionalbuckling' itl. : . 1 / , + P l . : EI \ L L ' - ' ' I

stiff sections;fail- ; :

( " Axial compressionan,l Ui*iut bending-torsionally


4. shapesare
,;;1y initability in one of the principal directions' {W for sections rvith constant E/. and dividingby E/ givcs
( ' usuallYin this category') ., . open sectlons; ]!,
5. Axial compression-.na bi&'dal bending-thin-wailed rveak
d2r' P
(12.2.?)
( and bendlng on these torsionaily
failure by combinedtrvisting d : - EI . EI
( sections.
6. Axial compression, biaxial bending.and torsion; failure by combined For design purposes. tlie generai expressionfcrr r.rontent .ll, is of greater
( doesnot contain the shear
twisting and bcndingrvhenplaneoI bending Eq. 72.2.2ts'ice gives
rmportance than the deflection l'. Differentiating
( center. do.r' P djr 1
t
) -^f
u -rl ,
no simple designprocedureis - + : - - (17.2.3)
.r Becauseof the numberof faiiure modes, 4-a
* t "

EI 4-Z
Design proceduresgenerallyare in Ll d:-
a likely ro accoun, io. ru.t varied behavior.
( combinedstress;(2) semi-empirical
one of rhree ..,.iorl.t: (1) limitation on Fronr Eq. 12.2.1,
based on rvorking stress procedures. and (3) semi-
( interaction formulas, d :,tl
,tr.ngth' ti*itutions on combined d'), I'l . ,it l'
empirical interaction proceduresbasedoi
I
- .-,1 ---;- ,
t( stress ordinarily cannot provide a proper criterion unless instability is pre-
Interaction equations-99*t closer to
dzz
:
EI d:a a d:'
vented, or large safety factors ut. us.d.
ir describing the true beharior since they
account-for the stability situations Substitutionin Eq. 12.2.3gives
formulas for beam-columns
commonly .n.ouni.red. The AISC Specification 1 d2M . P 7 d2.Lt.
are of the interactiontype in both Load
and Resistance Factor Design and - E r d f * - tI _ 1- , 1t. \
E/\ EI J EI d: -
Allowable StressDesign'
or. simplifyingand lettingk2 : P/Er.
FOR
EOUATION
12.2 DIFFERENTIAL
ANDBENDING (12.2.1)
axfaucoruPnEsstoN
basic situation of case2' Sec' 12'1'
In order to understandthe behavior,the rvhichis of the sameform as the deflectiondifferentialcquation.F-q.1-.-.-.
pla'e of bending is assumed'
wiil be treated. Failure by instabilii' in the The homogeneous solutionfor Eq. 72.2.4is
wheie the lateral loading w(e) in
Consider the generalcaseof Fig. ti.Z.t,
Mr an{ M2, coostitute the primary trI': ,1 sin k; * B cosA;
combination with any end moments,
is a function of z. The pti*ury moment causesthe
bending moment i{ which .r. first discussedin Sec.6.2.To thismustbe addedthe particuiarsolutiontltat
riili satisfythe right-handsideof the differentialequation.Since M,: lttl.
,.ihere
tt
ttr2 /(a) is usuallya polynomiaiin z. the particularsolutionrvill be of the
\ ume form; thus the completesolutionmay be n'ritten

f--i'--
<-*P+ Z
I /1 -'' a < \
M.: A s i n k z* B c c sk z + f r ( : ) \ LL.L.J )
Sign convention

r'- '--- nhcre fr(z\: vaiue of M, satisffing F4. 12.2.4.When ;1/- is a continuolrs

r--
.*v
f.._

dz2 iunction,the maximumvalue of. il'l-ma1'befound by differentiation:


dM" dfJ:)
0 : Ak cosft; - Bk sinA-; (12.2.6)
rl r ,l:
Figure 12.2..1 Geoeraiioadiag sf $sam-column'
U'

754 12/ COMBTNED


BENDTNG
ANDAX|ALLOAD 12.2/ DIFFERENTIALEOUATIONFOR AXIAL COMPRESSION
AND BENDING 755
C
( \

Eq. f2.2.+ becomesa homogeneousequation,in which case


(
For most ordihary loading cases,such as concentrated loads, uniform /r(z) : 0 for Ee.
loads, end moments, or combinations thereof, it may be shown that 12.2.5.The maximum moment, Eq. 12.2.9,is (

#:,
in which casea generalexpressionfor maximum M,can be establisbed;from
Mr^u:'fffi
The constants I and B are evaluatedby applyrngthe bouadary cond"itionsto
(12.2.rr) (
(

4. L2.2.5.The generalequation is (
Eq. 12.2.6,
Mr: .,{sin kz + B coskz {
Ak coskz : Bk sin kz
A and the conditions are (

tankz:E (r2.2.7) (
* ( 1 ) a tz : A , Mr: Mt
s
L'

At maximumM,, .E (
A B ...8 : Mr . (',
Si-kz::- CCSk3:: (12.2.8) *
5
,/A2+8"' ,lA2+82 * (2)atZ:L, Mr: Mz
E
(
and substitution of Eqs. 12.2.8into Eq. 12.2.5grves , Mz: ,{ sin kL + MrcoskL (
.,^\
trz 3z M2 - Mrcos kL
---F ;':. (
.'.4 -
: T -
. rr.:mat T !l\. t
vA"+82'{f;v ,d
sin kI, (
+
:tfffiz +fr(r) (17.2.e) j

{
3
rF so that \
It is noted that wheneverdfr(z)/e + 0, Eq. 12.2.i must'be solved for kz
I M" - M,coskL\
.d
,- (
and the result substitutedinto Eq. L2.2.5. M': * Mrcoskz (12.2.12)
I
t *A-Jsinkz
I t ,
Case 1 - Unequal End Moments Wlthout Transverse Loadlng : (
Referring to Fig. 72.2.2,the primary momeot M, may be expressed (
- trtrcoskLi?
*
t
M " ^ .V,l l :tM-, .
. r {M
i : t .r y z (r?-z.n) et
"ii
)**i \
?
I
(
Since
.: L - z(Mr/ Mr)ns /ct + (Ur/Ur)' {
o'!,,: .,7
:MZ (12.2.13)
2-
o :i:
sin2&l
(
,4.'

(
Case 2 - TransverseUnlformLoadlng
(
Referringto Fig. 72.2.3,the primarymomenrM, ma1'be expressedas
(
M - .\ (tz.z.t+t (
i'Q-
(

P (
_L.+@
Secondary rmrcnt,Py
. trTt (
2-t!^ns'erse
Figure 12-2.2 Case l-ead moments without tmnsverseloading. . J lffiili3;l"!.*" (
( )
( ,
('
(
r2.3/MOMENTMAGN|flCAT|ON-STNGLECURVATURE
737
( ' 756 12/ coMBtNED ANDAxIALLOAD
BENDING

('
Case3 - EqualEnd MomentsWithoutTransyerseLoading'
( Since (SecantFormula)
d2ttti
( that .[/, : M2: M in Fig.12.2.1.
Consider in whichcaseEq. l2.z.l3becones
f:-lY
(
is required' Let
"ffr(z) * 0; the particulal solution for the differentialequation M, ^^t: M ( 12 . 2 . 1i;
( the particularsolutioninto
,it>: Cr * irz; i.e.,any Pollnomial. Subsritute
\,

( Eq. 12.2.4.

(
a'[/'!')J
:o - lLil t
2(1 - cos&I- )
:M(
i j
dz' 1 - cos2i<l l, coskLi2 |
( KL
0+fr2(Cr+Crz):-, - M secT (12.2.1r)
\ Thus
( Ct : - u'/k2 Loading a beam-columnwith constant moment over its length causesa
( constant compressionalong one entire flange and constitutesthe most seyere
t
_Cr:0 loading on.sucha member.In view of this it rvould alu'aysbe conservati!'ero
( Equation 72.2.5then becomes multiply the maximum primary moment due to anj loading bv seckLi?.
(12.2.15) rvhich is excessivelvconservativein most cases.
( Llr: ,{ sin kz + Bcoskz - w/kz
('
Applying the boundarYcoaditions,
12.3 MOT'TENT
MAGNIFICATION- SIMPLTFIED
TREATMENT
t ( l ) a tz : 0 , Mr:o FORMEMBERS IN SINGLECURVATURE
\ WITHOUTENDTRANSLATION
0:B-nt/kz
( As an alternateto the differentialequation approach,a simple approximate
. . . 8 ,: w / k z
( procedureis satisfactoryfor many common situations.
( 2) at z : L, It{ ,: g Assume a beam-columnis subject to lateral loading rr'(z) that causesa
( deflection 6o at midspan,'as shown in Fig. 12.3.I. The secondarybending
( 0 : Asinlct + |.o, kL - +
K-
ntoment may be assumedto vary as a sine cun'e, rvhich is nearly correct for
k'
\ w l1-cos/cl\
( .'..4- .l----l
kt\ sinkl, I
(
Since dfr(z)/dz: 0, Eg- 17-2.9givesmaximummoment' I=+:;L6=:
l-,J i,
i\
ll, ^o = Mo t P/n,
u)
( M,^, t,
( Primary trnding mcment *1.
wl kL \
( : - l,, A',sumeas
k'lsecT i;ne curvg
( Seccndarybending moment Py

:Tlm]l'*z-t,|
l:;
wLzl 8 \t kL \
( .(12.2.16) Centroid ot shadedarea

(
magnificatior f a.tor ds€ Frgure12.3.1 Prigary and secondarybending loomeot.
( ro axial comprcssior

(
758 12/ CAMAIT{ED AND AXIALLOAD
B:NDTNG
12.3i MO[.,{ENT
MAGhIFICAT|ON
_ SINGLECURVATURE 759 ( ,

memberswith no end restraintwhoseprimary bendingmoment and deflection TABLE12.3.1 SUGG€STED VALUES


FORCmFORSTTUATTONS
i ,
. (
are ma.ximumat midspan. WITHNO JC:NTTRANSLATION8
The portion'of the midspandeflectiooy., due to the secondarybending
moment, equals the rnomentof the LI/EI diagram betweenthe support and c^ [ ;
Case (positive) (negative Primary Bending Momeni
midspan (shadedportion of Fig. 12-3.1)taken about the support, accordingto moment) moment) (
the moment-areaprinciple: t,
ti
I
P /
\ p
(';
T/'i----:?
' ( N - \ R ' {T' 1 + 0.2d
f-i--l^r-
P
t, : Ei(r' + u.)trIL\2IL\
);\;):
PL2
( - y r+ 6 o )
;'i.
(12.3.1) (

or P M^
( ,
z -
- w P
[TITITT'Tirn1rrI- . 1.0
G ,-.\r ( r
! r : ( f r + 6 . )rc+ (12.3.2)
(
M ^ i
rvhereP, : n2E I / L2. Solwngfor yr, 3 1 - 0.2a
_z+__ i
(.,
, ,:- ^oolt
l _ P/'' / _ \
l -: ^oo\ " ( ,
)'r (12.3.3)
e7r,l 1 "/ 4 1 - 0.3c I - 0.4o (
rvherea: P/P,. Since/."" is the sum of 6o and y1,
(-r
6o M ^ j
)r"",:6o*1:6o*6.{'J-) (12.3.4) t
P P
I - 0.4 1 - 0.4o ,, (
l - c
\ r - d l
Z:\ ( ,
The maximum bendingmomeot including the axial effect becomes
o
M,*: Ma* P!^^, (12.3.5) b
P 7"'
\-.....,_
1 - 0.4c 1 - 0.3o
('',
-z-

Substituting the expressionfor y,o,, in Eq. 12.3.5and setting P : &P": {


arzEl7L2, Eq. 12.3.5may be written as the primary moment Mo multipiied M ^ i (t
7
b1' a magnificationfactor Br; thus P 1 - 0.6a -
-.+. i
z--\
| v-zd

tr{ r^ -: M o Bt (12.3.6)
i
I
(

0 M_
( ,
P\
c^ 8
f-t M ^ -T E q .( 1 2 . 3 . s ) nol
available ('
where BL (r2.3.7) M^* Me M"'
1 - a (
uAdaptcd
from AISC Comoea,:ry.-TableC-Hl.1
[1.6, 1.16]. (
and c^:t.(#- 1)":1**q (12.3.s)
(',
ning with the 19E0 AISC Manual. It is noted that the
For usual casesof singlecun'ature. the rnrgnificarioniactor 13, to be magnification of (',
negative moment is necessaryin order to maintain zero slope
applied to the primary bendingmoment is equai iir i,,,.,'i.1- or). ltigorous at the fixed
supports when the beam deflecs in the positive moment iegion. ( "
difierentialequationsolutionsfor Cases1 to 7 shoi'.'nin Table 12.3.1are Fron a
practical point of vtew it is doubtful that zlro slope is maintained;
ar.-.lablein Timoshenkoand Gere[6.6?,Chap.1]. Calculrtionof approxinra- thus, the (;
negativemoment magnificationis probably overestimated.
tions of C- in the form of Eq. 12.3.Ehn'e been made by Yura, whose
The reader may not'ethat C- will be close to 1.0 for all casesbecausc (,
calculationsare presentedby Iwankiw [12.3]. a
rarely will exceedabout 0.3, For this reasonLRFD and ASD-HI permit
The approximatevaluesfor C- for positivemomentshorvnin Table 12.3.1 using
are computed using Eq. 12.3.8 and they are in general agreementwith
c^: 1-0 for u*estrrined ends. For restrainedends. c - 0.s5 i; permitted; i
horvever,this low value is generallyunconservative.The use of the values
theoretical results even though Eq. 12.3.8 is derived using a sine curve from \ i
Table 12.3.1 sarisFrestbe LRFD and ASD-HI indication that
deflection.The negativemomentvalueshave been includedby AISC begin-
determinedby ratioaal anelysis." e..may be ( ;
(',
r')
('t
f
r
t .
12.4/ [4Oh{eNTMAGN|FICATION
_ Er.lDMOMENTSONLY
12 I' COMBINED BENDINGAND AXIAL LoAD 761
I

(
12.4 MOI,IENTMAGNIFICATIbN
_ TUEMBERS
SUBJECT
ts EX{TITPLE T23.7
( TO ENDMOMENTSONLY;NO JOTNT TRANSLATTON
Comparethe differentialequationmagnificationfactoi for the loadingof Fig.
( 12.2.3,Eq. i2.2.16, with the approximatevalue,Eq' 12'3'?' For the situation shorvnin Fig. 12.2.2.u'hich has no transvcrseloa<ling.
rhc
, ( therrrcticrlma-rin:ummomenl is givenby Eq. 12.2.13.
: r SOLUTION
For the differential equation,
t
(ttrtttr)=- z(4)it.l*t tt * t
( M,*n : Mzrf
- y
facror:
B, : magnification - t) (.) s i n 3k L [12.2.13]
( Gh(r..T
For this situation the marimum momentmay be eirher (1)
('r u'here the rargerencr
nromenrJy'' at rhebracedlocation(Fig. 12.a.ta).or (2) the magnificd
t.f r
P x r iorlr.n,
|\
tl
- : -
Lr tJ
: sivenbl' Eq. 17.7.13rvhichoccursat variouslocationsout alon!
the span(Fig.
a
Z
"
L
)
E Luo 12.4-l b). depend ing on t her at io M Jlvl2 and t he'alue of c, sincekL: ; r d.
( i In order to make an analvsis,one needsto knot. whether
For the approximatesolution, the maximunr
( inomcnt occurs at a location a*'ay from the support. and
if so. the correcr
Jistance'To eliniinatethe needfor suchinfor*ution. the concept
( "D t -- 1C - ^o
of equi'ale't
uniformmoment(Fig. 12-4.1c) is used.Thus*'hen in'estigarinia memberar e
( Ir,,--ationalvay from the supportedpoint, use of rhe cqui.alent
Sv,La wLz momcnr
a.s.sumes ,l/_-*-. tO be at midSpan.
( 6o: Mo - To establishthe equivalentrnoment Mr. ret the
3g4F; T sorurionfor uniform
' ( moment,Eq. 12-2.17 rvith M : M6, be equarJdir-ithEq. r2.2.r3.one
6 o = 5L2 obrains
( Mo 48EI ! (lL,I/M)' - Z(Mr/M)cos kL + l
Itf, = I[r1f ( r 2 . 4 .)1
( ll 2( l - coslll )
(
( 1 + 0.028a (b)
B,' : --T- .;
( l - c 1 . 1 .< M 2 l c r M, ,rn ) llz
all values ot o

( seckL/2 E q ' (a) Eq.(b)


(
0.1 1.137 1.1i4 1.114
i ( 4.2 1.310 1.257 1.257 '
-*: '; t Maximura moment at ends
1t'
(b) fulaximummcment,',ot at ends
0.3 1.533 1.M7 1.141
" (
0.4 1.832 1.686 1,685 . t7:

( 0.5 2.252 2.030 2.028 .i

0.6 2.884 2.546 2.542


( 4fL

0.7 3.941 3.405 3.399


( 0.8 6.058 5.125 5.712 s
0.9 12.419 10.284 10.253 4*
( {c} Equivalentuniform moment lvith
maximum magnifiedmoment at miCspan
( 'ttf ctQure12'4'1
Obviously, there is no significant differencebetrveenthe differentialequation Primary plus secondarybending moment for men:bers
( nomcnts only. subjcctcdto encl
I :f,
solution and the approximatesolution for this case' '--**
-tt
ff

( =-#
t .:.# i
eg
, ( F
;Eis
762 1,2 C}fu1e,ii.i[DBENDING AND AXLALLOAD 12.4/ MOMENT _ EfiDr.,toMENTS
tJAcNrFlcATloit ONLY 763 (
/
''
(
-,
By the procedureused in Example 12.3-1 it may be shown that for
Equation 12-4-5doesnot considerlateral-torsional
buckling,or fully cor.er (
the double-curvaturecasesrvhereMr/Mr lies betrveen-0.5
uniform moment, the magnification factor is obtained from Eq' 12'2'18: and -1.0. Tlie {'
actual faiiure of membersbent iri double curi,arurervith behding
k L 1 momenr
(12.4.2) ratios -0.5 to -1.0 is generallyone of "unwinding,,through (
B,' : sec;- fro* d";i;;;
z r - a single curvature in a suddentype of buckling,* iir.ussed
by Ketrer I12.41. (,,
among others.
and using the equivalentuniforrn moment !t!, to replaceM, and M2, the fuil Austin 172-21has discussedproposalsof lvia:sonner
marimum moment maYbe exPressed as - - [12.1] and Horne (
t12.5] to approximarec-. For many yearsthe AISC Specificarions
t l \ have used the follorvingsimple approximation, [1.5, r.i5J (
Mr-*: utl ' -l (r2.4.3)
\ r - q , ' ( ,
which when comparedwith Eq- 12-3-6may be *ritten
c ^ : 0 . 6+ o . 4 Y ( 12. 4. 6) (
M:
I T \ ( ,
M,oar:c^Mrl (12.4.4) where Mt: smallerbendingmomentat one end of a member
,_",l Mz: largerbendingmomentai one end of a member ( ,
where Prior to the 1986LRFD Specification, Eq.72.4.6wasnot permitted to be less (
C^: Mt/Mz r.',.-_ lhul A.4; a very conservativeprocedure.Aoru.u.r. since* as used in curent ( .
designinteraction
- Z(M'/M) coskl + 1 "--'lateral-torsional rerationships by LRFD and ASD is noidirectl;rrelated to
-- r ,
| (Mr/u=)' (r2.4.s) buckling in ihe mannerof the i\{assonnetand Horne equa- (
|lt 2(1 - coskL) tions, thereis no reasonfor the lower limit. A rhcrc''ugh
studyof C^ has been
presentedby Chen anCZhout12.61. ( ,
The 1986 LRFD Specification [1.15]and i9S9 ASD Specification[1.5]
have removed the 0.4 lower limit on C^
A comparisonof Eqs. 12.4.5and 12.4.6is shou'nin Fig. lZ.4.Z. (
Nore that
for a given value of c: P/P", the curve'terminates when the moment ,\[) at (.;
the end of the memberexceedsthe magnifiedmornentwithin the
span. The
most important situationsare thoservhire the m:gnified moment u'irhin (
L
I
span exceedsthe momentat the end.The srraighrline usedby AISC
the upper limit for C- at any givenbending,n-o*.n, rario. and
the
lies near (
o.tl- thus seemsr(,
be a reasonableapproximation. (
It- (
ou 12.5 MOMENTMAGNIFICATTON
_ (
i'
M E M B E R S$ I I T H S I D E S W A YP O S S I B L E

"I ,
The unbraced frame,i.Eflhrame q'herejoint t:anslation
instability arisesdue to slendc-rness
may occur v;l1q'1
of the .o,r,pr..rrionelements,does not r rir:
(
(
; itse'f to the simple but relativelyaccurarerreatnlr'iripres€oted (
I in the last :ii.
o'I sections.More completetreatmentof bracedanclunbracedelastic
frames is in (
Chapter 14 and in the .S.SRC Grrirle[6.E].
L
(
{simple approximationof C- for this casem:-v be obtainedby staling
I I
I il
t
with Eq. L2.3.6which appliesfor the single.un,rr"r. ,ur..
+t.O 0.75 0.5 0.?5 o 46 -0.50 -0.i5 -l 0
(
ltrlq - 8|'din9 tnotntnl rrlb (podrivr tq Btgb cl,fvtlur€)
( ,
M*,. : MoB: Ilo(-gj (12.5.1)
Frgure 12.4.2 Comparison of theoretical C- with AISC straigbt line approximation for \ r - a 1 (
where B : magnification factor.
members subject to end monnentsonly, without joint uanslation.
f l

l ,
(
!E'
.r:-tj
, -lNSTABlLtw lN THEPLANEOFBENDING
tZ.6/NOMINAL STRENGTH 765
( A'*

:a'€
ANDAXIALLoAD
12lcoMBlNED BENDING
( 76.1

( as suggested in rhe ASD Commentary-H1[1.6].However.ASD'HI statesthat


'': C-..Jiall be taken as" 0.85 for framessubjectto joint translation.a generalll-
( unconseruatiue ualue. On the other hand, LRFD-HI usesC,' : 1'0 for thc
( sway case.
is not
A direct cornparisonof the effect of thesedifferent valuesin design
( Stress Design usesthe magnifier B to increase the
possiblebecauseAllowable
Load and Resis-
( first-order momert causedby the totJload acting.rvhereas
for the
tance Factor Design uses a braced frame magnifier B, to account.
( (nonsn'ay) portion of the load' and a swa\
second-ordereffecf, of the gravity
second-order efiectsof the lateral (sway-induc-
( magnifier B, toaccount for the
ing) portion of rhe load-
(
(b) Assurned secondarY
( Ssndin! moment

(
qith sidesway'
Frgure 12.5'1 Beam-column - INSTABILITY
12.6 NOMINALSTRENGTH
(
IN THE PLANE OF BENDING
(
buckling and
( N e x t c o n s i d e r t h e s i r u a t i o n o f F i g . l 2 . 5 . l . wthe
h a t defleciion
everthede turvt'
greeoand
frestraint The basic streagth of a beam-columnwhere lateral-torsional
of the n*-:;;'--.*U.r, prevented, and bending is about one axis' will be
at the top and Uorto* may r-eas:nably local buckling are adequately
bendin, r";Xi(;"rt** qtnettion;' (without twisting)(case
( thereforethe secondary used.whenno achievedwhen insubility o.iurc in theplaneof bending
a sine curve, ir di;; iur", th. development 2 of Sec. 7Z.l)-The difierential equationsolution, which includes the second'
be assumedto be 2L from Fig' 12'5'1
(
occurs cig."iz.i.l) is "r* l"rla here' Since order P times deflection y term, tho*t that the axial compression effect and
sidesrvay by
( Eq' 12'3'7for C"' becomes the bending moment effect cannot be determined separately and combincd
equalsL for rig''izlr't'
superposition-It is a nonlinearrelationship' ,L .L-
( the -.:^rr
yield stress
_ ,)" (t?,9 Furthermore, residual stressescausesome fibers to reach
C^:1 + stresses due to applied load
( before others, even s'hen the elasticallycomputed
. . \ is similir to the effect on arially loaded
are the same at those fibbrs. This
( in the comPutaiion compressionmembers discussedin Secs'6'5 and 6'6'
(2I instead of L) is also used compres-
( The larger effectivelength An analysis to determine the strengthinteractionbetweenaxial
;;;.n".;t, referringto Fig' 12'5'1' sion P and bending *o*.n t M for " b.u*-.olumn is complicated' First' the
( compression) relationship must be devel-
@/4L3 (12.5.3) M-0-P lmornent-iurvature-axial
(Fig'
(
6o-
3EI oped. This can be done by assumingih. yield penetration depth vft
range of
12.6.1) at various values. For each ytr there will be a complete
HL (12.s.4) in nondimensional form, rvhere Mo is the
( M_a-P, or IL!/M,-0/0y_P/P,
Mo= _T plastic montent, 6r"is ih6 curvitrr. when the extremefiber reaches
stress 'E''
( : M/Mp-0/gr. P/P-rllTtt'aseries of M/Mo-0/0'
il 4 ArFr-rio*these
( and 12'5'4into Eq' 12'5'2gives .u*"Jcur, 6. obtarned; one for eachvalue of P/Pr'
Substitutionof Eqs' i2'5'3 of
I Once M/'iIp:0/g"'curves_!1u. been obtained,a specificcombination
( 2 \ the moment M/lvIp is then
( c^:1.|#l#)t,;)-'J"
fn'EtlHLt\{ p,/p, arrO iten"agrneis ratio KL/r is selected;
applied incrercentatly to as high a value (!I-"/.!{.) such that the
and KL/r
deflection is
represents one
still stable. Ttxs combination of Pu/Pr, It'{"/Mp,
( reiati6nship, tu.tt as shown in Fig' 72'6'2'
point on a srrength interaction
( "- (12.s.5) various aspecis o-f this procedurehave been explainedby Ketter, Kaminsky'
C : 1 * {L-r\o:1-o-18q una g..ot. 1tz.r1,Galambosand Ketter [12.8],and Ketter [12.a].
( \12 l
, (
-
12.7/ NOI''IINALSTRENGTH_ FAILUREBY B:NJIi.:G AND TORSION 767
/bo 12 / COil,{BINEDBENDINGAND AXIAL LOAD (
-.P,: (

=rl I
where maximum axial compression load n'hen nominal strength is
,r-Trr1 (

"F-
reachedbasedon the interaction relationship
P, : nominal strength of an axially roaded compressionmember (
il Mu:
basedon slenderness ratio KL/r
madmum momentwhen the nominal strengthis reachedbased
(
ll ; I on the interaction relationship, including the second-order
effect (

JL-]
L_"_l
I ev..'
Mo:
a:
:
(the sa-calledP-A, effect)
Eq. i2.3.6 : MoC^/(l - o)
primary bendingmoment
P uLz/n2 EI
(
(

C ^: E q' 12' 3 . 8
(
(c) Strain (d) Stress'stratn
(b) Asumed Yield
diagram lot M,: maximummomentstrenglh- &{o for the laterallystablesitua- (
penetration and
series of stress
mai?rlal tion discussedin this section
conditions {
and bending,for €r 3 €.,. Thus, Eq. 12.6.1may be written ( ,
Figure12.6.1 Memberunderaxialcompression

Similar proceduresto obtain interactiourelatiouships


havele€r pfessnl'ci!
='
?.#(*) (12.6.2)
(
(
by cauck urro l-r. tr2.g,72.lol,1,eeand
Anand [12.11.], Rossorv.Barn*
and
(
a n d Lee [ 12. 12] ' i In studvingthe interactioncurvesof Fig. 12.6.2.the readeris reminded
is the folloiving'

';.#^='
An interaction equationrepresentingthis behavior that the strength{ when Mu:0 is basedon rhe slenderness ratio KL/r,. As (
stated at tle beginning of the section, the member was assumedto fail bu ,(
( i 3 . 6i t instabilityin the planeof bending.
Other studiesof instability in the plane of bending have included the (
effectsof transverseloading U2.4, 12.13-ll.l7l.
(
(
1 2 . 7 N O M I N A L S T R E N G T H- FAILURE BY COMBINED (.
BENDING AND TORSION (
The ordinary beam-solumnunbracedover a finite t.ogrtr involvesconsidera- (
tion of instability transverse or oblique to the plane of bending,invoS'ing (
torsionel effects.This subjectis an extension of lateral-torsionalbuckling in
beams (Chapter 9) and involvesboth elastic and inelastic considerations. (
_ - - - - .: - - , i ,l . r--------
, l Inteiaction cui-v'csfor a number of elastic buckling situationshave been
dei'eloped,including (1) I-sec1ie16slrrmnswtth eccentricend loads in the
(
planeof the web [12.18];(2) I-columnswitb unequalend momenrsbut without (
0.4
.2 0.4 0.6 0 restraintto rotation about principal axesat the ends of the member
MJhle [12.19t; (
MJMo
and (3) I-columns n'ith unequalend moments-hinged at ends for rotation
about strong axis, but elasticallyrestrainedfor rotation about the weak axis at (
(b) l,'lomentralio = + C 5
( : ) l J ! o m e nr at t i o= - 1 . 0 thc ends[12.20].An excellentsummaryof the topic is presentedby Massonnet
- (
F, 33 ksi. lincar residu:l ,t[t.!s [12.1]which includesdiscussion of plasticeffecrs.
Figure 12.6.2 Suength interactioncurvesov8X31, 7 ForF > li krr'u'c
Nore:
tto-" n:timbers' A number of studiesare availablecontaining both analytical and experi- (
4 : 0.34,.,
rooo*-riH;il.it+LC*+i
from Ketter[12'a])
adjustedL/r : tu.iuJ L/4{F,1n' (Adapted mental treatmenrsof inelasriclateral-torsionalbuckling
llz.zl -12.26l. (
r
(

t
I

a !idf----;

( s;
tt
12.8 / t'iolJlNAL STRENGTH- TNTERACTTON
Al'lDAXIALLoAD - ?*r
3' EOUATIONS 769
( 768 12,z69gt,NEo BENDING

(
r.0
( Testsby Massonnet[12.U and computerstudies[12'21, 12'221including I
I 'Eract''
to those in Fig-
inelastic efiects indicate that interacriondiagrams sinrilar r -.- - solution
(ACaptedfrom Ref. 12 6)
( nill result rvhen including lateral-torsionalbuckling. The main differ- I
1L6.2 I
F E q . 1 28 r .
(rveakaxis) rather than
en.. i,s that P"/P, rvill be loweri'hen basedol Kl/r,
I
( I
P L'l .
Mn mzy also be iess than M, becauseof I
,
on KL/r., (strong axis). Of course, I 4't'ar'4sto
( lateral-torsionalbuckling.
I
L
I
( I
I
0.5f-
( Trtrstonal-FiexuralBuckllng of Thln-walled open sections
u l
I
' l

( A singly s1,'mmetricseciionsubjectto fle.rureand axial compressionrvill have I


x_[_x

slightlybuclled position'
a torsionalmomentactingevenwithoutbeingin the
f-
( and center of gravity do not coincide (see I
L _ ^

This is becausethe shearcenter


i
L
given by II
( -Celebidevelopmenthas been
Ct,.p. I on torsionl.fft. differentialequation i |J
I

[12'28],and the topic has been I

( Pekozand \Vinter'[12.27].Pekozand II
r 1.TB
bliYu 1iz-:11.The AISI Specification [1'11]provides detailed i
rvellsumrnarized
buckling' 0
rules for designto"inclubethe possibilityof torsional-flexural
0.5 1.0
(
l,'! - l,l -
(
;rgure 12.8.1 "Exact" nominal strengtbinteractionrelationshipfor tlpical wide-flange
( 1 2 . 8 N O M I N A LS T R E N G \cctions (including residualstress)comparedrl'ith interact-ionequation-Case l, no
rnstability.
( P, to bending mo-
Strength interaction equationsrelating axial compressicn
recognized as the practical procedure for design.
( *rn,",vl, have long been
(
'.'.herc P, : compressionncnlinal strengthunder axial load bascclon slcn-
( Casel-Nolnstabili$
dernessratio for the axis of bending
(i'e', KI/r:0)'-1he
( For the braced locationrvhereinstabilitycannot occur M t: : Eq. 12.4.7(or irs alrernate,F4.72.4.6)
may be approximated by
uppeirnostcurvesof Fig. 12-6'2apply and P": n2EI/Lz
(
'u Mu
n :1.0 (12.8.1)
( P) 7.18MP Massonnet[12.1]hassho*n that Eq. 12.8.2is a good approximationby
comparingit with the curv'esof Galambosand Ketter [12.S].A comparisonin
(
i'ig. 12.8.2 of Eq. 12.8.2 r*iih some curves from Fig. 12.6.2ashows thc
Mo: maxrmum
( and lt["/Mrs 1.0. In the aboveequation,Pr7 Arlt-*9 correlation.
axial'.loao(eqrialsthe plastic
moment strengthof rhememberin the absenciof For primary bending moment from transverseloading, Lu and Kamal-
( local buckling is prerent-ed)' The
moment for all caseswhere premaiure rand [12.13]have shorvnthat when M, is replacedby C^l{",, using C^ as
result in Fig. 12-8.1shorvs Eq' 12'8'1 to be a
( .ompuriron rvith the theoretical riren by E+ 12.3.8,Eq. 72.8.2(actuallyEq. 12.8.3rvith C_ : i.0) is also a
good approximation. trrod representationfor the "exact" solutions.Thus, .r general,the interaction
( cquationmay be rvritten
(
Case 2 - Instabitity in the Plane ol Bending
( Pu
- +
c^ilui
and values of : 1.0
The curvesof Fig. 12.6.2for variouscombinationsof moments P^ ILIPI - P'/P")
(12.8.3)
( bY
L/r, maYbe aPProximated
( P, ,u
_ ,:1.0 (12.8.2) ilr ell cases of instability in the plane of bending.
( -
Pn MeT P,/P")
r 1
-
77A BENDINGANDAXIALLOAD
12/ COMBINED 1 2 S / B | A X . . . LB E N D I N G 771 (
(
, Mn: nominal momentstrengthin the absenceof axial load computed (
r by methodsof chapter 9. For adequatelybracedmembersof
---"E:act"sclution t'
(Adagtedfrom Rel. 12'4) low slenderness
ratio wherelocal buckling is precluded,Mn:
-Eq. t28.3, MP. (
z . M n C^: factorsdiscussed
in Secs.12.3-l1.s
(
1* q;fiv;=t D _ _
trzEI
C': 1'0 'e
2z
other proposals for interaction equationshave been given by Cheong-
P
P
Siat-Moy and Downs [12.55],Duan and chen [12.56],and Sohal,Duan, and II
Chen 112.571.
(
I

(,
12.9 BIAXIAL BENDING
(
o-5 l.u '" The nominal strengthof membersunder axial compressionand biaxial bend-
ing has been studied by Birnstiel and N{ichalos[12-30],Culver {12.31,12.321, ('
MJMo ,,
tlarstead, Birnstiel, and Leu [12.33],Syal and Sharma112.341, Santathadaporh
Figure 12-8.2
"Exact" nominal Streagth interaCtion.curve for tlpica! urtie i ' (,
( '' and Chen [12.35],and Chen and Atsuta 112.361. Even with a number of
,"i,ioor (including residual stress) conpare{ idth-interaction equatron-'i ' simplifying assumptions,the analysisis complex.Some testshave been per- r
io the p"laneof $gading ("exect" solution from Fig' 7 of Rc"f lI
i*oUifiri formed 172.371which,though limited, have shown agreementwith computer
For actual use, use adjusted L/r : (acnuJ t/r)ffi ' (
studies.Tebedgeand Chen [12.39]have given interaction surfacesin the form
of tables for design.The status of work on biaxial bending of compression (
members is summarizedby Chen and Santathadaporn[12.38] and more (
recently by the ^SSRCGuide 16.8).
Simpleplastic theorybecomesinadequatervhenmomentsexist about ts'o t
Case 3 - Instablllty by Lateral'Torslonal Buckllng principal axes. When only one moment exists.plastic behar.ior(constanr
[;''1 i -' ' (
Massonnet[12.U has shown that witb only slight error the form oi moment with increasingrotation d) is e.rhibitedno matter what the value of
h" :
may also UL usea for this case. P" for this case may be gowrnld axial compression.The effectiveplastic moment reducesas axiai compression (
';"'
slendernessratio for the axis normal to the axis of bending- Furthc:-' "! increases,but plasticbehaviordoesoccur. r (
lq'ss tii'rn Upon applicationof an additionalmomentabout the other principalaxis.
lateral-torsionalbuckting as a beam may occur for a moment
trf ('-' {r':' one might consideran interactionsurfacerelating.P, fu{,, and M,. Even for
;; t, instead of.M, i"-gq. 12.8.3.Using the variousdefinitioos (
lltr i
Secs.12.3 through lf-\ the generalnotation C^Mui should be u-sed' : ideal elastic-plasticmaterial,horvever.presentplastic anall'sistheoremsne-
(
r:t'r" glect the influence of deformation on equilibrium. For zero length compres-
instability under Cases2 ir l, the following"infiraction equation
consideredto aPPIY: sion members,the conceptof an interactionsurface(seeFig. 12.9.1)may he (
thought of as a first step to obtaining the strengthunder biaxial bending.
While few designersconcern themselvesgreatly about the sequenceof (.
P u , MuiC^ -:i
: 1.0 {ll s load application, nevertheless loading sequenceaffects strength.This is alsc
Pn ,1/,(1 - P,/P") true for uniaxial bendingand compression, but it has lesseffecton that case
than for the biaxial loading.
*'here P, : applied a:cialccmpressionload Figure'12.9.2 illustratesseverallcading sequencesto reach point A- (
L{ui: applied primary $gading moment a particular value of P,, M,.., and iy',,. Point / may be reachedby the
:rrr-!r':' (
e): i)f-: nominal stt agtU for axially loaded ccmprc'iicn following paths: (1) Apply P" first, then M,r, rhen if,, (path 0-1-2-l);
ber fus. 6.7.7 ot 6-?-8for ^Q would be used in LRFD) (2) apply P,. first, then appl! M,, and ,}/,,, proportionally (path 0-1-,4):

(
L {
5 s
f:
I
/
\
.s'

{ 772 ANDAxIALLOAD
12 / c,o^tBrNEDBENDTNG 1 2 . 1 0/ L O A D A N D R E S I S T A N C E
' F A C T O RD E S i G NC R I T E R I A
1;..-.. 773
(
( - -.. For lack of anv contrary inf<irmation.
--,.; an interaction formula.
such ..s Eq.
( .!_. r:.s.4.is usualllassu.mccr
to appr,v
for biariaru.nJing.computerrr"di;, ;:i
1.0 rornetcsrsindicate.rhatsucha procedure i, ,;"i;;;; for thosecases
i( g:ricd.Thusthefulr inreraction in'csir_
i-'
; equarion...ourd be
( 0.8 I
y - rivl2x 3 t 'r!u'Cn"
: +" aa rn''''.:"
---
- p,/p,,i, *- ,v"'{i _ pJ1)
,.t ,ll
:(' A' u.o
w l 4 x 426 Pn ll,,(l < i (12.9.i)
: -
ir
(
u.q
*iicrc all tcrnrs are as definecrfolro*-ing
( 0 = 1.,,P,
Ec1.r2.g.4.exccpt thlt ntr* tric
uuantities'ubscriprcdr anci-),musr be ei'aluiredfor
0.2 bc:icingrbout rhe aris
( rntl i errcdbv su bscr ipt .

