Steel Structures Salmon
Steel Structures Salmon
*
'(
ili
ti[l:il liilltliltil11
,r
(
)
r i
(
( I
( I
( I
l
+. -r
;9 '"r .*r { .
, ( )
' (
D E S G l u
( )
( A i J D
B E H A U I O R
(
(
( )
, (
( :
(
(
,(
(
(
,,(
,( I
t{.1
CHARLES G. SALMON
{ ) J O H NE . J O H N S O N
r )
,{
1 , 1 ,i
,{' I
,{ )
{ i
{ I
) dI EMPHASIZING L,OAD
,U( AND FESISTANCFI
1*! T t r l l B D E A I T I O H
FACTOR DESIGN
'(t,
'(
(
(
(
(
Chaptert
(
( Entroduction
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
1.1 STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
(
\ Structural design ntal be definedas a ntixtureof art and science,combiningthe
experiencedengineer's irttuiticefeeling for the behatior of a stntcture v,ith a
( sound kno*'ledgeo-frhe principlesof statics.dvnantics,meclzanies^af materials,
( and structttralana!','s;s.lo producea safeeconomicalstructurewhichwill serueits
intendedpurpose.
( Until about i850. structuraldesignwas largelyan art relyingon intuition
( , to determine the size and arrangementof the structural elements.Early
man-made structures essentiailyconformed to those rvhich could also be
( obsen'edin nature. such as bearnsand arches.As the principlesgoverningthe
( behar"ior'cfstrucluresand structuralmaterialshavebecomebetterunderstood,
design procedurcshave becomemore scientific.
( Computatio::s involving scientificprinciplesshould serveas a guide to
( decisionmaking and not be follorvedbtindly. The art or intuitive ability of the
experienced.engireer is utilizedto makethe decisions,guidedby the computa-
( tional results.-
(
\
( 1.2 PRINCIPLES
OF DESIGN
(
Design is a processbl"rvhich an optimum solutionis obtained.In this text the
{ , concern is with the desi-enof structures-in particular,steelstructures.In any
design. certain criteria must be establishedto evaluatervhetheror nor an
( optii:um has bsen achieved.For a structure.trpical criteria nray be (a)
( : nrinin:um cosi: tb) nrj;rirnumrveight; (c) minimum ccnstruction time; (d)
it( r , 1
-!
I
ts*
44..
(
,INTRODUCTIO},I 1 3 ,'HISTORICALBACKGROUNDOF STEELSTFUCTURES
t-
l | "
( ,
Desigri Procedure (
er.Eb The design procedurernay be considered'tobe composedof two parts-func-
tional design and structuralframervorkdesign.Functionaldesignensuresthat ( ,
intended results are achieved,such as (a) adequateworking areasand clear' (
ances:(b) proper ventilationand/or air conditioning;(c) adequatetransporta-
tion facilities. such as elevators,stainvays,and cranesor materialshandling ( "
equipmenr: (d) adequatelighting; and (e) aesthetics. ( r
The srructural frameworkdesignis the selectidnof the arrangementand
sizes of structural elementsso that sen'iceloads may be safely carried.
The iterativedesignproceduremay be outlined as follows:
('
l. Planning,:. Establishmentof the functionsfor which the structuremust (
sene. Set criteria againstwhich to measurethe resulting design foi
being an oPtimum. ( i
(
r
(
TI
| / INTFOOUCTTON *J t 4 ,,'LOADS
, t I
l' *f
t(
l ' trusses'Cast iron was also usedfor chain links on suspension , t{
I
if necessarv.
The dcad load of atfachments
t/
bridgesuntil is usuallykno*.n *.ith relsorrlb.l
tI (
about 1840. : accuracvprior to the design.
:
l{
I
. Wrought iron bcgan replacingcast iron soon after 1g40,
important eumple bcing the Brittania Bridge over lvlcuai
the earliest
Straits in Wales
it
*{
rvhichrvasbuilt in 18'16-1850.
k
I
This rvasa tuhulargirder bridge havilg spans
230-460-460-230ft (70-140-140-70m), rvhichwa-smade fro-m
t
1 t
;'l
Llve Load
wroujt r-iron : . I
Gravity loads actingrvhenthe structureis in sen,ice,but van'ing in magnirude
/ platesand lngles.
and location, are tcrmed liue loods.Examplesof live loads rt. hurn.n occu-
,Y
t1
The prtxr-'ssof rolling variousshapesrvasdevelopingas cast
iron and pants, furniture, ntovablecquipment.vehicles,ancl storcd
tvrought iron receivedwidcr usage.Bars were rolled on an _eoods. Somc lirc
,(
E:
industrial scale loads may be practicallypermanent,othersmay be highll' riansienr.Beclus.'
bc'ginningrtrout 1780.The rollingof railsbeganabout 1820and rvas
exicnded of the unknorvnn'ltureof the magnitude,rocation.and den.rityof lir.e lrrrJ
( to l-shrpcsbl the 1870s.
items.realisticmagnitudes and the positionsof suchloadsare \.crydifficul r.r
The dcvc-lopments of tlre Bessemer process(1855),the introductionof a
?.7
g
brsic liner in the Bcsscmerconvcrtetftgzo;, and the open-hearth determine
furnace Bccauseof the public concernfor aclequatesafety.live loads to be take;r
broughtri'idespread useof iron ore productsin buitaingmaterials.Since1g90,
$ steel has replacedwrou$ht iron as the principat metittic building as serviceloads in designare usually prescribedby state and local buildin:
i,
tl currently (1989),sreelshar{ng yield stresseruarying from 24,000to
material. codes.These loads are generallyempirical and consenative. basedon experi-
F 100,000 enceand acceptedpracticerather than accuratelycomputedvalues.Wherever
Xl poundsper squareinch,psi (165to 690megapascats] Mpa), and availabiefor
].
i' structuraluses.The varioussteels,their usesind their propertiesare
discussed
t(
t'
in Chapter2,
L TABLE 1.4.1 TYPICALMINIMUMUNIFORMLYDISTRIBUTED
LIVE LOADS
t(
I
(Adapted from Ref. 1.2)
t: (,
t' 1.4 LOADS Live load
l. Occupancy
or Use pst Pat
t\
I The accuratedeterminationof the loads to which a structureor structural
i(
I
elementrvill be subjectedis not alwayspredictable.Even if the loads
are rr,cll
l. Hotel gucstrooms 40 I Oni.t
Scbool ciassrooms
( known at one locationin a structure,thl distributionof load from
elemenrro Private apartments
elementthroughoutthe structureusuallyrequiresassumptionsand approxihra-
i.r Hospital private rooms
i\ tions. Someof the most commonkindJof loadsare discussedin thJ iollorving.
2. Offices
i( sections. 3. Assembly halls, fixed seat
50 2400
60 2900
Library reading rooms
( 4. corridors, above first floor in schools,libraries,and hospitals
Dead Load 80 3800
( 5. Assembly arcas; theaterlobbies i00 4Ec0
Dead load is a fixed position gravity serviceload, so called because Dining rooms and restaurants
( ir acts Of fice building |obbies
continuously torvard the earth when ihe rtru.ture is in service.The rveight
of Main floor, retdl stores
( the structureis considereddead load, as well as attachmentsto the
structure Assembly hall, movableseats
such as pipes. electricalconduit, air-conditioningand heating ducts,
( lighting 6. Wholesale.stores, all floors LZ5 6000
fixtures, floor covering,roof covering,and suspenledceilingr;1hut is, Manufacturing, light
ali irems
( that remain throughoutthe life of the structuie. Storagewarehouses,light
Dead loadsare usuallyknown accuratelybut not until the designhas 7. Armories and drill halls i50 7240
( been
completed.Under
ltels 3 through 6 of the designprocedurediscussedin Sec.
Stagefloors
( l'2, the weight of the structureor structural eliment must Library stack rooms
be estimated,
preliminary sectionselected,weight recomputed,and member 8. Maoufacturing. lieary 250 12000
(, selectionrevised
Sidewalks and driveways subject to trucking
Storagewarehouses,heavy
(
tMPa
megapascals.
are cquivalcnt to Ne$'tonsper squaremillimeter, N/mr#,
( in SI uais. *SI values are
approximateconversioas.l.psf (lb,z5qft) : 47.9 pa.
t.^ (
-
r/TNTRODUCTTCN {
I .4/ LOADS
(
- (
local codesdo not apply, or do not exist, the provisionsfrom one of several
regionaland nationalbuilding codesmay be used.One suchrvidelyrecognized
co<ieis the American National Stondard Minimum Design Loadsfar Buildings
and Other StructuresANSI 458.1 of the American National StandardsInsti-
|-tq'- a'--l - to:at e - o"{-{
ffi* (
(
tute (ANSI) [1.2]. from which some tlpical live loads are presentedin Table 8 3 2 ^Fto'3 o':l*to'
8 2 3 2
?t - o, (
1.4.1. The code will henceforth be referred to as the ANSI Standard.This Axle loads
(kiP5; (
Standardis updatedfrom time to time, most recentlyin l9g}.
Live load when applied to a structure should be positioned to give the H2OTruek HS2OTruck (
maximum effect, including pattial loading alternatespan loading,'or full span
loading as may be necessary.The simplified assumption of full uaiform (
/ l8k for momenrl to be po$tioned
ioading everywhereshould be used only when it agreeswith reality or is an l26k for srrear i for maximum effect (
appropriateapproximation.The probability of having the prescribedloading w = 0.64FiFs/frnear lt of lane
(
applied uniformly over an entire floor, or over all floors of a building
simultaneously,is almost nonexistent.Most codesrecognizethis by allowing (
for somepercentagereductionfrom full loading.For instance,for live loadsof H20 and HS20 Lane
l
100 psf or more ANSi Standard[1.2Jatlowsmembershavingan influencearea Figure1.4.1 AASHTO HigbwayH20 and HS20loadings
(,
t1.31.(l kip : 4.45klg.
of 400 sq ft or more to be designedfor a reduced,liveload accordingto Eq. (
1.4.1,as follon's:
'--'-loading; horvever.th. uruul ones are known as H20 and HS20, shownin
Fig.
I rs
-:
1.4.1.
L: L"L *
ol0.25 (1.1.1) In designinga given bridge, either one truck loading is apptied to the
iA, entire structure,or the lane loading is applied.When the lane loaaing is used,
the uniform portion is distributedover as much of the span or spans as will
r*'here L : reducedlive load per sq ft of areasupportedby the member cause the maximum effect. In addition, the one concentrated load (for
lo : unreducedlive load per sq ft of area supportedby the member maximum negativemomenton continuousspansa secondconcentratedload
(from Table 1.4.1) is also used) is positioned for the most severeloading effect. The load
lr : influencearea,sq ft distribution acrossthe width of a bridge to its varioussupportingmembersis
taken in accordancewith semiempiricalnrles that deplnd on-the type of
The influencearea A, rs four timeSthe tributary area for a column, two trmes bridge deck and supporringstructure.
the tnbutan' area for a beam,and is equal to the panel area for a two-u.ay The single truck loading provides the effect of a heavy concentratedload
slab-The reducedlive load L shallnot be lessthan 50%of the live load to for and usually governs on relatively short spans.The uniform lane load is to
memberssuPportingone floor, nor lessthan 40%of the live load Lo othen*ise. simulatea line of traffic, and the addedconcent'ratedload is to account for the
The live load reduction referred to above is not permitted in lreas to be possibilityof one extra heavyvehiclein the line of traffic. Theseloads have
cccupied as places of public assemblyand for one-wayslabs,when the live been useCwith no apparentdifficulty since1944.beforeu,hich time a line of
load L is 100 psf or less.Reductionsare permitted for occupancieswherelo trucks was actually usedfor the loading.On the interstaresystemof highwal's
is greaterthan 100 psf and for garagesand roofs only undei specialcircunr- a military loading is also usedthat consistsof two 24-kip (107-kN) axle loads
sLances (ANSI-4.7.2)[1.2]. spaced4 tt (1.2 m) apart.
Railroad b_ridgesare designed to carry a similar semiempirical loading
kno*n as the Cooper E72 trun, consistingof a seriesof concentratedloads i
Highway Llve Loads fixed distanceapart followed by uniform loading. This loading is prescribed
Highway vehicle loading in the Llnited Stateshas been stanclardized by the American Railway EngineeringAssociation(ARER)
by the tl.4l.
American Association of State Highrvay and Transporration Officials
(.tASflTO) t1-31into standardtruck loadsand lane loadsthat approximare lmpact
a
series of trucks. There are two systems,designatedH and i{s, thur "..
The term impact as ordinarily used in structural design,.f.r, to the dynamic
identified by the number of arles per trucL The H systemhas two arles,
effect of a suddenlyappliedload. In the building of i srructurerhe materials
whereasthe HS systemhas three axlesper truck. There are severalclasses
of are added slowly; people entering a building aie also considered a gradual
(
'( EI
-'f
r / TNTRODUCTTON i l
+ a
r 4/LOADS
(
(
(
(
T Spring lorce
tjo
r is loedcd to give tlic n:lxinrunr'effcctrrn the mcmbcr.Sincerchiclcstrl'cl
dircctly on thc supcrstructurc. all parts o[;: are subjectedto vibrationantl
must be dcsignerltt'rinclutJeimpact.The substructure,includi:':glll pt''l-titrtrs
/',i,
=kx sprinsforce=/rx
t not rigidly attachcdto the superstructure suchas abutmcnts.rctainingu'alls.
( J r;|'l Loadsuddenty and piers,are assumedto haveadequatedampingor be sufficientll'rcrttotc
L j'-i reteased
lrom here
( j Load gradualty
'fIw T from the applicationpoint of the dynamiclord so that impact is not consid-
Fil applied - cred. Again. consen'ativestatic loads may account for the smallerd1'nrrnic
7 I ffit\Or.ittation above
( , - Tw I t' I and below nere cffects.
In buildings.it is principall-vin the designof supportsfor cran3sii:)(:
\ r . rl N o v i t ' r a t ; o n : ( b ) F r e ev i b r a t i o n :
In:''.rttrtc
nux. spring force = lV max. spring torce = 2Ll heavymachinervthar inrpactis crplicitlv considcrcil.l-hc .'\::'l'.'ricen
of SteelConstruction(AISC) Allonable SiicssDcsign(ASl)i rad [-ort] rrnil
Frgure1.4.2 Comparisonof stat:cand dynamic loading.
( R esi sti nccFa ct or Design( LRFD) Spe'cif icet ions* [ 1. 5, 1. 1iJ ( ASD and
LRFD-A4.2) staterhat if not othen!'isespecified.the impact percentagc shall
( lo:l,Jing.Deaclloads:rreitatic loads;i.e.,they haveno effectother than rvcight. be:
( Livc loadsmay be eithcrstaticor they may havea dynamiceffect.Pcrsonsand
Fgr supportsof elevatorsand elevatormachinery 100%
furniture rvould be trcatedas static live load, but cranesand varioustypesof
( nrachincryalso havedynamiceffects. travelingcranesupportgirdersand their
For cab-operated
( Considcr the spring-nrass sysl,emof Fig. 1.4.2arvherethe spring may be connections 2s%
thought of as analogousto an elasticbeam. When load is graduallyapplied For pendant-operatedtravelingcranesupportgirdersand
( (i.e., static loading) the mass(rveight)deflectsan amount x and the load on
their connections ljorc
tlre spring (beam)is equalto the weight lV.ln Fig. 1.4.2bthe load is suddenly
I
applicd (dynamic loading)and the maximum deflectionis 2x; i.e., the maxi- For supportsof ligbt machinery,shaft or motor driven,not
( mum load on the spring(bcam)is 2W.ln this casethe massvibratesin simple lessthan 2A70
harmonicmotion with its neutralpositionequalto its staticdeflectedposition. machineryor power driven
For supportsof reciprocating
In real structuresthe harmonic(vibratory.)motion is dampedout (reducedto units, not lessthan )U)o
( zcro) very rapidly. Once the motion has stoppedthe force remainingin the
For hangerssupportingfloorsand balconies 33%
spring is the rveight W.To account for the increasedforce during the tinie the
(
,,r.*b., is in motion a load equal to twice the static load itz should'be ".
( In the designof crane runway beams(seeFig. 1.4.3)and their conncc-
used-add 100% of the static load to representthe dynamic effcct. This is
tions, the horizontalforcescausedby mol'ing crane trolleys nrust be consid-
calleda 1007oimpact factor. "20Voof the
( ered.Both LRFD and ASD-A4.3prescribeusing a minimum ot
Any live'load that can have a dynamic effect should be increasedby an
sum of the lifted load and the cranetroUey(but exclusiveof otherparts of the
( impact factor. While a dynamic analysisof a structurecould be made,sucha
crane).The force shailbe assumedto be applied at the top of the rails,acting
proceclureis unnecessaryin ordinary design. Thus empirical formulas and
( in either direcrion normal to the run$ay rails. and shall be distributed rvith
impact factors are usuallyused.In casesrvherethe dynamic effect is small (say
due regardfor lateralstiffnessof the structue supportingthe rails."
( rvhereimpact would be less than about20%) it is ordinarily accountedfor by
In addition, due to accelerationand decelerationof the entire crane,a
using a conservative(higher) value for the speuified live load. Tire dynamic
( longitridinaltractiveforceis transmittedto the mnway girder throughfriction
cffects of personsin buildings and of slorv-movingvehiclesin parking Barages
of the end truck u'heelswith the cranerail. LRFD and ASD-A4.3requirethis
( are examplesrvhereordinar-l'designlive load is conservativeand no explicit
specified,to be takennot lessthan 10%of the maximum
force,if not otherw'ise
impact factor is usuallyadded.
( wheelloads of the craneappliedat the top of the rail.
For highway bridge.design,however,impact is always to be considered.
( AASHTO [1.3J prescribesempirically that the impact factor expressedas a
portion of live load is
(
50
I:ffi <0.30 . (1.4.2) 'The readerwill find coatinuedreferenceto the AISC Speciflcations(ASD and LRFD) q'hich are
( contai::d. respectively.in the l/SC ASD llanztal [1.7] and AISC LRFD lt{anual [1 i7J. These
( tn Eq. 1.4.2, L (expressedin feet) is the length of the portion of the span that trvo books may be purchascdfron AISC,400 No;rb Michigan Avcnue, Chicego,IL 606114185.
t"a
- -'-
@ z \
10 1 / TNTRODUCTTON r.4/LOADS 11
(
(
Trolley movemenl
,+-f ----> oth9rsnowloadinformationhasbeenprovidedbyLew,-Sirnru,andElIing
wood in the Building Structtsal Design Handbook (Chapter 2) [.101, and in (
Trolley the works of O'Rourke and Stiefel [1.38], Templin and Schriever[.39]. (
iEF \
Crane
O'Rourke, Tobiasson,and Wood [1.401,O'Rourke, Redfield, and von Bradsky
i-- --
Crane Rail ;t s*.* [1.411,and O'Rourke, Speck,and Stiefel[.421. t^
movernenl
I 3 q -
''*..\. not true for southem climates where the vertical loading due to wind must be (
'i
Snow Load .:--included. Furtherrnore, the toul lateral wind load, windward an& leervard
::-* effect, is commonlv assumedto be applied to the windward face of'the (
The live loading for rvhich roofs are designedis either totally or primarily a 'j
building. (
snow load. Since snow has a variablespecificgravity, even if one knows the In accordanceu'ith Bernoulli's theorem for an ideal fluid striking an
depth of snow for which designis to be made.the load per unit areaof.roof is object, the increasein static pressureequatsthe decreasein dynami. pr..rur.. (
at best only a guess.
'=
o r (
The best procedure for establishingsnow load for design is to follow the
ANSI Standard [1.2]. This Code usqs a map of the United States gntng n : !0v.2 (1.4.3)
(
isolinesof ground sno$'correspondingto a 5O-yearmean recurrenceinten'al where g is the dynamic pressureon the object, p is the massdensitl' of air
for use in designingmost permanent structures.The ground snow is then (
(specificweight rr' : 0.07651pcf ar sea level and l5oC), and Z"is rhe u'in.J
multiplied by a coefficientthat includesthe effect of roof slope.u'ind expo' velocity.In termsof velocity I/ in milesper hour, the dynamii pressureq (psif (
sure, nonuniform accumulationon pitched or cun'ed roofs, multiple series would be
roofs. and multilevel roofs and roof areas adjacent to projections on a roof ? (
level. 1 / 0 . 0 7 6 5\ 1/ s 2 8 0 r \ 2 , (
q: o'wzdv' ( l . 4 . 4| *
It is apparent.that the steeperthe roof the lesssnow can accumulate.Also . +
,[ *, l[ ,* )':
partial snow loading should be considered,in iddition to full loading if it is (
believedsuch loading can occur and '*'ould causemaximum effects-Wind may .: In designof usual t)?es of buildings rhe dynamic pressureq is comm';nlt-
(
also act on a structure that is carry"ingsnow load. It is unlikely. however.that *', convertedinto equivalentstatic pressurep, which may be expressed[1.9J
marimum snow and *tnd loadswould act simultaneously. (
P : QCSsCp (1 . 1 . 5 i
In general.the basic snow load used in designvaries from 30 to 40 psf (
(1400 to 1900 lvtPa)in the northernand easternstatesto 20 psf (960 MPa) or I
where Q, is an exposurefactor that variesfrom 1.0 (for 0-40-ft height) to l-0
less in the southernstates.Flat roofs in normaliy warm climatesshouldbe (for 740-1200-ft height); Ct is a gust factor, such as 2.0 for srrucrura! (
designedfor 20 psf (960 l{Pa) even when such accumulationof snow may '--: membersand 2.5 for smail elementsincluding cladding; -d q is a shaie (
seemdoubtful. This loading may be thought of as due to peoplegatheredon factor for the building as a whole. Excellent details of applicaiion of *i*l
such a roof. Furtherrnore,though qind is frequently ignored as a vertical force loading to structwes are available in the ANSI Standard [1.2] and in rbe (
,E-
on a roof, nevertheless it may causesuch an effect.For thesereasonsa 20 psf National Building Code of Canadatl.9l.
(960 MPa) minimum loading, even though it may not always be snow, is - -.E. (
a a==,
(
( The comhtonlv ust'.| rvind pressuretrt 20 psf, as spccificd by nrlnl' letcral :cismic forces l'. crprcssed as follons. are assumed to act nonconcur-
huilding codcs,corresponds to a velocityof ti8 milcsper hour (mph) from Eq. rcnll_\'in tlre dircction of cach of the main axes of the structurc,
( 1.4.4.An exposurefastorC. of 1.0,a gust ff,ctor C* of 2.0.:rnda shapefactor
Cnof 1.3 for an airtight huilding,alongrvith a 30 pif cquivalcntstaticpressurc V - ZIKCSII' ( 1. 4 . 6 ,
(
p. will give froni Eq. 1.1.5a dynamicprcssureq of 1.7 psf. rvhichcorresponds, s,hcrc Z : seismiczone coefficient.varying from I for the zone of lo*'est
( using Eq. 1.4.4. to a s'ind velocity of 55 mph. For all buildings having seismicitv.to 1 for the zone of highcstseismicity
nonplanar surfaces.planesurfacesinclincd to the wind direction,or surfaces /: occupancf importance factor. varying from 1.5 for buildings
( having significantopenings.spccialdeterminationof the rvindforcesshouldbe designatedas "essentialfacilities,"1.25 for buildings rvherethe
( nradeusing suchsc'rurccs as the ANSI Standard[1.2J.or the NatiorwlBuilding, primary occupancyis for assemblyfor greaterthan 300 persons.