,( 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 t.0


,(' Mu,./ L1r,

( Frgure 12 9.1 Contours on interactionsurfacefor sbort mcmberswberc instability


D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
docs not cc.ui, tAdapted from Cbeoand Santathadaporn [i].38i) l-.n3 traciitionin AllorvableStressDesig;r
( of bcam-colunnshas u.sccr
cquationsfor designj one for yieiding rri.cr
( J, *"*imum strengrhancl o'r_,[o;-
:r;rbilir1".That rvourdcorrespond^to*using
Eq. 12.g.1for _r,ierding
an.r I_q.
( ll'ti''1 for stability' The eariy LRFD
(3) appll' Pu, I.lu, and |v{,', bv increasingmagnitudein conslantproportion reclommendarions [12.40]uscd r6ose
cquati ons.
( (path O-A): (a) apply Mu, and lL{u, in rcnstant proportion.then apply P, Accordingro yura Ir2.41J,Task Group
lpathO-3-A). r0 deveropingLRFD cresign rurcs
( for ggsr-columns had rhe foliowing
Orhcr combinationsare possibleand in generalthe loadingmay become objeciii.es:
( applied via any palh throughspaceto get from O to I on Fig. 12.9.2.A git'en l. The ruresshourdappryto a *.ide range
of variabrcs,suchas strongand
scction rvill exiribit a differentstrengthfor eachpath of loading.Nearly all rveak axis bending. effect of residrial
( stress,biaccd (nons*,av)and
investigatorsto date (i990) haveusedproportionalloading(path O-A).-" unbraced (srva.ypossible)structures,
inelastic beharior. all co!umn
( The strength of compressionmembers under biarial bending is not slenderness ratio,. reanedcolumn ,yri.rr. uno ,r.ond_order
sufficiently u'ell knorvn to make use of it for plasticanalysisof rigid space 2' The second-order cffccts.
effectshouldbe kept ,.p"ior. and idcntifiable
( frames; thereforeplastic analysisshouldbe restrictedto planarstructures, or criterion so that the designercould perfoim rn rhe
a second-order
v's!' sanal'sis if
( ones for rvhich planar behaviorrepresentsa reasonableapproximation. desirgd.
rl' .

3' Elastic anal-vsis. including e!astic sccond-orderanalr.sis


( shouid be rhe basis for derermining if de.sircd.
inr.rnur ;";;.";;"..'pro.,i.ri
( inelasticanail'sistechniquesare not available
'l' The strength interaction for office use.
equation using elastic seconcl-ordcr anall,sis
( not be greater than 5z unronr..r,ative w.hen
;hguld-
"exact" comparectr*.irh
( inelasticsecond-order analysistheoreticalsolution.s.
5' l\'fathemarica.llv
identicalproblems-shouldgiue tt e saine rcsulrs
( the strengthinteractioncrlterion. using

( Therewas an attemptto eliminate


useof the effecrivelengthfactorK for
( r.mp1s55ionstrength in the
d criterion: ho*'ever,this rvasfound not fcasiblc.
It \\'as. horvever.-foundpossibre
(
Figure 12.9.2 Paths of loadiag for
'*'itb 'stability" to avoid using separate..yicrding,,ancr
biodal bendiag combined atial equations:insteadthe singJecriterion"(which
force. (Adapted from Cbei and San- ha-st*.o aopricabre
( for both. A thorou-ahrerte*' of the LRFD
tathadaporn[12.38]t lcgrons),applies
ncam-columnshas beenprovided provisionsfor
by Lir.n and Lui tlz.Azl.
(
t (
-
(
12.10/ LOADANDRESTSTANCE
FACTOR
DESIGN
774 12/ coMetNEDBEttD;l:GAI'JDAXIALLCA3 CRrERr,q' 775
( '
('
where ,C^: factorsdiscussed in Secs.12.3and 12.4,tobe taken as follows: t )

Load and ResistanceFactor Desigr in LRFD-I{I


(
compressionand bending Elolnent: l. For bracedframe members having transverseloading be_
tweensupports,c- is an integral part of the moment migni- (
P.. fier 8,, whosevalue may be determinedby rational anarysis,
l. For -: > 0.2 (
Q"f n C^: I + tla (LRFD Cornmentary_Hl.2)(tZ.tO.+)
P.. 8l l,{.- I{,,, \ : Valuesfrom Table 12.3.1
slu
f f i + g \ + = * , * *+ r M ^ , i c^: 1.0 (LRFD_Hl.2) (12.10.s)
(endsof memberunrestrained)

Z.fo,+ < 0. 2 Q : 0.85 (LRFD_H1.2) (rz.ro.e)


(endsof member
restrained)
'Pu M.* M,,,.\ 2. For bracedframe memberssithout transverseloading be-
+ -:- + . ; - l s-t t l :: :
2+,P, e5i{n, qulrl^,. | tween supportsbut having end moments M, (smaler one)
and M, (larger one), e con\.erts the lineariy varying pri-
mary bending moment into an equivalentuniform moment
u 'h e re P , :factoredaxial compressionload Me : Cn,M2,
Pn: nominalcompressivestrengthconsfderingthe menlbci .,- . '.
C^: 0. 6 - 0. 411[ r / lv{2 (12.10.7)
by axial compressioaonly in accordancervith t-RI l) i -
Chapter6) The mom.entsM, and IvI. are rotutionar moments,rather
' t
d : strengthreduction factor (resistancefactor) for et'r)r1 than bending momentsas used in Sec. 12.4. Therefore,
members: 0.35 the (-'
ratio is negarive( -) for singlecurvatureand positive( +
Mu, = factoredbending moment acting about the x-liri*. ;' ' :' ' double curvature.Since i/E ii the primary'moment,
) for
- C", is ( ,
second-ordereifects really nor part of the magnificarioniu.tor.
'
: BrMn,r+ B-.\!/,r, if moment magnific:rtion is use.i ir,
''
computing the elastic second-order moments (Thc tcrrri i: P, : factoredaxial compressionload
applies only for the unbraced frame ml'inbcr; !.e'. rrhcrc
possible. This case is treated in Sec. 11.11.) P" : Euler load, using KL/r (or l.) for the a-risof bertding
and *.ith
Mnr: nominal mcment strength for bending about thc r'r'. K < 1.0 (f.orbracedframe)
,
accordance'*'ilh LRFD-F1 (See Chapter 9)
' ,=EA,,:N'!'
:: :'
+6: strength reduction factor (resistance i:rctor) for flcxr-rr-r: P' . :
: 0.90 (12.10.8)
( KL/r): I'"
Mu, sameas :tr/,,,exceptreferredto the -r'-r.tis
Mny: sameas ,11",.exceptreferredto the .l'-:L\ls The braced frame (no translation) beam-column total
factored moment is

Mu: Bitln, (12.10.e)


Moment Magnltler- Braced Frame
where Mn,: the primary factoredmoment
The moment magnifier B, for merrb:rs hrr.ing riti jt'rint tran'::rl:":' lfor the no translation casc;
LF"FD-fll.l;r ir"
treatedin Secs.il.3 and 11.4.For this nonsx'a-i'c:ls!'. hencethe subscriptnr)
mrgnifieras (Eq. 12.3.7)
I EXAII{PLE I2.IO.I
Investigatethe acceptabilityof a W16x6T usedes a beam-column
Br: l.r) 1 l - - r '
in a braced
*Jp,> frame under the loadingshorruin Fig. 12.10.r.Tbe steer
is A572 Grade 60.
{_
(
i 2.10/LOAD AND RESISTANCEFACTORDESTGNCRTTER|A 777
TOAD
( 176 I2 ,/ COMBINEDBENDINGANO AXIAL
(
N orc that for the web l, : l. / t *': 35. 9. which exceedst he t r , lim it of
(
( A" I
:fi/.fi. = 32.i given in LRFD-BS. Ho*'ever, Q will be less than 1.0 only
iihcn h,/t,,. exceerls
zfi/tE: 41.3.(SseSec.6.i8and LRFD-AppcndixB.)

,(
r\T Yilt' Service_toads
P :87 5 kips dead load
(c) Beanreffect.The laterally'unbracedlength 15 is l5 ft.

W
262.5 kiPs live toad

t l l l ttiit
M o : F , , 2 , : 6 0 ( 1 3 0 ) / 1 2 : 6 5 0f t - k i p s
( l,tl= 15 tl-k:Ps dead load
45 ft'hrPs iive load
h{,: (r, - 4),s.: (60- i0}(117)/tz:4SS fr-kips
(
(
,5-o'illl
|lll
Iiil
iiil U
Fr: 60 ksi

L o : 3 , ,' :
",tji,Tl:aeft
/oo(tz)
'-$Jk++
( 1,4
V
I L . . i n gX r : 2 3 5 0 k s i a n d X z = 4 6 9 Ax 1 0 - 6 i n . a T k i p s l ,
(
( I I
I r -,, r :
,,XT
--._--:-._
(4 - 4) v
r : 20. 6f t
(
F i g u r, re. l O , e.*-:otuo,o for ExamPles12.10'1ard 12'14'1' SrnceI-r'. Lr. L,. M^ lies betu'een-lI- and M, for Ca: 1.0. In this case.
( i r.rn' ever,
C r:7.75 usingEq. 9. 6. 11:t h'ls. it is pr obablet hat lll" r viil equal
.t/-. Checkwhetheror not the W16x67 is "compact" for F, : 60 ksi accord-
,(
i
SOLUTION i ng to LR FD -B 5!
i( (a) Factoredloads'
+ 1.6(262-5): 525ki P s I b, 10. 235 \
,( P, : ! '2Po + 1'6PL: 1'2(87'5) l': : 7 . 7 1. ( 4
\ ' -, ;-' : 8 . 4 T a b l e 9 . 6 . l )O K
2(0.665)
,;( + 1-6(45)= 9o ft-ktPs \2,r |
M n , : 1 ' 2 M D + 1.6M1: 1.2(15)
,( LIu: BrMn,
(? : ss.gllo* LRFD tr, : 82.6rablee.6.1) oK
) . t "o
\ ,. M anual /
,;( subscript
moment is referred to using the l'lre sectionis "compact".Next use Eq. 9.6.4to computeMn,
Note that the factoredprimary
ir (no translation)'
(b) Column effect' Calculatetr. using
Eq. 6.7.3, l- it,,- r-\l
M,,: cdMo- (M, - tv,)l-t' = t t, [1.0.+1
i (
KL 1 . 0 ( 1 s ) 1:2 " p i ll
l
KL 73.2 L \-'
Largesto c l - : - :

r.. 2.46 - (oso- 488)i


: t.75[uro 0 . 6- 7 . 9 : nrnrt-kips
' ! 1::::*)l
L 1)
KL TT 1''''a , ' ) t E : 1.06 Since Mncannot exceedMp, Mn: lfo for this analysis.
tr":7'tffi: U r:,229,000 (d) Moment magnification.The slerdernessratio KL/r involved in mc>
n)cntmagnifigationmust relateto the axts of bending,in this casc the x-axis.
vALuES" TABLE4)
: 0.531 (LRFD-..NUIV{ERICAL
rina * KL KL 1. 0( 15) 12
tv Axisofbending;-- :?5.9
\: ,*
= 3 1 ' 9k s i
Q,F n : o ' 5 3 1 (6 0 ) C ^ : 0 . 6 - 0 . 4 ( M / M ) : 0 . 6 - 0 . 4 ( 0 / 9 0 ): 0 . 6

Q,Pn: Q,F,A r: 31'9(19'7) - 628kips .*2EA_ n2(z9,aw)tg.t


P-' - ------ - : 8430kips
( KL/r)" (2s.e):
Check P,/(+"P^) > 0'2'
C* 0. 6
P" : t2: > 0.2; -useEq'12'10'1 B,' _ _-____:__ : 0 . 6 ( 1 . 0 7:)0 . 6 4
t 0.8361 1 - P,/P" | - 525/8J.30
\o.e 628 1
778 12,Z'COIItsII{ED ANDAXIALLOAD
BENO|NG 12.11/ UNBRACEDFRAME_ LRFD 779

S i n c eB , i s c o m p u t e d t o b e l e s st h a n 1 . 0 . u s e 1 . 0 . I n t h i s c a . c . l h c : : r . : : : , ' r '
l'arvingfrom90it-kipstozerooverthe15ftlengthist!rc-!Ji!!c
('n.;\1",:0.6(90) = 54 ft-kips were constant over that length.'fhc -:{ it-i..:g.': r:
rhcn magnified to 54{1.0?):58 ft-kips, but it is still less thun Iize utttt..t! t.:,'..
: 1.0 is the srme r\ i-!r:::'r
90 ft-kips at the end of tlte nzember-The use of Br
rhc magnified value out in the span is less than the value M. at thc c;:.j. : rt.-
member.
( c ' l C h e c k L R F D F o r m u l a ( H 1 - 1 a ) ,E q . 1 2 . 1 0 . 1 o, m i t t i n s t h e h ' - ' t t . j , : i '!ir : " '
for the t'-aris.

:-*l( ::>l =,o [n:i'ir


Q,P, 9\+6'11,../

s, 90 \ -_ : 0.e73 ('h
.
u.636 : 0.836
+ 0.137 <I
;\ 0.10(650)
J
Thc W16x67secticnis acceptable to LRFD-
according EP"

. (a; First-orderanalysis:For equilibrium,Mr,, * M^z = HuL,

12.11UhIBRACEDF R A M E-
E1
LOAD AND RESISTANCEFACTORDESIGN

As sho*'n in Figs.6.9.2b and c and 6.9.3,an unbraced frarne rnu\l rE!\ ' :'
flexural interaction of its beams and columns to limit horizontai displ.,.i-'::'
"braced" frame will resist the lateral ftrrcc hr
'' "il
Undcr lateral loads. a
components as diagonai bracing or shearwalls so that lateral disiorttltt
crf small magnitude.Thus secondarybending moments PA frorr s1jgs"!
''
'i
"unbrsced" f r;ri::'
' ll
il
P-l effect) may ordinanly be neglected. Hon'ever. for t l
relativelr larger sidesrvaydeflection A due to lateral load s'ill *iii::
seconCarymoments Pl 1P is the gravity load) that must be prortJ';..- :
: tl
tlcsign. ThuS, an unbraced frame requires an anall'sis to 3691'1111"'l'
:' tl
follo*ing tasks:
.|j
1. Pru.r'idestrengrhunder factored loads to resist gravin'lo:d- r'';-''.': -
anv sidess'ay'effect except in rare cases of unbalanced 1".:i1::.'
"signiiic3nl rc\li-r:::: '
unsvmmetric structural configuration where a LP"
j:':
f o ; . : , , , (" L R F D C o m m e n t e r yH l , p a r . 7 ) r v o u l d b e n e c e s s a n l t ' i : . ' '
cll (b) Second-order analysis: For
s\\.1,\.Out-oi-plumbnesscan tlpically be erpectcd to have st'.-li{: equilibrium, Br(Mn,, + Mnz) = HuL"+ Ip, lr,

thrn sway'under gravitl'load. Figure12.11.1 Summationof forcesactingon all colnmns


c i"- in one r'v'r
story of
l. P:,rvide slrencrh irniler factored loads to resist lateral load t: br-rilding frame.
v^ a multistorv
s urq
'i-6e
tor.-d wind & eart5quakcload;. momcnts ut;j:r i.,:-- ''
l" ''
ir:clude rhe primar-l' ntoments from firSt-Order elastic ana!'-rl:
Referringto Fig. 12.11.1,first-orderequiiibriumrequires
sccondary momeots due to P*A effect.
r''' ':
5-

J. Frovicle stiffncss such that the relative horizontel 'icflcclrrrrl


?:
€.. Mt,r * Mr,2 : HuL, (tz.tt.t)
s;c'':'--'': C -

between adjacent floors, end for the entire frame. is within f--:.
The first-order sway dejlection aru causesthe total gravity
l, divided by {00 or 5t-rtiun'j:: Fi- load rp, to be
linrits lusuatty, say, equal to theheight acting at ihe eccentricityAr,. The literat load mom rn{ HuL-,
*,' is thus increased
s':n'ice loads). by the amounr rP, Ar,. since the total moment now actin! ii
*{
-- s-

r,r" * Ep, Aru,


5 1
*;
a j . i
r'
( 1 2 1 1 / U N B R A C E D F R A I 4 EL-R F D 781
780 ANDAXIALLoAD
12lcoMBlNEDBENDTNG
a
( There are trvo rvavs in which the magnified enci moments B^rIr. antl
'( t h e r e l a t i v e l a t e r a l d e f l e c t i o n ( s w a y ) ' positiot:.lt
* ' i l l i n c r e a sshortn
e t o A tin
' wFig'
h e n12'11'1b'
thestructure 8..'.1r,: rilay be obtained:
,\' aisptaced
rcachesequilibrium in ttt. finai be expressed
*ottnr equilibriummay 1. .1{otnetitllugiifter ,lIerhocl.LRFD-Hi.2.a indicates thai rhc tcrtal ilc-
i( The final (including P-A effecii lt-\rcdrnoment I{" for use in LRFD Fornrulas (FIl-1a) or (H1-1br. I:t1s.
lr" (12'11'2)
:( Bz(I'l^r+ Mr,r) : H uL, + IP, l : . 1 0 . i o r 1 2 . 1 0 . 2 i,s o b t a i n e d : r sf c i l o r . . ' , i :
t,(
i n l r , h i c h L R F D - H 1 . 2 . a d e f i n e s E , t o b e t h eMr,
m a gian iLRFD-H1'2'a'
f i c a t i o n f a c t owith
r , a nthe
d]1t|,,, tr{, : B;ll n, + B- .l!.,, ( 1 2 . 1.i1 0 )
o*** i.uu.a
:.ind ,1y'7,'rvould be primary n from a srvay analysis ' . r h : r e i u ' o f i r s t - o r d c r e l a s t i ca n a l l ' s e sa r c r c q u i r c d ; ( 1 ) a g r a v i i r , - o n l 1 ' a n a l v s i s
,r(
tr*ri"rioo;) resulting
subscript rt rcr"ririg ,o lateral
;.:uiitiiig no s\\'av to obtain the;1./,, i,aluesanci .8,, and (2) a iaierll-load-only,
( under
-"- factoredloads'
12'11'1gii'es .,.r::r,' anslvsis to c'btain the ly'r, valucs anci 8,. The nons*'ay maunific'rB, hls
Co*paring Eq' 12'11'2with Eq' ^ i c n t r e r t e d i n S e c s .1 2 . 3 .1 2 . 4 .a n d 1 2 . 1 0 .
ir. HuL, + LP,Jt,
,{ B': --77= (12.11.3) The srvay magnifier B", is given by LRFD-H1.l.a as
I . I
I
t./
let
usinga prcportionalityfactor1' --g
(11.11.1r)
Referringto Fig. 12'11'1'and
c\
f " t: , ' P
I
a./ (12.11.4) '
I Ju, :4Hu \-p
-t ,'
load in
r *.hich is valid for first-orderanal;vsis'
The equivalentmagnifiedlateral 1
I

Fie.l2.ll.lb,thatis,thetotalmoinentdividedb-vL"ma1'betakenas Bz: ( 1 2 . 1. 11 1 )
(
,( I& A', (12.11.5) r - :P,t t , i , , , i

Equivalent lateral load : Hu * ,".


ir
'(: ''ihc-i-€T.Pu: factoredaxial compressionload ior all columnsin
i\

t" Thus, a .storv


{n A , , = 4(Equivalent lateral load) subjcctro sway
d,. l0r : translationdeflcction(s*.a1'deflcction)of lhe storv under
- ri Hu*L PL,"
ar J,, (12.i1.6)
s
g

consideration; undcr factoied load ',r'hcnfactoredhtrriz-ontui


\( loads Hu ateused,or under serviceload when servicehorizc'rn-
tal loads .l/ are used
( SubstitutinBAr,, for qH, gives LH : sum of all storyhorizonralforccsproducingJ,',,
A r, tP ,42, (12.11.7) L : story height
{t Lr'r: A,'* -
HJ-, P .: Eq. 12. 10. 8. exceptt hat K in r he plane of bendingir ill bc
( basedon the unbracedframeactionand rvill be > 1.0.Figure
from which solving for A2, gives 6.9.4b for sidesv,sy not preL^ented
mar-be used.
,( A,,
F (i 2.11.8) 2. Second-OrderAnalysis.An alternateto computing the magnifiedpri-
Y. Ahu:<
:r:rn' momentsusing Eq. 12-11.10 is to directll' use a seccnd-order
\i + l
anall'sis
!

V
ii
1 - -r' "P H,LrJ .':Cerfactorebloads.A second-orderanall'sisis one in which thc equationsof
t .'quilibrium are based on [he deformed structureinstead oi the original
ir 12'11'3gives
SubstitutingEq' 12'11'8into Eq' rndeformedgeometryas in first-orderanalysis.Thc readcris rcfcrrcclto thc
( 1 :ncthods of MacGregor and Hage t12.431,Le\,lessurier.\lcNamara, and
(tz.tt.s)
(
Br:ffi \ertvenetrl72.Ml, Lelr{essurier172.45.12.46J.wood, Beauiieu.and Adanrs
'1:.47.12.48],
-* rL - \u-'p " \t . - - 1 and ScholzU2.491forsuggesrions on second-ordcr anal1.'sis.
r HrL,l
"',t:TrTrilii"?
I
t Equation72.77.11is of the form Cerivedin Sccs.12.3and i2.5. ancl["it;.
isthe'o.'cr-T:::i"5*:ti]
NotethatH,,inEq'12'11'e
I
{ i:.1I.12 was derivcd as Eq. 12.1i.9, replacing J,,. bi' the s1'mbor4,,,,.
(
X":Jf'lT;il#ts*;iffi ffi;Pl-!L:u{*;'i';'*':'1f"lll'iJ*'T' 1 * r':cognizingthat .F/, is the toral horizontalforce aciing in the siory by using
rn the oenvauor ;r.iiT.tr#*::i":1'::',f,J?li:fl
a
l
(
n
#11.',#.lf
for ilH?'#l;iJiiffi
';:iHfactored loads
loads will be the same' since the
fir:;i-ora.t analysisis to
bc *
x{
ri:: I siBn. Further. ncting rhat rhe quanriry Jat,/LH may be clrher fot
;-rcioredioads or for serviceloads,the subscriptu is r:ot used-
:\ i;t service
&
elastic.
t-

782 12/COMAINED ANDAXIALLOAD


BENDING 12.11/ UNBRACEDFRAME- LRFD 783

The story stiffnessconceptof assumlogeachstory behavesint!*pcndcr',r!,,


of the other stories and that the P-A effect is equivalentto the cffcct of r
lateral force LP,L/L has been discussedby Cben and Lui [11.41! ;1,!
MacGregor and Hage [12.43],among others.

r EXAMPLE r2.l1.l
Investigate the acceptabilityof W14x145 columns in a single-bat multtri(ir"' (a) Gravity load

unbraced frame, part of wbich is shownin Fig. 12.11.2.The axiai compre\\:rlrl


p is the lotal load acting on the bottom story cfrlumnsand Ge *'ind li;:d I/ rr
the total horizontal servicewind load acting on the entire muhiston ireirtc
The steel is A36. Use Load and ResistanceFactor Design 1 0 1. 4 *

SOLUTION
(a) Compute factoredloads.In accordance with LRFD-A4.I. at tc.rrl lt ,'
factored load combinationsare necessarywhen wind or eanbquakeact t.lnthc
structure, (b) Gravity+ wind (c) Nonswaypart (u) Sway part

l. Gravity Load [LRFD-A4.1, Formula (A+2)] !


Figure.12.11
.3 Forcesfrom first-order elasticanalysesunder factored loads-Example

';. ::T:::,* 12.11.1. i

:":i"i:l
i ijf ,] n..,,
.neacb
2. Gravity lnad + Wind [LRFD-A4.l, Formula (A+a)] (b) First-orderelasticstructural analysis.Unlessa second-orderanalysisis (
P": 1.2(230)+ 0.5(92): 322kiPs to be performed, the factored moments used..in the investigation must be {
obtained using moment magnilication, Eq. 12.11.i0. Assume the factored
Hu: 1. 3 (7 8 ): 1 0 1 .4k i P s gravity load (loading1) in part (a) givesthe factoredmomentsin Fig. 12.11.3a. i
The gravity plus wind (loading 2) in part (a) is divided into t*'o separate
l% : 1.2(0.5)+ 0.5(1.5): 1.35kips/ft on all floorsexcaFirtxrl t
first-order elastic analysesunder factoied loads; a nonsway analysis under
gravity loads only, aod a sway analysisunder lateral load only. Assume the
results on the column to be iavestigatedare as shorynin Fig. 12.11.3cand d;
the sway analysisalso causesan additional factored compressiveload of 15
kips on the leeward column. (
P = 23Ok$3 a'-& ic?-
"'c3C (c) Colunn strength.Tbe effective length factor K, in the plane of the
92 k'Ps l*€
w = 0.5 krPsT!i eezc, iceJ frame is determinedusing restrainl factors G with Fig. 6.9.4.
1.5 kiPs: !t lrie :3:c
H :78 kips sitd loai

l ,
Ll/L,columns 2(I/13) ^ no
G,oo
a/L,br^ t: rAryn:J'ud
{
Gbo,,o.: 1.0 (Thepracticalrc.:ommendation of LRFD ('(
Commentary-Fig. C-Cz.2for nominally
nxedbase.) I

Lrrrnrlr
Figure 12.11.2 Lowest portion of single-bay multistory unbraced fra'cc for Find K, : 1.57 (FromFig.6.9.a)
12.11.1.
(
I

i
t2 1t /UNBMCEDFRAME_LRFD 795
784 12 / coMF,lNED BENDING AND AXIAL LCA3

: -;--i i
-i'F when B, is computedto be lessthan 1-0,the magnifiedmomenrber,*.een
pinned at the top and
Since in the .u-directionthe column is c-.-nsidered ihc e:rdsof the columnin Fig. 12.11.3c is lessrhan the momenrat the end of
bottom. K,, : 1-0: thus' *c member(26 ft-kips).Use BlIn,: 26 ft-kips.The facroredload { in rhe
K,L, _ i.57(13)12 x,1...: :39.2 6, equationequalsthe load in Fig. 12.11.3c [i.e.,322+ 1.35(14)].
:3g.? (f) N{oment magnification-swav magnifier B, for srructure of Fig.
6.33 r..
rx i:.11.3d. The total factoredcompressionload I{ ro be carried b1,.all
(LRFD..NU!\,1ERIC.{L
VALUES''TABLE5) c.'rlumnsof the frame *ithin one story (in this casetwo columns)is
+F., : f,E.2ksi
- = 1204hiPs IP, = 2(322)+ 1.35(28): 682kiPs
e,Pn: e,F,,As 28 -2(42'7\
ChcckP"/(+,P^) > 0'2' l-he Eulerload P" for the columnbeinginvestigated must be computedusing
XL. r for the axis of bending.and the K value must be for rhe unbracetj
iP" 3 2 2 + 1 5 + 1 . 3 5 ( 1: 4 0) . i 0 '1 > 0 . 2 : U seE q' 12' 10' 1
:r.:nre.that i s, K > i. 0. I n t his case.K, : 1. 5? and Kr L, / r , : 3S. T as
r204 ;crei-minedin part (c).
\o1":
Lu i s 13 ft.
(d) Beam effect.Thb laterallyunbracedlength ,r2EA6_ r2(?9,ooo)42.7
: 780ft-kiPs
Llo: FrZ': 36(260)r/11 -P e : : 8160kips
( KL'/r)2 (33.7)2
3oo 3oo(3.9Si
Lo: -: 1r v6'.v6frrr
.:nJtheIP .: 2(8160) : 16. 320kipsbecause
bor hcolum nsr esisr ing
Slr - a1. 3r .
fit,: ffi1iT
:Jcntical.Thus, the su'aymagnifierB, is
SinceLb<Lp,M,equalsY.o'Ch"ks'hetherornottheWl4xl45is
to LRFD-B5'
"compact"flr Fr': 36 ksi accordihg Bz= : 1.04
,' DPu 692
^
{br: rabree.6'1)
: t.t). (tr,:10.8 o K j LP" 16,320
t\ . o; ' l #ffi ''-..'
. The maximummagnifiedmomenrl'!,,Eq.12.1i.i0. for column I is

--''. s | l o * L R F D \ ' . ( X p : 1 0 6 . 7 T a b I e 9 . 6 . 1 ) o K .
|^,:te t r f , : Bt M r , + BzM r t
Manual ...
\ t* I
o '
,
"compact"; therefore' lln: Mp: 780 ft-kips; QMn '' . - 1.0(26)+ 1.04(450): 496ft-kips
The section is -'
: 7A 2 ft-k i p s '
0. 90( 7S 0) .r-, b c^- -r-,^rtr?A
( B' t]T:"j:,,of Fi& ": \i' ic that LRFD-HI.2.a requiresthe manimuntMn, and maxintumMr, to bc
I (e) Moment magnification-nonswa) rira$nifier. lT = ',;'edin computing M,. Logscally,the valuesol !uI^, and Mn simultaneouslJ'
KLf r iniolved in moment magnificadon
( 12.11.3c.The slenJ.i.r, ratio ratio
this casethe x-axis' Thus K'31'0 for ru' 'h.ruldbe at the sameend of the member.Eventhat procedureis
not entirell'
must relate to the axisof bending,in '--
( actuall,van unbracedone' the authots -.ri'reclbecausethe maximummagnifiedmoment in the nonswaycasema\
the nonsway part. Sinceihe structureis Fig
salue less than 1'0 (say' from .'Jcurout in the span(andwill when B, exceeds 1.0)rvhilethe magnifiedsway
( reconunend using 1.0 rather than any a+ i:r)mentoccursat the end of the member.
6.9.4a). (,s)ChbckLRFD Formula(H1-1a),Eq. 12.10.1,
( 1-0(13)12 ^ a I omitringthe bendingrerrn
KL KL :,.r rhe-u-axis,
( Axis of bending

(
(.
C^ :0 .6 - 0 -4 (MJ t[z ) :0 ' 6 - 0' 1(13/26) : g' 4

n2(29,ooo)4:,.?
# . i ( k )= ' o Irz.ro.i
]

-Pe -
n z EA ,
---:= : =@- : 20.200kips
( (KL/r)' o 3 o+ : o . r o+ 0 6 3: o e 3< 1 OK
( 0.4
;{#)
c^ : : g-41
: 0.4(1.02)
p I l
Pr : ihe \\:i4x145 sectionrs acceptable
( I - P"/P. T- lati:o:oo accordingto LRFD.

t 1
-
A.l.lDAXLq'LLC.:.:
12 / COtlBrftFD eEi\,:Dl;'.lG 12.12/ DESIGNFROCEDURES_ LfiFD (
(
-
12.12 DESIG$IPROCEDURES TABLE 12.12.1 APPROXII/ATEVALUESFOR RATTOS
& AND Bb TO USE tN LFRD
DESIGi.IOF BEAM-COLUMNS
LOAD AND RESISTANCEFACTORDESIGN
A^ z,
To aid in selection of a beam-column section, it is usuall,t" advantagct)ur rr P*:i n _
Pb- 7
convert, in at least an approximate way, ti:e resultj"eg bending monlcn!. .r.J. I inht Medium Heavy
into an equivalent adal ccmpression load {.q. Occasionalll'- corrversirir;r I !'.Jeight VJeight Weighl
the axial compression into equivalent momenl *'ili spee.dihe selectioo pr.tl', Secticns (1 / in) (1 / in.) (1 / in.)
The interaction cquation f.or P"/Q,Pn > 0.2, Eq. 12.i0.1, is
wl0
Pu

Q,Pn
. ; {# : . k l = ' o I t z . t rol
wl2
wl4
0.?2
0 . 16
0 . 13
0.24
0.20
0.16
0.28
0.20
0.20
2. 1
2.?
2. 1
w 16 0 . 15 0.16 0.17 5. 0
by g.P"gives
Multiplying wl8 0 . 12 0.14 0.16 5.0
w 21 0. 10 0. r 2 0.14
8/
6 - P -i i 8lo.P- 6.0
''* ,l ( Q ' P 'P: . E Q
( r)lr ' ri ' w24 0.09 0. 11 0. 12 7.0
-/t l'". t t o f r , ' '""'< w27 0.08 0.09 0.10 7.0
w 30 0.08 0.09 0.09 7.5
T h e n , l e t l { n , : F r Z , a n dI [ , r : ' F r Z y f o i Mnn., t t t r t t i ' , '
prelim.i-e.a-r't'desig w 33 0.07 0.08 0.08 8. 0
less than the plastic moment strength as co:ltrolied by the ljmit st:ite\ ,'i w 36 0.07 0.07 0.08 8. 5
lateral-torsionalbuckling, locd flange buckiing, oi lc:zl rveb bucklrng: h,",'
ever. commonly ill,.. will equal the plastic iioinent s'rrength. lf ":.1/-. rr:il
usualll'be a good assumpiionat the start of a Cesign. Next, factoring oui ilr.
cross-sectionalproperties As/2, and Ar/2,.. Eq. l2.t2.I becomes where Mn,: factoredmoment using first-orderanalysison a braced frame
Bo,: ratio-.As/Z, using Z, or Z, as appropriate for rhe ads of
g/+n.\,{-
'3 r' 8 ! q . F - 'A1 , bending
p u e Q : 'pu -'L - t , i M " , u a= ill ll -',
g\ebFr! z, ;9i =i p aF , 'l :2. V .,,
,"" B^:286,0001. usingI,or I; as appropriatefor the a.r.is of bending
KL : K,L, or K.,1, as appiopriatefoi the ads of bc.nding
For a braced frame under uniaxial '\elding 3:-'i cornpression ri l:er.
Mu.: !l{n,,lCn,/(1 - P",/P"..)]. Eq. 72.12.: (neglec:-::s the :rird lcnr! i,: Equation 12.12.5is a reasonabre rvay to approachthe rJesignof a beam-
bending about the ;'-aus) becomes column. EstimateB.- from Table 12:12.1.Ta'f.i"g
Bo,:0.lin. ri.ill be a
reasonablegeneralapproachwhen the depth of section-hu,n.-,,
bee' predeter-
mined- The first bracketedterm (stressruiiol will be a reduction rerrn
Puue:.,.;t#)t
..-
r. a
Cnt

/ -
\ ^ -l '' -l ;
/ i r be estimated as 0.7 to begin the proce*. Th* llst brackered
and mav
term ; ;;
magnificationterm and might be neglectedfor the first approrimarion.
' P *
l - -

, Yura [12,41]hassuggested usingthe following as an initiel approximation


(
for biaxial bending in both the bracedframe an{ unbracedframe
tern:.'*'herer2E:
Next, the magnification 285,C00.
b:comes cases.

I P-- l3o.f-'C,-
i- i

'D
uEQ Pu+
M'(;). ",(T) ( I i . 1 26 )
P' I
1-
P,,
*'here d : nominaldepthof the section
Thus .t he equiv a l e nfa t c to re cdo l u m nl o a ' 3P -= o = :' .' be e(?r3c\c! :t' r:r' (
br: nominal u.idthof the flange
g L R F D -F o rm u :a1 H 1 - i :r for ani ari rtli rr;tti :r:;
Eq . 12. i2. 2,c or r es p o n d i nto
v+,hettlf n :
: tr{,: factoredmomentabout the x-axis (BJv{^, for the (
lf o. * braced frame
t
+' or BrMn, + B2I{/r for the unbracedframe) a
{ ao^r^-I n d; ilIr: factoredmomentabout the y-axis
P u . Q : P u +] ! n , p o r l * ;
\
It
, ! a t t
I! l - . i - . . '
\ i

r-
I B- - P,( KL)zI i!:
* N otc that Z,= 2A r(d/ 2) and Ar = 2Af i t her ef or e( &, ) , :
Ar / Z*= 2/ d
e .