Codeof Canada[1.9].For moreextcnsivetreatmentof s'ind loads.the rcader to 1.0 for usualbuildings
( is refcrred to the Task Cornmitteeon Wind Forces[1.351.Le,v, Sinriu.and K - horizontal force factor. van'ing from 0.67 to 2.5. indicating
( Ellingwood in thc Buil,ltnqStntcturalDcsigltllandbook [1.10],lr{ehta[1.361, capacit;' of the structure to absorb plastic deformation (lorl
md Stathopoulos,Surrl'.and Davenport[1.37]. valuesindicatehigh ductility)
(
1
l'
( l* __r \f arry stateshave adopteCthe Untfurm Building Code (UBC) [1.48].the most
rccint versionof ivhich is 1985,which containsprovisionsfor designto resist
( 't-) reacion carthquakesgenerallybasedon the ANSI Standard1I.21.
(
n <a__
1.5 TYPESOF STRUCTURAL
STEELMEMtsERS
( Earth motion
( (a) At rett (b) Under horizontal mction As discussedin Sec. 1.2 the function of a structureis the principal factor
from eanhquake
dctcrmining the structural configuration.Using the structural configuration
( Figure 1.4.4 devclopedby eartbquake. along rvith the design loads, individual componentsare selectedto properll'
o ( .Force
(
14 1/INTRODUCTION 1.5/TypES OFSTRUCTURAL
STEELMeMBERS 15
(
-t \
rw
t T r LJIJ
t
wP q?
Y1
n
n a
u h
v1 L
(
rl
t1
V u l4'-->
i- \
.-,+/:r1-^ L S
l4--^
c L !'/T or ST
(a ) Ch
Channels (b) (c) l.shaped double
chann€li (
u,,I-
flange
American
standard
Anrerican
standard
Angle Structural
,:
(
shape
ttt
tlt
(a)
v\
\/l
beam
tA
t)
(b)
U f f L u l
| |
rI
channel
(c)
W @
(d)
7f7t7rn7r-n
l e ) .
(d) Angte
L J_L J-L(e) Hat sections
(
(
(
Y\ ttt t r I t
\ -
\.n'7,l/
-/i/
t m l Figure 1.5.2 Some co-ld-formedshapes. (
Pipe Structural Ears Plate:
ssction tubing
(h) (r)
(
(l) (gt
(
(
(
16 I /|NTRODUCT|ON
t STEELMEMBERS
l .s / WPESOFSTRLcTURAL
(
(
orl JJL condition, pure axial conrpressionis not attainable: so. design for
"axial"
rnm
(
Beams
/
Beams are members subjected to transverseloading and are most efficient
t when their area is distributed so as to be located at the greatestpractical
:
distance from the neutral axis. The most common beam sections are the
a (d) | Rolled W- and (c) S:ructural wide-flange (W) and l-beams (S) (Fig. 1.5.5a). as well as smaller rolled
(O Built-up box
7' "miscellaneousshapes"(M).
.. S-sectaons I lee seetions t-shapedsectionsdesignatedas
For deeper and thinner-webbed sectionsthan can economicallybe rolled,
a Figure1.5.3 Tlpical tensionnnembers.
welded l-shaped sections (Fig. 1.5.5b) are used, including stiffened plate
girders.
"joists" are often used
For moderatespanscarrying lighr loads,open-web
suspendersthat support the roadway.Typical cross-sections of tension mem- truss-typemembers usedfor the support
(Fig. 1.5.5c).Theseare parallelchord
bers are shorvn in Fig. 1.5.3, and their design (except for special factors or cold-formed. Suchjoists are
of floors and roofs. The steelmay be hot-rolled
relating to suspension-type
cablesupportedstructures)is treatedin Chapter 3. "LH-Series," and "DLH-Series." The K-Series is
designated "K-Series,"
suitable for members having the direct support of floors and roof decks in
buildings. The LH-Series and DlH-series ate known as Longspan and Deep
Compresslon Members
Longspan,respectively.LongspanSteeiJoists are shop-fabricatedtrussesused
" foi the direct support of floor or roof slabs or Cecksbetweenrvalls,beams
Since compressionmemberstrengthis a function of the cross-sectionalshape 'and "for the
(radius of gyration), the area is generallyspreadout as much as is pi3_ctical. main structuraimembers"tl.13l. Deep LongspanJoistsare used
Chord members in trusses,and many interior colunns in buildingr- q. direct support of roof slabs or decks bet*'eenwali. beamsand main structural
membersl;1t.ff1. The desiln of the chords for K-series trussesis basedon a
n
yield strength* of 50 ksi (345 MPa), while the web sectionsmay use either 36
(ZCAUnaior 50 ksi (345 MPa). For rhe LH- and DlH-series the chord and
web sectionsdesign must be based on a yield strength of at least 36 ksi (248
( MPa) but not greater than 50 ksi (345 It'{Pa).
a
(a) Rolled w- end
S-shapes
JL
(b) Doubte
Jt
(c) Structural (d) Structural
tubirg
The K-Seriesjoists have depths from 8 to 30 in. for clear spans to 60 ft.
The Longspanjoists (LH-Series)have depths from 18 to 48 in. for clear spans
to 96 ft. The Deep Longspanjoists (DlH-series) have depths from 52 to 72 in.
angle for clear spans-to144 ft.
( All of thesejoists are designedaccordingto Specificationsadoptedby the
Steel Joist Institute (SJI) [1.13],rvhich generally are in agreementwith AISC
r
L] :lr Specification [1.5] for hot-rolled steels and AISI Specification[1.11] for
l
r-.-.#
7
\
(
(
I
o
( e) Pipe =ction
L A
Frgure 1.5.4 Typicat compressionmembers.
(0 Built-upsedions
tl
-- --J l--.
cold-formed steels,
r
F ;
r
(-
18 1 / TNTRODUCTTON 1.6/STEELSTRUCTURES 19
(
t : r t R o l l e dW .
and other
I $aped
T I
( b ) lVelded
l-shape
(plate girderl
(c) Open web ioists
t
Framed Structures
Mosr typical building constructionis in this category.The multistorybuilding
usually consists of beams and columns, either rigidly connected or having
simple end connectionsalong with diagonal bracing to provide stability. Erqr ..
(
(
(
sections
it usually is designedto be (
rhough a multistory building is three-dimensional,
much stiffer in one direcdonthaq the o-tbp$lbUs:it.lq3y-r,easonablv be ueated -- (
20 r , / t NI R o D U c l o N
\
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
( !
i
i
( :
I
( i
-t
-{.
(
(
(
I
*I
I
I
(
F r g u r e 1 . 6 . 3 Dome roof, Brown University aud:iorium. Courtesy Bcthlcbem Stccl
( Corporation.
Figure 1.6.2 Spaceroof truss crectcdin sections;also shorvsplate girder at loser level
( containing vcrtical stiffcner platcs and special stiffening around recrangularholes
through girdcr web. Upjohn Office Building, Kalamrzoo, l"lichigan.(Photo courtcsvof
(
Whitchcad and Kales Company)
(
(
( lndustrial buildings and special one-story buildings such as churches.
schools,and arenas,generallyare either rvholly or partly framed structures.
( Particularlythe roof systemmay be a seriesof planetrusses(seeFig. 1.6.1).a
(, spacetruss (seeFig. 1.6.2),a dome (seeFig. 1.6.3),or it may be part of a flar
or gablcd one-story rigid frame.
( Bridgcsare mostly framedstructures,suchas beamsand plate girders(see
Fig. 1.6.4),or trusses,usuallycontinuous(seeFig. 1.6.5).
(
Most of this text is devotedto behaviorand designof elementsin framed
( structurcs.
(
( Shell-Type Structures
(
In this type of structure the shell serves a use function in addition ro
( participation in carrying loads. One common type rvhere the main stressis
tensionis the containmentvesselused to storeliquids (for both high and lorv trrgure1.6.4 Continuousorthotropicplate girder acioss\lississippiRiver at St. Louis,
( \lissouri. (Photo bv C. G. Salmon)
ternperatures), of rvhich the elevatedwater tank is a notableexample.Storage
( 21
-(
22 ( t
t.6/srEE[ STRUCTURES 23
---:.a - - *
l:-:'--:-: r- --:r--:ry!rl_F.
(
' t.--
't '- (
(
1
(
(
(
(
(
Figure1.6.5 Contir
(phoro by c. c. s"H::ltruss
bridge' outerbridge crossing, Staten
Island. New york. (
(
(
(
Figure1.6.7 Suspensior California(Photo
bridge.GoldenGateBridge,SanFrancisco, (
by C. G, Saimon)
(
'-'---'-- (
bins, tanks, and the hulls of ships are other examples.On many shell-type (
structures,a framedstructuremay be usedin conjunctionwith the shell. (
On rvallsand flat roofs the "skin" elementsmay be in compressionwhile
they act together with a framework. The aircraft body is another such (
example. (
Shell-type structuresare usually designedby u ,O..r"rst and ar€ nr)t
within the scopeof this text. (
t (
r$$"f$g
i :t i{ tt ilF{*
(
i,' S,FF5 Suspension-Type Structures
iJ-S S & *trr
g (J{-1\
(
,a rr
s-!r9!*
F g ii t;Jr; -!'! In the suspension-type strucluretensioncablesare major supportingelements.
l; f.F f l"'-:
A roof may be cable-supported, as shown in Fig. 1.6.6.Probably the rnt"'st (
--'d.
t:'::F
:\-:- ! cornmonstnrctureof this type is the suspension bridge,as shonn in Fig. 1.6.7. (
.t' 'li{.s,
Usually a subsystemof the structureconsistsof a framed structure,as in tirc
F i g u r e1 . 6 . 6 cable-suspended stiffening truss for the suspensionbridge.Sincethe tensionelementis the most (
roof for M.adisonSquareGarden
ment Center,New York. Courresy sports and Entertain- efficient way of carrying load, structuresutilizing this conceptare increasingly
BethlehemSi.ii E"rporation. (
being used.
Many unusual structuresutilizing various combinations of framed, shcll- (
t.vpe, and suspension-typestructurcshave been built. t{owever, the typicll
(
designer must principally understand the design and behavior of framcd
structures. (
,,
(
f
( 24 I /NTRODUCTION 1. 8 / P H T L O S O P H I E
OSF D E S I G N 25
( 1.7 SPECIFICATIONS
ANDBUILDINGCODES rion. Ruildingcodcs:tlsoorclinarilvprcscrihcstrndrrd loads for n'hich the
( srructureis to be dcsigned. as discussed
in Sec.1.4.
Structuralstccldcsignof buildingsin the United Statesis principallvbasedon The re'sdcrsht-'uldnr.-'lbc disturbedby thc intcrchrngcablcuseof building
( the specifications of the AmcricanInstituteof StcelConstruction(AISC)[.5, code and spccific:rtion.but should clearll' understandthat u'hich is lcgalll'
( l.l5l. AISC is conrpriscr.l of steelfabricetorand manufacturingcomprnies.as rcquircd for dcsign and that rvhich could bc thought of as reconrnrendcd
rvell as indiriduals intcrestedin stccldesignand research. The AISC Specifica- practice.
( tions [.5, l.l5l are the resultof the combinedjudgmentof rescarchcrs and
( practicingcngineers.The researchefforts have beensynthesized into practical
design proccdurcsto providea safe,economicalstructure.The adventof the 1 . 8 P H I L O S O P H I E SO F D E S I G N
( digital conrputer in dcsignpracticehas made feasiblemore elaboiaiedesign
( rulcs.Tlte currcnt spccifications which are refcrredto throughoutthis book are Trro philosophiesof dcsign are in current use. the v'orking,strerJ design
the 19E9Spc.'ry'catio,t for StructuralSt;el Buildings--Allov'ableS;rcss Desig,rt r rcferrcd to b1' AISC as Allowable Srress Design) and limit states design
( and Plustic Design[1.5] and the 1986 Load and Resistance Fauor Dgsign (rctcrredto byrAISC as Load and Resistance Fuctor Design).Working stress
( Specificutionfor Stntiltrol SteelBuildings [i.15]. dcsign has been the principal philosophy used during the past 100 years.
A specificationct': .lining a set of rules is intended to insure safety; During the past 20 ycars or so, structural design has been moving toward a
( however.the designermust understandthe behavior for which the nrle applies, more rational and probability-baseddesign procedure referred to as "limit
othenvisean absurd, a grosslyconservative,and sometimesunsafedesignmay sralcs" design. Haaijer U.261 and Kennedy 11.27. 1.28J have presented
{ result. The authors contendthat it is vinually impossibleto urire rulesthat ihc current status of the limit statesconcept and its use in design. Limit
( fully apply to everv situation. Behavioral understanding musr conre first; .rt3tcsdcsignincludcsthe methodscommonlyreferredto as " ultimatestrength
applicationof rules then"follows.No matter *'bat set of rulesis applicable,r/re ,.lesign,""strength design," "plastic design," "load factor design," "limit
(
designerhastlrc ultimute responsibility for a safe strucrure. design."and the recent"load and resistancefactor design" (LRFD).
( A specification when adopted by AISC is actudly a set of recommenda. Structuresand structural membersmust have adequatestrength, as rveil
tions put forth by a highly respectedgroup of experts in the field of steel adcquate stiffness and toughnessto permit proper functioning during the
( researchand dcsign. Only re'hengovernmentalbodies, such as city, state,and scn'icelife of the structure.The designmust provide for somercseryestrength
( federal agencies,rvho have legal responsibiliry for public safer;-,adopt or :rhr)v€that which is neededto carry the serviceloads; that is, the structure
incorporate a specificationsuch as the 1986 Load and ResistanceFactor n'rustprovide for the possibility of overload.Overloadscan arise from chang-
( Design Specification[.15] into their building codes does it becomb]egally rng the use for which a particular structure rvas designed,from underestima-
( official. .\ tion of the effectsof loads by oversimpiificationsin structuralanalysis,and
The design of steel bridgesis generally in arcordancewith specifications' from variations in construction procedures. In addition, there must be a
( of the American Associationof State Highway and Transportation Officials provisionfor the possibilityof understrenglh.Deviationsin the dimensionsof
( (AASHTO) tl.3l.This becomesa legalset of rules sinceit hasbeenadoptedby nrembers,even though rvithin accepted tolerances,can result in a member
the states(usually the state highway departmentshave this responsibility). having less than its computedstrength.The materials(steel for members,
( Railroad bridges are designed in accerdance with the specifications holts. and rvelds)may havelessstrengththan usedin the designcalculations.
( adopted by the American Railway Engineering Association (AREA) [l.aJ. In .{ steel section may occasionallyhave a field stress belorv the minimum
this casethe railroads have the responsibility for safety and through their own .pecified value, but stiil within the statisticallyacceptablelimits.
( organization adopt the rules to insure safe designs. Structuraldesignmust providefor adequatesafetyno matter what philos-
( The term building code is sometimesused synonomouslyrvirh specifica- r',phy of design .is used. Provision must be made for both ouerload and
tions. More correctly a building code is a broadly based document, eiiher a nnderstrength. The study of rvhat constitutesthe proper formulation of struc-
( legal document such as a state or local building code, or a documentwidely .{ tural safetyhas beencontinuingduring the past 30 years[1.19.1.20].The main
-$
recognizedeven though not legal which covers the sanrewide range of topics = thrust has been to examineby various probabiijsticmethodsthe chancesof
( "failure"
as the state or local building code. Building codes generally treat all facets +:. occurringin a member,connection,or system.
( relating to safety, such as structural design, architectural details. fre protec- -:* Rather than refer to "failurC' the term "limit state" is preferred. Limit
ttotes means " those conditions of a structure at rvhich it ceasesto fulfill its
,x
tion, heating and air conditioning,plumbing and sanitation, and lighting. On
( : l
the other hand, specificationsfrequently refer to rules set forth by tlre architect:ti
intended function'l [1.27].Limit statesare generallydivided into two cate-
( or engineerthat pertain to only one particular building while under construc- gories, strength and seruiceability.Strength (i.e., safety) limit states are such
. (
(
f,*+ -
...'.
"F ""
( l.zD + l.3lV+ 0.5L+ 0.5(L, or.Sor R) The term Allov,ableStressDesignimplies an elastic stresscalculation. Equa-
(1.8.5)
tion 1.8.9may be dir.idedby I/c (i.e.,the moment of inertia I divided by the
( r.2D + 1.5E+ (0.5Lor 0.2S) (1.8.6) distancec from the neutralaxis to the extremefiber) to obtain stressunits.
Thus, if one assumesthe nominal strength Mn is reachedwhen the extreme
( 0.9D- (t.lw or 1.5E) (1.8.7) fiber stressis the yield stressd (i.e., Mn: F,I/c), Eq. 1.8.9will become
(
The nominal seruiceloads indicatedby Eqs. 1.8.2through 1.8.? are ' -:. Fv'!, Y
( - (1.8.10)
r+
' FS I/c I/c
( D : dead load (gravity load from the weight of structural elementsand *
perrnanentattachments)
(
(
L = live load (gravity occupancyand movable equipmenr load)
L,: toof.liveload
s*
*=[r,:+] (l.s.1i)
( I4z: wind load In ASD the drzFS would be the allowable stress 4 and /r would be the
S : snow load computedelasiic stressunder full serviceload. If the nominal strength M, had
( E : earthquakeload been based on achievementof a stress .f, less than Fy becauseof, say,
R : rainwater or ice load buckling, then the allowable stress F, would be .Q,/FS. Thus, the safety
(
I,
(
..-/..'-'-
1 / tNTRclucTlcl-l
(
30
cos{PIRED
SAFEw - ASD AND LRFD (
1.9 FACTORSFOR - (
written
criterion in ASD rnaYbe
( (ASD)
F" 'tr':L ( 1. 8 . 1 2 ) Allowable StressDeslgn (
f a < l r u : u t o r 1 6I F s
T h e . . s a f e t y f a c t o r , , F S u s e d i n . E a s .The u g hin
g t h r outtd
l . S .uurutt l.Sthe w a sAsD
. l 2AISC n o t d e t e r m i n e (d
by using prob.abilisf und "tt the result of
consciously TJfts-
use for many yt;
-saJetv
beenin required must be a t
Theallorr.ablestressesoftheAS?specificati::tl.5larederivedfromthe specification[1.5]iau. 1t-:; ln"i the
overloaded'when the economically
srrengrhcapable;'b.*; acbievedif the r,*.,':,]s " experience."" ;'J;;{' -"L'
"na ,,uii*i.,'-ouuio"'ly"it
is no-t (
;J b;k1ing does not occur, strains greaterthan the first combinationor L.oiorni., of failure is zero' Prior to
scction is ductile of (,
r: Fr/!,:an
vielding" srrain e-iu.ul.
t*i" on the section(E' is the'modulus feasibleto A.rigli-. r*.iur.-r? !:iil;froUuUiUty ioriii.utioo t].r s1theArScSpecifica-
inlbstic behavior may permit higher-loads to be
thedeverop*.n,' J,,il. nisc _!*ro' for the allowable
elasticityl. Such In such G?8 dil not giue u 'uiion"le (
if the st*ctuit ttua remained entireiy elastic' tions from 1924';n;rn
carried than possible is limited by
casesthe allo*'aUl,estrtss is adju'teJ
upward' lvhen the strength
yield "*'ff;.T:;n'0.'^1;'n"theminim-T
j"I't::::"T:::ffi
(
Supposetf'" actual i"i:"I**u*
,u.h that the stressdoes not reach load exceedsthe
buckling o, **r-other behauio, "*"ttt' than the
(
stre ss , t heallowable s u e s s i s a d j u s te d d o w n w a rd. applied fouOUVlott'p""'iUta
";;;;;nr
;;;-,t. uriuut "'i't"n"t is |ess
* deflection limits are alwa'*-sinvesti- senrice load by
a0. (
Serviceability requiremeots,uch
whether the LRFD or the ASD design
s,arcclut ,.r"i"e loai condidons, computedresistancebyanamountAR.AStnrcturethatis.justadequate (
been used to satisfy safety requirements'
i?"..a"*-has 'wouldhave Q+LQ (
Rn-AR":
(1'9'1)
: + LQ/Q) (
R"(1 - AR"//R") 0(1
AISC - Plastlc Deslgn \
Tra d it ionall; *' P ar t2 o fth e A l s c s p e cguildings
i fi c a ti o n :l l ccontains
a l l edP l Plastic
asti cDDesign
esi gn.The T h e m a r g i n o f s a f e t y , o r . . s aload
f e t . v f aor
ctor,,,wouldbetheratioofthenominal (
in service Q;
lggg specilicarion for struuwat steh [1.5] strength Rn to nomi-nal
wherein the
,*t of li-it ttuttt design' | + LQ/Q (
chaprer N" Plastic Desigg is a spe"ia R,, (1.e.2)
is the ..hi.ut*tnt of plasticmcment slrength M p' F S = T : 1 - a8"/R"
limir state for strength (
P l a . s t i c m o r n e n t s u e u g t h i s t h e m o m e n t s t r e n g".:,113:s.in
t h w h e n a l l f itension
bersofthe
sid.eof,the
cross-sccrionare ar rhe yield stresrt too. not permit using other the effectof overload (tQ/q and understrength (
and the orher side in compressioij.
d*tic design-does
The design pfuloso' Equation1.9.2illustrates not iaeniifythe facto* JoittiUutingto either"lf (
limrt states.,u.h as instaUiiity,fuUgue,
or brittli fracture' (AR"/R"l; t*.J.r'i'J*, 40%greaterthan tts
members,including beam-columns, occasional 6gtOl may be be 15%
phy a5 used uy AISC applil to fl"exural
Eq. 1'8'1' Then letting Rn: Mp
one assumes that :''td:,;e
an occasio;l;:ffirrogttt ian""n-") may (
by and that
and for sucb membersmay be e*pr.ssed nominal value,
(
value'then !
and t,/Q : 1-7,Eq' 1'8'1 becomes l.esstt un its nominal
(1'8'13) 1 + 0 . 4 - t'o :1.65 (
L{, ,- r.1 LQ t
F S : 1 - 0 . 1 5 0.85
(
are combinedinto a single
The provisions for overloadand for undersfength
The nominil strengthnusr be the plastic in
p obasic-value
s athe
factor 1.? used for all gravity loads- t i o n -b u1'6?