;,
b
::.
+
\
( 'E@'-.
!

a I2 I3 ,l EXAMPLES_ LRFD 789


AXIAL LOAD
( 7BB 12 /COMBINED BENDINGAND

(
P=150k
(8")''= 8/br' closeto
( taliing Zr= A1.b/a eiv11
.rsirr Eq. 12.12.6-Further, yuia. is essen- SeMce loaas
hy Ar " iii, approximation,Yura
( the 7.5.ib, recommended oi it't stressratio term and the 5C0f t'kips
,;';;;;;, ir,.-r.ou.ti,oneffect h
iialir suggesting a logical beginning'
elfect .rr-ir,-.*ugnification term;
h - |tole
( rncrcssrng internal force' it ma-vbe
i: ./
=,/
\\.hen rhe bending momenrir;";;;domiiant bcnding
r-1

( by comiuting an estimatedequivalent
-a

rracricll ,o u,r"rt..it.-problem F=
-
-
follows:
( ;;;.;, .Lf,,eefor uniaxial bending' as t-t
d

*,,.(*)l*)
f
Prtmary SeccnC::y
( (12.17.1) rnoment,
lf uso : .0,,(;) rr'
( k

( use' ;ig,rte 12.13.1 ExampleIZ.I3.l-


for biaxial bending one may
.rnd as a first approximation
(
( . ;\','.ln
: P,,(0;7d) t",.l (12'12's)
rruea r .\.1-4).
( l. Gravity Load
x- and 't'-axc:'''
( factored moments about thc P u : 1 . 2 ( 1 2 0 )+ 1 . 6 ( 3 0 ): 1 9 1i i i p s
rrhcre .t/,. and Mu; are-the cnlumn, BJ|I,'+ B2II(t for thc
( respectivelv (B,M^, for the braced frame
Mn,: 1 . 2 ( 1 o o )+ 1 . 6 ( 1 0 0 ): 2 8 0 f i - k i p s
"''?i"i"tJ:;';:T,[:i assume thataxialcompression is suchthar
( fordesign For loivarial
i,'i"t in/g,y".? ?.2 applies'
( eqilt'i Eq.12.1-0.
rheinreraction to bemore to
practical 2. Gravity Load + Wincl
.rt.r! el. iz.rb.zir.,o't. ur.l, ii"itiittly of the P, term'
compression P,: 7 . 2 ( 1 2 0 )+ 0 . 5 ( 3 0 ): 1 5 9k i P s
( use rhe ,[y',,rq,pp'*'f'' keepingin mind to use one-half
( Mnt: i . 2 ( 1 0 0 ) + 0 . 5 ( 1 0 0 )+ i . 3 ( 3 0 0 ) : 5 6 0 f t - k i p s

( -
12.13EXAL'lPLEs li appears that loading Case 2 u'iil be the more sel'ereloading: thus. i:',c th:tl
( FACTORDESIGN
ioao ANDRESIqIANcE .:rse to select the section. Then an.v other loading casescen be chcckctl.
the interaction (b) Estimate the Puro for the given conditions using either Yura's c(ltr:r-
( to illustrate application of
Several examples are included from Chapter 6, and i:irn. [0. 12.72.6,or the more detailed Eq.12.77.7. For fu' l2-12'6.
proceduresfor columns
( formulas using principles and
beamsfrom ChaPters7 and 9' D
P , +M , ( ; i : i 5 e+ 5 6 0 ( 1 2 ) i ; i : 1 l r o k i p s
( ruEQ-

( loador120kips
tg :urryu:.*i.li compression
;.t-ff.tl,$,l1;ti;i* secdon i. using'Eq. 12.72.7and estimatingB,- as 0.16 from Tahlc 12..l2.1for
"stressratlo" tcrm.
( and using0.7 for the
ri,u.liumweight W14 sections.
d e a d l o a d a n d 3 0 k i p s l i v e ! o { , i n c o m b i n aand
t i o n300
w i tft-kips
h a b e nrvind m o mThe
d i n gload' entof
ft-kipt ;;;'ioj.
( 100 ft-kips dead l;;i: 100 ,uppoit provided in each Puro : P, + tr'In,Bor(0.7)
system,rvith transverse.
rnemberis part of a braced of a l4'ft'tength' Conservativcly
( ift. ,op "na'Uoiio"t
principal aire"tion ai and varies as shorvn in Fig' : 1 5 9+ 5 6 0 ( 1 2 ) ( 0 . 1 6 ) 0: . ?9 1 2k i p s
**urur.
( assume trre momeri-.uur.r'single
Load and ResistanceFactor Design' 'lhc "strcssratio" term.
12.13.1.Use 436 'i..t ana differenceil the estimatesis the 0.7 reductionfor the
( ( rri'lscrvatively
assumetheeffectii'elengthfactorK: 1.0.If adjacentmember
( I)L(JTION
itrffnessesare known, the alignrnentchart, Fig.6.9.4a. could be used to
- . r t r---.aa ^ fircr-6.
( a ) C o m p u t e f a c t o r c d l o a d s . A s s u m e a f i r s t . o rro""urut t i c a n aand
d e r e l a s (A4-2) lysiswar ,i'.'irrmineK < 1.0 for this bracedframe.
( ro ouiuin the given ror".r.-uft LRFD-A;.;.
performed
* (
12.13/ EXAMFLES- LRFD
(
7go B€NDINGAND AXIALLOAD
12/ cQMe]i$.lED 791
( t
*COLUMNS" giving
f.P,. Entcr For this section, the ratio M^,/Q:M,: 56A/$2- : 0.89, making it likely this (
Use LRFD Manual t1.171load tables
with { : 912 kiPs and KL:14-0 ft" section is adequate. (
(e) Moment magnification for W14x132. The slendernessrario KL/r
F in d : W 1 4 x 1 2 0 , Q ,P n : 9 7 \ ki ps. (
involved in moment magnificationmust relate to the axis of bending,in this
W14x132, Q,P,: 1070kiPs casethe x-axis, (
Checkthe W14x120-
*t KL 1'0(14)12 (
(b) Column effect' Axis of bending : :
KL KL r-o(14)12 26.g
-MS 6'28 (
Largxt::T:i^
c- : l.u (;r,;, *oolo,y (
Findp.{, :27.5ksi (LRFD-"NUN{EzuCALVALUES"TABLE 3-36r r 2( zg'000) 38'8
: P": , o'EA''. , - : 15, 500kips (
Q,Pn:Q,F,,Ar: 27.5{35-3) 971kiPs ( KL/ r ) 2 ( 26. q2
( t
CheckP"/(+,P,)'0.2,
. Bt:= ?,=:, (
I -_t'1,-,,-:1.01
(+: g : 0.164'l
< 0.2;useEq.Lz.to.z t-Pu/P" 7-759/75,500
(
\+e e7r I (f) check LRFD Formula(H1-1b),Eq. 12.10.2,omitting the bendingterm
ttr 'for (
Both the flange and the web satisfy tr < tr, to preclude local buckling prior the y-axis,
achievingcolumn strengthbasedon KL/r- M u, - - M n, Br : 560( 1. 01): 566f t - kips (
(c) Beam effect.The laterally unbracedlength Lu is 14 ft'
M o : Fyz, : 36(212)/12 : 636 ft-kiPs - L ; * ( * : : i =- , 0 [12.10.2]
( r

zQ,P, \QtM^, | ( ' l


300 3oo(3.74)
Lr: 0.149 / 566\ (
E rr:75;61:15.6ft
Y'v * : 0 - 0 7 4 +0 . 8 9:6 0 . 9 7< 1 OK
z l* ) (
SinceLb< LP, L|n: M, regardless of c,. Io thiscase,Ct:1.0. Checkthc
"compalt" seition"t.quii.t*t; i.e.,is l, < I'o for both flange and rveb?Thc The other loading casefrom part (a) clearly does not control. (
LRFD Manual W shipes propertiesindicae! no ualue for Fr"', identifring UseW14x132,A36 steel. E
"compa.t" for uU yi.ta srcses up through 65 [si. The detailcd ( l
rhe secrionas
check is illustrated in Example Lz.ll.l, pan (d)- Thus, r EXAMPLE 12.13.2 (
Selectthe lightest W sectionto carry axial comprgssionof 24 kips dead load
:
QoM,: QtM, - o'90(636) 572ft-kiPs and 96 kips live load applied at an eccentricitye : 5 in. us sho*n in Fig. ( ,
Nt'rtingthe h{^,/QbMn:560/572:0.98 without the axial compression 12.13.2.The member is a part of a braced frame, and is consenatively
(
tcrrn or the magnification,it is clear this sectionis not adequate' assumedloaded in singlecurvaturewith constante. Use A36 steeland Load
In'\\'14X132 section. and ResistanceFactor Design. ( ,
(ci) Recheckcolumn and beam strengthfor W14x132' (
KL KL 1.0(14)12 I
u=U"-l I (
Lergest- : - : -+ : 44.7; Q"F",: 27.5 ksi
r ry 3.i6 II P = 1 2 0k
( ,
:
Q , P n : Q ,F rA 8 : 2 ? .5 (3 8 .8 ) 1 0 70ki ps f-vil
r i l
Service
foacts
F=
:
h
A ,/
Pe(8, - 1)
(maximum) ( )
The rrtio P"/Q,P|: 159/LCI70 : 0.149,which is still less than 0.2. For this zg-s' tl : w
sectioo,which is also
"compact", t l l E (

Lp: l5-7 ft > (tr : 14 ft) i_vlr f e= tzo p


r--1
Primary
d
w

Secondary
(

From LRFD Manual,


*BEAMS Uniform Load Constants," .e= 5"-l ,
L_
I
P
rnoment
E
moment ( t

etM, = StMp: 632 ft-kips ( :


Figure12.13.2 Example12.13.2.
( ,
( t
a
- LRFD
12.13/ EXAMPLES 793
(
AND AXTALLCAD
12ICOMBINED BENDING
' 1

7g2
(
-._..: i i : er c i o r c . e o t r { , m u s t b e l i n e a r l vi n t c r p r r l a t e db e t r v e e nQ o l t o { l i i
f t - k i p s )e n c i
(
,;,..1.f,{ 152 ft-kips) according to Eq. 9.t'.4 nrultiplied b}' 0r'
t"iYitJJ:pureracro,.il"-.il:^:",",,::"^r[$:lii,'1";*ff
( "il|,'J:"'uu'
Formula
givenror".r."irlne I-REO-A4'1,
(A4-2)'
i i L^- t.\l
( pcrformed,o oui"ii-rrl. h t n :c o i r t-, ( r { o - J t { , ) t | !"f rl l' J = . n , [l'o+]
+ 1'6(96): 182kiPs \'-'
(' & = 1.2(24) L
''l
:
/i 2) 76'o ft-kiPs I ; 2 0- 1 0 . 5 : : o s
( M n,: P,( " ) : 182(5 i;,x,:
-
1.01:il ( 1 3 -
3 1 5 r ) i fi-kips
1 8 . 1_ i 0 _ 5i l
( ( b ) E s r i m a t e t h e P * o f o r . t h , e eiq'i v erz'rZ'?'
n c o n dFor r r s72'72'6'
i t i oE4' .usingeitherYura'seqt'3.
att"iita
( tion. Eq- 12'l.,';'"' tilil"" ratio KL/r
for \\'12x58.The slenderness
(, Ilgment magnification
i i \ : 1 8 2+ 7 6 . 0' -(' 1 .rri,.,,lrctlin nrornent niagnification;rrust relate to the axis o! bending,.in this
2Ji) (
\ d1
( P . , E e =P u + i l . . \ ; J - ' " " ..r.c tltc -x-axis.

( , poEe= 182+ 1824/70: 365kiPs KL KL


: -
i .0(10)i2
- 45.5
W10, 334kips A xisof bending- :
( \\'i;: P;; = 182+ 1824/12: r I-x s.l8
313kiPs
wi;, tH = 1E2+ 1824/74:
( C , , : 1 . 0 ( c o n s t a n tn t o m c n t )
andestimatins
Eq.12.12.?
or.using P"''1:fi f.:^Irl?,::: nt:l;*T'i
( \r'ergnl ,:r?EAn
t'Ule 12'12'1for medium ":(l9.ooo)17.0
0.16 for \V14. f'ot P,: : 2350kips
( " term'
for the stressratio" (KL/r\2 (4s.5)1
( : P" + }f n'8"(0'7)
&eq
? : 336kips c^ :
1.0
: 1.08
&eq= 182+ i6'0(12)(0
Bt:
( w10, ?119t : 310kips
= 182+ li'otrzi(9 ?919
7 - P,/P" r - rwz3fr
w12, P"EQ : kips
- (
w14, = 182+ ii'oirzl(o'16)0'? 285
P,,Ee l f ) C h e c k L R F D F o r m u l a ( H l - 1 a ) . E q . 1 2 . 1 0 . 1 o. m i t t i n g t h e b e n d i n g t c r i n
( causethelattci
of 0.7for the-stressratio'factoris tikelyto ro be
rf thc r'-axis,
sincethe use Yura'sestimateis likel-v
; (
to be ;or. u"i porriuryil-to*, una the lo*sT Il u' : M n,B, : 76'0(i '08) : 82'1 ft-kiPs
carcuration ""tioo'; however'assume
( too high' ,"" uoti' i"' [ittr"g-i;;;;
""" roadtabres, forKr =
serect -P. 8 / M..-
- " -a = l - - i - 1 =t . o [r:.ro-t]
(
l#rt f,: ililfttr:ll'llihu"NS" +,Pn 9\+rM", J
( 2o ft'
w1ox6o Q'Pn:340kiPs 182 8i82.i\
+ _l- | : 0 . 5 6 7 + 0 . 3 5 6: 0 . 9 2 < 1 OK
( W12X58 Q.'Pn:321luPs 32 1 9\ 205 /
,i( W14x61 Q,Pn: 331ktPs
+\ ''.'\@ThoughthecritcrionindicateseXcessstrength.the
l F .
actron'
[ ( (c) CheckW12x58column for the WiZx53 is 1.03rvhicherceedsthe LRFD limit but ujthin abc''ut
:,..,uIr
( KL KL 1.0(20)12=
95.6; g.4.,: i8.9ksi .', rlight be acceptable. A checkof \\:10 and W14 sectionsshou'sno lightcr
Largest;=T:-6 'cetr<,rimeets the icceptabilitycriterion. E
2 a

i(
.t : 321ki P s
t:( g ,p n : Q,F .A s : 1 8 ' 9 (1 7 ' o)
il LRFI> I F.XA-MPLEIi.I3.3
exceeds0'2; therefore. W sectionfor the serviceloadingconditionsshorvnin
182/371- 0'567.rvhich
t 7r
t 1 \ Pu/Q,P,: it*ign a beam-column
The ratio
?
12.11.1,aPPlies' : iig. 12.13.3. The compression load P is 30 kips dead load and 70 kips live
iit Formula (H1-1a)' Eq' i.'ltl. The bracketloadW is 2 kips deadloadand 18 kips live load.as mightbe
(d) Beam actlon'
i1( . ri:rcdby a crane.and the horizontalload H is 5 kips live load' as might be
f t ) t ( L ' : 3 8 ' 4f t )
( L , : 1 0 . 5f t ) . ( L o : 2 0
t 1
lF!
a
794 12 / CO},{BINED SENDING AND AXLAL LCAD 12.13/EXAMPLES_LFFD 795
( t

(
A::ume hing€dsupports in borh directions,
tc, and bottom.
(
(
--[--J] (
t \ l
De.flection
\ 'Providesr (
I lateral
$Jpporr of compression
f lange
(
Ct = 1-75 (
L for KLlrr,8 tt

= 16 tt, KL, = 8 tt
16=8ft (
Kl,
( ,
( a ) C o l u m na c t i o n (b) Beamaction

(rt Loading (b) ldealizedprimary (c) Assumption


(
Figure 12.13.4 Separatebeam action and column action from
moment lor C^ Example12.13.3.
(
Figure12.13.3 ExampleL2-I3.3. (
Fie.12.13.+,
For column action: (
thc horizontaleffect of a crane.The member is part of a bracedsvsicrtt.lt:r'
K*L,: 1 6f t K,Lr: g ft (
supporrin the u'eakdirectionat mid-height,but only at the top and hottt,i:;
for the strong direction.Use 4,36 steel and Load and ResistanccFa.i,'i Requiredr,/ry > 2-a fi KL: g ft is varidfor enterine (
D esi gn. LRFD Manual "COLUMNS" i-oadtables (
SOLUTION For beam action: (
The particularfeaturesof this exampleare (a) the bracing is not al tl'rt
Laterally unbrac_ed
length La : 8 ft (
same locationsfor both principal directions; and (b) the lateral transrcrsc
loadingcausesthe primary bendingmoment. KL for momentmagnification: K,Lr: 16 fr (
(a) Compute factoredloads. Assume a first-orderelasticanall'sisn.''
(c) Estimate the Puro for the given conditions using (
perfornredto obtain the givenforces.Using LRFD-A4.1. Formula (A'1-2t. either yura,s equa_
tion, Eq. 72.L2.6,or rhe more detailed Eq. l2.lZ.Z. Uiing
Eq. 12.12.7and (
P, : 1.2(30)+ 1.6(70): 148kips at top estimating8o, tS 0.24 for w10, 0.20 for wi2, and 0.16 for-wl4,
from Table
12'12'1 for medium weight sections,and using0.7 for the "slress (
t { ' u : 1 . 2 ( 2 )+ 1 . 6 ( 1 8 ): 3 1 . 2} : i p s ratio,, rerra.
Pur q: Pu+ M n, Por ( 0. 7) (
P,,: 148+ 31.2: 179kips at bottom t.controls)
w10,= r7_9+ 47.6(12)(0.24)0.7
: 275 kips (
l*o
Hu:1.6(5):8kiPs w12,= t79 + 47.6(12)(0.20)0.7
: 259kips
l*o
p,eq 179+ 47.6(12)(0.16)0.7 (
w14, : 243kips
I (
The horizontal reaction at the bottom of the column is (H/2 + l!/7'76t'
using the LRFD Manuar"COLUMNS" load tabres.serectfor KL: g fr.
making the medmum moment. (
w 1gx3g Q , Pn: 311 kips f , / r , : 2. 76
\le.rimummcntent: (H/2 + W/16)8: 4II + ly/z t- (
,
! '

*,
W 12X40 e"pn: 269 kips i, , / i, : 2. 66
Mnt: ltlZ + 31.2/16lS: 47.6fr-kips f
Wi4X43 g.P, : 337kips r*/rt - 3.0g (
--
:t* ,
i;:

(b) Establisheffectivelengths.The member must be viewed as a column weak axisdoescontrolcolumnactionsinceall haver,/,rr> Krt, (
*. /K,rr: 2.0.
without bending moment, then as a beam without column lord, 1rs in t- Note the wl2x40 and the w14x43 are rhe tightesiiauutut.o i"
G-
trtitturnn (
t:
5
(
F
(
(
( 12,/COMBINED BENDINGAND AXIAL LOA.D 12 13/A<AMPLES_ LRFD 7g7
(
-
;.'1.=---
( load tables; however, the next lighter sections,\Vi2x35 or W14x38, may r EXAMPLE 12.13.4
-
( rvork. In'esrigarethe adequacy of the wgx24 secrionin Fig. r2.i3.5.
of 4572 Gra,ie
(d) CheckW10x39 columnaction. io sreerroadedas a beam-column. The ariar.o*pr.r-son is ti tip. J*o
( snd 60 kips live load, and the uniformlydistributed r".;
ff.,t.. i.o(16)11 K'L,: t superimposed larerallcrad
,'f 0.1 kip/tt deadload and 0.4 kip/ftlive load
( _ :45.0 :(:ltt :48.5 _:: .uur., b.ndin_qabout rhc.rieak
r.. 4.27 r. 1.98 :r,rs. Use Load and Resistance Fiitor Desien.
( .:
Find d{, : 27'0ksi (basedon KL/r: 48'5)
(
Q , P n : Q , F , A r : 2 7 " 0 ( 1 1 . 5:)3 1 1 k i p s
( A.1kip/ft dead toad
The ratio P,/+.P,: 1'19/311: 0.576.*'hich exceeds 0.2; therefore,LRFD- 0.4 kiq7ft live toad
( F or m ula( H1- 1 a ).Eq . i 2 .1 1 .1a. p p l i e s .
( (e) Beamaction. P= 15'
, ( L o : 8 . 3 f r ) , ( L u : 8 . 0f r ) dead load
( 60k
t r v el o a d
( Therefore. " i",e 12.13.5 Erample
12.13.4.
trIn : i l [o : F ,Z , u 3 6 (4 6 -8/)12 : 140ft-ki ps
(
( e ttrIn : 0 .9 0 (1 4 0:) 1 2 6ft-k i p s ,,()LLITION
( (f) Moment magnificationfor W10x39. The slendernessratio KL/r t a') Compute factored loads- Assume
involved in moment magnificationmust relate to the a-risof bending.in this a first-orclerelastic analvsis*.as
;-crformedto obtain the given forces.Using
( casethe x-axis. r-nrn-na.i,;;;;'";'tn?_r,.

( KL K.L, vu: 1.2(O.tZ4)+ 1.6(0.4): 0l9 kip/ft


Axisof bending : : 45.0
( ; ; ( addingin 0.024ap/f t beamu.cighr
)
( rzEA 6- n,2(29,ooo)11.5 Mn, : r u, Lz7g: 0. 79( t o) 27t : 9. g6f t _kips
'pe _ : 1630kips
( (KL/r)z (.1s.0)2
p,: i . z ( t 5 ) + 1 . 6 ( 6 0:) l t 4 k i p s
( For transverseloadinB,C^ may be evaluatedusingTable 12.3.7,Case3,
(b) column action.In
this examprebuckringas a cotumn
(
C ^ =t - o . z ?: r - 0 . 2 [ # ): o n r u :-'l'rneof bending,whereasin the
threeprevious" exu-pres
occursin the
corumn
( re "''{urred about the axis which buckting
"NUMERICAL rvas not the axis of bending. using
LRFD
( c^ 0.978 vALUEs"TABLEs-s', or "coLUMNS,,
Br: :1.10 ;;J,f' road
1-P,/P, 1-179/7630
(
, ^___^
^KL KL 1.0(10)12
(g) Check LRFD Formula(H1-1a),Eq. 12.10.1.omitting the bendingterm Largest :
( '
r ,y 74.5: 0 . 4 , : 2 8 . 3k s i
for the v-axis. 1.61
( Mu,: Mn,Bt: 4 7- 6 ( 7 - 1 0 ) : 5 2 . 4 f t - k i P s
Q, P, : e"F"r Ar : 2g. 3( 7. 0g)
: 200kips
( "t t' " . \ 8152.4t
"P . . 8/
+-{ l:O.SIO*=l-l:0.94<1.0 OK n:_*:t.,
( Q,Pn 9 \ + b i l " , 1 9 \i26i ,t !r/Q,P,_= ll4/200 : 0.57, rvhich exceeds0.2; therefore,LRFD_
t crmula (H1-1a), Eq. 12.11.1, applies,
( UseW10x39, 436 steel. Checksof lighter sectionsgive 1.03 for wl2x35, (c) Beam acdon' Because
uenaingoccursin the weak direction,
!' 'r\tofl?l buckling is Iatcral-
( ffi.02 for w14x34. The iightest section thit satisficsis not u porribr* conlroting rimir
'"sat buckling. The state; nor is rveb
the W14x38; horvever,
the extra4 in. of depth slay not be desirable. r sectioni, "J*p.cr,,according-toLnFD-g5
( if flangerocar

(
F"
79:B BENDINGANDAXIALLOAD
12/ C},treii.,lED 12.13/EXAMP(ES-LRFD 799 (
( i

buckling is precluded;that is, when l. 3 t r ofor the flange. Assume girder moment of inertia three time that gf mlumn (

- b t : l ' o n t , : s . 1 \. ( ^ : -
l 6 5 \ ( l

:9.21 OK
l\ r 2tr 2(0.400) I ,IF, I M
( ,
_T =
1(r g ( '
Therefore,
M n : M o : F r z r : 5 0 ( 8 ' 5 7 ) / 7 2 : 3 5 ' 7f t - k i P s '
-i 7 ( ,
J
1U
A
E) (
QuMn: 0.90(35.7) = 32-1ft-kiPs M/2
"BEAI'{S" becausethosc (
This value cannot be obtained from LRFD N{anual P
reblesare only for x-axisbending. (
(a) Frame (b) End view (c) Loadingand moment
(d) Moment magnification.Tbe slendernessratio KL/r involved in mo' diagram (,,
menr magnificationmust relateto the axisof bending,in this casethe J-axtr. Figure12.13.5Examples
I2.I3.5,L2.L3.6,
and 12.15.4 (
KL K' L '
Axisof bending : :74-5
f f v
(
momentsat the top of cgrumn M^-,r: ft-kips and at the bottom Mntr :
84 ft-kips. use 436 steel and Load and.'.1!g
ResistanceFactor Design. (
"'-(zs'ooolz'oa
: 365kiPs
'": *+- (
(x tl r)2 (? 4 .5 )3 SOLUTION
(a) Establisheffectivelengths.The member must
be viewedas a column (',
loadinE,C^ may be evaluatedusingTable 12-3-1,Casei. r"'hicir
Fci transverse without bending moment' then as a beam without column
load. For the plane (
indicates of bending, rhe effective length factor K, may be estimated
as = 0.7 from
C^: 1'0 Fig. 6.9.5,or may be obtainedfrom Alignmenichurt, (
Fig. 6.9.4a,as
c- ^ 1.0 I,!2:: (
-Rr . : :1.45 G e : 1 . 0 ( f i x e d,) G'r-:
t-P"/P, l-lL4/365 0 .' 5) '.
u K': o33
3I/n: (
omitting ihe bendrngrcrni
(e)CheckLRFD Formula(H1-1a).Eq. 12.10.1, For the transversedirection, the memberis assumedhinged
at the top and (
bottom; thus, Ku : 1.0. For beam action. Lt: l0 ft
ior the x-axis. and for moment
magnification,K-l ,: 0.73(20): 14.6ft.
Mu, : 14'3ft-kiPs
Mn,B,= 9'86(1'45) (b) Estirnate the P*eq for the given conditions using
either yura,s equa- (
tion, Eq. 12.72.6,or rhe more detailed Eq. 12.12.7.using
P, 8 i "r'ru ' \ 8114.3\ ^^ Eq. 12.12.7and
estimatingBo, as 0.24 for w10, 0.20 for wi2, and 0.Id roirvii,
-l I : 0 . 5 ?* : l : - - I :0.97 < 1.0 oK from Table (
Q , P n 9 \ + a M , ,I 9 \ 3 2 . 1/ 12'12'l for medium weight sections,and using 0.7 for the "stress
ratio,, ternr. (
TheW8x24,A5'12
Grade50,is acceptable. P.,tQ : Pu + It{n,Bo.(0.7)
( !

=
.Y19, {*o = e2+ 168(12)(0.24)0.2
:431 kips (
]:lj, {*o = e2+ :
16s(12)(0.20)0.?
37akips
N EK{MPLE I2.I3.5 w14, puee 92+ 168(12)(0.16)0.2
: 3tgkips (
Sel*t a suitableW sectioafor the column member of the irame sho*n in Using the LRFD Manual"COLUMNS" road
tables,serectfor KL: (
Fig. i2.13.6.The joints are rigid to give frame action in the plane of bending: 10 ft.
hc* er'.-r,in the ti"nruers. directionsrvaybracing is proviciedand the attach- (
nlents are assumedto be hinged. The frame is attached to other braced f, W10x54 e,P, = 431kips r, / ry: I .?1
&t (
conslruction such that this frame is considered part of a braced s)stctn' W12X53 e"Pn:422 kips
.-\ssumea structural analysishasbeenperformedusing factored loads and the
F
+i-
r,/ry: 2.ll
(
t. W14x48 S"p": 351kips r,/ry- 3.06
resulrsare as follows: factoredaxial compression Pu: 92 kips; and factored l:- (
F',
f*-
(
(
+
i u -..!
r
l
( 800 ANDAXIALLOAD
I ?,;96tr,1''NEDBENDING 12.13/EXAIVIPLES- LRFD gOt
I
:
a
I

: For the tables to give the correct dP' rr/rt,for the sectionmust exceed - , -.,!-
From LRFD Manual "LOAD FAcToR DESIGN sELEcTIoN
i/'
TAtsr.r:
€ (.1. /KrL; : 0.7(20)i10 : 1.40; the above sections all qualify. Try 2,". and looking for l, about 6.6 ft,
v w14x48.
I Find l\ 'llx4"l,
Z, : 95. 4, Lo: 5. 3 f t
(c) Can plastic anai;*sisbe used for this design?Plasticanalysisrna-vbe
{ usedif the follou'ingconditionsare satisfied: I h;s' the preliminarychoicesare w14x48 for a shallowsection,or rhe
lighrer
I
Y \\'llx44 if a deepersectionis desirable.Sectionsdeeper
than wl4
I
t, 1. The sectionis "compact"; i.e., tr . tr, for the flangeand the web, and :ippearin the "CCLUI{NS" load tables.
clo ntrr
{I L, < Loa (LRFD-FI.1). (e) Check W21x44 sectionfor columnaction.
il 2. For compressionmembers,the slendernessparameter tr. may Dot
( K*L,
exceed1.5K (LRFD-EI.2). _ 0.{20)12:20.g K,L,:1.0j10]r2
i',7
3. For unbraced frames, the factored axial load Pu may not exceed f., 8.06 :e5.2
ry 7. 26
t- - r, (LRFD -C2.2).
0.75.4
Find +.{, = 19.0ksi (rase<ion KL/r:
( g5.Z)
For this design.lo, would haveto exceed10 ft, and the factoredforcesr';ould Q,P,: e,F,,Ar: t9.0(i3.0) : 247tr..tps
.(a-

in Chapters10 and i5.


t. har.eto be obtainid b1' a plasticanalysisas discussed
',{ framesis impractical. J-heratio P,/Q,P,: 92/247 = 0.372.rvhich exceeds0.2;
In general,plastic anall'sisof multistory therefore.LRFD-
formul a(H 1-1a) .Eq. t 2. ll. i, applies.
(d) investigate equivalentbeam approach to selection.Since colurnn
v (f) Seamaction.

:tr acrionrepresentsonl1,'about 25 to 3A% of the total load as indicatedby P"ea,


'' sT.
in part (b) above,an alternativeapproa'chusing Mueq,given by Eq. 12.12-7, ( L r : 5 . 3 f t ) < ( t o : 1 0f r ) < ( L , : i 5 . 4f t )
may be preferred.
ti. I'herefore.M, must be linearl,vinterpolatedbetween
!. Mo and M, accor,Jing
t,
Fq. 9.6.4.From LRFD h{anuar"LOAD FACTOR
r
. t t

: t )
M , " z ( ) : M ,. ,- ( ; ) ( H ) [12.12jl T.{BLE" find
DESIGN SELECTION

{ "stressterm" as the valuesusedin part (a), the ;l/"ro er M p: . 259 f t _kips; et M , : 159f t - kips
>- Estimatingpo, and the
K I t t |
for a W14 rvouldbe Mn= culMp- (M, \ l
' _ u)lio-
. r ' \ - ?, Mo
, b

w r' t,)f [l'o'a]


I :218 rt-kips'. L
it
k-
v
w14, MuEe= 168(8/9)+ 92/V2(0.16)0.i1 L sing eM, and fn{ will giveeM,,
d
JC\
"LOAD FACTOR
Then, assumingthat .r,t can equal Mo,theLRFD Manual '_',\l
"BEAI{
+rrn:r.srfzss- (2s8
tt/
{( DESIGN SELECTION TABLE Z,t'can be used, or the curyes - ise)i=to,- :
DESIGN MOMENTS" can be used when L, is larger. In this example,the L .\ 15.4 s.3,lj :ss rt-kips
-
will be deeper than W14. SinceMn cannotexceed!t{p, Mn: Mri
i lightest seciion to carry the given loading likely +bI{,: enMp: 25g ft_kips.
E( (g) iv{oment magnificationfor w2ix44.
' F\
e From Table 12.12.1estimateBo, ?s 0.14(a medianvalueforW16, W18, and The slendernessrario KI-/r
vg w21), :::r"\olved
in moment magnificationmust relate to the axisof bepding.
Llsc the x-axis,
in this
IfueQ= 168(8,/9) .71:228 ft-kips
+ 92/F2(0.14)0
ff
Izr
K
E
' F -
z,: ry : 0??9,?r:
Required . 90(36)
84in.3 , t x
e tF y
- l(29'ooo)13'o
.ft|
!'\
,( Becauseof the steep moment gradient, Cu + 1.0; therefore,tbe moment ,,: ,Tl-tnr,.
strengthwill be C, tia:es Mueq, one may roughly comPaleLu/Cr with lr- In 6uS l' of-:86ookiPs
'ir l'irpsnd momenr loading.c- is LRFD
4{
this example, Formura(Hr-4), Eq. 12.4.6,

,i/
fd
(
c a : 1 7 5+ 1 . o s ( # ) + o'31
/ 84 \2
168
:
,l
1.51 Cr:0'6 - oo;
lr
tvt
:0.6- "(#) : 4. 4

L, 10 C^ 0. 4
:( : 6 ' 6f t B^ r : : - n.4(i.01<
) 1.0
!. 1: iii i - P,/P" -
7 92/8600
I i-/
Itt
r i
C
8O2 12 / CAil$AINED tsENDlNGAND AXIAL LOAD
12.1g _LRFD
/ EXAMPLES g03
\ J

(
Thus, the magnified moment out away frona the support does not exceedtlrc in addition to estimatingBo, edthe ..stressratio,,
term of 84. 12.12.7, (
primary moment at the support; thus, B, : 1.0. B, must be esdmated.usingf8r'estiniateoai i.: -a B,
ar 1.0,
(h) Check LRFD Formula(H1-1a),Eq. 12.10.1,omitting the bendingtcnn (
for the y-axis, Mu: Mn,B, + MaBz
EstimatedMu = 30(1.0) + 138(1.3) : 209 ft-kips (
l { u ,: M n ,Br: 1 6 8 (1 -0 ): 1 6 8ft-ki P s
(
Pu 8i Mu, \ 81168\ ' Next' note that the LRFD Manual "COLUMNS" load tablesgive
^^_-
: 0 ' 3 7*2 ^ the correct
o ' e 5< 1 o Q,Pnfor KrLr: 10 ft only when rr/ryexceeds (
a , P , +, l a r i ; ) of ,ss):
K*L,/KyLr: l.Z4(20)/10 : 2.4g ( ,
Use W21x44, A36 steel.Checksof other sectionsgive 0.98 for Wl6x45. 0.9n
@rw14x 48. I Selection of w10 or w12 section: may likely have
their column strength (
controlled by column buckling in the pline of 6ending, while
deepersections ( ,
E EXAMPLE 12.T3.6 will be conrrolled by weak-axisbuckling
Repeat Example 12.13.5except treat the frame as unbraced in the planc of The estimatedequivalentcolumn loads p*o are
: ( \
bending. Though the total factored loads acting in this example are the sanlc w1?, = gZ + 2}9(12)(0.24)0.7: 513 kips (
as in Example 12.13.5, they would have been determined by an entircll {*o
wt?, =
different procedure.Two elasticanalysesunder factored loads are required:a :\' w14, {*o = 9-2+ 209(12X0.20i0.7
"II
: 443kips (
nonsway analysis for gravity loads, and a sway analysis for lateral loads
92+ 209(12)(0.16)0.2
: gzi;li, a
(
Assumethe factored momenls Mn, for the nonswayanalysisare 30 ft-kips antl using the LRFD Manual "COLUMNS" load tables,
select for KL:
15 ft-kips at the top and bottom of the column, respectively.The factorct! 10 ft, or KL: K,L,/(r,/ry): l.24eq/(r,/r,) : 24.g/(.r,/rr) whenr,/rt ( ,
moments Mr, fsom the sway analysisare 138 ft-kips both at the top and thc < 2.49,
(
bottom. All moments causedouble curvature in the column.
W10, for KL: 24.8/1.71: 14.5ft, (
SOLUTION w1ox68 e,1t, = 4g5 kips 1.71
\/ry: (
(a) Effectivelengthsfor column and beam action.A significantdiffcrcnce W12, for KL: 24.8/2.10: 11.gft,
l-;€ttv€€othis caseand the precedingone is that the effective length factor A , (
W12x58 e,p, = 440 kips 2.10
ior the plane of bendingexceedsone. Using the Alignment Chart. Fig. 6.9.4h \/ry:
'or the unbraced,i:ame (siCesr','ay (
not prevented), W14and deeper, .for KL: 10 fr,
I /20 W14x53 e"pn:3g9 kips r,/ry: 3.07 (
(ir: i.3 liixed), GB: : 0.5, K, = 1.24
3rna AlternativelV,u;ing.thg M** approachwith Eq. ll.l2.7,using (
for deepersecrions(as in Examfie iZ.tf.S), S"- of.A.14
'l-his (
value ol K m;iy be adjustedfor inelastic buckling accordineto thc
discussionin S*. 5-9. M,uq = 20s(B/s) + sz/02(0.14)0 .7) :264 ft-kips (
(b) Btimate the P,eq for the given conditionsusing either Yura's ctlt,rs-
,rn.i
tion, Eq. 12.12.6,or the more detailed 4. 12.12.?.Using Eq. il.ll.r 'fehic .!y'uEQ 264(12) (
estimatingF", s 0.24 for W10, 0.20 for Wt| and 0.16 for W14. frorn
Rcquired
t,: : 9sin.-.
*: ffi ( ,
12.12.1for medium weight sections,and using 0.7 for the "stress ratio" tcrm.
From LRFD Manual "LOAD FAcroR DESIGN
Pu e e : P u + M u Bo ,(0 .7) sELEgfIoN TABLE,,"
selecta w18x50 section-A checkof this sectionwdl
show it to be one secrioa (
I-his tirne the equation includesM, instead of M,, used for the bracedfratttc' too heavy.Check nexr lighter W2lx44.
(c) Check W21X44 setion for column action. (
It is relativelyeasierto estimateB, for the bracedframe(and for 1ftsp1ri15u;r' Here K, : l.Z4 insteadof
part of the unbraced frame analysis)tban it is to estimateB. frrr the srv.tr 0.7 for Example 12.13.6,
(
analysis.Oftea 8, b 1.0 or not much larger; however,B" is commonif in the K*L,:
range 1.2 to 15 and it may be larger- Practical designsshouid havc B' not _ 1 . 2 4 ( 2 0 ) :1 236'9 K,L, (
rx : 95'2 ( Exam Ple12. 13. 5)
exceedingabout 1.5. tr6
t (
( \
(
(
1