T h e a b o v e i s a n o v e r s i m p l i f i c a;iii h o r vas
t i t sused ssiblescenariofrrr
design is a specialcaseof limit states obtainingthe traditi""ti
dric :t:J ioditutedin Eq' 1'8'12
give: a (
momenr ,,r.rigii- :tlr."Sin.. plastic
in itre.ntSC LRFD Specification'it is Srress ilil';F"*;y"i.;;"'
design anr3 is iou.r.i more ,utio*uUy Atlowable
no ionger treated as a special,opi. "t1u
prelious editionsof this book' Plastic anditis
;;i'sff::fffJ"l,:;rty:'1-r,:'-'::":'-T;[oii',liro,:'ffi
(
LRFD' is used for long (
designlecornes a comPonentof A valueof 1'92
in LRFD provides the must
Horvever'it"reel"
Tire limit states design philosophy as codified the lowerUounA-flir.i*r.ng,t^*fir*I1r.
3 ar" used for connections' (
to.desigRthan has been availablein uoo our*-' f;;t't;o the
leaves
designcr *trtr, a *or. ratiinai oppto.tfi columns, r'e'r;-tt*
ASD or Piastic Design, *t os" philosophies
are outlined in the following u'ing thesevalut;,rl' ;;;t"
bc noted,tut "failure" ('
exiellent summaryof'the advantages of :-. unknawnr
paragraphs.g;Ol. ff .igl providesan =::' ;;; against (
using LRFD. t
t'
I
(
t
I
t -
(
\(
(
(
| /INTRODUCT|ON q
:f
| .9/ FACTORS _ ASDANDLRFDCOMPARED
FORSAFETY
Load ahd Resistance Factor Destgn (LRFD) * rcprcscnting the margin of safety may be approximated Il.16l as
(
As discussedin Sec.1.8,the factorsfor overloadare variabledependingupon
{ the type of load, and the factoredload combinationsrhat musr be considered (1.e.4)
( are thosc givcn by the ANSI Standard[1.2Jand LRFD-A4.l, and presentedas Thus. the larger the distancethe smallerrhe probability of reachingthe
Eqs. 1.8.2through 1.8.7.The othcr part of the safety-related
provisionsis the p limit state.The multiplierp is callcd thereliabilityindex.The expressionfor B
( frctor, knou'n as the resistancefactor. The resistancefactor f varies with the from Eq. 1.9.4becomes
( type of member and with the limit statebeing considered.Somerepresentative
resistancefactors { are as follows: r, ln(RJe^)
( r .'---=----'--= (1.e.5)
Tcnsion lrtembers(LRFD-DI) ivi + t/6
(
\lore discussionof the developmenrof Eq. 1.9.5 is given in the LRFD
( 9, : 0.90 for y"ieldinglimit state
I
commentary[1.16].by Ravindraand Galanrbos[1.251,and in NBS Special
Q, = 0.75 f,orfracture limit state Publication577[1.32].The treatmentof the theoryof probability is outsidethe
( I scopeof this book.
( Members(LRFD-E2)
Compression using the factoredload combinarionsgiven by the ANSI standard [1.2],
the AISC Task Force and SpecificationCommittee calibrated the LRFD
( 0": 0.85
Specification[1.15] to generallyagreeuith past experience. Thus, the resis-
( Beams(LRFD-FI.2) t:rncefactors+ \r'eresetin LRFD rvith the objectiveof obtaining the following
valuesof B:
( Qa: 0.90
( Fasteners(A325 bolts) (LRFD-Table J3.2) Dcadload + live load (or snorvload) 3.0 for members
( 0 : 0.75 for tensilestrength 4.5 for connections
Deadload + live load + wind load 2.5 for members
( 0 - 0.65 for shearsuength Dead load + live load * earthquakeload 1.75 for members
( In order to establisb adequatesafety usilg probabilistic methoas ihe..
natural logarithm of the resistanceR divided by the load Q, that is, ln(R/Q)
Becauseof a lower probability of rvind or earthquakeoccurring with full
( as shown in Fig. 1.8.2,may be treated as a random variable and is simpler
gravity load, the reliability index B rvasmade lower for those cases.The F
than working with two groups(R and Q) of random variablesas in Fig. 1.8.1.
( valuesfor connectionswere made higher than for membersin order to make
When ln(R/Q) < 0, the limit statehas been exceeded,and the shadedarea in
connectionsstronger than membersas has been traditionally done.
( Fig. 1.8.2 is the probability of this event.The method used to develop LRFD
uses the mean ualuesR- and Q^ and the standarddeuiatiorc oR and on of the The LRFD Specificaticndevelopmenrcombinedthe following:
(
resistance and load, respectively.Frequently, the mean values and standard l. Probability model
( deviations can be estimatedwhile the actual distributions cannot be obtained. 2. CalibratiOnto the 1978AISC ASD Specification
Thus, using the quantities that may be estimatedthe standard deviation o of 3. Judgmentand past experience
( the ln( R/Q) may be approximatedas 4. Design office studiesof represenrative
structures
( The LRFD Specification(LRFD-A4.) uses six'factored load combina-
ou(a/et={v; + vi (1.e.3)
( tions, given as Eqs. 1.8.2through 1.8.7.This was necessaryto accountfor each
of the separateloads(dead,live, rooi wind additive to gravity, wind opposite
( where Vn: oa/R^
to gravity, and earthquake)acting at its maximum lifetime value. The loads
Ve: oq/e^
( other than dead load will act at the "arbitrary point-in-time" value. The
The margin of safety is the distance from the orign to the meai, as shown "arbitrary
point-in-time" value is that value which can be expectedto be on
,fi in Fig. 1.8.2, and is expressedas a multiple F of o^rp7ot. The distance the structure at any rime. The arbitrary point-in-time value of live load (t)
(
- ASD AND LRFD GUM|.Af1tr'u -
t.9 / FACToRS FoR SAFETY
F ( ;
34 1 / INTROEX-tgrloN
Load at its'LiJetime (
(50 year)Maximum (
LRFD Eq. L.oadCombination
Shapes,Sheet Piling, and Ban far Srntct'"tralLise, A6-88c. Pbiladelphia, PA: (September1978),1337-1353' . a 6 ^, r Reducing the complexity
American Society for Testing alrd ltfuterids, 1988. "Limit StatesDesign--A-Tool.for
1.26. Geerhard Haaijer.
1.9. Narionai Researcb Council of Caaada- Canadian Structwal Design lv{onual, u't nfSC National Engineering Conferecce'
of Steel Structures," paper pt.**J
SupplernentNo. 4 ro the National Building Code of Canada, Ottaw4 Canada. Marcb 4, 1983. - ;.- a^ ^-_ rr^^i^_ ^r I Canada,"
l 985. |'21.D.J.LaurieKennedy.*LimiistatesDesignofsteelStnrcturesrn
"Loads," Chapter 2, Building
Ll0. H. S. Leq', Emil Simiu, and Bruce EIt;n**'*. JournalofstructuratEngineering'eSCf"1ry'-' (February1984)'275-290'
White and CbarlesG. Salmon,Ed. New "Nortb Leric"n Limit StatesDesig!"' Proceedings'The
StructuralDesignHandbook,Richard N. 1.28. D. J. Laurie Kennedy.
York: John Wiley & Sons,1987tBp- 9-43)' IgS5InternationalEngineeang_Slntgosrwt.on^Structura|Sreel.Cbicago,IL:
May 22-24'1985'
i I I AISI. Specilicationfor the Design o! Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members. American i"t'itutt of iteel Construction' (4tb
Washington, DC: American Iron acd SreelInstitute, S€Ptember,1980. "Why LRF;|" Modern Sieel Cot'strucrion' AISC 25' 4
1.29. Lynn S. Beedle.
1.12. AISI. Cold-Farmed SteelDesign t{qztal, Part I, Specifcation; Pan II, Contmen' Quarter,1986),30-31' the slnrc-
nr.ry.;Part III, SupplementaryInfonnatiors Part IY, Illustratiue Examples; ond ..proposed LRFD Design criteria"' Jownal of
!.1s. s.1ankJ. Heger. {sc Disc' 106' ST12 (Decem'
Part V, Charu and Tables.New York: American Iron and Steel Institute, 1982. ST3 (Mu"l fSAO;' iZg-na'
tural Diuision, ASCB 106'
I 13. SJI. Standcrd Specificationskxtd Tabia & Weight Tabla tor Steel f oists& Joist ber 1980), 2576-2577'
"Advalces ia Steel Design and constnrction"' Proceedings'
Girtlers. )',{yrrle Beach, sC: Steel Joisr Institute (Suite A,, 1205 48tb Avenue 1.31. stanley D. Lindsey.
North, \I1'rtle Beach,SC 29577),1988. Chicago, trL: Americas
solutiors in steel, rne watronatinginerrrngb^o_nferrnrr-
12-14' 1986'
: 14. Chu-Kia Wang and CbarlesG. Se-iriroc^. Intrductory Structural Analysis.Engle- Institute of Steel Construction' June
.r'oodClfis, NJ: Prentice-Hall,[tr-, 19E4. Flliagrpgod, Theo,dore V. Galambos, James G. MacGregor, and c. Allin
1'32. Bruce
n*ti Load Criterion for American National
Cornell. Deuelopmentof a Probafitity
5?7. Washington, DC: US Departmeot
StandardlSS, NBs SpecialPublication
N"tioott Bureau of Standards' June 1980'
of Cogl-tilt,
Load and Resistance Factor Deslgn ... Bruce Fllingwood, James G. Maccregor, 1qd c' Alry
1.33. Theodore v. Galambos,
I t.q. ,{iSC Incd ond Resistance Factor D*ign SpecilicationforStructura! SteelBuild' Cornell...ProbabilityBascdLoadCriteria:AssessmEntofCurrentDesigoPrac.
rncs.Chlcago, IL: American Insdrute of Steel Construction,September1, 1986.' ice,,,Journa!o!theSrrrtawalDiaision,Ascql0S,sT5(May1982)'959-9?7. "lilind
c. Alli! Cornell' and Theodore V' Galambos'
I 16. i.lSC, Comrr.entaryon the Load ond Resistance Factor Design Speci{ication
for 1.34. Mayas;r;i:Ravindra Divislon'
LRFD," Journal of the Sttttnttral
Structura!Steel Buildinp.(SeptemfurI, /'986).Chicago,IL: American Institute of anO snoJ Load Facton for Use in
' (September 1978)' 1443-1457'
SreclConstruction. 1986. ASCE, 104, ST9
(
'(
(
(
40
$filrd
I /lir- ' !'lTiO!'!
1t Chapter2
(
(
s.ff ,ASCE, Task Committee on lVind Forrreq Comrnittee on Loads and Stresses.
Stnrctural Division. "Wind Forces on Structurcsi' Journal of the Structural
:ln
II
Diuision, ASCE, 84, sr4 (July 1958) lpreliminary' Repon); and Final Reporr,
(
(
Transactious, ASCE, 126,pt. II (1961),ll24-1198.
186. Kishor C. Mehta "Wind Load provisions ANSI =A5g.l-19g2," Jouma! ol
t
I
I
, !
t
s
Steelsand Properties
StructuralEngineering, 110,4 (April 1984),769-794.
(
(
Ee. Theodore Stathopoulos,David Surrv. and Alan G. Davenport. "Effecrive \['incl
:.oads on Flat Roofs." Journal i1 ,n,
, Februar_r'
I 981), 281-298.
srructurar Ditision. AscE. l0?. sr2 II
T
(
( Aqow Loads
( l..rt. Michael J. O'Rourke,and Ulrich Stiefel. "Roof Snow Loads for Strrctural
Design," Journalof structuralEngineering,
ASCE. 109.7 (July 1983),152?-153?.
( 1.39. J. T. Tcmplin and W. R. Schriever."Loads due to Drifred Snos,,"Joumal of the
SrructuralI)irision,ASCE, 108.STB(Augustl9B2).l916-1925.
( 1.40. Michael O'Rourke. Wayne Tobiasson.and Evelln lvood. "Proposed Code Provi-
{ sions for Drifted Snon'Loads,"Jcurnalof StructuralEngineerhrg.
112,9 (Seprem-
ber 1986).2080-2092.
( 1l:41.Michael J. O'Rourkc. Robert Rcdfield, and Peter von Bradsky. "Uniform Snow
Loads on Structures," Journal of the Structural Diaisiorr,ASCE, 108, ST12 2.1 STRUCTURAL
STEELS
(. (DecemberI 982), 2781-2798.
( I.42. Michael J. O'Rourke.RobertS. Speck.Jr., and Ulricb Sticfel."Drifr Snow Loads l)uring most of the periodfrom the introductionof structuralsteelas a major
on Multilcvel Roofs," Journalof srructuralEngineering,
ASCE. llr, 2 (February i''uildinBmaterialuntil about i960, the steelused was classifiedas a carbon
( r985).290-306. 'tcsl with the .{STM (AmericanSocietyfor Testingand Materials)designation
( 't7. and had a minimumspecifiedyield stressof 33 ksi. Most designersmerely
''
EarthquakeLoad rrfcrred to "steel" rvithoutfurther identification,and the AISC specification
( .,
prescribedallowablestressesand proceduresonly for the A7 type of steel.
1.43. SEAOC. Reconzntended l-ateral Force Requirementsand Contmentan'.San Fran- ()ther structuralsteels.such as a specialcorrosionresistantlow alloy steel
(
cisco. CA: SeismologyCommittee, Structural EngineersAssociation of Califor- r .\242)and a more readily'u'eldable steel(A373),wereavailablebut they were
( nia, 1974. r.rrelyused in buildings.Bridge designmade occasionaluse of theseother
1.44. Anil K. Chopra and ErnestoF. Cruz."Evaluation of Buitding Code Formulasfor
:teBIS.
( Earthquake Forces." Jounrul of structural Engineering,ASCE, l12, 8 (August
1986).1881- 1899.
Today (1989) the many steelsavailableto the designerpermit use of
( rncreasedstrength material in highly stressedregions rather than greatly
1.45. Anil K. Chopra. Dynanics of Structures,A Printer. Berkeley, CA: Earthquale
Engineering ResearchInstirute, 198C. rncreasethe size of members.The designercan decide rvhethermaximum
(
1.46. R. W. Clough and JosephPenzien. Dt'namicsof Structures.Nerv York: McGraw- ;'ieidityor least rveightis the more desirableattribute. Corrosionresistance,
( Hill. 1975. irr:rceelimination of frequentpainting, may be a highly important factor.
1.47. Applied TechnologyCouncil (ATC). Associated'*itb the Srructural Enginccrs \t,s1s steelsoxidize to form a denseprotectivecoating that preventsfurther
(
Association of California. Tenlatiue Prouisionsfor the Deuelopntentof Seisntic ,'xrdation (corrosion).acquiring a pleasingeven-textureddark red-brorvn
( Regulationsfor Buildings(ATC -t-06l (NBS Publication 510). Washingron" DC: rppearance.Sincepaintingis not required,it may be economicalto use these
Center for Building Technology,National Bureau of Standards.June l9?8. "rveathering
steels".eventhough the initial cost is somewhathigher than
( 1.48. UBC. Unifornt Building Code.Whittier, CA: International Conferenceof Build- traditionalcarhonsteels.
ing Officials, 1985.
( Certain steelsprovide better weldabiliry than others; some are more
'urtabl€than othersfor pressurevessels, eitherat temperatures well aboveor
( '.r'ellbelorvroom temperatures.
(
r"
( 41
2 / STEELS AND trffOPERTIES USEDFOR BUILDINGSAND BR1DGES
OF STEETJS
(
TABLE 2.1.1 PROPERTIES
'\ Fy (
i
I Minimum Fo Maximum
yield Tensile thrckness ASTM A6 (
stress strenglh for plates groups'
in. for
(
ASTMI ksl ks!
(MPa)r (mm) shapes
designal'on iMPa)l
32 58-80 Over8
\2201 (400-550) (200)
36 58-80 To 8
(2s0) (4oo-550) (2oo)
/
(
t \
44 27 STEELSANDPROPERTIES 2 I /STRUCTURALSTEELS 45
\
, (
l TABLE 2-1.1 Continued i A B L E 2 . 1 . 2 U S E SO F V A R I O U S T E E L S
, (
Fy ASIM' desrgnatton Ccrnmonusage
( Minimurn Fu Maximum
yielcl Tensile thickness ASTMA6 -\-t6 ('erbon steel
( slless strenglh lor plates groupso
..\il Carbon Stecl
ASTM! ksi ksi in. lor
( (MPa)t (mm) rl{1 High-strcngth Wc'ldcd and boltcJ trn.13.-ct'rn:lructir.rntlhcrc cortoslon
desrgnalron lMPa)r $hapes
i(t$-allo! slecl rcsistance'ir dr'rrrt-d: r'-s:rnttdlv superscdt'd b1' A?09. (ir:dc 5i.)\\'
( .\ ii x) Cold-forntcd ucldcd lnJ searnlcssround. squarc. rcctangular. r-rrspt'c:& shJlc
A60- Grade -35 45(310) 60(410)
i ( ('rrbon slecl structural tubina for bolt.'d and ucldcd gcncral structural PulTosc!
Crade 50 50(340) 6s (450)
I G r a d e5 5 55(380) ?0t480t \i,Il Hot-fornrc'd uclJcd .r:.j sr'amlcssiquarc. rcctangulrr. rounr!. rti siJj..l: '!'l::is
{
t 60(410) 75(520) ( .rrbon stecl slructuirl lubrni f,rr h..ir!'J 3nd $cidcd gcncral structural purfl' r{'
Grade €'0 'cri;ic:
(lraCe 6 i 65(450) 80(s50) i. i r rrffjr .*c..l.qu.n.fr.J-_pl"i.; i; ,h,Jn..... ..f " '" it -.u*rniona un,l.t. p;trtrlr for ,.ci;-'.:
( ?0(480) 85(590) largell'sup('r)cdcJ br. {-19 f.rr bndgc's
Grade l0 .rnd tcmpercd
( il:'r G*d-"c 33(230) 48(330) \ile Platcsand har: i :n. i l-1 mm) and lcss in thickncsr
Grade D 40(275) 52(360) ( arbon stcel or diamr'tcr and (i;..u; i :hepc'sIl 8] for u:c in boltc'd
( Grade E 80(550) 82(565) and wcldcd ms.taibu:lc:na \\stem frarncs and lrusscr
r\ri3GradesI&II 50(345) 70(485) To I in. walls \i-'l Hot-rolL'd shtct rnJ riil du! :n lcn3ths or cotls: frrr
( cold-form,-'d)cdl:olt: irnan.imumthrckncss0.:19 ln. (6 mml'l
G r a d eI I I s0(345) 65(450) ( .rrbr-rnlteCl
{ Frs Gr",i.36 36 58-80 To4 All r.-: rri!n-'ii*!rn-. Structural shanc.. ri.its':. shcl-tp:itnz. and heri for
(250) (400-550) (100) i'u-allol. columbium boltcd anri ucldcd hu:ic:ng.: sclded bridgt's in (iratlcs 4l
( 50 65 To4 All , 'r ranadium stccl and 50 onlr: .'ss!'nlialir .,;pcr*-ciedb;..4709. (iradc 50
Grade 50
(345) (450) (100) \i\l{ Structural shapc'. platcs. and bais for *cldcd buildings and bndi.'. ii h.:: l c:ihi
( 70 To4 All . savings6r addcd dura|':i:tr are ncedcd: atmosphcric corrotlon iL-\r\i::r!c '\
Grade 50W 50 I lrah-rtrength
1345) (485) (100) i ,' u . a l l o v s t e c l about four timcs th;i of {j6 rir.'el:csscnlialll supcrscdcdbr A-'.;'i.
( (iradc 5(l for bnde.cr
Grade i00 90 100-I 30 Over2| to 4 -
( & i00w (610) (690-895) (64-102) \' ',() nn,. and cold-rolL.a .r.,.'.i*Jrrnp in lcngrh.;r,.-i;, for col.!-ic;:.jj .r-i .'i..
100 110-130 To 2| I liah-strcngth wherc cnhanccd durahii:tr is desircd: atmosph!.nc corrosion rc.r.:::i.i :ni
GraCe 1r.t0
( & l00w (6e0) (760-895) (64) l{"*-allo,vstecl Type 2 at lcast t'*icr'thai of carbon steel: and forTvpc'4al lt'a't
four tintcs that of carbon stcel
( -
5 l
i
t{l
steels lisred arc approved under the AISC Spccificationst1.5, 1.151cxcept A6ll and A70i'.
r : l
I I rgh-strengthlos -allor for cold-formed scctioni.'.rhr're 3rcaier strcngth and ucight \31rn;.. r:. ::l:ii'i':rnl
( '1gi-i
.ASTM A6 atnrOsphcriccorrrr\iot ii.stsij1llC{r,rithoUtcoPpcrl i: tht'slttllc a..;;h,r1
il.8lplaccs structural rolled shapcs(W.I{. S. HP, C. MC, and L) in Groups I through i r r i u m h i u r no r
a:
( Carbon seels are divided into four categories based on the percentage
( of carbon: low carbon (less than 0.157o); mild carbon (0.15-0.297o);
medium carbon (0.30-0.59%);and high carbon (0.60-1.70?a\. Structural car-
( bon steelsare in the mild carboricategory:a steelsuch as 436 has maximum
,.(
,u--
2'2 / FASTENE"i * ''':.cib
qT
x(
46 2 z'STEELS AND FROPEFIfIES (&"
(
,g
remper*roobtainvierdstrengrhs of
Tensile strength, F,
*:;:TlL* mayb,e-T..::h:g.and defined asrhesrre$$ (
yiJJ ,tteoltnir usualiv
Heat-treated @nstructional .
allov steels;A514 quenched
80to 110ksi(55d;;loo vrp"l. aJnot exhibit a well'definedyielrd
thesr ri.tit ('
and ternPeredalloY steei at o.z% offset ,*"in, since i
!!'iinimum Yield {r€ngth
D o i n t . A t y p i c a l s t r e s s . s t r ap'o"taotts'
i . n c u r v e -and
i s s hordinarily
o w n i n F requite
i g . z . l . Lng
, caddi'
urve(c)'These (
Fy = looksi proper
steelsare weldablewith been welded' For special $se'' stress (' ,
ihey'haue
tional n.u, ,r.ui*-.;;;t
s
High-strength.low' t
t
alloy carbon steels;
relieving*uvo,..,ionallyu,,.qui'.d.Somecalbonsteels,sueha$ceilain ( 1
A572 temperedto giveyield stre'gLtsiS
pressurevesselsteels,maibe qu.n.ttJand
4
steelsbt tttir strengrhare low'dr€y , a
t ' 1
(
(415 N{Pa); and Grade B bolts for flangedjoints in piping sysremsrvhereone llter bc checkecl.Whenevergalvanizedbolts are used."double the nuts nlust bc
( or both flanges are cast iron. The Grade B bolts have a maxinun tensile ..oversizc,J." oversized."