( 12.13/ EXAMPLES-LRFD
12lCOMBTNED BENDTNG
AND AX|AL LOAD
(
( 375 |
Since the y-a-xisslendernessstill is the larger, the value of 0.P" : 247 ktps /T\ lrl tl-krps
obtained in Example 12.13.5still prevails.The ratio P,/dP" still equals 38 ft-kips
( - rvd$ Braced {rame
9:/247 : 0.372,rvhich exceeds0.2; therefore.LRFD-Formula (H1-1a),Eq. -
'i'iiil
F{
ft, (ccnse:'vative
g
assumption ol
( 1 :.1 i. 1, applies . EM,f
H
I hinged ends)
- I
(d) Bearnactionon W21x44.Thesecalcuiationsare identicalto Example
(
1 1 . 13. 5.par r ( f ) . Q tIl ^ : 2 5 8ft-k i p s . d
l--vi iin
I t ; t 1
3.
E
l{
.'
H
Factored
loads
( (e) Nonsrvaypari-magnification factor ^B,.This calculationis identical Fr i

i__J+
H 7' -6" | ,i I H given
H
( to Example 12.13.5,part (g). In this exampleit rvould be preferableto use d
H I

{. : 1.0 for P". Horvever,.8, : 1.0whether(,:0.7 or K": 1.0. I I


( (f ) Swaypart-rnagnification factor.8".The slenderness ratio in the plane r l
I 3 ; 5r , p s l37s'
of the frame increasesfrom the nonswaypart becausehere K,:1,.24; thus,
(
usi:rg K,L, / r, : 36.9gives Figure12.13.7 ExamPle12.13.7.
( ';rzEA
r' n2(29,000)13.0
( P": : 2730kips
(KL /r)2 (3 6 .e )' SOLUTION
( (a) Effcctive lengths for column and beam action'
Since in this example trvo equal sized colurnns having equal loading are
( participatingin the srvayresistance, Column action: K,L,: 1 - 0 ( 1 5 :) 1 5 f t
( KrLr: 1 . 0 ( 7 . 5 ): 7 - 5 f t
LP": 2(2730): 5460kiPs
( Beamaction: Lt: 7.5 ft for x-axisbending
LPu - 2(92) : 184kips
cu,: r . 3 o ( E q -9 - 6 . 1 1 ) ( L R F D - F I . 3 )
(
Then Eq. 12.i1.11for the swaymagnifierB, gives Lt: not applicablefor -v-axisbending
(
1 1 Cbr: not applicablefor y-axisbending
( Bz: : 1.035
LPu 184 Moment magnification: KL: 15 ft for P.'
. - - c " '

( '
1 -

5460 'i ' ';;::?.1


(
(g) Check LRFD Formula(H1-1a),Eq. 12.10.1,omitting the bendingterrn
\-a -
. P,"
,,ror
( for the y-axis, c^y : 0.6 - o-4(3/14) : o'51
( : 173ft-ki ps
M u, : M n ,B , + Ml tf' z : 3 0 (1 -0 )+ 1 3 8 (1 .035) Nore that lateral-torsionalbuckling is not a possiblclimit statefor rveakaxis
( bending of W shapes;therefore,Lu artd Cu are not applicablefor the.v-axis'
'' !--) : o.rr,* 8 i 1 7 3 \ (biEstimate the P"sq for the given conditigll using either Yura's equa-
( * Y( ;Izx):o'tt<1'o
oK rion, Eq. 12.12.6,or t-h-.-nlot. detailed W. 12.12.5-Using Eq. 12'12'5 for
Q,Pn 9\Qut{,,J
uniaxial bqrrding,
(
LlseW27x44, A36steel.Checksof other sectionsgive 0.98 for W18x46, 1.01
(
@r w14x 48. I P,rrq : P, + rn )z.sl
( )
(
E EXAIITPLE 12.13.7 Theie will be trvo bending moment terrns for biaxial bending- Neglectingthe
Select the lightest W12 section to carry an axial compressionin addition to magnification term (last b-rackettern). Eq.72.72.5 becomesfor biaxial bcnd-
( biaxial bending, loaded as shown in Fig. t2.73.7.Assumea first-order struc- ing,
tural analysis has been performed using factored loads. The results give
/ s+"F.,
.:'-8
( P": 375 kips, M,,, : 38 ft-kips about the x-axis at the top of the column, I ao-r-,\+ M,,,,8",,
p,eo: Pu+ i,InBP,,,I \
( and Mn,,: 14 ft-kips about the y-axis at the top of the column. Use 4572 t;iJ lffi ,|
Grade 50 steel and Load and ResistanceFactor Design.
! ( S:

-ris:
1? / COM3INED BENDTNGAND AXTALL-OAD 12.13/EXAMPLES_LRFD ft
(.:
The designermay directly usethe aboveequationbi'estimaringborh i1.,,,.,: .. The result for euMn cannot exceed gtMp: 271 ft_kips. ( ,
Thus, etMn:
\o,y, ot perhapsmore practicaluse the sameBo, f.at both termsanti muirr;-.. 271 ft-kips. Check.ge"F",/(9Qt4,) : 8(36.4)/19(45)l:
0.72,which exceedsthe (,,
the y-axjs term by Bt: z,/zr. T\e Bt may also be esrimatedfrom J'.rhi- 0-7 assumedin estimatingp"eq.'one courd revisethe r*o
at this.tu!, before (.,
12.12.1.Using the latter approach,estimateBo,ds 0.20 and Fa as 2.2 ior \\'i. proceeding,
from Table 72.12.rfor medium weightsections,and using 0.7 for ihc "sr::.
RevisedpuEq: 375+ 38(12X0.20)(0.72) + 14(12)(0.20)(3.4) ( ;
ratio" term, (0.72\
: 375 + 66 + 82: 523kips < (e,p,: (,
P,Ee : P, + Mn,,Bo,(0.7)+ trfn,r\o,gu(0.7) 536kips) OK
(e) Beam action-y'axis. Since lateral-torsionalbuckling
and web local \. )
P,,eQ: 2o)(2
2)0
7 buckling cannor be applicablelimit stares,and A < A, for the"flanle
fiectuoes
:; I:::;?,:,1':H14{12)(0 flange local buckling, ( ,
(b) Selecttrial section.Using K,L,:7.5 ft, selectfrom LRFD }ianu.,. M,y: Mrr:Fr Zr : 50( 21 . 4) / lz: g9. 2f t _kips (
"COLUIWNS" load tablesfor Fr: 50 ksi,
QoMnr: 0 . 9 0 ( 8 9 . 2:)8 0 . 3 f t - k i p s ( ,
W12x45, S,Pn:479 kips; \/ry: 2.10 (f ) Mcrmentmagnification-x-axis. The slenderness ( ;
ratio KL/r involved
: in moment magnification must relate to the axis of bintrtng,
Bo. AB/2,: 0.20; Ft: 2.,/Zr: 3.4 i"l'hi, ;*;;; (
x-axis.
RevisedPueq: 375 + 63.8 + 14(12)(0.20)(3.4)0.7 ( ,
: 519kips
, f x ( .
W12x50, having0,p_: . '
It appearsthe next heavierW12 wiil be needed,;
W12x50. r2(29'ooo)-1q'z ( ,
kips. Try the
(c) Column action.
P,: :n:EA':; - -: 3480
kiPs
TKfif 13*f- ( ,
K,L,: t:(11) KrL, _ 7.s(12) For end momenrloading,e is LRFD Formula (Hl_4), Eq. 12.4.6,
: 34.7 (
: 45
- J 'e
'
rx 5.18 t, 1.96
C ^ : 0 . -6 0 . 4 + : 0 . 6
- o . 4*fJ : o . u (
Find g.{, : 36.4ksi (basedan KL/r: 45.9) ' frr:. 3g \ / (
i C^
Q , P n : + , F " , A s : 3 6 . 4 ( 1 4 . 7: )5 3 5 k i p s
t 0.6
{
!
B,' : : 0 . 6 ( 1 . 1 2<) 1 . 0 (
i
$
I - Pu/P" -
t 37s/34E0
Th e r at io P " / Q , P ^:3 7 5 /' 5 3 5 :0 .7 0 , w h i c h e x c e eds
0.2; therefore.
LR I-i r- *
Formula (H1-1a),Eq. 12.11.1, Thus' the magnifiedmomentout away from the support.
applies. !
does not exceedthe
(d) Beam action-x-axis. From LRFD Manual "BEAIVIS" tabres.iind * primary momentat the support; thus, Br, : 1.0. ','^ (
I (g) lv{omentmagnification-y-axis. T-ireslenderness
t ratio KL/r invol'ed ( ,
L P : 6 ' 9f t in moment magnificationmust relate to the axisof
-
t bending,in this casethe
L': 2l'7 ft t
/-8_X.tS, (' ,,
i

Q6Mp,: 277ft-kips *t K'L': ( ,


it Axis of bending : 45.9
1 9 4ft-k i p s
I , , ,
e 2 ,\f,,: * (
a
Since Lo. Lt 4 L,, Q61fn, r.rustbe obtainedby lincar intei-polliii.r:: T
t p,: ,!'lAr,. - z2(z-g'otg)rq'z
-= z2000kips (,,
Eq. 9.6.ari'herethe interpolationresultis multiplicclb1,'(',,. Using i-- I+ (xtyr)z (4s.e)' -
u tth C, : 1. 3, c (
a For end momentloading, is LRFD Formula (H1-4), Eq. 12.4.6,
xI e
* \ ,
Ir.0.+i + / 3t \
C ^ : 0 . 6 -0 . 4 + : 0 . ;6- o ' 4 (
rt rr., *J:o'st
- ( ,
etMn=1.3[rrr- (z7r-t*)( : ro*rr-kips
t

n,:
#r*:0.5r(1.23)<r.o
&
it
#*)]
t ft: (
t (
( ,
f
,*
' - - +*rtJt i a -

p / caMBtNED BENDTNG
AND AXTALLoAD
!
' 3 - . - - LRFD
12.13/EXAMPLES
. t : " :
. -,-:.
i ....-
Thus, the magnified moment out away from the support doesnot erceedthe (b) Effective lengthsfor columnand i** acrion.
primary momcntat the support;thus, 8r.r: 1.0.
(h) CheckLRFD Formula(H1-1a),Eq. 12.10.1, Column action: K..1, : 1.0(12): 12 fr

fu Io ,: Il n t,B r,: 3 8 (1 .0 ): -1 8ft-ki ps . f,.,I.":1.0(6):5ft


.:.
M,r: l { n , r B r r : 1 4 ( 1 . 0 ): 1 4 f t - k i p s 'r Beamaction: Lt: 6 ft for x-axisbcnding
.: (appliesonly when r, ) r..I
':.''
:- *Y( '" l .: ( .Y:+l=r.o [12.10.11
:
Ca: 2.30max
a&- tl+rM*J- n|i+,.ll_i .' (appliesonlv u'hen r. ) r, )
375 8/ 38\ 8 /1 4 \ N{oment mas,nification: K.1,. : 12 ft for P"..
- -'L - l - I a -l- | : 0 . 7 0 0 + 0 . 1 2 5+ 0 . 1 5 5 : 0 . 9 9< 1 OK
535 e\211
J ' e \ 8 0 .I3 C^: 0.85for restrained
ends
{,,seW12x50. ,4.572Grade50 steel. E
Note that the strengthcriterionmust be checkedat midspanu'herethe flangc
E EXAMPLE I2.I3.8 is in compression,and at the supportsrvherethe stemis in compression. Alsr'r.
Selectan economicalstructural tee for useas-the top chord in a roof truss,as the laterally unbracedlength l,u and momentgradientterm Co have meaning
shorvnin Fig. 12.13.8.The transverse concentratedload W is 1 kip deadload only when rx > r;:. u'hen bending occursin the rveak direction. lateral-tor-
(neglect the rveight of the structural tee) and 4 kips live load. The axial sional buckling is not a possiblelimit srate.
compressionP is 17 kips deadload and 68 kips live load. Assumethe primary (c) Estimate the Pueq for the given conditionsusing Eq. 12.i2.5. For
moment M on the rnemberoccursas if the endswere fixed; that is, WL/8 f,or structural tees,as discussedin Sec.9.12,the denominatorM,, of the bending
both positive and negative moment zones. The chord is designed to be term of the beam-column criterion in LRFD-HI cannot exceed l/, : 4 S,
continuous over 12-ft spans,with transverselateral support at 6-ft intervals. rvhen the most conservativeinterpretationof LRFD-FI.5 is used.Thit means
Use {,: 50 ksi and Load and Resistance Factor Design. the Bo, term of F4. 12.72.5becomeslg,/S,.r,.- for the usual casewhere the
strength M, is controlledby stressat the exrremefiber of the stem.
SOLUTION Estimating the "stressratio" term as 0.7, estimating8,. as 1.6 for Wfi.
(a) Compute factored loads. Assume a first-order elastic analysis iA;t- 1.4 for WT8, and 1.2 for WT9 from Table 12.13.1,and neglecting the
performed to obtai:r the given forces.Using LRFD-A4.1, Formula (A4-2), \ magnification term,.

+ 1 . 6 ( 4 . 0:) 7 . 6k i p s
;Wu:1.2(1.0) pueq
: p,+ Mn,Bo,[*+l[^ t,,r,,) 112.12.51
'--.-
P u : 1 .2 (1 7 )+ 1 .6 (6 8 ): 1 2 9ki ps \ 9 0 r F ,I \ B ' - p ( K L ) ' I

Mn,: :7.6(L2)/8 : 11.4ft-kips Pueq: P, + It{n,por(0.7)


tW,L/8
WT7, : 282 kips
P,uq = 729 + 11.4{i2X1.6)0.7
:263 kips
Pu.q = 729 + 11-4{12X1.4)a.7
YT$'
WT9, &uq = 129 + : 2Mktps
11.4{12xi.2)a.7
I --_-.., Top

,v==F_,
)o Using the LRFD Manual "COLUI{NS Structural tees cut from W
ll
I shapes"load tables,selecttot KrLr: 6 ft or K,Lr: L2 ft,
U Borrom
r--l 2'-0"-----f- Verticatsuppon
0.0.,-J-- Laterat
supporr For K, L, : 12 f t For KrLu: 6 ft
l--u'-0"
N=,,,rn,r.,,,i'
wT?x37 Q "P, : 293 kiPs Q , Pn: >293kiPs
u e= ' T
assum
W - wT8x28.5
WT9x30
Q,P,: 262kips
*, Pn: 253kips
Q,Pn: 272kips
Q,Pn: =240kiPs
Figure12.13.8 ExampleL2.13.8.
f "

Fil 810 12./ C3trZii'i=3 EENDIIJGAND AX|AL LCAD (


12.13/EXAMeLES_lhro 811 (
TABLE 12'13'1 APPROXIMATE
B *VALUESFoRsrRucruRAl rEES (
Compute x,{O accordingro LRFD_E2,
(

tr..1,"[:
KL/r
.iE 5e.8fso-mDt
:;V (
V E :0.766
wT9 L-l.2 0.3 ,tooo (
wT8 1 - 1 .5 0.3 use l.y'T to enterLRFD Manual ..NUMERICAL (
wT7 L.2-2.0 0.3-0.5 vALuES,,TABLE 4.
wT6 1 .5 -2 .0 0.5 0.4 (
wT5 2.0-2.5 0.6 0.665; 0 . 4 , : 0 . 6 6 50( . g 4 2 ) s 0 : 3 1 . 3k s i
wT4 2.5-3.5 a,;: (
0.7

Q , P n : e , F n A s : 3 1 . 3 ( g . 3 g:) 2 6 2k i p s (
Additional selectiondata may be obtainedby noting the proporrr()n, : The ratio Pu/+.p,_: 129/262:0.492, ( ,
P,uq that representsthe bendingeffect.For the Wfi above.rhc'bc1r.t:r:r which exceeds0.2; therefore,IRFD-
Formul a(H l -l a), E q. 12. i1. 1,applies. (
proportion is 54 rc (7531282)of the toral effect,rhus,
(e) Beam action-fl*gr it, compression. check the ratio
2'47/r'60 > 1'0; thus, the literal-torsional r,/ry: (
:9 {\ e+r , ,jt = o , o ''sidered'
The maximum nominal moment
tive interpretationof LRFD-F1-5
buckling limit saatemust be con-
strength according to the conserva-
occurswhen-.ith., the flange extreme (
which, noting that r{^: F,,sr,r,"- maximum, gives an approximate rcQurrr.,,! in compressionreaches (or a resser fiber
'alue if local buckring makes
S...r,..,,, than unity), or the srem$exrreme e" ress (
fiber ,;r;;.;
----'-" '
control, ;.;, ' L ) rension.The srem wi,
8(11.4)12
RequiredS,.,,".= -. Y:- :
e+r4(0.s4) e(0.e0)(s0)0.54 hfr:
4&,,,.'lr : 50(7.77)/tZ :32.3 ft-kips (
For the tentariveselections, Wfix37 heSS,,,,.,',: 6.25 in.l, WT8X2E.5ii.r. It will be highlv unlikely thar Iareral-torsional
5 'r.stc:nr
7. 77 in. 3,an d WT 9 x 3 0 h 4 s S,,r," * :0 .: i n . 3.Furtherchecki ncl hc buckling will conrrol on (
structurartees.However,LRFD-FI.5 g:..t
WTEx2S . 5. , l" i' 5, . , , .,o: 8 .3 8 /1 .7 7: 1 .1 ; re v i s e dp req = 234 ki ps. [:r,,nl "".qr"ri"" for rv{n.UsingCt,: 2.3 (
"COLU\1NS" load in LRFD Formula(F1-15)as illustrated
tablesit still appearsthe WT8x28.iiray be the spprtrfn. in Exampi, e:2.2, Lb:143 ft rvhen
Mu : M, : 32.3ft-kips.
a te ch oic e. (
(f) Beamaction_u,ebin compression.
Irr- W T 8x 23. 5- SinceI . l, as determinedin part
(d)' g" : 0.942.For flexurul-.*b.rs, (
accordingto LRFD-Appendix
(d) Column acrion.CheckWT8x28.5. the maximum bendingstress"shali B5.3a,
nor e.xceedE.F;Q; Thus, 1,
K ' L ' : t 1 ( t 1 ) : 5 e . 8 K,L,': 6(11) M' :40,{,,,"* : 50( 0. 942) ( 7. 7i) / 12:
: 45.0 30. 5f t _kips (
r, 2.47 rv 1.60
In this e.rample,the factored forces (
Since the stem of a structural tee is a thin compressionelement.locrl are the same at the supports
midspan;therefore,the strengthcriterion and at
r:rav be a contrcllng limit state;check ), > I, from LRFD-85. at the supporrs(tr{r,:30.5 ft-kips) (
will control.
(g) Moment magnification.The (
; d 8.215 127 \ slendernessratio KL/r involved
-K,-L,7r.,:
i' mo-
I t r : r* :le1)>
( ^ ,
: - : 18.01 NG relate
totheorisofbending;,
inthis.us.
\ 0.430 Itr
V'I' I $$$$$Ttr:ffifi.ffI,Iff:
The cfficicncy'of the stemis reduced;i.e..0, < 1.0.Usi:rgLRFD-.{ppe!:,i;r o'EA'
i J5 .3 .ef or A . < I < 1 7 6 /U T ., P,:- - -n2(29'wo)s'38
: 671kiPs (
(6 (sr3)t-
Q,: L908- 0.00T15(d/r*),1\. t
For restrained
endswith concentrated_road
at midspan,one may take : (
Q,: L908- 0.00715(19.1)160-
: 0.942 0.85in accordance
with LRFt-ii.zr.ii. ari;;;;#.iy, e
pressionfrom LRFD-commeo."ry a more accurareex- (
TABLE c-ur.i (Tabre 12.3.1, Case7.
(
(
(
(
812 ANDAXIALLOAD
I2I'COMBINEDBENDING 12.14/ ALLOWABLESTRESSD:SIGN CRITERIA 813
(
(
negativemoment) is rvhich gives as a design requirement,
(
( c,,: r - 0.2
+
P,
:1.0- oz(XJ: o.ru ( 1 2 . 1 4 . )j
\671/
( o'nu
g ', : - c ^ - : : 1.19 f.or uniaxial bendins and compression.
( 1-P"/P" 1-129/671 By analogy, for- bending about both x- and l,-axes.Eq. 12.1,1.3u'ouiij
( l f C ^ : 0 . S 5 .8 i : 1 . 0 5 . become
(h) Check LRFD Formula (H1-1a), Eq. 12.10.1,omitting the term for
( f' f"c''''
bendingabout the _r'-axis,
Fr,(t- fJn
-* p^11
,,, ,l'9"',,. i < 1.0
- fJF:,1 (12.i4.4)
{, 1-
r l u ,: r' l n t,B L ,: 1 1 .4 (1 -1 9:) 1 3.6ft-ki ps
( rl'!-ichis the stability interactionequation,ASD Formula(H1-1),
i6l/n, : QoMr: 0.90(30.5): 27.4ft-kips
( where f.: P/A- : axial compressionstressat serv'ice load
(
3 * igA =,0
Q,P; 9 \QtM". )
[12'ro1] f 6r,f t,y: flexuiai at
stresses sen'ice load basedon primary bending mc'-
ment about the x- and y-axes,respectively
129 8 i 13.6\
( - _ r - _ l _ : _ l : 0 . 4 9 2 + 0 . 4 4 1: 0 . 9 3 < 1 oK 4, : allo.*'ablecompressionstressconsideringthe nremberas loaded
2 6 2 9 \ 2 7 . 4I by arial compressiononlY
(
(
UseWT8x28.5,A572Grade50 steel. E
-- "" Fb': ;"il:r';:il:'J::,T':;'i';
::il:::'"Jru'*.ff:l'ililio'i:
STRESSDESIGNCRITERIA the definition of C, in ASD-F1.3,rvhenthe stabilityequation,
( 12.14ALLOWABLE
E4,. 72.14.4,is used for bracedfrantes Ca = 1.0' but rvhen Eq.
( For Allou'able StressDesign,the strengthinteractionequations,Eqs. 12.8.1 12.74.4is used for unbraced frames,Ct: 1.75+ 1-05(ltli/I{2)
+ 0.3(M r / M ) I < 2. 3
( through 12.8.4.nay be convertedto unit stresses and a factor of safety(FS)
applied to bring them into the serviceload range. C^: factors discussedin Secs.L2.3 through 12.5. to be taken as
( follou's:
-j
franze,membershaving transverseloading betweensup-
r r:^- L--^-)
( Stability Interactlon Criterion ... l. For braced
r
.-.:. ports. C- is an integral part of the moment magiifier Bi, and whose
( The nomiaal strength interaction equation, Eq. 12.E.4,including lateral-tor- value ma1"be determinedby' rational analysis,
sionalbuckling is
( C^ : 1 + rfa (ASD Commentary-Hl) (i2.14.5)
Pu Mri C^
( : Valuesfrom Table 12.3.7
M,(t-PJP):i [12.8.4J
h-
( C^: 1.0 (ASD'Hl) (12.14.6)
where { and trlu,arc the axial force and primary bending moment, respec-
(endsof memberunrestrained)
( tively, that occur whenfailure is imminent. When both the nurnerator and
denominator are divided by a factor (FS) to bring ail terms into the sen'ice ' -- C-:0.85 (ASD-Hl) (12.14.11
( load range (endsof memberrestrained)
( c^
P"/(A sFS) M",/[S(FS)] , For bracedfrante membersn-ithout transvetselcading bctrveensup-
* :1.0 (12.14.1)
( P ^/ ( A s F S | M" /[S(F S )J t- P"/(r8FS)I ports but having end moments ,t/, (smallerone) and .4/' (larger cne).
(
(
Ll- ./GSJ C- converts t'he linearly va4rlng primary benCingmoment into an
equivalentuniform mornent Me: C^M2,
P/As
*'
M,/S c^ : 1.0 ltz:.t+.21 c,, : 0.6 - 0.4M/ M, (12.14.8)
(
P ^/ ( A sF S ) M ,/IS(F S )]
(
, ( l'-#tu] :
j
'
.
- l
i

1
a
The moments .,\y',and, lf -, aie rolational moments, rather than bending
monents as used in Sec. 72.4. Thcrefore, the ratio is negative (-) for
F

814 BENDING
12/ COM9|NED ANDAXIALLOAD 12.14/ ALLOWABLESTRESSDESIGNCRITERIA (
815
(
singlecurvatureand positive( * ) for double curvature.Since M, is the (
primary moment, C- is really not part of the magnificationfactor. P/A
r lvt/s (
* :
3. For unbracedframe members, F,/U.FS) r.18MP/ts(FS)l 1 . 0 (12.14.13)
(
C- : 0-85 (ASD-Hl) (r2.14.e)
or from ASD-Commentary Hl,
which gives as a designrequirement. (
(
C^: 1 - 0.18f"/F: (12.14.10) - _f"+ : 1.0 (12.r4.14)
as discussedin Sec.12.5. 0.60d r.18Me/ls(FS)l (
In the application of Eq. 12.14.4[ASD Formula (H1-1)], the term F,' Tlie ASD Specificationhas used an expressionmore conservative than Eq. (
refers to the effectiuepin-end length in the plane of bending: 12.14.14by using 1.0 insteadof 1.18,and'insreadof Mo/[.s(FS)], which for
(
I-shaped sectionswould correspondto 0.66{ for x-axij bending and 0.75i
P. *2EI for y-axis bending, ASD-HI has used d. Fbr instance, the allowable stres-s
'ac r : - _ : _
\
lsFS A.LZFS Fa, might requirereductionbelow0.66F'or evenbelow0.604 becauseof the
laterally unbracedlength adjacentto a bracedlocation. (
t2r2E 149.000
: - : - - t - - : (12.14.11)' Thus ASD-HI usesfor rhe yield criterion, (
23(KL/r\' (KL7r)''
(
where K : effectivelength factor lsee Secl6.9) L * ! ! <: 1
^' . 0 (12.14.15)
0.604, F, (
L : actual unbracedlength in the plane of bending
r : radius of gyration for the axis of bending f,or uniaxial bending and compression. (
It is noted that a nominal safety factor of 23/12: 1.92 is used; this is the For biaxial bending,the generalequationis
maximum factor used for long axially loaded members(seeSec.6.11) and is
f o f f
therefore conservativein the maenification tenn. -+-+$++<1.0
0.604, Fu,
(12.14.16)
Fur.
Yleldlng lnteractlon Criterlon
which is the yield interacrionequation, ASD Formula (H1-2), where the
At support locationsrn bracedfrantes and for low slenderness situationsin quantitiesare as definedfollowingEq..12.14.4,exceptthat in er.aluating
{.
unbracedfram,es.yielding (plastic strength under the action of P and lvl I
Td 4, the momentgradienttenn c, is usedin exactlythe way it. is used for
under combined axial compressionand bending may govern. The strength bending alone, rather than in the special way it is used for the stability
interaction equation, Eq. 12.8.1, iorms the basis for the Allowable Stress interaction crite'rion,Eq. 12.14.4. r
Design criterion.
',, 'Vu Simplilled lnteractioncriterion for Smail Axiat compression
Py
*
L.I8.!{P
:1.0 Irz.s.rf
when f,/F" does not exceed0.15, ASD-HI perntits use of the following
where P" aod Mu are the axial force and primary bending moment, respec- insteadof the two formulas,ASD Formulas(Hi-l) and (H1-2):
tively, that occur wheo maximum strength is achieved.When the numerator
and denominator are divided by a factor (FS) to bring all terms into the
sen'iceload ranse. I .
*.*,.f,='o $zu.tt 1 \
{
&/(.{sFS) M"/ls(FS)l which is ASD Formula(H1-3).
' : 1.0 (12'14.12)
F-
r :
As is usual with designspecifications,current requirementsreflect some
4Z;"FE
I
L.LsMe/ls(FS)l L-"
t:
''
historicaldevelopments. Until 1961,the AISC Specificationdid not consider
the secondarybendingmomentdue to deflection.When axial compressionis
E
t' relatively small, neglectof the secondaryeffect makes little difference. This
'For SI unis. 1027,000
Il' - ----- MPa t l 2 . l a . Il ) h simpl.ified alternative of neglectingthe secondaryeffect is not included in
( KL/r)'
r-.
.LRFD.
ba'
tr-.
(
(
Cn'tenln
DESIGN
STRESS
t 2.14/ ALLoWAtsLE 817
( 816 ANDAXIALLOAD
BENDING
12ICOMBINED
(
Thus, Lu: \1.6 ft (the largerof 11.6 and 9.4 ft). Sincel, exceedslu the
( Redlstributlon of Moments to Approximate Plastlc Behavlor and
allowabli stresswill-bereduicd belo$'0.60f,.Use ASD Formulas(Fl-6)
( mo- (Fl ,8),
Regardingbending i'nornentadjustmentsto accountfor plastic-behavior
as in
discussed Chapter 10, ASD-Fl'l allorvs the 10%
( ment redistributio"n. 12.000 12.000
reduction ir"r negarive moment on a beam to be used in proportioning
the rr(F1-8): - :: ::27.8ksi<0.60F.,
buckling' Lbd /Ai 1 s( 1 : )( 2 . 1 0 )
( column if the broo, or girder has L, < L. for lateral-torsional
..compactsectioni requirementi,and the compressive stress/, on the
( sarisfies L o - 1s(12)
0.154. : 65.5
column doesnot exceed rT 2.75
(
( E EXAMPLE I2.I4.I ( L^/rr\= (65.5)l
under the :40'0-
investigatethe acceptabilit;-of a W16X6?usedas a beam-column ^q,(F1-6):40.0 *:29'9ksi
( The total loacis
service are P: 350 kips and
loadinishos'n in Fig. 12.10.1'
(i'e''
( iV : {0 ft-kips, and {, : 60 ksi. Use Allowable StressDesign. Since 2g.g> 27.8.F^(Fi-6) controls.In both formulasCu is takenas 1'0
becauseC- in this situationconverts the moment diagraminto an
not used),
( SOLUTION equivalentuniform moment,for rvhichC, rvouldbe 1'0'
(a) Colunrn efiect.
( Cn,: 0.6 - 0.4(lrI/ I/:) : 0.60
KL i5(12) i
( _ : : -. 6 0 (1 2 )
rv 2.46 f.- :6.15ksi
ro 777
(
KL/r 73 c^f o 0. 6( 6. 15)
( : 0.747 - - 6 T : v ' L z n r^
C, 9'1.7 F;
(
F o : C o F , : 0 ' 3 8 1 ( 0 0:; 2 2 ' 8k s i (c) Momenr magnification.using AsD l\'{anuai
"NUN{ERICAL VAL-
(
(nso "NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE 3) U E S ' ' TA B LE 8.
(
P 350 KL 1s(12)
- ---- : 17.8ksi - - '6.96 : 2 5 . 9 ; F! : 223ksl
( tfs 79.7 rx
As
( t 17,8 where the x-axis is the axis of bending.The magnificationfactor is
0 .? 8> 0 .1 5 ; u s e AS DF o rm ul as(H 1-1)and (H 1-2)
Ja
: -:
(
1 22.8 1 1.0
-
1.0
: 1.09
( 1-fJF::1-1738i- 1 0.0798
(b) Bearneffect.DetermineL" from Eqs.9'7'1 and9'7'2,
( (d) Check cf ASD Formulas:
L,: : 8'4ft (controts)[l.r.t] For stability, Formula (H1-i),
(
H: ffi
'( ' C *tfhr ll 1
- '' -o, \
or -f ,- '+ l : 0 . 7 8 + 0 . 1 2 ( 1 . 0 9 ) : 0 '<9i 1' 0
Fo' Fh \1-f"/F;l
(
,.: j9Y= : 11.6
= =T;91?..
(aye,)n, 2.40(60)12
rt ls.t.z\
For yielding, Formula (H1-2), at the bracedpoint,
(
17. 8 6. 15
( s L. the allowable stress Fb will be less
Thus, l. : 8.4 ft. Since lo exceed f" fu
the
than 0.66{.. Check L, usin! Eqs.9.?.21(oneof which is Eq. 9'7'2 above); 0.604, Fb 36 36
(
other is
For the above equation rvhich does not involve C-, ft (F1-9] shculd use
( - 1 : ksi'
Cd:1.75 for this problem. In which case.Fu> 0.60F,.;use 0'60F'' 36
r - -
:2.75 - : 9.4 ft
Lu: lT
for the givenloading. E
( 12 Tiie W16x67 is acceptable
, (
*"; F
1,F;'
' (
EENDiNG AND AXIAL LOAD
12 / COTAAINED
;"r
12.15/ DEs' .fli F;-€CrlUF:- -AsD 81g
818
(

_ When f "/ F" < 0.15, Pro may be computedsimilarly frorn 4.12.14.17 as (
12.15DESIGNPROCEDURES
ALLOWABLE STRESSDESIGN t
PeQ:P + MB",(.;j (12.1s.7)
(
To aid in selectionof.a beam-columnsection,it is usuallyadvantage()us trr
convert, in an approximate rvay, the resulting bending moment int..' .ln (
equivalentaxial compression load and then to make useof column trtble,r. ;rr correspondingto ASD Formula(H1-3) for uniaxial beading.
conversionof the arial l,,eri Severalexamplesfollow which demonstrateapplicarionof the interaction (
was done in Sec.72.72for LRFD. Occasionally,
into equivalentmomentwill be helpful- formulas,using principlesestablishedin Chapters6, 7" and 9- The following (
The stability interactionequation,Eq. 72.14-3,may be written examplesuse the approachesoutlined above; however,alternative approaches
and usesof various designaids have been proposed[12.50-12.551including (
P '^
*'( l :r.o (i2.15-lr nonconventionalcasessuchas steppedcolumns. \'
ArFu rrs \, | - f"/F"' I
(
g by A "I, givcs
lv'l.ultipl-vin E EXAMPLE I2.I5.I
Selectthe lightest W14 sectionto carry serviceloads consistingof an axial (
P- rr(+)(?i( : o.n,:
P,e (l2.l5.li compressionP of i50 kips in combinationwith a moment M of 500 ft-kips. (
#) The member is part of a braced system (see Fig. 12.13.i), with support
piovided in eachdirectionat top and bottom of a 14-ft length. Conservatively ( ,
Nsxt. e.xlmine the magnification term, which may be changed in form. urrn! assume the moment causessingle curvature and varies as shovrn in Fig.
I : q . 1 2 . i 4 . 1 1f o r . f ' ,
(
12.13.1.Use A36 steeland AllowableStressDesign.
(
1 F' 1 4 9 ,0 00r2
7 - f"/F.' F"' - Io
(")1#F
;)
(l2.lj.-lt
SOLUTION
Consenatively assumethe effective length factor K : 1.0. If adjacent
memberstiffnessis known,the alignmentchart u"hichappearsas Fig. 9.6.4ain
(
(
Chapter6 may be usedto determineK < i.0 for this braced frame. (
149,000A -rz Sinceat the start one mav have no idea n.hether!./F" < 0.15. use the
"1)
(12.15 (
-
1 4 9 ,0 0 0 1 8 1 2 P (KL )= simplestPro expression,Eq. 12.15.7,
l r (
'fhus I t^
the equivalent usingEq. 12.15.1.
columnload P.q may be expressed P u o : P + Mp"rl;
corrcspondingto ASD Formula(H1-1)for uniaxialbending. \fa
(
'^,o \ "COLUMNS" load tables: for \\'14 sections,find
P e Q :P + r r p " , | : j { {11.i5.5} Referringto ASD Manual
l'el\; 'tKtf,l the averagebending factor with respectto the strong a{s, po, = 0.19.Neglect (
temporarilyF"/F6; i.e.,assumeFo = po. (
rvircrc Ru, : bending factor : A r/S
Pee = i50 + 500(12X0.19): 150 + ll40 : 1290kips (
ci : ii9.000,-1rr2 f,rr a-'t:soi bending

reduces Poo whilc'