If the nuts are also galvanized,they must be
( strength limitation of 100 ksi (700 MPa). No well-defined yield point is Steelshaving tcnsilestrength in the rilnge of 100 ksi or higher are subject
(
exhibited by these bolts, and no minimum 1"ieldstrength (for instance,A.2% ro hydrogenembritrtementwhen hydrogenis pcrmitted to remain in the steel
\ offset strength)is specified. and high rensilestressis applied. Th. introduction of h-vdrogenoccurs during
"sealing-
r
\ the pickling operation of the galvanizingprocess and the subsequent
in" bf rhe hydrogenand zinc coating t2.23].The minimum tcnsilesucngth of
( A325 [2.5], Htgh-Strength Bolts lor Structural Steel Jolnts A325 bolts is well below the critical 200 ksi range.On the other hand, A490
( This quenchedand temperedmedium carbon steelis used for bolts commonly bolts have a minimum tensilestrengthof 170 ksi, a valueconsideredtoo close
known as " high-strengthstructural bolts," or high-strengthbolts. This mate- ro the critical range.Thus, galuanizingof A490 boltsis not perrnitted.
(
rial has maximum carbon of 0.30%.It is beat-treatedby quenchingand then
( by reheating(tempering)to a temperatureof at least 800"F. This steelbehaves
in a tension tcst more similarly to the heat-treatedlow-alloy steelsthan to AND FILLERMATERIAL
2.3 WELDELECTRODE
( carbon steel. It has an dltimate tensilesrrengrhof 105 ksi (733 Mpa) (1| to
( 1f in.-diam bolts) to 120 ksi (838 MPa) (1 ro t-in.-diam bolts). Its yield The detailedtreatmentof welding and welded connectionsappearsin Chapter
strength, measuredar0.2% offset, is prescribed at 8l ksi (566 Mpa) minimum 5. The electrodesused in shielded metal arc welding,(SMAW) (seeSec.5.2)
tcr I * to 1*-in.-diam bolts, and'92ksi (643 MPa) for bolts ! to I in. diam (see also serve as the filler material and are covered by AWS A5.1 and A5.5
( Table4. 1. 1) . Specifications 12.241.Such consumable electrodes ate classified E60XX,
"E'denotes electrode.
E?0XX, E80XX; E90XX, E100XX, and Ell0XX. The
(
A449 t2.7!,Quenched and Tempered Steel Bolls and Studs
(
USEDFOR\I,IELDING'
TABLE2.3.1 ELECTRODES
These bolts have tensile strengths and yield stresses(strength at 0.2% offset)
( the same as ,{325 for bolts 1| in. diam sld smatler; however,they have the
( regular hexagon head and longer thread length of 4,307 bolts. They are also shielded submergecl Gas Metal FluxCored
available in diameters up to 3 in. The AISC Specifications[1.5, I.15] permit l.'ieialArc Arc Arc Arc
( V/elding Welding Welding Welding
use of A449 bolts only for ceilain stnrctural joints requiring diametersexceed-
isMAW) (SAW) (GMAW) (FCAW) Minimum Minimum
( rng 1l in. and for high-strength anchor bolts and threaded rods. .\ yield .tensile
AWSA5.1 AWSA5.17 AWSA5.18 AWSA5.20
or A5.5 or 45.23 - or 45.28 or A5.29 stress slrength
(
(k") (MP.) (ksi) (MPa)
A490 [2.8I, Heat Treated, Steel Structural Bolts, 150 ksl
(
(1035 MPa) Tensile Strength
E6OXX E6XT-X 50 345 62 min 425
(
This material has carbon content that may range up to 0.s3onfor I I in.-diam F6X-E)fiX 50 345 62-80 425-550
( bolts, and has alloying elementsin amounts similar to the A5l4 [2lll steels. L.?OXX ER?O$X ETXT-X 60 415 72s1ilg- 495
F7X-D(XX 60 415 70-90 485-655
After quenching in oil the material is tempered by reheating ro at least 900oF. 80!ilin 550
( E80XX 67 60
The minimum yield strength, obtained by 0.2% offset, ranges from ll5 ksi FSX-EfiX EsXT 68 470 80-100 550-690
( (803 MPa) (over 2| in. to 4 in. diam) to 130 ksi (908 Mpa) (for 2| in. diam - 65 450 80min 550
ER80S
and under). El00xx 87 600 100min 690
( F1oX-E)fiX 88 605 100-130 690-895
ERlOOS 90 620 100min 690
( ElOXT 88 605 100-120 690-830
Galvanlzed High-Strength Bolts
En0x 97 670 110mio 760
( 110-130 760-895
In order to provide corrosion protection, ,4,325 bolts may be galvanized. Fllx-E)(xx 98 675
( ERllos 98 675 110mia 760
Hot-dip galvanizing requires the molten zinc temperature to be in the rangeof
HTXT 98 675 110-125 760-860
the heat treatment temperature; thus, tbe mecbanical properties obtained by
(
heat treatment may be diminished. Iq general, only Type 1 A325 botts should 'Filler
( be hot'dip galvanized. If Type 2 are galvanized the mechanical propertiesmust metat requirementsgiven by AWS Dl.l [2.24],Table 4.1.1 to match lbe various structural
stcelS.
l' -
(
,>- TEST)
(TENSION
BEHAVTOR 51 (
2.4/ STRESS.STRAIN
50 Al.rD
2 / STEELS PnOpERTtES
(
(
The first two digits indicatethe tensilestrengthin ksi; thus the tensilestrength .5% Extensionunder load yield strength.F, = 100 ksi ( l
rangesfrom 60 to 110 ksi (414 to 760 MPa). The "X's" representnumbers
0.2% Offset yield strength. F" = 100 ksi
indicatingthe usageof the elecrrode. (
For submetged.r. welding(SAW) (seeSec.5.2),the electrodeswhich also For F"' = 1O0 ksi; tyPical for steels
scn'e as filler material are covered by AwS A5.17 and '45.23, and are with F" ) 65 ksi
( ,
designatedF6X-EXXX, F7X-EXXX, F8X-EXXX, F9X-EXXX, FI0X-EXXX, ( ,
and FllX-EXXX. The "F'designatesa granularfiux materialthat shieldsthe
weld as it is made.The first of the two digits following the-"fl iodicaterhe ( :
,
tensile strength (6 means 60 ksi), while the second digit gives the Chatpy (
V-notch impact strength.The "E'and the other X's represent,numbers
relating to the use.For gasmetal arc welding (CMAW) (seeSec.5.2) and flux 0.2%Of{set(0.0O2in'/in.} c
o (
E
coredarc welding(FCAW) (seeSec.5.2)the electrodesare designated ER70S-X (b)
For F.' = 50 ksi; typical far most structural
I t-- -^-. -r',,Flr,"r
(
and ETXT-X, respectively. The number70 (or 7) is the rensilestrengthin ksi. steelswith F" ( 65 ksi
o
v,
The yield stressesand tensilestrengthsof the commonly used electrodesare ( "
{i 9 e nin T able2. 3. 1. (
(
2.4 STRESS-STRAIN (
(TENS|ONTEST)
BEHAVIOR Elasticrange
AT ATMOSPHERIC I
TEMPERATURES Plaslrcrange t Strainhardeningrange (
Typical stress-strain cun'es for tensionare shown in Fig. 2.1.1 for the three
I
( ,
I
I
catesoriesof steel already discussed:carbon, higlr-strengthlow-alloy, and .' 3 1 l ( i
|
hcat-treatedhigh-strength low-alloy.The surmebehavioroccursin compression
lr'hensupport is pror ided so as to precludebuckling. The portion of eachof o'ocs o'oto o'o2o 0'025 ( i
the stress-strain cun'esof Fig. 2.1.1that is utilized in ordinary designis shorvn ,,,..'n.::):"'
(':
cn l a rg edin F ig, 2. 4. 1 . curvesfor differentyield str€sses'
Figure2.4.1 Enlarggdtypicalstress'strain
The stress-strain cun'esof Fig. 2.1.1are determinedusing a unit srress (
,'btained by dividins the ioad by the originai cross-sectional area of &e (
specimen,and the strain(inchesper inch) is obtainedas the elongationdivided
the unit stressat a lield
bv tire original length. Such curves are knorvn as engineeringstress-strain Fig.2.4.1. Yietdsrressis the generalterm to inclqde (
curvesand rise to a inaximumstresslevel(knorlraas the tensilrsirength)and po-ittt,when such.exists,or the yield strength'
is known as (
then fall off n'ith incrcasingstrainuntil they terminateas the specimenbreak^s. The ratio of srressto strarnrn the initial straight line region
Young's modulus, E, which for structural stBels
insofrr as the materic!itseliis concerned the unit stresscontinuesto riseuntil the modulus of elasticity,or (
'fhe as 29,000 ksi (200,000 MPa). In the straight-line
:.rrlureoccurs. sc-calledtrue-.stress/true-strain cuwe is obtainedby using may be raken approximately
henceit is (
thc actualcross-seciicn cvenniterneckingdorvnbeginsand usingthe instanta- ,.gio. loading and unloadingresultsin no pennanentdeformation;
is always intended
neous incremental slrain. The engineeringstress-straincurve permits the the elasticrunge.The service,loadunit stressin steeldesign (
though in order to ascertain
nracticaluseof the original(beforeneckingdo*n) cross-section. to be safely wittrin the proportional limit, even
knowledgeis requlred (
stre-ss-straincun''es(as per Fig. 2.a.1)show a straight line relationshipup safety factors against failure or excessivedeformation,
up to a strain about 15 to 20 times the maximum
: ' ;r point kno*'n as the proportionallimit, which essentiallycoincideswith'the of the stress-strainbehavior (
.'rcld point for most structuralsteelswith yield points not exceeding65 ksi elastic strain-
t450 \{Pa). For the qucnchedand temperedlow-alloy steelsthe deriatitn from For steelse-'.hibitingyield points, as curves(a) and (b) of Fig.
2.4'1. the (
exists is known as the plastic
a straiglit line occursgraduallv.as in cun'e (c), Fig. 2.4.7.Sincethe term yielJ large strain for which eisentially constant stress i
factor design method consciously uses this
point is not appropriateto curve(cl, y'ieldstrengthis used for the stressar an ioig, The load and resistanc;
steels typified by curve (c) of Fig. 2.4.1 also have a (
offset strain of 0.2S: or atternatively, a 0.5%extJnsionunder toad,as shownin ,;;; The higher strength
(
(
(
r
1
'(.
i (
j
2 5 / t :ATER|ALTOUGHNESS 53
I \..
r
r l
'C
t '
(
. -t$ortithat might be calledthe plasricrange;horvever.in this zone rhe srressis Tt.ri. erature.
(
i
Th,us,this region is not permitted by AISC to be used for steeisrvhosevield D u c r i l i t i -t r J n s i i ; u nL c , n p c r a t u r e
i
gtr€ssexcesds65 ksi. a t t 5 t t . l b . ,s a v l f F i
( I
For strains greater than 15 to 20 times the maximum elastic strain'the 60 i80
( ssiEssagain increasesbut rvith a much flatter slope than the original elastic 50 i E
T:'arsit:oniemierature i60 z
t *$fuS"-
This increasein strength is called $rain haidening, which c-onrinuesup 40 at ic€p€i: slope, sav +30'F
t &r &nsile strength. The slope of the sress-strain cune is knoun as the i =
30 l.roEi
(' s$ein-hlrdening modulus, f,,. Averagevaluesfor this modulusand the strain - ] . J|
7
( k* (.1800l\{Pa) ar (r, : 0.021in. per in. The strain-hardening,rng. is not -20 0 +20 +40 +$Q
@ciousl)' used in desigrn. oF
l o but certain of the buckling limitations ur. conr.r- Ten,perature,
r f*rdiuelyderived to precludebuckling even at srrains rvell beyond onset of
l Figure 2.5.1 Transition tempcrature cun'e for carbon steel obtained from Chatp.v
r sgfl#trhardening.