(
Note is made that the allowable stress ratio ( F,/Fu) At tiris point, sincethe columnpart represents lessthan 15%(150/1290)of the
ths tcrm lC,,a /(a - P(Kqz)l usually increases Poo. total, assumethat ASD Formula(H1-3) will apply. (
When the r ield criterioncontrols,the equivalentcolumn load Pnal maV t:c Obtain trial sectionsfrom ASD Manual using P : 1290kips and L : 14
cxPrc : s c d' (
ft, and try cne sectionlighter than indicated.
, o .6 o F .,
\ l- (
Pee:P+!tlB",t -" (12.16 i t w 1 4 x 2 1 .1 Bor:0.183, r . r : 4 . 0 7i n . , L,: 1 6 ' 7f t
I (
I D I t.
t
r- p : 1183kips
t'
corrcspondingto ASD Formula(Hl-2) for uniaxialbending. [:
t1'
t
(
F
I
(
i t
C - t
-!-s't

( ANDAXTAL
l2 / coMstNEDBENDTNG
- ' t
820 LOAD * -1 | 12.1s/ DESTGN _ ASD
PROCEDURES
: '-.
.L. I 821
( ;.- -i

I
( Check:Use ASD !\{anual"NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE 3.
- - _ i
- l
For colunrn action:
(
K,L,: t1(11): 4r.3; KL/r
: -
4I.3
: 0.328
; ^.1.. : 16 ft; ff.,l.., : g ft
( rt. 4.08 c, 726.7 Required r.,/ r,. 2 ? if KL : 8 ft is r.alid for enrcring ASD
( il:inual, " COLU\lNS" load tai-.les
F ind C" : 0 .5 3 0 ; F o : C o F r,: 0 .5 3 0 (36): 1 9 . 1k s i
( Lt : 1- 1ft < L .
F o r b e a n re c t i o n :
(Se c .9 .7 ); It: 0.66I. : 24 ksi
( L,, : Latcrally unbraced length : E ft
Fo r9.l:o.go
_ L for momenr magnification : 16 ft
( Fh 24
( b ) C h e c kW l 0 x 3 9 :
( Rcl'iseusing closerapproximationsfor the variables, Colunin action:
( P r Q : 1 5 0 + 5 0 0 (1 2 )(0 .1 8 3 )(0 .8:0)1028ti ps P ll0
fo: - :]f).4ksi
( Selectfor the rerised Poq, As ii.5

( \ \ / 14x 193. Bo ,: 0 .1 8 3 , r.,: 4 .0 5i n ., L,: 76.6ft rt


. :13 : 4 8 . 5 , I : 2 . 1>
6 2.0
( P : 1083'kips r; 1. 98 rt

( Little changein propertiesfrom preliminarycheck.Completecheck: Fu: 7E'5ksi


KL 11(i2) J'. 10.4
( - : ---:-7- :;i'Si o:: 1 9 . 1k s i :
;1; 9 . 5 0 . 5 6> 0 . 1 5 U s eA S D F o r m u l a( H l - 1 )
r,' L r , : 1 44.U) Fu
(
ft < L.; B eamacti cn:
( 4:24ksi
P i50 lv{ 360
( {..: -: -:-:-:2.6kSi .ta:F:;T:8.55ksi
As 56.9 Jr 42.1
( L , : 8 . 4f t > ( l e : 8 f t )
f " _ 2.6 :
( 0.14< 0.15; UseASD Formula(H1-3) Fu : 0.66F, : 24 ksi
Fo 16l
( , fo 8. 55
ltt
- :
500(12) : 0'36
( 1 9 .4k s i 1: u
E 310
Note: Sincean L, value is given in the ASD ivianual tablcs.the local
(
buckling limitationsof ASD-B5 are automaticallysarisfiedfor A36 stccl.
L * L : 0 . 1 4 + 0 . 8 1: 0 . 9 5< 1 . 0 OK
( Fo Fb IVhen no tablesare applicable,the follorvingchecksmust be madein crt1cito
use 0.66{,,:
( UseW14x193. Note that a W14x132 rvas suitable for this loading using
LRFD * t'-"*ple 12.13.1. I L^ 76.
( ;bt S ;= for lateral-torsional
bucklingprevenrion(ASD-FI.l )
yF'
( tr EXAMPLE 12.15.2
Investigateusing Allowable StressDesign the W10x39 section Cesignedas a b, 65
( ;l < :== for flangelocalbucklingprer.ention
(ASD-85)
beam-column according to Load and ResistanceFactor Design in Example lt t
!iF,
( I2.I3.4 (Figs. 12.13.3and 12.13.4).'4'36steel.
d 640[ f.,\ zsz
(
SOLUTION tw FtJ-,,F.,
( (a) Establisheffectivelengths.The member must be viervedseparatel! as a /F,\
column, then as a beam,as in Fig. 12.13.4. This has beendiscussed
in Secs.6.17and 9.5.
(
i (
92? . 12 /CCr.{a:ri=D a=iiDii'IGANDAXIALLOAD (
12.1s/ DESicNPaOCEDURES_ASD 923
( ,
-(
Beam-coiurrlaE:oment magnification: flangelocal buckling,it rvouldbe able to developits plastic momentstrength.
KL 1 6 (1 2 ) CheckingASD-85, (
- : - - : .45 (for axis of bending)
r." 4.27
"
1 4 : 6 . 4 e: s8-^'.\J1 I 6 s \ (
l, 2 ( 0 . 4 m ) 1<1,-:9.21 orc
F"' :73.7 ksi (eSO N{anual"NUI\,IEzuCAL VALUES" TABLE 8) \2tr \,60 t (.
F u : 0 . 7 5 F - : 3 7 . 5k s i
l" -I::0.14. r-+:0.86
(
F"' 73.7 Fr' M : *( 0. 4) ( 10) 2: 5 f r - kips
(
f !L{ s(12)
C^ - I - A-2 : : 0 .9 7 (F i g . 1 2 .3 .1,C ase3) rfDL - - :10.7ksi (
te' s.t . 5. 63
This C- expressicnLssumesmoment variation of Fig. 12.13.3cmay approxi- f, 10.7 {
ma te t hat of F ig 12 .1 3 .3 b . v'" (
Fb 37-5
'l
I{agnification f a c t o r: = - ,= :o?'-: 1.13 (d) Moment magnification:using AsD lr{anual .,NUMERICAL vAL- (
| f"/F,' 0.86 U E S " TA B LE 8, (
ASD Formule{i-I1-1):
(
f " f u C ^ : 0 . 5 6+ 0 . 3 6 ( 1 . i 1: ) 0 . 9 7< 1 . 0
fv
oK ( '
Fo ^ F oi 1 - ! o r / F , ' ) f, 9.9 f-
1- (
L i s eW 1 0 x 3 9 .
o::m:0'37; F::0'63
E
(.
C, : 1.0 (from Table lZ.3-1, Case2)
N EK\MPLE T2.I53 1 (
Investigatethe :dequacy accordingto Allowable StressDesign of the W8x24 M a g n i f i c a r i o n f a: c t=o' r: t, : : 1'58
sectionshou'n in Fig. 12.13.5.The memberis loaded to causebending about 7 - f"/F"' 6.A (
its *'eek axis. a:rd the steelis 4,572Grade 50. (e) Interactioncriterion.ASD Formula(H1-1): (.
C^
SOLL'TIOi\' -f . + -f lo ( _ - - - : - _ \I : 0 . 4 9+ 0 . 2 9 ( i . 5 8 ): (
0 . 9 5< 1 OK
(a) ASD Speciiicationcheck;sincema-timummoment occurs arvayfrom Fo rr\1-f"/F,, I
(
rhe supports,ii-e stability criterionwill govern.Check ASD Formula (Hl-it. W8x24 is acceptable.
Note thai for this problem,buckling as a column occurs in the plane of I
bending, u'here.:s in the previous two examplescolumn buckling occurred I EK{MPLE I2.I5.4
rDcut tire a.x.is';i:ich r*'asnot,the axis of bending. Selecta suitableW sectionfor the column mernberof the frame shownin Fig (
( hr Colun: : ac t i o rl : 12.13.6.usingserviceloadsP:60 kips and ]I : ll2 ft-kips.The joints arc ( r
rigid to give frame acrion in the plane of bending, but in the iranru..s.
i:t" 1.0(10)(12) direction sway bracing is prorided and the atrachmentsmay be considered (
**.:
rL. 1.6i
4 : 20-1ksi hinged-Use 436 steeland Allowable StressDesign. Solve for the follorving I
t\r'o cases:
P i a (
f^:-:;;;:9.9ksi
Ja l. Bracedframc in tlic planeof bending.
A- /.u6
6
2. Unbracedf,ramein the planeof bending. (

!": l'n:o.on ('


SOLUTION
Fo 20.1 (.
{a) Frame braced in the plane of bending. Estimate equivalent column
1c) Bean action: Since bendingis about the weak axis, lateral-torsional load P*o: (
buckling canncl occur. Assuming the section is "compact" with regard to K' = 0"1'
(
(
(
e
(
824 l 2 / c o M B t N t D B ; N D I N G A N D A X I A LL O A D
r e.rs TbesGNpRocEDUREs
- ASD
(
(
t)r cilr lre obtained from Alienrnent Chart. Fie. 6.9.4a.as kips. Required A r: 12.5 sq in.) of course,changingdepth will affecr the
( relativemomentsof incrtia.For the bracedframesuchchansesrl,.illhaveless
r /70
( G':1.0 (fircd). Gn: ffi
: 0'5' K. : 0.73 effect than on the unhrccedframe.
-\l /'iU
Try WZIxM.
(
P ( . K , L ; 2 : e 0 ( 0 . ' t 1 : 1 2 + O )12.:6 9x 1 0 6 (c) Braced frame-check yield equarion,ASD Formula (Hi-2). check
( PEe=P+P",|LI W27xM: At rhe bracedpoinr,
( W 10, P e e : 6 0 + 0 .2 6 (i i Z )(i 2 ) : 6 0 + 350: 410ki ps 60 11 2 ( 1 2 )
W12, P e e : 6 0 + 0 . 2 2 ( 1 1 2 ) ( 1 2: ) 6 0 + 2 9 6: 3 5 6 k i p s f u : Tr J: .4U. 6 k s i ; /u: : 16-5ksi
( dZ:
W 14, P e e : 6 0 + 0 .2 0 (1 1 2 )(1 2:) 6 0 + 269: 329ki ps
( c t , : , . 1 5+ i . 0 5 ( - ? g / 1 1 2 )+ 0 . 3 ( 2 5 / 1 1 2 :) ? 1 . 5 1
. s i n gA SD \l a nual " C OLU I\IN S " l oad
r b) I lr ac c df r a: l e -s e l e c t s c c ti o nU
: ( L, : 6. 6 f r ) < ( Lu: 10 f t ) : Not com pacr !
( l.tlllcsrvith K,,l, 10 ft, prclininarl' trial sectionsare
(L":7.0 ft). (Lu: to fi)
( W10x68 P : 3 1 3 k i p s @l : 1 0 f t rr/rt:1.71
wi2x65 P:367kips rr/rt,:1.75 For the yield equarion.ASD Formula (H1-2). co rs usedin computingFr.
(
w14x6i P:330kips r* /rt : 2.44
i2.000(1.sl)
(
Ftrr vrlues in the tables to give correct col;:mn allowable loads, r,/r, of. 4' (F1-8): toGtt# : 21'4ksi (controls)
( sr-c t ion
m us t ex c ee dK..L ../K ;L r:0 .7 (2 0 )/1 0 : 1' .40.
Before proceeding,the reader is reminded that due to plastic behavior, Lo/r,: 10(12)/1.57: 76.4
( moment redistribution may occur (if local buckling and lateral-torsional
( buckling are preventedin the girder), rvhich accordingto ASD-Fl.l may be :24.a
4 (Fi-6) : 20.7
ksi
(
accountedfor by a 10% reductionin negativemoment on the girder. Such a ffi
rcclucedmoment may alsobe usedin proportioningthe column for combined . f , , L - :4 . 6 , 1 6 . 5
( strcss,il f"/1,, doesnot exceed0.15. * * o'98< 1'o oK
o 6oF,. a, zz zt-q:
Under the conditions rvhen moment redistribution is considered;i.e.,
( plastic mornent is assurnedto occur at the top of the column, the designe_r (d) Bracedframe-check stabiliryequarion,AsD Formula(H1-1).check
^
( should be rvary of using an effcctivelength factor K, lessthan 1.0, sinceend ' . W27xM for stability out in the span,
rcstraintbecomesa constantvalue (M), insteadof increasingproportionally
( K,L.,
to the end rotation as it doesrvhenthe systemis elastic. _ 1 . 0 ( 1 0 ) ( 1 2_) q'J5'', .
However, if
'one
is certain the moment gradient is one causingdouble r., 7.26
) 4 : 13.6ksi
(
curvature,as in.this case,then it seemsrational to do as illustratedin this
( For the bracedframe, Cu is not ttsedfor computing Fu in the formula where
example.
C- is used.
( For this exarnple.the arial cornpressioneffect is about 6A/329:0.18
from Poo calculation;thereforethe reductionin negativernomentat the top
( of the membermay not be used. 4 ( F 1 - :62)4 . a- r yi 1:8 1 l e . lk s i
( Becauseof the moment gradientindicating double curvature,with C- : ' ''o,...
0.6 - 0.4(56/112):0.4, it is likely that the yield criterionat the bracedpoint _
0.7(20)(12) ^^
- :20'8i F': 3 4 5k s i
( rvill control. Thus ASD Formula (H1-2), where both denominatorterrnsare rx 8.06
likely to be 0.60F,, may be usr'' to obtail requiredarea for a more accurate
( f . . 4 . 6 t
choiceof secl,ion. For a W14.
1-;-o'e87
( -:#:o'013;
( Ar:
Required 1 4.9sq i n.
.[" , fu I c^ 4.6 t6.st 0.4 \
th \ t : -
'
( Fo r, \ 1 _ fo/F", J tl.6 19.1\O.SaZI
Try W14x53, W16x50, W18x46. or W21x44. The sectionsdeeperthari W14
( do not appear in column load tables but may be satisfactorysince Puq : 0. 34 + 0. 86( 0. 41): 0. 69< l
(For W2i, Pee = 60 + 0.16(112)12
as the depth increases.
decreases : 275 Use W27xM,
, (
-
I

BENDINGAND AXIAL LOAD


12/ COMBTNED _ ASD
1215/ l-:lcN PROCEDURES 927
( r

(
(e) Unbraced frame-estimate equivalentcolumn load Pro. The particu- For this unbraced frame the stability requiremenrgoverns.Thus if a small
overstressis acceptablefor the unbracedframe, rhe sameW21x44 could be (
lar feature of the unbracedframe is that K, for the axis of bending exceeds
one. Using the alignment chart from Chapter 6 (Fig. 6.9.4b) for unbraced used whether the frame is bracedor unbraced.Without exceedingrhe safety
frame (sideswaynot prevented)for Ge :1.0 (fixed at botiom; ;nd Ga : 0.5 criterion, the w16x50 would be the choice(wlgx46 gives 1.01 for ASD I

[seepart (a)], find K,= 1.24.


Formula H1-1). (,
Equivalent column load estimatesare the same as for the braced frame UseW16x50. r
case, but in using column tables, correct allowable loads are obtained for r EXAMPLE I2.I5.5
KrLr: 10 ft only when \/ry exceeds Investigate using Allowable Stress Design criteria the structural tee
K,L,/KyLr: I.24(20)/10 : 2.48 WT8x28.5 designedin Example12.13.8using Load and ResistanceFactor
Design.Referringto Fig. 12.13.8,the serviceaxial compressionP is 85 kips,
Selecrionof W10 or W12 sections,if the stability criterion governs,will be and the sen'ice positive and negative bending moments lv[ are 7.5 ft-kips
controlledby column bucklingin the plane of bending,'*-hiledeepersections (causedby the transverse loadW). The steelhas F, :50 ksi.
will be controlledby weak-axiscolumn buckling.
From ASD N{anual"COLUMNS" load tables, SOLUTION
In Allorvable StressDesign the interactioncriteria equationsmust be
Wl0, for L = 1.24{20)/1.71: 14.5ft, Puo = 410 kips. find W10x77 with applied to stre.tses,whereasthe LRFD interactionequationsrelate to strength.
P = 380 kips. ...' At the support,for instance,thereis only one momentstrength,but thereare
W12, tor L: 1.2420)/1.75:14.2 ft, Puo = 356kips. find W12x65 with , different extremefiber allowablestressesat the two facesof the member.The
"sarire
P = 340 kips. is true at midspan.
W14, for L : 1.24(20)/7.M: 10.2ft, P.o = 329kips, find Wl4x61 with (a) Columnaction.UseK: 1.0for trussjoints assumingthat all members
P = 330 k ips . buckle simultaneously;thusadjacentmembersoffer no resrraininseffect.This
is a traditionalconservative assumptionin design.
These preliminary sectionsare likely to be too hear-vbecauseF,/Fu is
usually a significant reductioneffect,while magnification is normally not more K,L, 1-0(12X12) 1.0(6)(12)
_ : 59.8 !rL, _ -: 4 -J
5.0
than 10 to 20%. If the yieldingequationcontrols, the section and procedure rx 2.41 ''
r, I .60
are as for the bracedframe whereW21x44 was acceptable.
Sincethe stemof a structuralteeis a thin compression
element.localbuckling
Try \Y21xM.
may be a controllinglimit srate;check d/t*. from ASD_85.
(f ) Unbracedframe-check stabilityequation,ASD Formula (H1-1).For
W21x44, i d 8.21s \' I rzt \
l-: : l"9" I. -l I> l - : : l g . 0l NC
K rLr/r, : 95.2 as from part (d) \,* 0.430
\r'F, , I
K ,L * /r,: t.2 4 (2 4 0 )/8 .0 6: 36.9 - The efficiencyof the sremis
reduced;i.e.,0, < 1.0.using ASD-Appendir:
B5.2.ator 127/r[\ < d/t,.< 176/,f\.,
4, : 13.6ksi; weakaxisgoverns
Ft: 21.4ksi; (for C, : 1.51)calculationsho*n i:r part (c) Q, : 1.908- 0.00715 (d/t_),11
Note that for lhe unbracedframe, the Cu ordinarily used for beamsin hraccd
e , : t . 9 o 8- 0 . 0 0 7 1 5 ( 1 9 . 1 ):6 0
A'. 9 4 2
systemsis prescribedby ASD to be usedin the stabilityequarion.

4' : 1 1 0k s i ; b a s e do n K L /r: 36.9


i' rvc-- uz:r2t1(
f-, l--
g, Q , Fr )
: 110. 2

:
C- 0.85 for unbracedframe

a c t o r:
M a g n i f i c a t i of n
ci
. 1'*r' r,. : 0.89
l
f:
KL/r
q
59.8
:
mJ:o'542
co: 0.461 (nsn Manual"NUI\'IERICAL
VALUES"TABLE3)

F
: :=,:
1-f"/F,' I -4.6/710 Fo: CoQ,4: 0.461(0.942)50
: 21.7ksi
f" frl C^ \
? + 4l -f - f o / . , : o.l++ 0.77(0.8e)
: 1.03> 1 tfa. . : *g . 3 g : 1 0 . 1k s i
Fo F;\l \
t
f'
*.
e
C 12l/COMBiNED 9€ND|NGAND AXIAL LOAD SELECTED
REFERENCES
(,
(
(b) Beam action-at the support.At the tensionface (flange), compresston,
(
7'5(i2)1'94 F"' : .11.8ksi (basedon .&.1..,.'r..
: 59.E)
- : 3'6 ksi (tensionat top)
( -fr: ;tr{
5...n..;. 4s.7 C , , : 1 . 0 - A - 2 ( f " / F " ' ): 1 . 0- 0 . 2 ( 1 A t / 4 1 . 8 ): 0 . g 5
(
Fo : 0.60{,.: 30 ksi q,
( : : 1'25
At the compressionface(stern), t - fJry I - io;v4lJ
(
j|r 7.s(12) l0.i .1.6
( 4 : : -# : 11.6ksi (compression
at borrom) :----:--- - (' 1. 25)= 0. 465+ 0. 136: 0. 60 < 1. 0 OK
*
"-r-stcm "t ' 21.7 33
(
F b: Q , ( 0 .6 0 .[) : 0 .9 4 2 (3 0:) 2 9 .3k s i At the stem e.{trsn:efiber (tensionat stcni).
(
10.1 1i.9
( (c) Beam action-at midspan.At the tensionface (srem), - ( 1 . 2 8 ): 0 . 4 6 5- 0 . 5 0 7: < 1 . 0
Z1:? OK
t
30
( 7.5(12)
, :_ _ M : : 11.6ksi (tensionat bottom) The WT8x28.5. A572 Grade 50, is significantll'understressed
/o accordingto
S..**_ 6
( A l l oqabl cS tressDesign. !
( 4 : 0'60F, : 30 ksi

( At the compressionface(flange),
SELECTED
REFERENCES
( M 7.s(12)1.e4
'ft: : 3.6ksi (compression
at top)
u T- 48'7 "stabiiity
( {' nu"rt 12'1- CharlesN1a-ssonnet. Considerations
in the Designof StcelColumns."
Journal of the StructuralDiuisiorz, ASCE.85, ST? (Scptcnrbcr1959),75_111.
( ' Fr: 0.('6F,.: 33 ksi (flangesatisfies,.coiltpact" 12-2. Walter J. Ausln. "strcngth and Dcsignof Mctal Bcam-Columns."Journai oj
sectionrequiremenrof ASD-B5.; the StructuralDitision, ASCE, 87, ST4 (April 1961).1_32.
( 12.3. Nestor R. I*aakiw. "Note on Beam-ColumnN{omentAnrplification Factor."
( (d) check the bracedpoint (the support)using ASD-Formula (H1-2), Eq. EngineeringJountal, AISC, 21, 1 (First euartcr 19g4),2r-23: Disc. by Le-wu
1 2. 14. 15. Lu, 22, 1 {Firsr Quaiter 1985), 47-48: Disc. by JosephA. yura, 22, t rnirsr
( Quarter1985).48.
fo 12.4. Robert L. Ketter. "Further Studiesof the Strengrhof Beam-Columns."
( .+<l.o [12.14.1sJ Journcl
of the StrutitiralDicision,ASCE,87, 5T6 (August1961),135-152. Also Trauac-
( tions, ASCE. 127 (1962),Parr II, 244-?66.
At the flange extremefiber where Ft:0.60{, in tension,the totai srressis 12.5. N[. R- Horne. "The StanchionPrcblcarin Framc StrucrurcsDesigncdAccord-
( -10.1 + 3.6: -6.5 ksi < 0.60.q, OK ing to ultiaare carrS'ingCapacity,"proc. Insr.cit:il Engrs..5,l, part III (April
frop: f"+ fu: 1 9 5 6 ) ,i 0 5 - 1 4 6 .
( 12'6. Wai-Fah Cben and SuipingZbou. "Q, Factor in Load and RcsistanceFacror
At the stem extremefiber whereFa: 28.3ksi,
( Design,']- Jountal of Structural Enginetring, AscE, l13, g (August 19ET1.
10.1 11.9 1738-r754.
( * : 0.337+ 0.420: 0.76 < 1.0 OK i2-7- Robcrt L. Ketter. Edmund L. Kaminsky,and Lynn S. Bccdlc."Plasric Defor-
30 2gJ mation of \\'ice-Flange Beam-columns," Transactiotis, ASCE, lz0 (1955).
( (e) check the stabiliryequarionar midspan using ASD-Formula (H1-1), 1 0 2 8 -1 0 6 9
Eq. 12.14.3. 12.8. Theodore \'. Galambos and Robert L. Ketter. "Columns Under CornbineJ
(
Bending l.d Thmst," Journalof the Engmeering !,lechanicsDiuision,ASCE.S5.
( f" c^ \ -=. t'o
,^ EM2 (April 1959),1-30. AIso Tratz:cctrorts, ASCE. t26 {1961),part I. l_25.
*h( r[tz't+'r]
rrr, 12-9' George F- Hauck and Seng-LipLee. "stabiliry of Elasto-Plastic
( Fo Fu\t- f"E J Wide-Flu"g.
Columns," Journa[of the StructuralDfutsion.ASCE. 89, 5T6 (Decemberi963).
At the flange extreme fiber rvhere 4 : 0.66^q,,as a "coritpact" section in 297-324.
(
: (
-
830 i2 / CCl.'lSiNfD SENDINGAND AXLcL LCAD SEiECTEDREFERENCES 831
(
(
"Buckling oi SteelColumns Under Arbitrary'[:nd 12'29" Wei-Wen Yu. Cold-Formed Sree! Structures.New york:
12.10.S. L. Lee and G. F. Hauck. ' 19'73, McGraw-Flill, Inc., ,.t

Lo3ds," Journc!of the StructuralDitision. ASCE,90, ST2 (April 1964),I79- 2A) Chap. 6' Reprinr edition with correcdons.Malabar, FL: Robert E.
Krieger
"Buckling of EccentricallyLoaded SteelColumns." Publishing company, Inc. (Kricger Drive, Marabar, FL 32950),
12.11.S. L. Lee and S. C. Anand. 19g2.
' I23A' Charles Bimstiel and James \fichalos. "Ulrimate Load of
Journc{ of the StructuralDiuision, ASCE 92, ST2 (April 1966),35i-370- H-Columns Under (
"Eccentricalll'Loadetl Biaxial Bending," Journar of the structurar Diuision,ASCE" g9,
12.12. Eds:n C. Rossow,GeorgeB. Baroe-v,and Seng-LipLce. sr2 (April
Steel Columas q'ith Iniial Curvature," Journal of the Structural Diaisiott.ASCE. 1963),161_197. (
93, ST2 (April L967),339-358- L2.31. charles G. culver. "Eract
. "UJtimate Strength of Lateralll' LoadcC Solution of Bia;riat Bendi.g Equations,,,Journal of
12.i3. Le-Wu Lu ald HassanKamalvand. the structural Dicision ASCE, 92, sr2 (April 1966),63-g3.
Columns," Journal of the Struawal Diuision, ASCE, 94, 5T6 (June l96l{t. 12'32' Charles G. Culver. "Initial Imperfectionsio Bia:cial Bending,', (,
Journal of the
1505-1524. StructuralDiuision,ASCE,92, ST3 (June1966),119_135.
"Further Studiesof Inelastic Beam-Column Problem," Jaurnul o{
t2.l.l. W. F. Chen. L2'33' Gunnar A. Harstead,Charles Bimstiet, and Keh-Chun Leu. "Inelastic i

theStructuralDiuisiott, ASCE, 97,5n (February 1971),529-5M. Behavior


"E'<perimentson Laterally Loadcu of H-Columns Under Biaxial Bending,,' Journal of the Structural
12.15.Gordon \\' Englisbald Peter F. Aderns. Dicision, i

ASCE, 94, ST10(October 196g),Z37I_Z3gg.


SreelBearn-Coiumns,"Journal of the Structural Diuision,ASCE, 99, ST7 (Julr' 1234' Ishwar C. Syaland San'a S. Sharma."Biaxially Loaded Beam-Column i
l 9 ? 3 ) ,1 4 5 7 - 1 4 7 0 . Analysis,,,
"Mclbods of Analysis of Laterally' Loadc,J Journalof the StructuralDiuision,ASCE,97, ST9 (September1971),ZZ4S-225I.
11.16.Francois Cbeong-Siat-Moy. i
12'35' Sakda Santathadapornand wai F. Chen. "Analysis of Biaxially
Columns," Journal of the Structural Diuision, ASCE,.l00, ST5 (Ma-v i97,ll. Loaded Steel
- 970. H-Columns," Journal o! the Structural Diuision,iSCg,, t.
95-? f, Sf:-lUarch 19?3),
"General Analysis of'Laterally Loaded Beam-Col- 491_ 509.
l2.l'1. FrancoisCheong-Siat-Moy. 'l
umns," Journal of the Structwal Dicision, ASCE, l0O, 5T6 (June 1974). . -\2'36' Yl F Chen and Toshio Atsuta. "Ultimate Strength of Biaxially Loaded Sreel
1263-r278. H-columns." Journa! of the structural Diuision,alce, 99, sr3 (March (
1973),
"Lateral Buckling of l-Section Columns with EccentricEnd 469-489.
i2.18. B. G. Johnsron.
Lcads in the Planei;f the Web." Transactions, ASME, 62 (1941),A-176. L2.37. Charles Birnstiel. "Lrperiments on H-Columns Under Bia'dal
Bending,,,_/o*-
"Lateral Sgskling of l-Beams," Tronsactions, ASCE. 120 nat of the strucrural Dirision, ASCE, 94, sr10 (october 196g),24zg_zi4g.
12.19.I{a1jo G. Salvadori.
( 1 9 5 5 )1, 1 6 5 - 1 1 8 2 . i2'38' wai F' Chen and SakdaSantathadaporn."Review of Column BehaviorUnder
L2.20.M. Salvadori.
"Lateral luskling of Eccenttically Loaded l-Columns," ?"rat$d.'- Biadal Loading," Journal ol the StntcturalDiuision,ASCE,g{, (
ST1.2(December
rioru,ASCE, 121(1956),1163-1178. 1968),2999_3021.
L?.zI. ConstancioNliranda and Morris Ojalvo.
"Inelastic Lateral-Torsional BucklinS
12j9' NegussieTcbedgeand Wai F. Chcn. "Design Criteria for I
H-Columns Under
of Beam Columns," Journal of the EngtneeringMechsnics Diuisiort,ASCE, 91. Bia-riiaiLoading," Journar of the srrucura[biuirion, ASCE, 100,
sr3 (rv{arch I
L\{6 lDecember1965),7l*37. 1974).579_598
"Inelastic Lateral-TorsiorialBuckling cf (.
12.22.Yu-ibi Fukumoto and T. V. Galambos. 12'40' Reidar Bjorhovde. TbeorJore \'. Galambos, and Mayasandra
"LRFD K. Ravindra.
Berm Columns,"Journal of the Structwal Diuision, ASCE" 92, ST2 (April 1966). Criteria for Steel Beam-Columns,"Journal of the Structural
41-61. Diuisicn, I
ASCE, 104,ST9 (September i97g), 1371_1397.
"Further Studies on thc ,
12.73. T. V. Gatambcs,P. F. Adams, and Y. Fukumoto. L2'4r' Joseph A. Yura. "Combined (
Bending and Axial Load," Notes distributed br.
Lateral-TorsiondBuckling of Steel Beam-Column;," Bulletin No,.ll5, \Velding AISC at 198s Nationai Sreel construction conference, Miami
ResearchCouncii,July 1966. 8.".h, ;; ;; ("
"Beam Column Experiments." assistclassroomteacUn3of LRFD. Chicago,IL: America:r institute
12.21. R.alph C. Van Kuren and T. V. Galambos. of Sreel
Constnrction.1988. (
Journalof the StructuralDiuision,ASCE,90, ST2 (April 1964),223-256. "l'42' w' F' Chcn and E- \1- Lui. "Columns w{th End Restraint
"Inela-stic Buckling Tcsis on and Bendingin Load
'2.25. \i:rk A. Bradford and Nicbclas S. Trahair. (
.rnd Resistance FactorDc-sign,"EngineeringJournal,AISC,22,3
Bearn-Colurnns," Journalof StructurclEngineering, ASCE- 112,3 (March 19SS). (Thiri euener
i9S5),lti5-1,t1.Errar:: ?5, 2 (Sccond (
53S-j49. euarter 19gg),59.
12"{3' Jantcs G. }r{acGrc'gora.rd Sven E. Hage. "stability
i2.?5. I{ark A. BradforC,PeterE. Cuk, Marian A. Gizejou'ski,and Nicholas Trehrir. Anail.sis and Design of
"Inelastic Lateral Buckling of Beam-Columns,"Journal of Stuctural Ens,trrccr- ctin':rct.' Framcs,"Journ{tltif the srructuialDiaision,ASCE,-103,
sT10 (october
1977),1953_1970.
ing, ASCE, 113,1l (November1987),2259-2277.
"Torsional-Flexural Buckliirg of Thin-\\'allc.i 12.'1'1.\\'illienr J. Le\lcssuricr, Robcrt J. N{cNamara,and
il.l7. T. B. Pekoz ard G. Winter. J. C. Scrivc.ncr...Appro.xi-
SectionsUnder EccentricLoad," Jwrnel of the Structural Diuision,ASCE, 95, mate Analytical Mocel for Multistory Frames,,,Engineering (,
Journal,AIsc, ll,
ST5(lt{ay 1969),911-963. 4 (Fourth Quarier l9T4), 92-9g.
"Torsional Flexural Buckling of Thin-Vallcd (
12.2S.TeomanB. Pekoaand N. Celebi- 12'45' Wrn. J. Le\{cssurier. "A Practical }v{ethodof Second
Order Analysis: part
ScctionsUnder Frcentric Load," Cornell EngineeringRcsearchBulletin 69-1. 1-Pin Joirl_tcdSvslems," EngineeringJournal, AISC, 13, 4 (Fourtl qu*.,
Itheca,NY: Comell Universiw, 1969. 1976),89-96.
a
(
ANDAXIALLoAD PROBLEMS
832 12lCOMBINED
BENDING
(
( "A Practical li{cthod of Second Order Analysis: Part 12.1.Investigatethe adequacyof the sectionassumingthe loadingis 30%
13.46. Wn. J. LeN{essuricr.
( 2-Rigid Frames," Engineering Jcunnl, AISC, 14. 2 (secondQuarter 1977)' dead load and 70 % live load. No translationof joints can occ'rr.and
:19-67. externallateral supportis providedat the endsonl;'.
( " by P
11.47. Brian R. Wood. Dcnis Beaulicu.and Pcter F. Adams. Column Design
Delta lr{ethod," Journal of the Structural Dirisiott, ASCE" 102, ST2 (Fcbruary
( w = 0.85 kip,rfr (incl. beam weighrl
bending
1976).411-427. axis
"Furlhcr Aspccts of
( tl.4s. Brian R. \Vood. Denis Beaulieu,and Peter F. Adams.
Dcsign by P-Delta Method," Jotrrnalof the StnrcturalDit'ision,ASCE, 102,ST3
( (lr'tarch1976).487-500. I
L__10,_9,
"P-Delta Effect in Elastic Analysis of Sn'ay Framcs," Journal of
( l:.49. H. Scholz.
structuralEngineering, ASCE, 113,3 (lr{arch1937i.514-545. Prob.',2.'
( "Stcel Column Bcnding Arcpiiflcation Factor," Enginccrirtg
12.50. William \'. Liu.
Journa!.AISC. 2. 2 (April 1965)'50*51: 12.2. lnvestigatethe given sectionn'ith regardic safetyif primary berrclingi.s
( 12.51. Ira Hooper.
"Design oi Beam-Columns,"Engit;eering Journal,AISC,4,2 (April in the *'eak directionand the loading n' is 0.02 kip/f,t dead load and
1967),41-6i. '
( *
"Rapid Seleciionof Beam-Columns."EngineeringJountal, 0.08 kipT'ft live load and P is 2 kips deadload and i8 kips live krad.
12.52.Moe A. Rubinskv. A572 Grade 50 steel.
( AISC, 5. 3 (Jul1l968),100-122'
"Arnplification Factorsfor Beam-Columns."Engineering Jour-
12-53.BenjaminKoo. 4' {100mnr)
( n c l , A I S C , 5 . 2 ( A P r i l i 9 6 8 ) ,6 6 - 1 I ' w ktg/tl (rncl. beam weight) -i:[:-=r-[--Bendins
"Generalted Designof columns Subjeu^ted
( 12.54.Frank Monasa-d John K. Snyder. ))i axis
to Combincd Arial Load and Bending l'{oment." EngineeringJournal, AISC, tJ--f-U
0.24- il
( 18, I (First Quarter1981)'8-21. "New InteractionEquation for {6 mrn} r F 0.40- tYP,
I
12.55. Francois cheong-Siat-Moyand Tom Dow'ns. L-- 10'-0f' ( 1 0m m )
( SteelBeam-Coluimns," Journal of the StructuralDic^ision, ASCE, 106, ST5 (May
Prob.12.2
( 1980),1047-i061.
"Design InteractionF4uation for StcelBeam-
12.56.Lian Duan and Wai-Fah Chcn.
( columns," Journa! of stntctura! Engineering,AscE. 115' 5 (May 1989)' 12.3. Determine the marimum sen'iceload lV (kips) at the mid-hcightof the
L225-1213. "Desig! lntcractionEquatioos,- beam-column shorvn.Assume the memberis hinged with respectto
(
L2.S7.IqbalS. Sohal,Lian Duan, and Wai-Fah Cher. bending in both x and y directionsat the top and bottom. Addition-
( for SteelMcmbers,"Journal of Structura!Engineering'ASCE 115,7 (July 1989)' '... ally, lateral support occursin the weak direction at mid.height.
1650-1665.
(
100 k dead load
PI l 150 k live load
( PROBLEMS Y Senrice loads

(
All probtems(exceptProbs. 12.27-12.31)are to be done accordingto AISC
( Loai and Resistun.. Factor Designor AllorvableStressDesign,as indicated lvrz x 136
W, S,
by the instructor.The requirementof W sectionis intendedto include 436
( loads unlsssothenviseindicated.
and M sections.All given loads are sen'ice Consideras lateratsuppcn only

Assume lateral support consistsof translationalrestraint but not moment


againn movement in rareakdirectlon
(
(rotational)restraini,unlessotherwiseindicated.Assumeall standardsections VJ 20% dead load
80% lrve load
( ar" equaily readily available in the indicated grade of steel (even though
( actualiythey are not). n figureshou'ingspananClcadingis required,and after
making a designselectiona final check of the strengthinteract'ionequation
( (involving factored loads { and M,. and design strengthsgP" and QM^ for
( LRFD) o, ,tre$ interactioi equations(involving sen'iceload stresses /" and
and allowable stresses .q anA ^Q for ASD) is requiied' :
fo,
problems 12.1 through 12.26relate to design considerations.Problems
Prob. 12.3
( 12.27through 12.31relateto other theoreticalccnsidcrations.
, (
-
PROBLEMS 835
(
834 iZ 7 coualNED BENDINGAliS AXLALLOAD
('
. ! .

('
12.4. Invesrigarethe aCequacyof the given section.No joint translation 12.7. Selectthe lightestW14 sectionto carry a serviceload P as shownin the
occur and external lateral supPort is provided at the ends only. accompanyingfigure,with an eccentricitye:12 in. with respectto the (
strong axis. Assume the member is part of a braced system, and
w8x28 conservativelyassumethe effective length equals the unbraced height. (
436
Use (a) ,4'36steel; (b) A572 Grade 60 steel. (,'
(
e=12"
Service loads Serviceloads
Mo:1 .M'' dead load P = 1 0 0k i p s
2.0'* live load dead load
Mr:2.C9'' dead load
400 kips
'- live toad
2.91 live load
P - 1Okies dead load
4C kips tive load
WAx2g

e=12"

M.

Prob.12.4
M"
'1:: '"
12.5. Derermine the safe senice load tv permitted for this braced frani.' 12.8. Selectthe lightestW14 sectionto carry an axial compressionP of 100
beam - c oiumn - kips dead load and 140 kips live load along with a bendingmoment M
of 125 ft-kips dead load and 325 ft-kips live load, which, for conserva-
*l.|qejgeg:
l" As$rne
P- 40 kips 6ea4|oad
tive simplicity, is assumedto be constant along the 15-ft equivalent
pin-end length of the member in the braced structure. Use (a) 4,36
!*/' hinged
for both
6O kigs lrve bad
steel;(b) A572 Grade50.
principal Itl-20% clead load
direcibns 80% live load 12.9.If the serviceload P is 30 kips deadload and 95 kips live load and w is
0.8 kips/ft dead load and l.2,ktps/tt live load for the beam-column t.,

spanand supportconditionsof Prob.12.6,selectthe lighteslW section.


(
i

8'-g' Use (a) A36 steel; (b) A572 Grade 60.


Fixed tor both
I
i principal (
I
direcrions 12.10.Selectthe lightestW14 sectionfor the bearh-columnof the accompany-
ing figure. Assume lateral buckling is adequatelyprevented such that ({
I
lr Lu. Lo for LRFD or Lu < l. for ASD. Use 4'36 steel. (
I

Prcb.12.5 ('
i.
w superimposecl Service loads
w:l kip/tl
(
12.6. Determinethe serviceaxial load P which theW12X45 may be permit- dead load
tcd to carr)'. Lateral support is provided at ends and at midspan' 3 kips/tt
live load
Compare for A36 and A577Grade 50 steels' P = 20 kips (
dead load
Service loads 50 kiPs
P r^ - live load
-t>
w=O'ZkiPltt dead load

Wl2 i. .15
> l crpportt =
t."terar
0.5 kip/tt live toad P rob.12.10 {
(t
F-,o-o'-J-,r'*'-{-
f--ts'-or'-J-t5'-c' |!n ffif"':;'
i - v€rticat support 12.11. For the member of a bracedsystemin the accompanyingfigure, select (
the lightest W section;Use (a) ,4'36steeland (b) A572 Grade 60 steel.
Prob. 12.6 (

;\
(
( PROBLEMS 837
ANDMIAL LOAD
I2lCOMBINED BENDING
(
(
( lC' 21o' '
99l1e9-lee9! I

( P :65 kips dead load + r l


15 krps live lo;d
M:18 fl-kips dead load
I I
( 50 ft-kiPs live load I
I
I:
(
iI
I
I i
(
II
I J
( J J
t z l 21o' '
( P" Nonsway Sway
arraly'sis analysis
( M^, M .

Prob.12.11
(
(
12.12.Redesignthe sectionfor Example12.13.5for All|Grade 60 steel'
( frame and analysishas determinedK..:1..1: in the perpendicular
12.13.A frame braced againstsidesrvayhas a beam-columnloadedas in the di recti onthe s t r uct ur eis br acedsuch t hat K; : 1. 0. Fir st - or derf ac-
( accompanying figure resulting from an elasticanalysis.The horizontal tored load analysesunder dead load, live load. and rvind (1.2D + 0.5L
membir has tateiat support at its ends and every9 ft. Selectthe iigbtes! + 7.3W) have been performed:the nonswaygrauty analysis(7.2D +
( W section acceptableusing A36 steel' 0.5t), and the sruaywind (1.31V)analysisgiving the valuesas shown.
12.14.Redesignthe column memberof Prob- 12.73as part of an unbraced Assumeall columnsin the story are the sarneand the load on each is
( frame, but disregard the serviceloads of that problem. Assume trvo i denti cal .U se st eels:( a) 436; ( b) F": 50 ksi; ( c) 4 : 60 ksi; and
factored load first-order analyseshave been performed: (1) the gravity (O .F,: 65 ksi.
( load nonsrvayanalysisgiving Pu: 65 kips and Mn': 100 ft-kips; alg' 12.16.DesigncolumnsA and B as W sectionsfor the unbracedframe of the
( (2)aswayanalysisgrvingM/,:275ft.kipsandP,:l0kips.Assume
accompanyingfigure. Perpendicularto the frarne, assumethe system
both columns must carry the sameload' bracedand the-columnsadditionallybraced at mid-heightrvith K,:
(
1.0. Design for the dead load, live load, plus *'ind case.Use steels: (a)
( A36; (b) 4. : 50 ksi; (c) Fu : 60 ksi; and (d) F, : 65 ksi'
(
( 18' -g'

( __l O - 90 k;ps deact lcad


170 k:ps live load
( !7 = 50 k:ps \./incl

Servtce loads
( Braced frame

\
Probs. 12.13 and 12-14
(
( memberof
12.15.Designthe column A as aW sectionfor the unbracedframe
in the plane of the P r o b .1 2 . 1 6
( the accomPanFng figure. The frame is unbraced
(
(
838 12 i @i*NED ANDAXLcLLOAD
BENDING PFOBLEMS 839
( t

( ;
12.17. Design columns A and B as W sectionsfor the unbraced frame shorvn re.rg.'.For the vierendeeltruss(rigid frame) shown, investigatethe adequacy
'of (
in the accompanyrng figure. The system is braced in &e direction members ,{ and B. The uniform loading is 90% live load and l0%
perpendicular to tbe frame such that Kr:1.0. Design for the dead dead load including the weight of the steel section. Assume all other
(
load, live load, plus wind load caseusing the unifcirm live load'acting forces are l}@,o
dead load and 90% live load. The steelis A.36.Assume
oo both sPans.Use steels: (a) A36; (b) 4,: 50 ksi; (c) 4 : 60 ksi; simple cross-bracingbetrveengiven frame and an adjacentparallel one. (
and (c) 4: 65 fsi. 12.20. RedesignmemberA f.or A572 Grade 60 steel. ( l

( ,
w = 1.0kaps/nDL; 1.7 kips/ft LL
vJzlx 132 ( t

I'
vl24xu (
\
R i g i di o i n l
/ lYrad uniform 1-
17-6"
/ toad = 0.9 kips,'ft ( t
_. Hinge €er$ce loads 1_
/
/
-
\
\ |I / ,' # ' *1 (
i n'l 5@14'-0"=7Cl'-0" l"'I ( "
teralsupporttransverse
to frameevery4 f.t
( r
\
220tr-*ip, ft'kios
Prob. 12.17 .r.- - . - 450 f t'kips
/ 1.3k/ft 4220 r.3 k/fr ( ,
215k +-> Fnrrrmirq +i- zrsr nor ( - -#*,+frtttt
. i
\ t tI / 545ft.kips
\ ,\
/ noo
( t
12.18. Design the lightest W12 sectionfor column .4 of the unbraced frame in I I I ( t
the accompaoylng figure. Use the dead load plus lit'e load plus *'ind Member A Member 8

loadirg ss5s. pls'liminary designhas selectedW27x94 for all adjacent Probs. 12.19and 12.20 ( - i

beams, and it has been decided column ,4 will be approximately the


( i
same size as those above and below it. Assume the forces given are the
result of trx'o first-order analyses;a nonsway analysis gllang factored 12-21.Design the lightestW section to carry two eccentric20-kip loads (20% ( ,
mocreats Mn,, a$d a swayanalysisgrving factoredmomeots Mr,.ln the dead load, 80% live load) causing primary bending plus an axial ,{t
weak direction, assumetbe system braced such that K,.: 1.0 and compressionof 275 kips. Assurneall loads are 2O%dead load and 80%
Lr:13 ft- Use steels:(a) A36; (b) 4, : 50 ksi; (c) 4 :'60 ksi; and live load. Assume torsional fidty at the vertical supports; assume ( )
(d) Fy = 65 ksi. lateral. bracing at midspan is adequateto prevent lateral-torsional
( )
buckling, but does permit enough rttation for torsional moments io
develop.Use 436 steel. ( r
P"=630kiPs

,|* ( )
vr21x94 20k 20k
I 240fr-krps ( )
tl ?
il
w27 x 94 - l lll It 275 k
(
275 k
A tl ll -t4o (
U U 140ft-kips I t tt.kips
u/27 x 94 t Vzoo l---
t .t 3'^-0" . ^ .Lateral
i 8'-O' ---+-- t support ( )
I I

530
?^'-rv, ____-_J_
36,-0,, _- Vertical support (
Nonsway Sway Torsionally (
analysls analysis
L-o'o,'-l o-r .l *,"*n, Ma Ma
fixed at ends
(
Prob.12.18 Prob. 12.21 (
(
(
(-'
i
,( ;€tlr I

BENOING
t2,/COMBINED ANDAXIALLOAD PROBLEMS 841
(
t

( i-',r,

12.22.Investigate the given structural tee for the loading shown in the 12.25. A column in a building has the factored load reactions ar the top from
( beams franling into it, a.sshoun in the accontpanving figurc. Assur.re
accorllpanying figure. The uniform lcading is delivered through con-
( struction which preventslatt-'ralbuckiingof the member.Assumeconti- thc frarning beams contribute moments at the tcp of the cr-rlumn.but
nuity over the cnd supports u'hich resultedin giv'enend moments. the bottom of the column is hinged (no monrcnts).The beams framrng
( Assumeall loadsxe 25%dead load znd 75%live load. Use A36 steel. into the tveb are assunredto rest on scats,u'ltcre reactions are assumcd
( to be 2 in. from the center of the rveb. The reaction from the other
beam is assumed to be acting at the face of the flange. Use A35 steel
( ' 0.7 k/ft (incl. beam weiqht) and select lightest W scction.
Top
( r ---- T r - -
( : U r!, = 3 7k r p s
l /
l ^ , ^
Y -U
, t:ss:rne given monenis a:e t
t /
/
n

* --+
F-- t/ I
tne :'esuliot a siaiically
;ii je:erminate anal)SiS,
( r 4s
= alkiPs./

P r ob. 12. 22
( Faclored I\U
loaCs | 1 , = 1 5k r p s

E l f e c t i v ei e n g t h= 1 4 f r
12.23,Select the lightest WT? structural tee for the loading shoun in the for both x and y
,(
accompanyingfigure.Assumeverticaland lateralsupportsat endsonly. directions
ir
l\. Use A572 Grade 50 steel.
i

:( Prob.12.25

ic 0.4 kips ft dead load


tu =
i( l,ncl . beam weighi)
0 7 k;ps
'ft live ioad
12.26.For the factoredloadingsho*'n.selectlightestscctionsfor the folicrving

ir I
l a
I
|
l--
<a,
lu -ua ' ,
P = 20 krps Cead load
conditions:
(a) Wl4 using.436steel
t \ 5C k:ps live load (b) W in any dep$ usingF": 50 ksi
'
Prob.12.23 (c) W14 using 4 : 60 ksi
( ' (d) W14 using 4. : ?0 ksi
( r
( r 12.2A.Select an economicalstructural tee to sen'e as a continuous compres- { - 3C0kips F, = 330kips
sion chord member of a truss to carry service loads as shown. For
(-r design purposes assume fixed ends on the member- Use the more
M", = 270 tt-kiPs
M-t = 33it-ktps

( , economical of ,{36 or A572 Grade 50 steel, assuming the Grade 50


costs127omoreper pound than 4,36. Factored
( l
loads t
given
' r( ConsiCeras
i i \ a braced system
Structuraltee
t l
!
1 \
l l /
't :t {\
ir
t
!
i aa
P" = 300kiPs

( t Prob.12.24 Prob. 12.26..

u ( '
v

842 AND AXIALLOAD


12/ CA$BINEDBEr'lDlNG (
(
Probtems Relating to Theoretical Considerations

12.27.through 12.31.For the given loading and support conditions,develop


Chapter
13 (
(
the differential equationfor the momenl M, in the plane of bendinil. (
and determine the maximum value for M-.
Gonnections (
(
Frxed Ftxed
P P (
--i'> <-
(
(
Srrnple (
g/..Jp99rl
r ' f f i F (
7 I
(
(
(
-1,')-4 - -
I |
t l
P : I P (
fr
13.1 TYPESOF CONNECTIONS
77't
I (
L-- t Steel constructionis categorizedby LRFD-A2.2 and ASD-A2.2 into various
"Types" dependingon the amount (
of restraint developedby the connections.
Three types are identified: (

l, Fully Restrained(also called Rigid Frame, or ContinuotuFrame). This (


situation occurs when full continuity is provided at the connection so that (
I
r
L ____-.1
l original anglesbetri'eenintersectingmernbersare maintained essentiallycon-
stant during loadingof the structure;i.e., with rotational restraint on the order (
of 90% or more of that necessaryto prevent any'angle change.Such connec- (
,, ,l ' 2
tions are designated"Twe FR" (for fully restrained)by LRFD-A2.2 and have
\
4 <-.- F for many years been knowr in Allowable StressDesign as "Type 1" (ASD- (
T/77 ./ A2.2). (
2. Simple Framing (also called.Unrestrainedor Free-Ended).This situa-
tion occurs where rotational restraint at the ends of members is as little a: (
practicable. For beams,simple framing is intended to provide only shear (
transfer at the ends. Si ,:pleframing is usually assumed to exist when the
original angle betweenintersectingmembersmay change approximately 809 (
or more of the amount it theoretically would change if frictionless hinged
(
connectionscould be used.\then a simply supported beam is designed,simple
framing connectionsmust be used.When plastic analysisis used,continuity is (
inherently assurned;therefore,in that case it is inappropriate to use simple
(
framing. Two or more planar systemsdesigned using plastic analysis ma;*.
borvever,be linked togetherby simple framing connections combined with a ('
(
84[] (
(
(
(
13/CONNECTTONS
( r3.1/TYPESOr COnrNrcrioNS g45

(
( bracingsystem(suchas cross-bracing). Structures
usinssimpleframingcon-
ncctionshave lt-ingbeen crllcd "T1'pc 2" constnrctionin Alltrriablebrcrs
( Design(ASD-.4'2.2)and arc called"T-r'pePR" (for partiirli.rr,'streinctl)in
LRFD-A2.2.The designation PR for thcscconnectionsis in r.-c,:3:iiticn
of thc
(
fact that some restraintis alu'at.spresent.
( Load and Resistance FactorDesignrequiresthar u'henTlpe PR constnrc-
tion is intendedto be ''simple framing" threespecificrequirencnts(LRFD-
(
A2.2) apply, oaraphrasedas follorvs:
(
(a) The simply supportedbeam reactionsunder factoredlcads must be
(
adequatelycarriedby suchconnections.
( ' (b) Tlte structureand its connectionsmust be adequateto resistfactored
latcral loads.
(
(c) Connectionsmust have sufficientinelasticrotat.ioncapacityso rhat
( angle changesinherent in the simple framing assumprionC"n occur
under factored loads w,ithoutouerloading
the endfcstertiri?-rl.-r/enr.
( t I
I
\.:t
t
( ."I[ ' . 3. Semi'Rigid Framing. Semi-rigidframing occurs uhen rotational re-
l -t;;
( straint is approximatelybetween20% and 90onof.thar necessary ro prevent
relative angle change.This meansthat with semi-rigidframingi6. *orn.nt
( $+r..E transmittedacrossthe joint is neitherzero (or a small o*orni] as in simple
\*i' framing,nor is it the full continuity momentas assumedin elasricrigid-frame
l-l f :,:
( -t'::i i
analysis.semi-rigid framing is specificailydesignatedas ..T'r-pel" under
( r.ffi; ASD-A2.2. In Load and ResistanceFactor Design. semi-rigci framing is
(
'*$g**".h.= iiIeJ
includedin "Tvpe PR" rvhereits use"dependson the el'idenceof predictable
>.:r*
, - --i':
5
t"!--.d\.F
*.t'-;'!
!._--,
proportion of full end restraint."ln ASD, the designof semi-rig,id connections
( requiresa "dcpendableand known moment capacityintermeCrate
:f':*i
:=s\|-.-
,-€ in degree
betrveenthe rigidiry of Type I and the flexibility of i1.pe 2."
( Semi-rigidconn€ctionsare not usedin structuresrvhenplasiicanalysisis
;ga
a,:a used in design. and are not commonly used in Alloivable SrressDcsign
(
becauseof the difficulry'in obtainingthe momcnt-rotarion relarionshipfor a
( given connection. Horvever,rvith greateravailabilitl.'of high-srr.ngthstecls
( required in designing this ty'pe of connection,the authors beileve use of
semi-rigidconnecrionswiil increase.
(
(
( Eearn Line
( lVelded connectionsfor rigid frame construction,showingbeam-t+colu;rn connections In order to better understandthe practicaldistinctionbet*'cenrhe AISC
with column web stiffeners.Rural Mutual insurance Building, \{aCisce. Wi. (Photo by framing types. the beam lir,e de.reloped
( C. G. Salmon)
by Batho and Rowan[13.1]and useci
by Sourochnikoff[13.2]is a usefulgraphicaldevice.
( As shown in Fig. 13.1.1,considera beam AB lsadedin anl.mannerand
( subject to end moments !ll" and trlo, and g'ith end slopesd" and 0r. The
i-nomentsnecessaryto have 0o:0u:0 are designatedI4r" and iL{ro, the
(
t,
(
v
( t
846 13lCONNECTIONS 13.2/FRAMEDBEAMCONNEC;IONS 847
( )
( ,
Type FR LRFD-A2.Z
Type 1 ASD.A2.2 ( l
\
B J
tuo
Fult fixily for uniform loading ( ,
Final end mornent! and slope ur"='# ( i
\,, "''u Figure 13.1.1 Moments and rotations
for slope-deflection cquations (shown ( \
F) with positive signs).
19
MF"
Type PR LRFO-A2.2
Fired-end moments -.
c
Type 3 ASDA2.2 ( ,
q) Mr 'V/
E BFam line at 1.7 times service load
o
( t
1 -Beam line at service load
fixed-endmoments.Writing the slope deflection equations,* T'
UJ M3
f TypePR LRFD-A2.2 (
4EI LEI t /\Type2 ASD-A22
M'o- Mpo * ,o ( ,
Tr"* , M2 Simple beam for unilorm loading

zEI 4EI
( 1 3 . .1l ) (, t.=ffi ( :
Mo=Mn* Uu -M'"
70"* , o - (
2EIIL

\. End roution, g" (


Solvingfus. 13.1.1tor 0o and0u gtues
FiEu?613.1.2 Moment-rotation characteristicsof AISC connectiontypes. ( t
6EI
-L 0,: 2(.Mo- Mr") - (Mu - Mrr) ( t
(13.1.2)
6EI
0u= -( Mo- Mr") + z(Mb - Mru)
Figure 13.1.2 shows a diagram of the beam-lineequation and also the ( r
r moment-rotation behavior of typical connectionsof ASD Types 1, 2, and 3; (
and LRFD Types FR and PR. The typical rigid connection would have to
Subtractilg the secondequation from the first gives carry an end moment Mr, about 90% or more of. Mpoi hence its degreeof (
restraint may be said to be 90%.The simple coonection(Type 2) may have to
6EI ( t
(0" - 0) - 3(M" - M) - 3(Mr" - Mro) ( 1 3 ..13) resist only 20% or lessof the moment Mpo, ds indicated by the moment M2,
L while the semi-rigid connectionwould be expectedto resistsome intermediate ( ,
If symmetricalloadingis considered,then value My &t perhaps50%of the fixed-endmoment Mr".
( t
When the moment-rotation characteristicsof a particular connection are
Mt: -Mo, 0 o : -Ao, Mrt: - Mro (13.1.4) available, the sfength can be designedso that the resulting end rotation d is (
compatibie with that causedby the loads. Discussionsof semi-rigid connec-
in which €se Eq. 13.1.3becomes (
tions and moment-rotationcharacteristicsof variousconnectionarrangements
2EI are given by liechtman and Johnston[13.3],Schenker,Salmon,and Johnston ( ;
Mo- Mro
T0o: [13.41,Lindsey,Ioannides,and Goverdhan[13.5],Bronn [13.6],and Chen and
L
Kishi [13.7].
( ,
( ,
2EI
Ilo: Mro * (13.1.5) ( ,
70" 13.2 FRAMEDBEAMCONNECTIONS
( i
n'hich mav be called the beant-line equetion. When 4 : 0 (a fui l i i ri tv
condition), ifo : Mpofand for a hinged end where Mu: 0, the slopebecomes Framed beam connections(LRFD "Type PR" or ASD "Type 2") are used to (
oo: - TIFJQEI/L). connect beams to other beamsor to column flangeswhen simple support of
the beams has been assumed.Design of such connectionshas becomesome- ( ,
what standard.izedand tables "FRAMED BEAM CONb{ECTIONS" are ( ,
'f6s int6s6, sce Cbu-Kia Wang sad Charles G. Salmon, IntrductoD' Structwal AnalYsis'
gtven in the AISC Manuals [.7, 1.1?].An excellentreview of LRFD design
Eng,lewood Oilfq NJ: Prentic*,Hall, Itr, 1984 (Chap. 9). for theseconnectionsis given by Thornton [13.8]. ( l
( ,
( )
(
(r 13.2/ FMMEDBEAMCCNNECTTONS e43
848 13,/CONNECTIONS
(
(
Fastenerl i n e A
A new tlpe of shearconnectionis the teeframing connectianas studiedb;-
( I
Astaneh and Nader [13.80],*'here the tee flange attachesto th'e supponrc;1
. 1lI 2
column (or beam)and the tce s'cb lapsagainstthe loadedbeamto uansmit i:s
( I
I shear.
( Anothsrsingle-plate franir:gcc:rnection, studiedby Kenned;"[13.13].us':3
the plate in the verticalposirions'eltiedflat againstthe end of the beam*ii-t:
(
L
the connectionto the beamor column maden'ith bolts.
( i When angles,sometimeskno*n x clip angles,are used to attach abea-ar
I
t to a column there is a clearancesetbackof about I in. so that if the beam is
( too long. ri'ithin acceptabletolerances,the anglesmay be relocated u'ithout
( cutting cff a piece of the bca:r. \\'hen beamsintersectand are attachedio
vJ30 other berms so that the flangeso; both are at the sameelevation,as in Fig.
( 13.2.1e,the beamsfranr.ingin hn'e rheir flangescoped,or cut away.The loss
( of section is primarilv loss of fla:rgethat carrieslittle shear an)'\r'ay,so thzt
(a) til (c) normally a cope results in little loss of shearstrength.Birkernoeand Giincr
( t13.141have shon'i'r that a coped web subject to high beari-ngstress irl a
CoPe (cut'back of beam flar:3e)

( high-strengrhbolted beamend connectionma-vfail in a iearingmode (kno*:t


as "block shear") along a line through the holes, as sho*'n in Fig. 13.22.
( Additional study of block shearin such situationshas been made by fucies
and Yura [3.12]and Yura, Birkemoe,and Ricles[13.15].
( "Block shear" was first discussedin regardto tensionmembersin Sec.3-5.
( Block shear may be critical in framed beam connections rvhen there are
relatively ferv bolts used and they do not extend uniformly over the eniire
(
depth of the web. LRFD-JS requiresconsiderationof the block sheariinit
( state "where the top flangei5 r:{--rped.and in similar situations,where faiiure
can occur b1,shear along a plane through the fasteners,acting in combioaiicn
( (d) (e)
with tensionalong a perpendiculerplane."ASD-J4 contaits a similar requke-
( Figure 19.2.1 Franed beamconnections. ment.
In addition to.block shear.copesof the flangesof beamsmay affect lccal
( web buckling. as reportedby Cheng and Yura [i3.16], and lateral-torsional
Typical bolted and weldedframedconnectionsare shosn in Fig. 13.2-1.It
( buckling,as reportedby Gupta[13.17].Cheng,Yura, and Johnson[13.18],a:d
is int.endediri such connectionsthat the anglesbe as flexibleas possible.The
Chengand Yura [13.19].
( connecl.ionto the column (2 rows of 5 fastenerssho*'n in Fig. i3.2.1a) is The number of high-strengthbolts is basedon the direct shear,neglecti'ng
usually made in the field while the connectionto the beam iveb (one rorv of 5 any eccentricityof loading. rvhile the s'eld length and sizeinclude the effect cf
( fastenersshorvn in Fig. 13.2.1b)is usually made in the shop- Generallyon
( plans, shop fastenerholesare shorvnas in Fig. 13.2.1b.*'hiie field fastener
holes are shorvnas solid black dots.
( In today's fabricationpracti-ce,.theshop connectionis usually welded,
( while the field connectionmay be eitherbolted or welded;thus any combina-
tion in Fig. 13.2.1of (a) rvith (b) or (c); or (d) with (b) or (c), may be used.
( The single-plateframing connectiotris a modification r"'herea singleplate
( (insteadof the pair of angles)is bolted flat againstthe beamweb and then is
welded p..p.ndi.ular to the beam web or column flange or rveb to which it is
( attached. ihe design of these connectionshas been studied by fuchard,
Gillett, Kriegh, and Lewis[13.9],Young and Disque[13.10].Richard,Kriegh,
(
and Hormby ti3.11], Hormby, Richard,and Kriegh [13.12],and Astaneh,Call,
Figure 13.2.2 Tearing failure at ccped end of framed bearn connection.
( and McMullin [13.79].
( ,
&-,

a!f-. 850 13/ CONNECTTONS * ( ,
13.2/ FRAI'.|ED
BEAMCONNECTTCIJS 951
1

5 .
t-
( t
3-:.
eccentricioading. The fasteners.bolts or welds, are designedin accordance i and for the concentratedload ?" acting at mid-length of a simply supported ( ,
-3:
rvith proceduresof Chapters4 aad 5, respectively. span g (weldedconnection),
: ( '
The thicknessof the freming anglesor plate is usually controlied by the ?-
" block shear" strength.In Ts3 (
addition,anglesshould be thick enoughsuch that
bearingdoes not control. The acgles are expectedto bend so that the assumed a-_:_ (13.2.2)
488! (
rotation of the supportedbeemat its ends can occur.
Noting that the maximum force ?" *'ill occur rvhenthe top of the angle yields;
(',
i.e., Max T : 2{.1 per unit lengthat the rop, and that / : f /lz per unit
Flexural Deformatlon and Sbength of Connectton Angtes ',- length, Eqs. 13.2.1and 13.2.2become ( ,
Referring to Fig. 13.2.3,the tensileforce T per inch acts at tbe top of framing (
ZF"lt F'Tt
anglesof lcngth L as shownin Fig. 13.2.1whenan end momentacts.This end L:
192E\tr/r2)
-:
8Etz
(rr.z.s) (
momentarisesfrom the reactionP acting at an eccentricity€ measured,as in
Fig. 13.2.1bor c, from the point cf actionof P to the centroidof rhe fasrener and
linc I or to the centroidof weld l. \.,
The concentratedload I acdngon the connectionanglesmay be consid- 2Frtgt
A _ ---------- Frgt (
ered as acting on a fixed-endbeam for the bolted connectionand on a simpl1.. _: (13.2.4)
488(t'/12) 2Et2 (
supported beam for a welded connection.The true situation for each case is
\'
partially end restrained.The higherrestraint for the bolted connecrionarises Note that the more rotation requiredat the end of the beam the greater ( ,
from the clamping action betweenthe piecescausedby initial tension in the must*be the deformation A and the thinner (lorv r) must be the angles.In
bolts, ivhile the weldingcausesbttle clanrpingac-tion. general,this deformationis self-limitingbecause (
the mid-lengthponion of the
A simple approximationof the deflection A ar the tension end of the angleswill remain elasticeventhoughthe top end may be inelastic.Further- (
framingangleswill thereforebe tbat of a fixed-endbeam(high-strengthbolted more, the use of thick angleswould mean that the stressat the rop of the
connection)having concentrated load r at mid-lengthof a span g. angiesdue to f might be lessthan {, thusreducingA (and the corresponding ( ,
end rotation). (
Tgt
A -
(13.2.1) E EXAMPLE 13.2.1 (
792Er
Compute the factoredload { capacityfor the reacrionon the 5 ro*, framed (
beam connectionof Fig. 13.2.1for connectrng a w30x99 beamto a column
b = leg dimensio
haring a ]-in. flange.Use ]-in.-diam 4325 bolts as a bearing-npeconnection (
(A325-X) having no threadsin the shearplanes.The connecrionusesstandard
(
holes with clean mill scale(ClassA) surfacecondition.Use Load and Resis-
tance Factor Designand A.36steel. ! (
(
SOLUTION
(a) Design strengths+R" per bolt for the connecrionro the web of (
w30x99, /," : 0.520in. using Eq. 4.7.2.ths designstrengthin double shear
('
(nr : 2) is
(
+ R , : O ( 0 . 6 0 4) n r , e ,
(
: 0.65(0.60)(120X2)0.4418
: 41.4kips/bott
(
The designstrengthin bearingon the 0.510-in.web, from Eq. 4.?.6,is
(
l' o -l !I oR n : +( 2. 4F") dt

r'
\
: A.75(2.4X58X0.?5)0.520
: 40.Tkips/bott
(r) High-nrengthbolted (b) Welded (
(b) Total connectionfactoredload { capacitybasedon the rveb connec-
Figure 13.2.3 Behavior at tensionedgeof framing angles. tion to the W30x99 beam.Commonpracticebas been to neglectthe eccentric- ( r
t -
6

i, (

( ;
l
(
;5;3:i
( 852 13,/CoNNECTIONS .'?:.Ti
l-Jii't
=3:-'l
B.t / innuro BEAM
coNNEcloNS 853
{( ':* t

( ity e *'ith respectto the fastenerline. Thus, the maximum factoredreaction { '
'=:11.1
If the combined shear aad tension effect is considered.
;-:
- i . ;
and the eiastic
*'ould equal the designstrengthper bolt timesthe number n of bolts, vector method is u-sed.the factored tension T, at the most heavily lc'recltd
(
Madmum Pu: nQR": 5(40.7): 204kiPs bolt is
( - l

.r{c P..ec P..(3.25)6


r': -I A : : : oo75P'
I A etF?*
( If the eccentricityivith respectto the fastenerline were considered,
(
and the direct shearper bolt is
( assumingrhe reacrionto be .,";;:l: *r A. Forthis eccentricshear
P"
( loading, ultimate strengthanalysisor eiasticvector analysis,as discussedin l '". . : A A : : o.1oP,
Sec.4.12,may be used.Using ultimatestrengthanalysisas represented by the *
"
I LRFD l{anual tables. ECCENTzuC LOADS ON FASTENER GROUPS", From Table 4.14.7 (LRFD-Table J3.3) rhe facroredload in rension F,I,At
( for vertical spacingof fastenersb : 3 in., the numberof fastenersn : 5, and permitted in the presenceof shear is, for bearing-t1'pe
connectionsusing
eccentricityXo: 2.25in,,
( | -i n.-di ambol ts ( Ao: 0. M 18 sq in. ) ,
Find coefficientC : 4.28
( F:,At: s 5 ( 0 . 4 4 1 8-) 1 . 4 t r / u s6 8 ( 0 . 4 4 1 8 )
Pu: CqRn:.{.28(40.7): 174kips
( M ar f , : 3i '5 - i'4( 0'i0P") < 30'0kiPs

( This is 15%lessthan wheneccentricityis'neglected. 0 ' A 7 5 P:, 3 7' 6 - 1 ' 4 ( 0 ' 1 0 P " )


(c) DesignstrengthsfRn per bolt for the connectionto the flangeof the
( j-in. coiumn. The designstrengthin singleshear(n : 1) is P, : 1?5kiPs
( gR, (singleshear): O(O.OO4)rAu Checkthat 0.075{ doesnot e.xceed 30 kips; 0.075P,: 0.075(175)
: 13.1kips,
which is acceptable.Considering combined tension and shearthe factored
(
0R, : 0.65(0.60)(i20)(1)0.4418
: 20.7kips/bolt load { capacitywouid be reducedby about 75on(i75 r's 207kips) from the
( value obtained disregardingecc€nrriciry.
( The design strengthin bearingon the angleswill be less than bearing.o{r-the (e) Summaryof factoredioad capacityresults.
l-in. flange. The minimum thicknessfor the anglesso that bearing rvill qot Connectionto beam web:
( govern is obtainedby settingthe strengthin bearingequal to the strength(20.7 Pu: 244kips(neglecte)
Pu: 774kips(considere)
( kips/bolt) in shear,
Connection to cclumn fianse: Pu: 247kips (neglecte)
( , +R, (bearing): Q(Z.AF,)dt:20.7 kips
Pu : I75 kips (considere)
( 24.7 20.7
Minl: : 0.26ia. For the illustration of edge ard end Cstance requiremcnts,the value of 104
( +\2.4)F"d 0.75(2.4)(58)0.75 kips neglectingeccenrricityrld be used.
(11 End and edgedistan:es.Under LRFD-J3.6,rvhenthe bearingstrength
( The design strength in tension wiil be depeudenton the applied shear load; equationsused in parts (a) ard (c) are satisfiedan cnd distanceof 1.5 bolt
( horvever,the upper limit on that strengthis diametersis consideredacceptable.In this case.

( p R n (te n s i o n:) + (O n r!)a u R e q u i r e de n d d i s i a n c e : 1 . 5 d : 1 . 5 ( 0 . 7 5 ) : f . i 3 i n .


( : 0.75(90.0)0.4418
: 29.8 kips When a lesserdistanceis deslred,Eq. 4.7.73appliesu'hereP is the factorcd
load per bolt,
(
(d) Total connectionfactoredload { capacitybasedon the connectionto P
( the ]-in. flange. Neglectingeccentricity,the ten fastenersin single,shearglve E::d CistanceL la.i tsl
QF,t
( : 207kips
P,: 1A(20.7)
Solving this equatioa for'"he r:rirumuia angle thicknessfor the i-j-in. cnd
(
t
\f
v
'p--
13.2/ FRAMEDBEAMCONNECTTONS
C:
854 13/ CONNECTTCNS
( ,
(
distanceused on the anglesgives Assumingthe servicemoment is about 0.5 of M, the elasticallycomputedend
slopeis ( ,
P.,/n 2A1/n
i . v { i n-r > = ; :o.37 ln. (
0.7s(s8)1.25 tyL2 ML (842/2)(r2X16.5)12
+F"L 0
- :=.::-:- : :0.0029radian
24EI 3Er 3(29,000)3990 ( ,
Note that there are only 5 bolts through the beam web; however, there is
bearing against 2 plates at each hole, making 204/L0 as the load on each Assumingrotation about the bottom of the angle,the deformationrequiredat (
bearingarea. the top of the anglesto accomrnodatethe serviceload rotations at the endsof
( ,
Equation4.7.I3 shouldalsobe usedto checkthe end dist2lce requirement the beam would be
on the beam web, (
6 : (d/2)CI : 14.5(0.0029): 0.04 in. = 0.04
(
ce-L -> L
Enddistan : -?l:!.t- --: 1.80in. Basedon theseapproximatecalculations,the anglesmust yield at serviceload
eF,t 0.75(58)0.52 to .accommodaterotation at the ends of the beam. Even if such rotation ( ,
.occurs,the full simply supportedbeam moment is not likely,to occur; there
This end distancerequirementis conservativebecausethe full load on the will be some end moment. l (
uppermostbolt is assumedto be directedtoward tbe nearestedge; actually The conclusion is that framed beam connectionsshould use the thinnest (
only the horizontal componentneed be used. The 1.75 in. provided seems anglesconsistent with the bearing and sbear fracture limit states,as well as
adequate. ' practical limitations. Bertwell (
[13.20]has provided some additional discussion
(g) Shear on the net section through the angles.For shear, the net area on the behal'ior of framed beam connections. E (
An, is to be based on the nominal Cimensionof the hole, according to
i-f{fO-gZ, rather than the nominal d,imensionof the hole plus fi as is done ( ,
for the net areain tension.Thus, E EXAMPLE 13.2.2
Investigatethe 5 row framedbeam connecrionof Example13.2.1(Fig. 13.2.1)
I t3 1\l as a s/rp-criticalconnecilon(A325-SC) assuming75% live load and 25% dead
An,:
' tl1a.5- 5l ; * -: ll : 10'44t
Perangie load.
L \4 16/j

Shearrupturedesignstrength(LRFD-J4) : QF^An, : Q(0.6F")A ^, SOLUTION


- (a) Strengthin shearand bearing.A slip-critical
Reaction 7M/2 connecrionhas the same
Requiredt:----- : 0.37i n. sirength requirementsfor shear and. bearing as a bearing-t!?econnection.
+(0.64)1", 0.75(0.6)(58)10.44 From Example13.2.1,
(h) Examinethe degreeof simplesupportprorided by i-h- angles.Using gR,, : 41.4 kips/bolt (doubleshear)
Eq. 13.2.3,the elasticCeflectionrs
9Rn : 40.7 kips/bolt (bearingon 0.52-in.web)
- 13'216'.l:
36[:(?'5 Using f -in..thick anglesmeansbearingon the angleswill not control,nor rvill
a : ?!tr-
I Etz r : o.o4in.
)(0.375
s(19.ouc ) the shearfracture limit state.
(b) Capacity basedon strengthlimit states.The maximum factoredload
The longestbeam span uniformlyicr:dedfcr a W3Cx99 haring a factorecl P, that can be carried rvas determinedin Example 13.2.1to be 204 kips
reactionof 204 kips is (neglectingeccentricity).Basedon this the serviceload capacityis
Q ut u l o :0 .9 0 2 ,F r: 0 ' 9 C (3 1 2 )-2 6 7: 12842ft-ki ps (
1. 2( 0. 25P)+ t . 6( 0. 7sp) : 204kips
W.,L , t * t ' ! t p : 136kips (
II,: (
- (c) Check the slip serviceabilitylimit state.The senice load capacityper
e
8(842) ?. bolt is, from Table 4.9.1for ClassA surfacecondition and standardholes, (
i-
L: 16'5ft t
R = FomAD: 17(2)0.441g= 15.0kips/bolt
zo4e\: (
(
(
(
C
r
('
i3 2 r'FRAHED BEAM CONI:ECT|ONS 857
856 13/ C.ONNECTIONS
(
(
When eccentricityis neglected, r EXAMPLE 13.2.3
( Designa framedbeemconnection for a \\ 10x63beamharinga factored
load
( P : R(numberof bolts) : 15.0(5): 75 kips rcactionP,r of 70 kipsard a W24x1C4l--:ambavinga factoredloadrerction
Pu, of 250 kips. Thesetrvo beamsare to frane into oppositesidcsof a pl.lie
( Thus.comparingrhe resultsfrom parts(b) and (c), the sen'iceabiiitylimit state girderhavinga i-in. l'eb asshou'nin Fig. 73.2.4.The connectionis to be of
conrrols. T[is rvill usually be the case for siip-criticat connections.When a ]-in.-diam A325 bolts in a bearing-tlpeconrectionu'ith threadsexcluded
\
surface condition is used having a high slip-resistancecoefficient ardr'or from the shearplar.:s.Use Load and Re::stance FactorDesignand A36 stcei.
( rhreadsmay exist in the shearplanes,it wi[ be possiblefor the strengthlimit
( -rtatet0 cclntrol. SOLUTIOiV
{d) Considereccentricityfor the slip-criticalconnection.The combination (a) Compute d:sign bolt values reiating to conneciionsto *'ebs of
( .,f shear and tension on the attachmentto the column flangewill be more W10x68 and \\'2-1x104.
critical than eccentricshearat fastenerline ,a (Fig. 13.2.1).The sen'iceload
(
componentsat the most heavily loaded fastenersare fR, (bearing): Q(2.aF")dt
( ' P(2.25)6 : 36.8idps/oolt (WiO)
0R,, : 0.75(2.4X58)(0.75)0.4'i0
It{c
, : : 0.075P (tension)
( in: .+ R , : 0. 75( 2. 4) ( 5S) ( 0. 75) 0. 5C0
: 39. 2kips/ bolr ( W24)
(
and the direct shearPer boit is fR " (dcubleshear ): q( a. AO f j) nA6
r\
P P 0R,, : 0.65(72.0)(2)0.4418
: 47.4kips/bolt
( ' : A - A" : 1 - :00 . 1 0 P
V (directshear)
7C
( N u m b e r o fb o l t s : : 1.9, sa1'2 (\\'10)
subjectto tension 36.3
( The sen'iceload capacityin shearfor a bolt simultaneously
is, accordingto LRFD-J3-5, 250
\ N u m b e ro f b o l t s: 6.4, sa1'7 (W24)
0.075P
\ 392:
( F u : 1 7 (- t; ) :rz(r - - l
28 I _. The use of only trvo bolts to fasten the \\'10 sectionma.vresult in a shear
( fracture failure aiong a net section measuredvertically do*'nward from the
fully loadedin shear,f u: 0.L0P/A'-
For fastcners cope to the center of the lowermostfastenerand then horizontallyto the ncar
( end of the beam. Try 3 bolts as in Fig. 73.2.1.
( 0.10P t 0.07sP I
: 1 -7 1 1 - - - - - l
0.44i8 t- 28 l

( P : 63kips < 75kips (neglect


e)
r v l 0x 6
( (e) Summary.
o
( o
P : 136kips (basedon srengthlimit states)
(
P : 75 kips (basedon serviceabilitylimit state o
( of slip neglectingeccentricity) o

(
P : 63 kips (basedon sen'iceability limit state
( of slip consideringeccentricity) .i'rlr r'-rt"
(
The LRFD Manual tablesacceptP :l|kips (neglectingeccentricity;.- Figure 13.2.4 Fras'ied beam connectionhari-agulequal reactions
(
t (
\
H
-,:
.€
;>'

13lCCNNECTIOiIS *, 13.2 l FRAt'.{rDBEAM CONNECTTONS


fr
858 .&
&'
'.+. ( - i
+
i
F ( :
(b) Checkblock shearon W10 accordingto LRFD-J5.2.This is discussed E When 14 bolts are used.the averageload per bolt rvill be 25A/14: 17.9kips.
Eqs.3.6.1and 3.6.2.is
in Sec.3.6.The largerof the following two expressions,
* Even though this exceedsthe 17.7kips availableon the top 6 bolts, the lorver8 ( i
dr
taken as the nominal strength P,,, &-- bolts are not fulll' loaded.Accept this arrangement.The alternativervouldbe
F to use more bolts: horvever,that would mean four vertical lines of bolts as
( ,
No mi n a lre a c ti o nP,: 0 .6 0F rA u r + F,A nl *i
+
attachmentto the girder web and the useof 5- or 6-in. anglelegsagainstthat ( r
4-. web.
Nominal reactionP,,: 0.60FuAn,+ FyAtg ?"
( ,
n"::xij:ir:;sqin r-
t
'l ''
(d) Angles thickness.The required thicknessto permit use of 1|-in. end
distanceon anglesis (for W24 section) ( ,
:;-;-. P 250/14 ( )
, u -- , , - : o v3' Ji Ji nL ' L '
n^' r-_
' t
. B
' F
S{,(end distance) 0.75(58)1.25
( '
:i,, :i:iiffi :oT5
47a in
sq .i '.

,.''-
or (for W10 section) ( ,
^n'=:;:; , r- - ^ = % : 0 . 2 1 in. (r
: 1e8sein.
l"ffi;tr)to 47o it.
l \ ' :
0.75(," )L.Lr
t'

n',=:ffi;;':ffisqin | ::j
Lrse2-L4x3l x * x 0'-7i" for W10x68.
'-Use 2-L4x3ix
i x l'-7i" forW24x104.
( t
The angles(seeFig. 13.2.4)are made nonstandardbecausethe lengrhof
+ 58(0.75): 107kips conlrols
P" : 0.60(36)2.94 angleshouldnot exceedthe dimension?'which is 7i in. for the Wl0x6E. The l')
girder flangethicknessis suchthat it requiresa cope that encroaches
on rhe i"
+ 36(0-94): 103kips
P. : 0.60(58)1.98 ( t
dimension;thusthe 2*-in. spacingis prescribed so that adequateedgedisrance
The factoredreactioncapacityP, is f (where f : 0.75) times the nominal will be availableon rhervebof the W10x68. E
reaction(10?krPs), (,;
Weld Capacity in Eccentric Shear on Angte Connections
& : 0-?5(107): 80 kips > 70 kips required OK ( ,
Sinceno initial tensionis involvedwith weldedconnections.the eccentricitr.t-ri
Lse 3 bolts to connectthe W10 section. (
loading,even thoughsmail,is considered. The principlesof Chaprer5 iSec.
(c) Connecrionto plate girder web. For this connection,the'threebolts 5.18) are usedwith the n'eldstreatedas lines. (
commonto both sideswill be governedby double shearor bearingon the {-in-
plate.rvhilethe remainderare governedby singleshearor bearingon the *-in. (,,
r EXAMPLE 13.2.4
plate. Compute the factoredload { capacity for rveld I on the angle connccrion ( :
eR, ( b e a ri n g:) + (2 .4 F " )d t shown in Fig. 13.2.1.The beam is a W30x99 and the rvekJis I in. u'irlr ElQ
( ,
electrodes.
The anglesare 4x3ix* x l'-2t" in length. Use A36 sreelar,l
s R, : 0 .7 5 (2 .4 X 5 8 )(0 .7 5 )0 .3: 7259 . 4ki ps/bol t Load and Resisrance Factor Design. (
QR. (doubleshear): 47.4kips/bolt [frorn (a) above] ( ;
SOLUTIOT"
QR" (singleshear): 41-4/2 : 2A-7kips/bolt Analysis of this e'ccentricshear situation may be done using slrengtl,, (
anal,vsisas Presentedin Sec.5.17 or the elastic(vector) rnethodpresenrerJ
in
The six bolts in cornmon
For the boltsconmon to both sides,bearinggt)v€rnS. (
; S ec.5.18.
car+. iA/6 :11.? kips from the W10X68.The remainderis availablefor the f-
(a) Elastic(r'ector)method.Using Io from Table 5.18.1and referringro
Wl-lxi0.l reac'.ion;i.e.,29.4- 11.7: 17.7kips.
i ' (
Fig. 13.2.1c.
If all bols *'ere to carry equalload. L,.
i','. I
t '
r.'.' 8 ( 3 )+' 6 ( 3 ) ( l a . s ) ' (+r a . s ) 3
: \2.7, say14 (
Numberof bolts: I ri. I,:
# t2 #I*:583'5in-i , ' )
r.*
b.
E ( ,
C
(r 13.?/FRAMED
BEAMCONNECTTCNS 861
860' I3/CONNECTTONS
(
( Tests of welded angle connectionsby Johnston and Green [13.21] and
Using the moment of inertia computedwith a l-in. effectivethroat, the force
( per unit length at critical iocationscan he computd, Johnstonand Diets [13.221have demonstratedthat perfoil]rraric€
of web angles
agreesgenerally with assumptions.
(
R, : 0.0244P, (directshearcomponent)|
( #: weld capacity in Tenslon and shear on Angte connectlons
( (3)2 This is the field-weided connecrion shown in Fig. 13.2.1d. There is no
;: tffi:o'44in' agreementregarding the strength analysisfor this situation. Blodgett [i3.23l
(
considersthe strengthas an eccentricshearsituation in the plane of the welds.
( The x and y componentsof force due to torsionalmomentare With the eccentricload as in Fig. 13.2.5b,the anglesbear aginsr themselvcs
(' - 0.44- 0.50)
p"(3.50- 0.4.'1)(3.50 lcr a Cistenceof L/6 fton the top, and the torsionalstressover the remaining
R., : : 0.00671P,
J i of the length L is resistedby the weld. Neglectingthe effectsof the rerurns
( 2(5E3.5) at the top, the horizontal component R, can be obtained from moment
( P"(3.50- 0.44)(?.25) equilibrium. Equilibrium in the plane of the load P and weld leg B requires
Rr: : 0.0190P,
-
(
2(5s3.5) 1 /5 \ 2 P
;zR , . l . L lI :JL : 7€t (1 3 . 2 . s )
( R,:P,/ :0.0354& \ o z
---
. force arm
( +R,,* perinchof rveldis
The designstrength
9Pe.
( 0Rn*,: 6 (o-707a
) (o.6oFspi
) R,:#forcelunitlength (13.2.6)
( : 5.57kips/in.
: 0.75(0.?0i)(1x0.60)70
The direct shear componentis
i 5.57
Pu: : 153kips P
( 0.0364 R, : ;; forcn/unit length (13.2.7)
ZL
(b) Strength analysis.Use LRFD Manual [1.1?],"ECCENTzuC LOADS
(
ON WELD GROUPS," TABLE XXII with d : 0o. For |-in. weld using-E70 | 9 Pe"\z
Actual R :
( electrodes, \ (*)'. |,;ztJ
(
forcelunit lergth (i3.2.8)
(
( k :0.2 0.2A7 0.3
a: 0.2 1.694 1.962
C:1.689 -1 4r r
( 0.211 7.67A 1.689 1.936
II
t,P
0.3 7.473 7.725
(
(
Table value : QPn "'rl
QP n : C C PL : : 97.9ki P s
1 .6 8 9 (1 .0 )(4)i 4.5 - .-t'tetd A
(
rvhere Cr : coefficient for electro6s: (Electrodeused)/70
(
D : number of Ss of an inch in weid size
\LCg8
( .L : length of vertical weld, in. T;
, Sym.about
( Since there are two angles,the factoredload reactioncapacityis q-i
( P ,: 2 (9 7 .9 ): 1 9 6k i ps
Figure 13.2.5 Field-weldedconnectionfor web framing angies.
( As expected,the strengthanalysisgivesthe highervalue.

r.(
F ' ( ,
r3lCONNECTIONS 13.2/FPAMED BEAM CONNECTIONS
( r

( '
Equation 13.2.8neglectseccentricitye1, which tends to cause tension at direct shear component, glving
the top of the weld lines. The authors believe it is more appropriate ro (
P
consider rhe flexural stressdistribution of Fig. 13.2.5cto be a more appropri- R '. . - 2 - L (
(13.2.15)
ate approach.The flexural tensioncompoaent R, at the top'of the weld B is

-
":
Mc
:
I
-
PeJL/Z)
:
ZL3/12
-
3Pe,
yz (r3.2.e) Actual R : .(#)' (
(
P (
when the returns at the tops of the angles are neglected.The dirqct shear R: ntQ kips/in.
ii,[F; (13.2.16)
comPonentR, is (
TI EXAMPLE 13.2.5
P ( '
R, : (13.2.10) Determine rhe factored load capacity of weld B on Fig. 13.2.s
{ if werd
Vfo rc e /u n i tl e n g th is used and I : 2a in- E70 electrodesare used in shieldedmetal fr-in. (
ail welding
(SMAW)- 4 x 3x f anglesare used. Use Load and Resisrance
Factor Design.
Actual R : * 1f 3rPje ,\2 SOLUTION
(
(
(a) Best procedure, Eq. 13.2.16
D

R: * 36e! force/unrtlength (tl.Z.tt; " .r-_.


TIlrlt' fR ,,,.: 0. 75( 0. 70iX*X0. 60) 70: 6. 96kips/ in.
(
Or, if returns are considered(distanceD of Fig. 13.2.6)the expression ActualR,,: ( ,
becomescomplicated.The AISC Manuals[1.7, 1.171indicatethe returnsto be fiWA*a,
twice the rveld size.The returnshave the greatesteffect when the anglelength e, : 3.00- I : 3.00- 0.25: Z.t5n. (
L is short. It may be reasonableto considerthe returns to be L/ 12 (2 times I 2(2.s)(r.2s)
' : : o'25in.' ( '
in.weldforL:6in.).
Using, from Table 5.18.1(Case4), S : I /y refenedto the tensionfiber at
J6;;o
( ;
the top of the configuration, P,
A ctual u-
- - -R- .. (zo)'+20.2s(28: o.o2e4p, (
2Qq2
"s -: ?
" \( 4 b d + d ' \ (13.2.12) (
6. 96
6 ) D
r u - : 237kips
0.0294 (
which for d: L and b: L/12 becomes (b) Neglecring rerurns entirely, Eq. 13.2J1, (
4L2 P..
t: (13.2.13) R,,:
Actuat ( '
l- : 0.0324p,
rt@ ( ,
The flexural component,as shorvnin Fig. 13.2.6,is 6.96
Pu: : 215kips (
M Pe, Prt 9Pet 0.0324
"p . : x- :S- :S - 4 L z / 9 4 L 2 (13.2.r4) (c) Using Ref. 8 equarion,Eq. 13.2.15, ( )

P.u (
Since little of the shear is carried by the returns, they are neglectedfor the A ctual -R.u. -
2Q q2 W +tLrq (
*[ et : 4-in' leg (
R, (tension) Actual R,: 0.0308P"
__]-[' (
il+_ __Fr, P" :
6.96
: 226kips (
tl t t
Il Figure 13.2.6 Weld conliguratioo for
web aagles and beam seats.
o.O:Ot
The autlrors believe method (a) to be appropriatg p" : 23?
kips. I { ;
( ,
( ,
(
(
864 13/CONNECTTONS !3.3/SEATEDBEAI CONNECnbNS- UNSnFFENED 965
(
(
Note that when the elastic (vector) method is used, the same formulas
( apply for Allowabie Stress Design and for Load and ResistanceFactor ?" (min")

Design. In ASD, P is the senice load connection capacity. R is the service


(
load resultant force per unit length at the most highly stressedn'eld segment'
( is R*.. In LRFD, { and R, representfactored
('
and the allorvableresistance
loads,and the designstrengthgR,. is used.
i n l
I JL_ .,
(
(
.!3.3SEATEDBEAMCONNECTIONS
_ UNSTIFFENED \ -Criricat
I J ;;;;
|
tr=l
t--.--J
( As an alternative to framed beam coanectionsusing rveb angles,or other
attachmentsto the bean rveb,a beam may be supportedon a seat,either
( (a) Botted-Beam (b) Eottec-Bearo (c) Wetdecl
unstiffened or stiffened. in this section the unstiffened seat is treated, as nof connectsci connected
, ( shown in Fig. 13.3.i. The unstilfenedseat (an angle) is shorm in Fig. 13.3.1 to s€at to seat

and is designedto carry the entire reaction.It must always.however,be used Figure13.3.2 Criticalsectionfor flexureoo seats.
(
with a top clip angle,whoseintendedfunction is to provide laterai support of
, ( the compressionflange.
the beam at the end createsa force tbat tends to restrain the pull a\^'ayfrom
As with the caseof the framed beam connection.the seatedconnectionis
( the column. The critical sectionfor flexure*'ill then be at or near the baseof
intended to transfer only the vertical reaction and should not give significant
the fiilet on the outstanding leg. Similsly for the welded seat, the weld
restraining moment on the end of the beam; thus the seat and the top angle
, ( completely along the end holds the angle tight against the column, in which
should be relatively flexible. The bebavior of welded seat angle connections
casethe critical sectionis as sbown in Fig. !3.3.2c, whether or nor the beam is
'j' i t
has been studied by Lyseand Schreiner[13.24],aad Roeder[13.25]hasstudied
attached to the seat. As a practical matter, rarely will the beam be left
t l / bolted seat angle connections.
i { unattachedfrom the seat,so the designproceduresof this sectionuse a critical
i The thickness of seat angle is determined by the flexural stress on a
l.r section as in Figs. 13.3.2band c, taken at I in. from the face of the angle.
t \ criticai sectionof the angle,as shownin Fig. 73.:t.2.If a bolted connectionis 'E.-

,i The bending moments on the critical section of the angle and on the
used withoui. attachmentto the beam (Fig. 13.3.2a),the critical sectionshould
ir" probably be taken as the net section througb the upper bolt line. When the
connection to the column flange are determinedby taking tbe beam reaction
' i( times the distancesto the critical sections.The beam reaction occurs at the
b.un is atrachedto the seat(as it should be) as in Fig. 13.3.2b,the rotation of'.
centroid of the bearing stressdistribution, as shorvnin Fig. 13.3.3.While the
(
( 1 "
Top clip angle,;- min thickness Erectionclearance.
f i
(
: a .
( { a ,
'
:.1

9.r iar

( 1/2" nominal
clearance r
I

I
--I
( Angle thickness,
I
Angle leg. €
I dependson sirength
determined by I requirementfor bolts or weld
( {texural stresson I
t t
critical section l r 'i
*.

( I
I
Seat lenflh. useratly
( either 6" or 8", degending
(a) Consenrative (b) AtscE (c) Flexible (d) Thick nift
upon u*ral ga$, g-
ass.lmption Ref.13.23 Angle angte
( - . required bearing length assumpticn

( Figure 13.3.1 Seatedbeam connections-unstiffeced. ::j. . Frgure13.3.3 Bearing srJessassua:ptionsfor seatedccmections.


lt,,

d / --_.*;:-
:"e
E (
P
F ,
-'
:!

( r
866 13/CONNECTIC|.,IS a
13.3/ SEATEDBEAtvtCCI:N-CT|CNS * UNSTTFFENED
+ ( t
ra.
&
3 ( t
5
LRFD and ASD Specifications do not state horv the computation of rhis lVeb Crippling-LRFD [LRFD Formuta (K1_5)J,
bending moment is to be made,a conservativeapproachis to assumethe e- f )
-.
,(#)(;)"]
F

reactionat the centerof the full contactwidth (Fig. 13.3.3a).This will lead to
excessivelythick anglesin most cases.The less conservativeapproach of
assumingthe reacti,on at the centerof the requiredbearinglength N measured
from the end of the beam(Fig. i3.3.3b)hasbeenusedby Blodgetr[13.23]and
;. -
t

where 0 :
:oosr3 +
QPn
fr
resistancefactor : 0.75
,tT ( 1 3 . .33 )
( "
(

( ,
t

has been the approach used for AISC Maoual tables. Another rational
distribution for a flexible seat angle is the triangular distribulion of Fig. { : nominal reactionstrength (
f*. : beam rveb thickness
13.3.3c,and if the angleis very stiff tbe reactionmay becomeheavieron the ( ,
lr: beam flangethickness
outer edge,as in Fig. 13.3.3d.
d: beam overalldepth
The design of unstiffenedseatsinvolvesthe follorving steps: ( \
l . Dcterminethe seatwidth. Web Crippling-ASD IASD Formula (Kl-5)], (

,(#)(;)"1{n
7 Dcterminethe momentarms e and e
r. r
t
3. Determinethe lengthand thicknessof the angle.
4 . Determinethe supportingangle leg dimension.and the rveld size: or
P : z+filt+ (13.3.4) ti
the number and placementof bolts.
. L
.. where P : serviceload reaction. {\ .
The designof seatedbeam connectionsand the backgroundfor the LRFD
,._-.Tha moment arms e and e, are obtained as follows, referring to Fig (
load tableshavebeenreviewedby Garrett and Qrockenbrough [13.26]and b,v 13.3.3a.
Brockenbrough[13.27 ]. (
N
The seatwidth is determinedfrom the bearinglength N requiredbasedon el: ercction clearance * ( 1 3 . 3 ). 5
(a) the local web yieldinglimit state,as givenby LRFD-K3 or ASD-K3. or (b) ; (
the rveb crippling lirnit state,as given by LRFD-K4 or ASD-K4. Local web 3 (''
t - -
yielding usuallycontrolsthe bearinglength. € : € t -
, 8 (13.3.6)
(,
The bending momenton the critical sectionof the angleis
l,ocal \Yeb Yielding-LRFD ILRFD Formula(K1-3)], (
M,: Pue ( f or LRFD)
y: !"- -z.sk M : Pe
t'
(13.3.1) (for ASD)
ef ,*.tn The thickness/ of the angle is obtained letting Mu: (
etM, for LRFD or
M : allowable moment for ASD. The strengtt is ttrut o1 .ohd ,..tungular (
l,ocal \Yeb Yielding-ASD IASD Formula(K1-3), sectionsbent about their weakaxis. '!
U
(
\ I _- -2.5k>k (1 3 . 3 . 2 ) AngleThickness- LRFD (LRFD-FI)
t t
(
0.661*l*
(
QJ{, : Q t M p: e6ZFr : +u{ f, (13.3.?)
where & : factoredload reactionfor LRFD
P : serviceload reactionfor ASD {
4Mu 4Pue
0 : resistancefactor : 1.0 t "- : (13.3.8) {
t*, : web thicknessof supportedbeam +*j: QuFrL
: yield stressof web of supportedbeam (
{,.*. Angle Thickness-ASD (ASD-F2.2)
k : distancefrom outer faceof flangeto n'eb toc of fillet (
Nrrticethat in ASD the requiredbearinglength ,\' may not be taken less M: s(o. :
isFy) (13.3.e) {
tlran /c. LRFD-K3 doesnot havesucha lower limit. Gcncrellythe seat*'rdrlr +(o.zs4)
shouid not be lessthan 3 in. with AISC Manual tables[1.7, l.l7l ..SLA,TEI) 6M 9Pe (
l-: (13.3.10)
BEAivl CONNECTIONS-Bolted" indicatinga standard4-in. seat*{drh. 0.75FvL FrL (
{
,,
(
(
13lCONNECTTONS 13.3/SEATEO _ UNSTTFFENED869
BEAMCONNECTIONS
(
(
where P, : factored reaction to be carriedusing LRFD As expected,web crippling does not control. Follorving rhe usual practice
( N : k is used for determininganglethickness,
P : serviceload reactionusingASD
( 0a : resistancefactor : 0-90 1.25 3
e: eccentricity of load to the critical section on angle,such as Eq. "t: *7 : 1.375
in.
(
13.3 .6 z
( l, : length of seatangle(i.e.,width of rectangularsectionbeingbent) -i:
Tryingr:]in.,
P : yield stressof seat anglesteel
( € : € f - t - * : t . 3 7 5 - 0 . 5 0 - 0 . 3 7 5: 0 . 5 0 i n .
This length of ihe seat angie is generallytaken as either 6 in. or 8 in. for a
( beam gageI of 3] in. and 5l itt., respectively. Sincethe usual gage g : 51 h. for w12x40,* use angle length of g in. The
( The number of bolts, which are in combined shear and tension, is anglethicknessrequiredis then,by Eq. 13.3.8,
determinedin accordancervith the principlesof Sec.4.15.
( The weld size and length are obtained using the principles of Sec. 5.19 4Pue 4(24.8)0.50
( with Eq. 73.2.16applicable to this"case;direct shear and bending about the Q uFr L 0. 90( 36) 8
x-x aris for the configuration of Fig. 13.2.5with the returns b = L/77.
(
tr EXAMPLE 13.3.I (b) Determinebolted connectionto column.using lo-in.-diam
Design the seat angle to support a W12X40beam on a 25-ft span, assuming 4325 bolts
in a bearing"typeconnectionwith no threadsin the shearplane.
the beam has adequatelateral support. Use '{36 steel and Load and Resis-
tance Factor Design. 0R, : 20.7 kips (singleshear)

SOLUTION 0R, : 39.1kips (Uearingon l-in.-rhick angle)


In many casesit rvill be wise practiceto design the seat for the maximum
reaction when the beam is fully loadedin flexure. _ +R, : 29.8kips (tension)
(a) Deterrnine the seatwidth, length,and thickness.The flexural strsngth
Using Eq. 4.12.28,obtain a rough estimateof the number of fastenersper
is
vertical line for trvo vertical rows of fastenersat a 3-in. pitch.
+ bM , : QtMr: Q tZ ,F r: 0 .9 0 (5 7 .5)36/17: 155ft-ki ps
, l6M
p.,: *\L : ru:Y' - : 24.8 n = 1 : -nlw
6(24.8)1.38
: 1.3
" 1-(,1t:J kips lfRp
2 2L 2(2s)
Try 2 bolts (i.e., r : 1) as sho*.n in Fig. 13.3.4.The directshear
Bearinglength lf requiredbasedon localwebyieldingis
componentis
24.8
N: 1.0(36xo.2es)
- 2.5(1.25): negative P..
:
24.8
:12.4kips < 20.?kips
h-2-5k: R,:
; Z
OK
"SEATED
A minimum bearing length must be used.Following AISC Manual
Since the'bolts lie on the center of gravity, no rnomcnt of incrtia can be
BEAM CONNECTIONS" suggestion,use4-in. seatwidth (i.e., angleleg). Use
computedusingD y'. However,sinceinitial tensionexists,the initial comprcs-
Eq. 13.3.3 with tf : k and a clearanceo{ i in. to ailorv for possible mill
sion,arcordingto Eq. 4.15.1,is
underun. Note that LRFD doesnot requireN >- k; thus, the engineermay use
judgnrent regarding the point of actioa of the reaction P. zel)
. Lru
Check web crippling using N : 4 - 0.5 : 3.5 in. Using Eq. i3.3.3, a
l b'
- _

g(3)
= 2.33ksi
bd
36(0.s15)
:0.7s(68)(o.zrsl,[r
epn . r(#)( ffi
)"] 'The distanceg
is not given in the current AISC [{arua]s [.7, 1.17];sce pp. l-17 of ihc ?th
(+P, - 48-6kips), (P": 24-8kipr) Edition of the AISC lr{anual.
( t
87A 13 / CONNECTIOI,iS 13.4 /S;IFFENED SEAT CCNNECTIONS 871
( t

(t
where €t: €I
( t
L4x3x-txo'-4" L4x4xtxa-a" 1A
-a- ;
R, : ' \'' + 2 0 . 2 5 ( 1 . 3 9: ) 2S . 7 } b p s / i n .
lG (;
2(4)''
( t
, OR,* : +(0.707a)(0.60r.o")
: 0.75(0.7A7Qa2.0
:22.3a
A325 (;
bolts
weld sizea : *: 0.26in., sayfr in. ( i
'2
z/..5
' l A more conservativeapproach is to measuree( to the center of the contact ( r
bearing width of the seat (Fig. 13.3.3a).'[his'traditionat AISC method for
t ? ,
( r
i--_T tables giving u'eld capacity for seatsgives
( '
N 3 3.5-0.75
,t:T* +0.75:2.13in. ( i
4: Z
(
ia) Boliec se3t which upon substitutioninto Eq. 13.2.16with 0R,,*,:22.3a : 22.3(0.3125)
:
Figure 13.3.4 Designs for F-xample 6.95 Y,tps/in. (for * in. rveld),givesa facrored load capacity of (

QR^*(2L2) 6.e6(2)$)2 ('t


'Pu : : 21.5kips
,lt' * 20.25e| ,l@),+ 2o.zs(z$)z ( ,
The changein stressdue to moment,Eq. 4.15.2,is ( ,
The u'eld size required would then be
6I{ 6Pe 6(24.8/1.s)1.38 ( i
: 1 ' 9k s i
ft:
ffi: bd, *trj- o : * ('#)
Required : o.rur., sayI in. ( ;

Since1.9 < 2.33,the iniriai precornpression is not eliminatedand the connec- (


Lse L4x3| *l x 0'-8" u'irh f in. weld. since rhe w12x40 flange uidtb is
tion can be considereCsafe.The factoredload reaction P": 24.8 kips was "cut" to have
a reducedflange width (
divided by an averageoverload factor of 1.5 to approximate service load. over the seat so that the necessarywelding can be done, or if the column
Under full factored load the initial tension would be overcomeat the top of (
flange permits, the seat may be longer than 8 in. The final designsare sho*'n
rhe angle; however,coinpressionwould exist at the toesof the anglesand the in Fig. 13.3.4. (
tension would be carried in the bolts. The initial tension approach seems
justified for this case. ( i

[.iie ] bolts, \L'ithseata:gle, L4x3x] x 0'-8". 1 3 . 4 S T I F F E N E DS E A T C O N N E C T I O N S (


.-') Deternine weliC connectiouto column, using Eq. 13.2.16,with 870
,;l'xucdes with shieldedmetal arc rvelding: When reactionsbecomeheavierthan desirablefor unstiffenedseats,stiffen;:-s
may be used rvith the seatanglein bolted construction,or a T-shapedstiffened
I{a:c *'eld size : } - * : * itr.
seat may be used in welded construction.The unstiffened seat may becpme
lr{in weld size : LRFD-TableJ2.5basedon thickestmaterial i
excessivelythick when the factored beam reaction exceedsabout 60 kips.
beingjoined. I
There are no AISC restrictions,however,to the maximum load that may he
i carried by unstiffenedseats.
i
Try L: 4-in. supportedleg: , The stiffened seat as discussedherein is not intended to be part of a
moment resisting connection,but rather it is only to support vertical loads.
Here the stiffened seatis treated as "simple fr^ming" under LRFD Type pR
Li
I
L.
-:;t!L' *' 20.25e' or ASD Type 2. Behavior of welded brackets has been studied bv Jensen
I"
Lv'-Jul [13.2.23J !i
ZL2
E [13.28].
F
a '

kt1
(
(
872 13//coNNEcfloNS 13.4/STTFFENED
SEATCONNECTTONS 973
(
( Top angles musl be
used. as in Fig. l3'3.4
(
( Clntact
bearing length
7 Sear length
(
ctearance
|"
(
(
3"
g- angre
( L Figure 13.4.3 Two casesof inclination
I (a) angie at free edgeof stiffencr.
( $'nrru. I
j!-u.stiffener
(
Seat
The steps in the designof stiffenedseatsare as follorvs:
( v'lidth

I. Determine the seatwidth.


( (a) Botreo b) vletcec
f-

2. Determine the eccentricitye, of load.


( Figure13.4.1 Stiffenedseat-beamwebin line with stiffener- 3. Determine the stiffenerthicknessr,.
4. Deterrnine the angle sizesand arrangementof bolts; or the weld size
( and length.
( , The seat width is based on the requiredbearing length N (1) to prevent
There are two basic typesdf loading used on stiffened seats;the common
( local web yielding, accordingto LRFD-K3 or ASD-K3, Eqs.13.3.1or 13.3.2:
one where the reactionis carried with the beam web directly in line with the
and (2) to prevent web crippling, accordingto LRFD-K4 or ASD-K4, Eqs.
( stiffener, as shown in Fig. 13.4.1; the other is with a beam oriented so the
13.3.3 or 13.3.4. Becauseof the rigidity of the stiffener, the most highll'
plarre of the rveb is at 90 degreesto the plane of the stiffener, as in Fig. 13-4.2.
-Furthermore.
( stressedportion is at the edgeof the seatrather than at the interior side as it
a differencein behaviorarisesdeper.dingon the angle at which
was for the unstiffenedseat(seeFig. 13.4.a).
(' tlre stiffeneris cut, as shownin Fig. 13.4.3.If the angle 0 is approximately90 "STIFFENED
For bolted stiffenedseats,the AISC lr{anuals[1.7, 1.17]
degrees. rhe stiffener behaves similarly. to aa unsfffened element unCei
( SEATED BEAM CONNECTIONS" contain stiffener angle capacitiesfor
uniforrn compression,and local buckling may be prevented by satisfying'
stiffener outstanditlg legs of 3*, 4, and 5 in. For welded stiffened seatsthe
( LRFD or ASD-B5. When the supporting plate is cut to create a triangular
tables give maximum factored load reactionsfor LRFD and allowablereac-
bracket plate a different behavior results, aad this case is discussedin Sec.
tions for ASD for seat widths from 4 to 9 in.
( 1 3 . 5 .-
(
"'l
( r minclearance
N + 2.st<
Tl"
( fi

L]
',(

( 1

( ' t
--7
( '
| ,,'I
V
( r
(a) (b)
(,,^
Figure 19.4.2 Bracket supportrng concsotratedload. Figure 13.4.4 Bearing stresson stiffeoed seats.
( '
, ( ,
(
874 1 3/ C O N N E C T I O N S
13.4/ STTFFENED
SEATCONNECTTONS
975 (
(
Assumingthe beam reaction P is located at N /2 from the edgeof rhc S.'Plate thicknessmust be adequateto develop the fillet welds used to
seat,the stiffenerthicknessl, shouldsatisfyseveralcriteria: (
attach ir, accordingto LRFD-J2.+ oi esD-J2.4. The concept for maximum
l. Stiffenerthicknesst, shouldbe equal to or greaterthan the thicknessr" effective rveld sizervasdevelopedin sec. 5.14,grving Eq. s.ta.s relating weld (
of the supportedbeam *'eb, size to base material thickness.
(a) Load and Resistance (
Factor Design(LRFD-J2.a):
tr 2 tn (13.4.11
0.60dr, (
F'tt
2. Local buckling of the stiffenermust be preventedin accordanceu'ith : 0.707
L RF D- B 5 or A S D- B 5 .
d
max cff
2(0.707)0.60.FExx Frxx Is.ra.lJ (
where t, : thicknessof basematerial1: t, here)
"=r,vy fl1lrr
4, : tensilestrengthof basematerial
F** : tensilestrengthof electrodematerial
(
(
rvhereW : width of stiffener. (70 ksi for E70 electrodes) (
3. Bearing on the contact area of stiffener must satisfy LRFD-JS.I or
-,Assuming two lines of fillet weld of size a using 870'electrodes,the (
ASD-J8. For anglestiffeners,it is assumedthat I in. of the angleis cut oii in stiffener thicknessl, requiredsuch that the stiffenerplat. will not be over-
order to get closebearingunder the seatangle: loaded in shearis, from Eq. 5.14.9, (
(a) Load and Resistance FactarDesign(0 : 0.75):
t, > l.lla (for 4.36steel) (
(13.4.8)
P,
t,'- (foranglestiffeners)(13.4.3! t . ,> 1. 52a ( f or { : 50 ksi) (13.4.e)
(
ffi (b) Allow,ablesrres.r Design (ASD-J2.4): Though not developed in (
(b) Allot+,able Stress Design: Chapter 5, the following is obtainedby equatingthe Jlowable capacity for (
two lines of fillet weld to the allo,,vable
shearcapacity of stiffenei plate of
thicknessr,: ( ,
lr)
- 0.5) (for anglestiffeners)
0.90.tr,(2)(w
(13.4.1i
0.40{r, F't ' (
A structuralteemight be usedinsteadof two angles;in rvhichcasethe 2 in thc 4 mar cff - 0.943 (13.4.10)
2(0.707)0.30.FEXX Ft* (
denominatorof Eqs. i3.4.3 and 73.4.4would not be used.Equations13.1.3
and 13.4.4assumeno eccentricityof load uith respectto centerof bearins where F,. : yield stressof basematerial (
contactlengthassumed. F.** : tensilestrengthof electrodematerial
4. For eccentriclaaCingon stiffener,bearing strengthaccordingto LRFD- (70 ksi for E70 electrodes) (
J8.1 or ASD-J8 must be satisfied.It this situation. a single welded plate 'of {
Assuming two lines of fillet weld size a using 870 electrodes,the
stiffener is geneia!.lyused.The highestbearing stressat the outer edgeof the stiffener thicknessr, requiredsuch that the stiffen.t plut. will not be over-
stiffenermay not erceedd(2.0F.,)under factoredload for LRFD, or 0.90L (
loaded in shearis, from Eq. 13.4.10,
under serviceload for ASD. Using ccnbined stress, (
t, > 2.06a (for 4,36steel) (13.4.11)
P ,l[ (
rf D. - . - - r - : t" > 1.48c (for : 50 ksi) (13.4.12)
A s {
Once the stiffenerdimensionshavebeenestablished,the connectionmusr {
(a\ Lot:ri anrl ResrstanceFacior Design (0 : 0.15): be designedto transmit the reactionat the moment arrn er. For the bolterj (
P " (6 e ,- 2 W) connection,AISC tables,"STIFFENED SEATED BEAM coNNECTIONS.'.
l r ) (for u'elded stiffener) ( t : . +r t consider only direct shearin determiningfastenergroup capacitics.Ole ma;. t
Q{2.AFy}w2 reason.as in Example13.3.1,that as long as inirial compressionbetweenthe (
piecesin contact is not reducedto zerodue to flexure,the momentcomponent
1b) ,4ri"x'ab/eS;ress Desigtt:
t need not be considered. (
P {' 6 e' .- 2 W '\ For the *'elded connectionsuggestedby the AISC Manual, as shorvn in
-r r >
- (forweldedstiffener) ( l -1.4.-:
) (
osoFywz *: Fig. 13.4.1b,the rveldconfigurationis subjectto direct shearand flexure using
**. the combined stress at the top of the rveld as the critical one. Thus the t
I
t-
l
t
(
F
(
(
( 876' 13ICoNNECTTONS
| 3.4 / STFFENED SEAT CONNECTTONS
(
( configuration is identical to that usedfor web framing anglcs(seeFig. 13.2.1d) For the seat plate thickness.use a rhiciiaesscarnparablero the flange of
( except the return is longer. Using d: L and b :0.2L in the S valuesfor the w30x99 supported beam; rere : in. Ilbir:ium uleld size for rveldingon
Case4 from Table 5.18.1gives
( f-in. seatand 0.67-in.flangeis ] in.
yz 2 z L The stiffener thicknessis ne.xtio be es..:blished:
- - _ :
\ '
(
2(L+ b) M:fr t,) tn: 0 - 5 2 0i l . [13.1.1]
z(4bL+ rt) 4 (0 .2 L ).L+ L2 W i
Sr: _ : 0.6L2 I '.-) - - - . : :0iltin
( u- J
a
ei,z r
/J/t B-4 [13..1.2]
tat:;

( Then,
r 6-5
( M Pe. e" - : I V 2
:l-0- L1 :3.8in.
D : _ : - - :
"x force/unit length --t
.!' 0.6L2
( ", ( Ue, - 2t V) 150( 2?. 5_ 11)
(
P P ,,, : o'38in'[tl+'o]
Ru : forcelunitlengtbL @nilF -,(t*)CIf
M + A;;_ L4L
( The useof a i-in. stiffenerplate u'ould meana inadmum effecrir-e
(
(
R - (#)'.t*)'
p
t, > 1-5)a

t,
u.eldsizeof

0.625
Irr.+.e]
R: + L2 forcelunitlength (13.4.13) Qmaxcrt: : : 0.41 in-
"( TII!/teq,t l-J7 1;;
( Equation 13.4.13is usedfor obtaiaingloads for weldedstiffenedbeam seatsin Thus, weld size is not of concernsincea *'eid smaller than 0.41in. would be
AISC Manual "STIFFENED SEATED BEAM CONNECTIONS," when e, is preferred-Cenerally,the ma.drnumn'eld that can be placedin one passrvould
( be used;in this case,f; in.
taken as 0.81,/. For LRFD, R is the design strength fR,* and P is the
( factored load reaction {. For ASD, R is the allowableweld capacityR*' ed For estimating the length L oi *'eld ;equired, assumethat er in b,q.
P is the serviceload reaction. 13.4.13is approximatelyL/4;i,e., rhar e, : CI-E;tr: 0.g(7): 5.6in. iiroughly
(' -'---"
L/4.
( E EXAIVIPLE 13.4.r
. P : !.-r 2
Design a welded stiffened seatto support a W30x99 beam having a factored i P
( R : ---= 1 6 1- :0.59-
load reaction'P, : 160 kips. Use A572 Grade 50 steel and Load and Resis- 2. 4L! ti6 L
( tance.FactorDesign.
For LRFD. R becomesSRn,, and ushg
*-i"- E70 rveld,
( SOLUTION
fRoo : q(0.707a){0.eOf.-"* I
( The bearing length trr required is obtained from (a) local web yieldiog and
(b) web crippling criteria. From local web yielding (LRFD-K1.3), : 0. ?5( 0. ?07X*X0. 60i; 0: 6. 96kips/ in.
( '.-
P.. 160 t7\ 0.ig(i60!
r ,V: *
sry".t*
- z.Sk- ---
1.0(5oxo.52o)
- )-'-\^
5i1_ | - 2.6in.
to I t =
R. equir ed
U- , *
t: 13. 6in.
( For L: 14 in.,5.6 in. is 0.4L; u'hich s.henusd as e,/L in Eq. 13.4.13
From the web crippling criterioa (LRFD-K1.4), gives
( requiredL = 78 in. The answeriies bei:r.een1$ and 1g in. trv i: 16 in. *'ith
t:-in.rveid,
(
160 %
( R -u :
Using lrr : 3.0 in. gives QPn: 134 kips, which is not enough.Solving by trial -, 1116( 5. 6)+2( 16) : : T. Zkipsr in. > 6. gbkips/ in. NG
( 2.4(16)'
\ using QPn: 1.60kips givesIV : 6.5 in.
The length L : 16 in. is not adequate:one cculd use 1T in. but 1g in. may be
( Required lY = 6.5 + 0.S(setback): 7.0 in. Use 7 in.
preferred.
(
v

(
878 13/ CONNECTIONS l3.s/TR|ANGULARBRACKETPLATES
879

(
UsetoPangle occurs, as in Fig. 13.4-5.The triangular bracket plate arrangement and (
L4X4x3X0'-4"
I notation are shownin Fig. 13.5.1
The behavior of triangular bracket plates has been studied analytically by (
weroon toes t
fi.in. Salmon [i3.29] and experimentallyby Salmon, Buettner, and O'Sheridan (
[13.30]and designsuggestions havebeenproposedby Beedleet al. [13.311. For I t

small stiffened plates to support beam reactions there is little danger of ( ,


buckling or failureof the stiffenerif cut into a triangularshape.In general;it (
provides a stiffer supportwhen so cut than if left with a rectangularshape.
(
( '
i '

Most Exact Analysii and Oesign Recommendailons


\
For many yearsdesignof suchbracketswaseitherempiricalwithout benefitof ( ,
theory or tests,or rvhenin doubt, angleor plate stiffenersrveie used along the
(
diagonal edge. Tire Secommendations presented here are based on certain \
assumptions:(1) the top plate is solidly attached,tothe supportingcolumn; ((
'. (2)
the load P is distributed(though not necessarilyuniformly) and has its
'-terrtroid ( , ,
at approximately0.66 from the support; and (3) the ratio b/a,
Figure13.4.5 Designfor Example13.4-1.
loaded edgeto supportededge,lies between0.50 and 2.0. (
The original theoreticalanalysiswas concernedwith elastic buckling;
(
U s e *- in. weld w i rh t:1 8 i n . U s e s ti ffe n e rp l ate, ;X 7 X 1' -6" ; and seat however, the experimentalwork showedthat triangular bracket plates have l i

considerablepost-bucklingstrength.Yielding along the free edge frequently


pt." iX?t 1'-A". The seat plate width equalsthe flange u'idth (10.a5in.) ( ,
occurs prior to buckling, at u'hich point redistribution of stressesoccurs. A
i@ymakethewelds(approx.4timestheweldsizeisoften considerablemargin of safety againstcollhpsewas obsen'edindicating the
used).The final designis shownin Fig" 13.4.5. ultimate capacitvmay be expectedto be at least 1.6 times the buckling load.
The maximum stress was found to occur at the free edge; however. i
becauseof the complexnatureof the stressdistribution,the stresson the free (
PLATES
BRACKET
13.5 TRIANGULAR
edgeis not obtainableby any simpleprocess.Becauseof this difficulty, a ratio
t
z *'as establishedbetweenthe averagestress,P/bt, on the loadededgeto the
When the stiffener for a bracket is cut into a triangular shape,as in Fig.
maximum stress ,f** otr the free edgo. The ofrgral theoretical expression
13.4.3b,the plate behavesin a different manner than when the free edgeis
parallel to the direcrion of applied load in the region rvherethe greateststress [L3.291 for z *'as revised as a result of the tests [13.30] rvhich conformc'd
closely to what one could realisticailyexpectin practice.The relationshipis {',
gi ven[13.30]as
Top plate
\ l ttht (.
,'b\
\ t -
t : --: 1 . 3 9- 2 . 2 1 - l + 1 2 7 ( : ) = -o 2 s ( 1 ) ' ( 1 35 r )
P
bt t--.trJ
\l: ./*.. \ aI f
rvhich for practical purposesmay be obtained from Fig. 13.5.2. (
Loaded edge
il
-l F-r
The nominal strength{ when the free edge reachesthe yield stressis
(13.s.2)
(
tl Pn: Frzbt
u
Free edge
I
For the plate buckling timit state,the width/thickness "ntio b/t must be t t
Supported edge
restricted in accordancewith a relationshipof the t1'peof Eq. 6.16.4, ( I

b constant (,
- 5 (13.5.3)
t
{f,
Figure13.5.1 Triangularbracketplate.
{ ,
(
i

.\-
13/CONNECflCINS r 3,5 / TFTANGULAF
BRACXETPLATES
( 881
(
\
:(
*
ir
t \
!
i: \,.
( 0.30
.,(
lo
lcr
' ( |
l€)
€,J

:13
'r Sl:
lo
l x
o.2o
I
I
'.( I E
I

u 500L

(' 0.10
I
I
I
( t-
4C]0

(
5;-
IL
I
I

r I
edoL ./
I ./
e( I

r
i
It- / ,,\ \
ta Figure13.5.2 coefficientused.toobtainma.:rimum
stresson freeedge. a Simpty su-pporrededges
t \ 2mI /
-
(theory)
I \-
-i r I --/
l-
;
t:(
t l ,
Figure 13.5.3givesthe variarionn (b7){\ with b/a for the theoreticai 100
I
t: studies [13.29] (fixed and simply supported),the welded bracket tests result
i(
[13.30],and the authors' suggesteddesigncurve.The design requirementmay
.( be expressed(with 4, in ksi) as
:: / -
b b 250
For 0.5 > - s 1 . 0 ;
I

(13.s.4d). ' bla


, ( a t
lF, Figure 13.5.3 Criutal b/t values so that f ield stressis reached along diagonal free
( edgewitbout buckling.
-b s 2.0; b zsa(b/a)
-:_
( For 1.0 < (13.s.4b)*
a t ,lF, It is noted that the b/t limits suggested
r ( hcre are higher than thoseof Ref.
i'. 13.31 (p. 552), which were based solely on the theoretical studies 113.29).
I
' ( Salisfyrng the above limits means that yielding along the diagonal free edge
Reference13.31suggests a coefficientof 180 insteadof 250 in Eq. 13.5.4ancl
will occur prior to buckling, and with conservatismcompured to ttre welded
.,( reaches.amaximum of 300 instead of 500 as indicated by Eq. 13.5.4bfor
tests,as shown by Fig. 13.5.3.
i \
b/a : 2.0.-The reasonfor the higher vaiuesis found in the test resultswhich
' (
showedthe principal stressalong the diagonalfree edge ro be lorverrclative to
( the stresson the loaded edge than had been establishedby the theoretical
*For SI rrni15,qdth .{. in
MPa study. In other words, the z. value, Eq. 13.5.1,as dererminedby tests is
substantiallysmallerthan assumedfor the designsuggesrionof Ref. 13.30.
-b( . . . 656
b
For0.5<-<1.0; ..: (13.5.4a)
( a t 'ii F..
,
Plastic Skength of Bracket plates
( ' b :
''For1.0<-<2.0; b 656(b/a')
-- (13.5.4b) R.eference 13.31 suggeststhat to developthe full plastic strengrhof brackets
a
t ,l l.'
1 ' the b/t ratios shouldbe restrictedto about I of thoselirnitationsfor achieving
-
882 13/CONNECTICNS 13.5/TRtA.r.rcu:AnBRACKETplnreS gS3
(

iu. }lsincy P"cot c


P, I

S l no
P.cot o Dsinc,4 = 6.2" \
<---
T-; 1 = p r o p o r t i o no f c r i t i c a l
section in compression
at plastic strength I

{1 7)bstnn
(
Figure 13.S.5 Bracker for Exaurple
13.5.1. ((
1
I requirementgives
i l
P u : Q r P n: 0.85Frzbt: 60 kips I
t

Frgure13.5.4 Plasticstrengtba-oalysis. t'


Pu 60 t

t > _ : 0 . 5 8i n
eFrzb 0 . 8 s ( 3 6( 0) . 1 3 5 ) 2 s (
first yield on the free edge.The test results[13.30]indicatedthat ultimate
strcngthsof at least 1.6 times buckting strcngthscould be achieveddue to
The stability requirement,Eq.13.5.4b,
gives
prrst-bucklingstrength.To be certain of developifrgthe plasticcapacityof the
bracket,it may be realisticto usehalf of the limitationsof Eqs.13.5.4aand b. brlF" 25,8
To establishthe plastic strengthof a bracket plate used in rigid-frame - v'-e {
structures,one may fcllow the approachof Beedleet al. t13.31]as shownin 2 5 0 (b / a ) 250(1.25)
Fig. 13.5.4.This methodassumesthat plastic strengthdevelopson the critical
Use f -in. plate. )1
section. Taking force equilibrium parallel to the free edge and moment
equilibriumabout point O givesthe Beedleet al. t13.311equationfor the (b) Plastic strengthmerhod.Using Eq. 13.5,5for the strengthrequire-
u l t i m a t el o a d . ment. i'

Pn: Frtsin2o(fi"{ Y - zr\ (13.5.5) t>


P,
In addition to the triangularplate being adequate,the top platemust f{ sin2
"[vr47T;;-t] (
rarry the nominal load {cot a. (
U si ng e : 15 - 25/2: 2. 5 in. ,
g EK{MPLE I3.5.I (
.)etermrnethe thrckness requiredfor a triangularbracketplate25 in. by 20 in. ('
"-rcrrr-v-'
a iactoredload of oc kips. Assurnethe loed is located15 in. from the 4 Q . s ) 2+ ( 2 5 ) 2
lrcc of suppori as shorvnin Fig. 13.5.i.and that A36 materialis used.Use \
Load and Resistancc FactorDesisn. For stability, using one-halfof Eq. 13.5.4b (
SOLUTION
(
i:i) LIsc the more exact method. Since the load is approximately at the 0.6
''r)lr-ltalong the loaded
, ,- _1 2!s!(b!/_a ) : - ! F . , :- o
v 'e 6
in.
edge. the bracket fits the assumption of this method. 125(1.25) {,
. s i n eE q . 1 3 . 5 . 2 . (
L'sel-in. plate as a conservativepractice to assuredeformationrvell beyond I

Pn: Frzbt In.s.zJ first yield along the free edge. (I

Sincc this is a compressionsituation, the design :'trength +p,, should be The authors note that if a 1-in. plate is just stable enough to inhibit
equatedto P,. It may be reasonable
to use the g for compression;g": 0.g5. buckling until the plasticstrengthis obtained,that srength ,rould be 4 times
From Fig. 13.5.2,b/a : zs/30: 1.25, find z : 0.135.Then the srrensth Q.A/0.2.5)thc factoredload {.
i

t
(
( 884 13lc&*.r',t€cfioNs
::3

| 3.6 / CONTT
NUOrrsEEAM_TO€OLU
Mi{ CONNECTIONS 88s
(
-:
( .I3.6 CONTINUOUS
BEAM-TO-COLUMN
CONNECTIONS
(
In continuous beam-to-coium" connectionsit is the designintent to have full
( transfer of mornent and little or no relativerotation of membersri'ithin the
( joint (i.e- LRFD Type FR or ASD T}?e l-rigid-frame connecrions).Since
the fla::ges cf a beam carry most of the bending moment via tension and
( compressronfiange forces acting at a moment arm approximatelyequal to the
( beam depth, it is the transfer of these essentiallyaxia! forces for u'hich
provisian rnust be made. Sincethe shearis carriedprimarily by the rveb of a
( beam, falll continuity requiresthat it be transferredCirectlyfrom the rveb.
k) To9 and borrom pia:es (t l Top piare and sc;l
( Cotumns beirg rigidly framed by beams may have attachmentsto both
ftranges. as in Figs- 13.6.1a,b, and c, or only to one flange,as in Fig. 13.6.1d,
(
(

(
(
i3:-E
(
(
{ c ) S p t l t t e e s ,w r t h o r
(Ci i?elded znd vai"t
( without rveb anElsj

( Figure13.6.2 Continuousbeam-to-colurnnconnections: bol ted attachrncnts.

(
(a) No cel:;rn:r gtilteners: {b) Horizontal plate
( direct ilanEe to flaap stiffeners
groove v.'eld; and in Fig. 13.6.2.Alternatively,the iigid attachmentof beamsmay be to rhe
( web, from either or both sides,as in Fig. 13.6.3-lvhen the rigid systemhas
rigid attachmentseither to the flangesor the web (but not to both) the s1-srem
( is said to be a rwo-ivay,or planar, rigld frame. \l'hen the rigid frame sysrenl
( consistsof continuousconnectionsto both flange(or flangesjand web (eithcr
or both sides),the systembecomesa four-way system.or spaceframe.
( The variety of arrangemen$for a continucusbeam-to-colurnn connection
( is so great as to precludeany completelisting or illustration; hoivever,lhosc
shown in Figs. 13.6.1,73.6.2,and 13.6.3are believedto be commonin currenr
( (1989) design use. Most connectionsare partly shop rveldedand then com-
( pleted in the.-fieldby either rveldingor fasteningro;tir tr;gh-strengthbolrs.
The principal design concern is rvith transmissionof concentratedloads
( caused by flange forces on beams to the adjacent columns. The web of a
( coiumn may be unable to accept the compressionforce from a beam flange
without additional stiffening;the flange of a column may exhibir excessir.c'
( (c) Venical tee (d) Seat and top plate deformation causedby a tensionforce from a beam flange.
stifferlers
Rigid framing is used to greatestadvantagein (aj structuresdesigned
(
Figure 13.6.1 Coatbuous beam-tocolrrmn coonectioas:weldedattachment.to column using plastic anaiysis,either under' Load and ResistanceFactor Design or
{ flange. Plastic Design, or (b) structuresdesignedusing elastic analysisrvherethe
(^.
t . (
-
885 13lCONNECTTONS 13.6 / CONTrNUOUSBEAhi-TO-
(-
COLUMN COr.rruECrrOlrs 887
(

Horizontat suflener In compresslon Region oi connection (

glzl
When the forces io b€am flanges' are transmitted to column flanges as
compressionor tension forces, horizontal stiffeners,as in Figs. 13.6.1band d
(a) Top ptiatesand seat and Fig. l3-6-2a" may be required. Such stiffenersprevent local flange bend:ng
bracket
(LRFD-KI.2 or ASD-K1.2) from the tension force, local *.b
lielding
u (LRFD-Kl.3 or ASD-KI.3), web crippring(LRFD-Kl.4 or ASD-K1.4), and
compressisn$ugkling (LRFD-K1.6 or ASD-K1.6)causedby the compiesdon
(
force. Local web yielding and web crippling were rreatedin sec. 7.g. I

/
Local web Yielding Both LRFD and AsD treat this phenommon,
formerly called "web crippling", in an identical manner basedon the s-orli
of 1
Grahanr, Sherbourne,Khabbaz, and Jensent7.Zlt.
Consider a beam compressionflange bearingagainst a column as in Fig.
(b) Top and bottom olates,
73-6.4a.When the'maximum local yielding rtt.ngitr of the column rr-eb is
web plate: and seat plate
reached,the load will have beendistributedalong the baseof the fillet (Ir riom
the face of the flange) on a 1:2.5 slope. Using Eq. t.g.Z for an interior
coacentratedload according to LRFD and F4. 7.8.6 for ASD a1ld laki*g r11e
*tearing length
i/ as the beam flange thicknesst1s andthe reaction R or
9R. (
as the flange force P' grves
(
T-section
Local web Yietding-L,oad and ResistanceFactor Design

Pr y: O ( 5e + t . , ) Fy.n,
.t (13.6.1)

(c) Tee section with where the design srength of the column web to resist a beam fl::ge
la.it^
fiange back-up plates, transmitted force under factored loads, E : resistancefactor : 1.0,
a;':d sr::e.i web plares
yield stress of the column web, and r,n. b the column web thickness.{.. is rhe
Tne
d. Pry could be as high as Fr6'Al when the beam is expectedro der-:icp (
Tq"it
ItSplasucmoment strength.
(

Figure13.6.3 Continuous weldedattachment


bean-to'columnconnections: to column (
web. /-1----r I
H I (
I Stiffer:-
r-l t
I
sectionsare "compact" and the trO%reduction is permitted under LRFD-A5.1
or ASD-CI. In thesecases,the objective of the connectionrvill be to develop
i:l ''":
,-1 I br = rviCtr'l ct
(
I
stiff:r€'t:e:..
the full plastic momeot strength at the joilt, and in addition, be able to l-{
r-J
|
I (
undergo plastic hinge rotation. i:Jl (b) lt'trl colunn rvch stit'fcn*t
(
Many researchers[7.21, 13.32*13.431have adequatelydemonstratedthe
ability of beam-to-column rigid frame connections to develop the plastic hinge (
moment, as well as exhibit adequatc rotation capacity (ductility). A summary (zl Vlithout column web stiffener
(
of bolted beam-to-colt'mn connections is gveu by Kulak, Fisher, and Struik Figure13.6.4 Strength ef 6etrrrnn web in compression
region of connection-AlSC
[3.U. approacb.
(
( |3I.CONNECIONS .':l - 13.6 CONTTNUOUS
/ BEAM-TO_COLUM
N CONNEC]IS*S
( i

( Local Web Yielding-Allowable StressDesign


( pry: (5k + ,/6)(0.66Fr,)t;,
'{
where Po, is the senice load flange force that must be transrsitted.
(
It/eb Crippling. In accordancewith F4. T.g.g,using tu, for the bearing
(
length ^lf,
Figure13.6.5 Platesubjecrto equaland
{ oppositeconcentricconccntratc<iloads.
'( Web Crippling-Load and ResistanceFactor Design

:( :+r:sr3.lr
P,, . r(+)( Fr"t!,
(r.e.r) If the rotationalrestraintprovidedby the column flangesrvereihe fully'
( *)"] tn,
fuied condition,the bucklingstrengthrrould be theoreticallftwice as greatas
( that given by Eq. 13.6.5,Experimentarwork [13.36,13.14,13.45]gu5-5lir$n
where I : resistancefaitor :0.75 that n'hen lower yield stress(such as '{36 steel)material is involled. yield.ine
( Ptt: factored force from beam flange of the web along thejunction with the flangeoccursat a load levelcorr-espor:rJ-
l*.. : column web thickness ing closdlyto rhesimplesupporrcase:i.e..Eq. r3.6.5.when 100ksi (d90lfpal
( tft: beam flangethickness
'! 1-reldstressrnaterialrvasusedin tests,the higheryield stressmaterial proridecl
t.( : column flange thickness a high degreeof rotational restraintalong thi juncrion of flangeto ..-.b. giring
7
d: column overaildepth a buckling strengthabout twice that obtainedwhen 436 steelwas used.Thus
,( Chen and Nervlin [13.a4]suggestedthat the increasein effectivedegreeoi
Web Crippling-Allowable StressDesign fixity at the lcaded edgemay be accountedfor in practical designUy iratin_e
i(
'( the strengthproportional to the squareroot of the yield srress.Theli stabiiiry
p,,:atst,_,lt
. r(+){f Frrl l,
(13.6.4)
criterion is
( ' )"] tn"
^
p
33,40013
- tE_
5570r',,'{*
(' '*'here Pry -- serviceload capacity. ( 13 . 6 . 6
)
a
_--r.
d, y 36 d,
(
ContpressiottBuckling of the Web. Overail buckling of tbe .olu*r, *.1
( The coefficient5570of this semirationatexpressionwas adjusteddor*.nwa:dro
must also be prevented as a controlling limit state. This limit state is of
'1100,representinga lower bound for all test results.
concern when concentratedloads from beam flanges are applied to 6oth Thin for the beam-rr>
( column flanges.When only one column flange is subjecredto i concentrate{ column connsctiont is the column web thicknesstb.r and the conccnrrrted
ioad P., is the nominalreacrionstrength givingrh; LRFD-K1.6 cxprcssion
( load, the overall web buckling limit state need not be checked. {,
Equation 6.74.28appliesto elasricbucklingof a plare,
(
CompressionBuckling of Cotumnlveb-LRFD
( kn2E
tr:
12(1 - pz)(b/t)' [6.14.2s] "'
( ' Pn-aloorl''ri{'' {13'6'7
}
d,
( Chen and Newlin [13.44]and Chen and oppenheim tl3.45J have treated
web buckling in a column as analogous to a plate subject to equal and
( opposite concentratedloads as shown in Fig. 13.6.5.The elastic buckiing load *'here P" : nominal strengthprovided by column rveb,kips
( P", for that situation usinga simply supportedplate having a large ratio a/d,, d. : web depth ciear of fillets - d - 2k, in.
is given by Timoshenkoand Gere [6.67,pp. 387-3g9j as tn,: coldmn web thickness,in.
( Frr: column web yield stress,ksi
4nzEt3 33,400t3
( . - D
: cr
: - _
n0 - p2)d" d,
.1r:.0.s; Substitutionof the requirednominal strengthpu/+ for p,, and using g : G.90
-ioad -b"
( according to LRFD-K1.6, gives the factcred pu, that .un carried
, (
f

F*'"*'
890 13i CC):I.=CTIONS 13.6/CONTTNUOUSBEAM-TO_COLUMNCONNECTTONS
g91
1

rvithout o.u'erallcciumn web buckling when no stiffeners are used, AID design. Pu, is the factored load; in ASD the senice load is
factoredby 5/3.' (
9a100rl.l{ ). Proportioningof stiffeners.The following proportioning requirement
D
' al -- -:-:- ( r : . os r appearsin AsD-K1.8 but not in LRFD-K1.g; however.rhe aurhors
d,
recommendusing it for both LRFD and AsD design.The sriffener (.'
w1dt.hb,_,plus 1 the column rveb thicknessrl,c *uy nit be less than
',rhcre o : 0.90 I
of the beam flange width b16or moment--plati connecrionwidti
Pni : rna.rimumfactoredconcentratedload from beam flanges
deliveringthe force prr, I

Nore thar Eq. i3.6.E appliesonly when Pu, actsat both flanges.

CompressionBucklingof ColumnWeb-ASD
ur,*+ = btu
(13.6.11)
(\
J
(
which makes
d, uaaf*,,{.
--:-s
,r-
(13-6.9i
ur,'?-+ (13.6.12)

rr,herePr, factoredconcentratedload from beam flanges.Note that the 6. The local buckling limits of LRFD-BS or ASD-85 for unstiffened I

s SD -K1 .6 d o e s .not,seemi ngl ygi vi ng


LRFD-KI . 6 us : s g: C .9 0 ,rv h e re a A compressionelementsmust be satisfied.Since these limits relate to ('
ASD a slightlv lessconservative result.However,in ASD the "factor" to be !/2t1for the beamtransmittingthe force to the column, the limit rvill
usc'dis 5/3 eccc:rdingto ASD-K7.Zin the definition of Prr. Thus, the end be satisfiedrvhenthe stiffenerthicknessr, is not lessthan one-halfthe I

rcsurt i','ill be cornparableusingeither LRFD or ASD. beam llangethicknessrrr. Thus,


Whcn an,\-oi all of the three concentratedload relatedlimit states(i.e..
local web f ielding, rveb crippling, or ccmpressionbuckling of the rveb)
the columnweb to transmitthe beamflangecompres-
,ra'+ (r3.6.13)
inciicateinad,equacl,'of
sion force Prr. stifienersin pairs (total area 1",) must be provided on thc 7- The weld joining stiffenersto the column web should be sizedro carry
cc'rlumnto resistthe forcePrr. the force in the stiffenercausedby unbhlancedmomenrson opposite i

sidesof the column.


:i
CompressionStiffenerRules-LRFD The followingare LRFD require-
i n cn tsi o r s iiif eler des i g n :
Horizontal Stiffener in Tension Region of connection
l. \\'hen the rr'ebcrippling (LRFD-K1.4) or compressionbucklingof the (
ueb (LRFD-K1.6) limit statesindicatethe needfor stiffeners. they are At the beam tensionflangeattachmentto a columl, the pull on the column
members(LRFD-KI.8). flange.as shown in Fig. 13.6.6,may causesufficientiJeformationas to impair
to be designedas axiallyloadedcompression
l. V,'hen conipressionbuckling of the web (LRFD-Ki.6) controls.the the strength of the column.A yield line analysiswas performed bv Graham
et al. U-2Il on the portion of the column fiangeof width q andtengitrp. as in (
::;:';:,:r-ishouldextendthe entiredeptirof the column.
-1. ',\'h.:l ..-.r;, .'.Jcvieiding(LRFD-K1.3)controls.and the concentrated Fig.'13.6.6.Placinga line load on the system,the ncminal strenlrh P' u.as / t

load Pu, rs applied at only one column flange,the stiffenersneednot t approximatedas


r
extcnd more than one-halfthe depth of the column *'eb.
4 . \\ ' hen ioc al we b y i e l d i n g(L R F D -K l .3 ) c o n trol s,the area A ,,ot:
f,
t:
P,: 7t1,Fr.,
+ t1d/rFr., (13.6.14)

strifeners(in pairs)requiredis the excessof the factorediorce P^, cvcr where the first term representsthe bendingresistanceof the column flangeas
trvo plate elements(one on eachside of the rveb)and the secondtcrm is rhe i

ihg is.iign resistance


'I fR,, dividedby the stiffcnerlicid stressfF,.,.
irus. portion of the load-thatgoesdirectlyinto the column web. Using conservatism \
comparableto the localweb yieldingin compression eriterion,Eq. lJ.6.l4 u.:rs
5k)+
Por- +Fr"Uru+ multiplied by 0.8; rhensolvingfor t,q grves (
Ar , 2 ( 1 36 . 1 0 i
QF,,, (

&('" t bmF}r\
'f" - - f
Thc rcs:stance factorg for localweb yieldingis prescribed
as 1.0;thus
P* ]
(r3.6.rs)
srnrplii'"ingEq. 13.6.10and makingit applicablefor both LRFD and (

1
C
(
13/CONNECTIONS 13.6/ CONTTNLIOUS
BEAM_TO_COLUMN
CONNECTTONS
( 893

( Aszume plate as fixed


f,ocal Flange Bending from Tension Force_ASD I n ASD- KI . 2. Eq.
( /
r y'l 1 3 . 6 . 1i6s u s e dw i t h { , : P t r .
Flange may bend Lt;l -T
( I Yll
g,t p
t !'J
I I
(
(
AL
, 1...:

ri 7iil
, I
L . ' , g l tp ' f
flange
/7. > 0.'1
n ( i 3 . t ,.I .

! T r e a ta s aifected by
n'here Ptt : factoredconcentrated
tensicnroad using 57,'3tir:iesthe sc1;;;
lineloec ll,, lt t Pot
'*il'" load.
: l

;( i (
II
Since generalil'the compression-related stiffe;rerrequircmentsare morc
3
t.(
'
lVeld may tear
I
t

Vnt4
L
v

|
l
I likely to control, the readershouldparticularlynore thoserequirements.
a\ray i t l Thc
sameproportioningrequirements for compression sriffenersshouldbe usetjfor
( r--n-j L,n: t,b+2(N- t,c) tension stiffeners.Usually tlie samesize stiffencrsrvouid be used for
both
compressionand tension(if any tensionstiffeneris needed).Examples
( " SectionA - A of thc
designof beam-to-columnmomentconnectionshavebeenpresentedbi.
Figure13.6.6 Strengthof columnflangein tensionregionof conncction. ir{iller
:( [13.46].
r
E EXA,IfPLE 13.6.1
( From tests[7.21]the minimum vaiueof t i^mF,,"/Pnrvasdeterminedto be 0.15. Design the connectionfor the rigid framing of trvo \\'i6x40 beams
ro rhc
Thus, using 0.15 for the secondterm in the bracket of Eq. 13.6.15givesthe flangesof a w12X65 column using A572Grade 50 srecl. as sho*.n
( in Fig.
conservativeexpressionused by both LRFD and ASD for the minimum 13'6-7-Use 436 steelfor stiffenersif needed.Use Load and Resistance
Facror
( column flange thicknessty" to avoid needing a column stiffener to assistin Design.
carrying the tension force frorn a beam flange,
( SOLUTION
Pn
( ty, >- 0.4 (13.6.16) (a) Compressionregion.Designfor the maximum flange force
transnrir-
Fr" ted by the beam' Thus the maximurnfactoredforce will be issumed to
( be the
designsrrengthof the beamflange,
( pt t : Q Ar Fr : 0. 90( 6. 995) ( 0. 505): 50
Local Flange Bending from Tension Force-LRFD trn order fo, ,nort 159kips
( general applicability to any situation, Eq. 13.6.16is solved for the nominal
strength Pn i.o LRFD-K1.2, sincethe beamis "compact"rviih : 5Oksi. If the beamwere..noncompact,,
( 4.

( P,:6.Z\tl,Fr (13.6.17)

t;
' i (
:\ Since the factored flange force P' cannot exceed the design strength SP", 2qs-]xsx ,01
U
$
:; (\ eitlrer Eq. 13.6.17 can be used to determine the available strength or Eq.
! 1 13.6.16can be used to computethe minimum flange thicknessneededto avoid . y/16 x 40
I \
stiffeners.Thus, in LRFD, Eq. 13.6.16for minimum column flange thickness 1 l- = 0.305(web) lvl6 x 40 I
?-
i t.r = 0.5C5(fiange) I

:( f7. would be I
\ /
TF;
(
(
tp> 0.4
V*+
(13.6.i8)
R - t - *^ s , , . t o l 7-
l ^ -w1z x
65
( l* = 0.390(web)
,. = 0.?0s(ftange)
where Prf : factoredconcentrated
tensionload
)( x =ti-
0 : 0.90(LRFD-Kl.2) to

F",: yieldstressof thecolumnflangebeingbent Frgure13.5.7 connectionwitb horizontaistiffenersfor Eren:ple


( i3.6.1.
" (
:
(
13lCONNECTICNS 13.6 / CONTT
NUCUSBEA[r-TO-CCLU],,!
N ccN NECTTONS
( )
-"(
rrr. rnirrl-um stiffenerthicknessrr according to Eq. 13.6.13is ,
this approach might still be reasonableunless the actual factored moment is
used to establishthe connectionforce. (
'ru: 0.5c5
To avoid stiffeners, the column web-relatedstrength must satisfy LRFD- M i n l ,- - sayf in. ( ,
K1.3 (local web yielding), LRFD-Kl.4 (web crippling),-and LRFD-K1.6 Z T:0.252in.,
(compressionbuckling of the web).SolvingEqs. 13.6.1,13.6.3,and 13-6.8for Two plates- f x3 give more than tbe minimurn a1s, A,,:0.6 sq in. re- (
the maximum factored load Pu, that can be carried without stiffeners, quired.

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