V-notch impact tests.(Adapted from Ref. 2j5)
i The stress-straincurve also indicatesthe ductility. Ductility is defined as
7
I
t" tfEamount of permanentstrain (i.e.,strain exceed"ing proportio;al umig up ro
r
( tfte point of fracture. N'leasurement of ductiliry is oUiained from rhe rension pendulum. The amount of energy absorbedis calculatedfrom the height the
I @ by determining the percent elongation (comparing final and original pcndulum raisesafter breaking the spechen. The amount of energyabsorbed
( Kss'sectional areas) of the specimen. Ductility is important becauseit
i rvill increaservith increasingtemperatue at which tbe test is conducted.
fermits yielding locally due to high stressesand thuJ allorvs the srress Though the Charpy V-notch test has been a corunon meansof determin-
t; distnibutionto change.Designproceduresbasedon inelastic behaviorrequire
r ing notch toughness.other fracture criteria and more recentl_v fracturemecharr
i large inherent ductility, particularly for treatment of stressesnear holes or ics have been used 12.26).Barsom and RoUe [2.28] and Barsom[2.29, 2.30j
V
i abrupt changein membershape,as well as for clesignof connections. haveexcellentlypresentedthe imponanr factorsrelatingto fractureof steel.
I
l
Figure 2.5.1 shorvsthe typical relaiioaship betweentenperature and ihe
/
L
transition from ductile to brittle bebarior. such as one may obtain from the
i
2.5 MATERIAL
TOUGHNESS Charpy V-notch test.The temperatureai tbe point where the slopeis steepest
i(
(point A of Fig. 2.5.1) is' the transitioo.temperature.Sincebrittlenessand
( The use of steeishaving higher strengththan 4,36 without heat reatment has ductility are qualitative terms, the various structural steelshave different
resultedin problemsrelating to lack of ductility and material fracture requirementsfor ductility at various tenperatures dependingon their senice
lZ.Z7l;
at least the use of such steelsrequires the structural eogineer to be more environment (loading, temperature,slressald strain levels,loading rate, and
( eonsciousof material behavio.r. cyclic loading).
In structural steeldesign,toughnessis a measureof the ability of steelto For example.a moderateamouni of ductilir-t*may be requiredfor ordi-
{ resist fracture; i.e., to absorb energy. According to Rolfe lz.i6l, material nary structureswhere very low temperaturesare oot expected;in such cases,
( toughnessis defined as " the resistanceto unstable crack propagation in the l5 ft-lb has commonly been the energy absorption required.The temperature
presenceof a notch." Unstablecrack propagationproducesbrittle fracture,'as obtained frqm the test results cun'e of Fi-e.2.5.1 at 15 ft-lb rvould be about
( opposedto stable crack growrh of a subcritical crack from fatigue. l7oF, known is the ductility transition ternperature.This would indicate that
1.
For uniaxial tension,toughnesscan be expressedas the total area under rire material may be expected to be brittle rvhen service temperaturesare
the stress-straincurve out to the fracture point where the diagram terminates. below 17oF.
( Since uniaxial tension rarely exists in real structures, a more useful index of
( toughnessis based on the more complex stress condition at the root of a
notch. 2.6 YIELDSTRENGTH
FOR MULTIAXIALSTATESOF STRESS
( " Notch toughnessis the measureof the resistanceof a metal to the start and
( propagationof a crack at the baseof a standard notch, comrnonly using the Only rvhen the load-carryingraember is subject to uniaxial tensilestresscan
Charpy V-notch test.This testusesa small rectangularsimply supportedbeam the properties from the tension test be expectedto be idertical with thoseof
E ( .
having a V-notch at midlength.The bar is fractured by a blow from a srvinging the structural member.it is easy to forget that yielding in a real structureis
,(
SlHtr>)
FOR MULTIAXIALSTATESOF
-:t
-ar+[-'l e =
the unia-rialvaiue {u.
I
,\-/ t i:
*-' / a
For ail statesof stressother than uniaxia!. a definition of yielding is I o2 at ( .'1
1,,;
, s-#u,
( o
Temperature, F
(2.6.6)
( (a) AverageEffect ol Temperature on Yield StrenEh
r
'i, j c.JJ
2.7 HIGHTEMPERATURE
BEHAVTOR 1E '. 0.8
= = 2
Ja.'
( Ilie design of structures to sen/e under atmospherictemperaturerarely in- 7==i. 0.6
r
= ' ! -
'lolvesconcernabout high
=
-!
e 0.6
( strength in that range. Tensilestrength may rise to about 10% above r,hatat 3
]a
e':.'r
t- 2t-
room temPeratureand yield strengthmay recoverto about its room tempera- s. =-; F 0.4
( ture value when the temperaturereaches500 to 600oF(260 to 320.C). Strain s 3-.
: :;
=E,F
0.2
( a$ng resultsin decreased ductitity. '* ? X: :€
-
58 2 ,.'STqELSAND PROPERTIES
2 g / COLDWOFK AND
STRATNHARDENING
c(,r
(',
dis-
changes,such^as-carbideprecipitation
brirrlcncssclue to metallurgical (510'C): and (c) corrosion (
occuruf iUout 950"F
cusscdin Scc.2.I. beginsto 1000"F
of sructurll steelsincreasesfor temperaturesup to about ' agtng
resistance and some heat yie'd l:ll increase t
i'"'1fr
:$::.'t#;T:iJ;ff I'liJ-;il"::"$:i:$:.1"no the cold work effect
is much more
(
(
loadedin unra-xrar tension-co*pr.rrion scopeof the text'
J;65r t€
unO "nnl,t...ri,i.^f ,ruay oi"ii is orttide the from platesat armo- (
Strenglh complex u'" -iit'uv t"ia-t"rmine bendi' Co'ldworking
When strucruralshaBes occurat ;he (
i"J;ii. deformations increasesthe yield
spheric,.,o'.r",ir'rl, range .i',rr. u.no ro"uti..,n-r
hardening (
into the srrarn
I
t
Bt 'ipr,riliro'ion v'Lv' - n}f,'ffi
,i,.ngth,whi9h't'"-:;I*lt];::,n"ll",ltmt"f ::f it:1: (
(,l the DesignoJ LoIa ru""cu
for-
I (
I has such Prov'lslons
I S t r ai n
U p o n u n t o a d i n g a n d a f t e r,5;;;"i.4
- a - p e r i o d ouv m e ' t h eb's t ec'e l und
f t iP"i;; a vof
w i l l hE
Fis'
eacquired
I ,I iarcenlt:l
thos. ('
I differentprop.rii.r-from tgtng'as*o* in Fig'
I
I 2.8.1by a phenomenon know" *:;,,],"n^'iirt'.Slin a plasticzoneof (
I i".;.;;;i; ,t.{ p"ini'tiilrls
uoaitionur
I z.8.7.produ..r'ln u o'*'li'ii"'FJ*f*l..,$ (
constant andgives
stress' ;l'1[:i::'i[;'T
I (
i:";:f *.*f ;lf :il,T'^d:'h"'i:t'".J'."'*.;it;..'"theorigin
if :; (
Strain roranarvzi'g?'ia-r"*'4,:T.":"??Jr:lH*:l{S':ry
;t:ffi;il"* it. ..i' ortt'.bend (
;;l*:"*rft:J;il'lJ'fl:ff (
i',-,1-J-a^I
(
'g!
'RcfcrreC to hen''tforth as the AISI Specifrcation'
&e clastic rangc' (
;rgure 2 E i I:ffrrts t'f strairunt txloo'l
(
(.
(
60 z,
q 29/BRiTTtEFRACruil 61
-t t
.i
( :'l
a , ' rrrgby &rr.--. - .-.- 'i'€ dfbatsof cold '*'ork should I
I I
( .abtUe desircd..{nncaling invJvcs hcating to a tengeratureabove transfor-
-=:::1
Eseina &ongeand allowing slorvcooling: a recrlstdlization occurs to restore *:.,1
f.: :-'l
r(
t F,nn*gro"l properties.Bittencet2.3ll prorides an excellentsummaryof the .:l -7
(, hsics of heat treating. . " i't
\ i l
/ 3 :r,:l
f i \--
3
t.rf l t \ i-:::'.e'se
t''r-c'' ' - ^
(, \ ,/ F loid,1.-1
$
I i,t' dorvn
T I
r &! BRITTLEFRACTURE
I
/ \
I
nea!'
fracru:e
neckrngdortn
! | | toad
r$s\*s bcen discussed in severalsections,steelthat is ordinarill' ductile can a=+
l_:-:] I
r beri--r'r
e bri t ti r' un.ler various conditions. -::---1
i ij:rrsom [].:9. 2.30], Barsom and Rolfe [2.281,and Rolie [2.26] have :
( I
prorided an exccilentsummaryof fracture and fatiguecontrol for structural t
( e{tslneers.Rolfe L2.26ldefinesbrittlefracture as "a type of catastrophicfailure r.rr Threadedtest bat ( t ' , ) T h . e 3 C e dt e s t b 3 r
thg;6gqu15 nithout prior plasticdeformationand ai extremelyhigh speeds." near'frecture near fraclure
( u n i a x i al o a d r n g ) ( t r i a x i a ll o a d i n g l
Fran:urebehavior is aifccted bv temperature.loading ,ate, sir.s leu.l, fl"tu
gizu. i::te thicknessor constraint,joinr geom.try,"ndr*orkmanship. Frgure2.9.1 Uniu:al and u:a{al loading.
original crosssection.
Also the effectsof notcheshavebeen alluded to in the d.iscussionbfnotch I i I t
toughnessin Sec. 2.5. The notch servessomewhat the same pulpose as the Figure2.9.2 Effect of notcb oi: ,:aiadal tensiontest.
.-T!
FRACTURE
2.9/ BRITTLE 63
>-
62 2 I STEELSA.r.lO
FROPERTIES !;a
t
I
due to three-dimensionalstressing-The .
Unusual configurationsand changesin section should be made graduall-v" consider the possibilitiesof brittreness
in Sec'2'10'
so the stressflow lines are not required to make abrupt changes.Wheneverthe subject of lamellar rcaring is treated ( * d
Ettect ol Thickness
ness.primarily this is becauseof the built-in three-dimensionalcontinuity. exists.such as with thin plates where (
As discussedin Sec.2.6, if plane stress
plane of the,p.latemay be disregarded'
stressin the directiorrtransverseto the (
For thick plates' becauseof the
MulUaxlat Stresg Induced by Weldlng the third dimensional effect is etiminaied.
i for brittleness increases'Frorn the (
three-dim.nrionui-.ffects, the tendency '
restraint that gives rise to biaxial and plates afio tend to be more brittle than" thin-
ln general, welding createsa built-in manufacturing process,thick (b) (
To coarsermicrostructure and
triaiial stress and strain conditions, whicb result in brittle behavior- cnes; (a) the slo*e, cooling raie givesrise to a
illustrate,consider the loaded simply supported beam of Fig. 2.9.3, which in content that is necessary to obtain the sameyield strength (
the higher carbon
turn supports a plate in tension.Due to flexute, the bottom flangeof the beam working in thin sections'also
for thick sectionsas obtainedby additional hot ,(
is in tension:therefore,the stressat point ,{ is uniaxial tension(neglectingthe producesa more brittle material' . . ^-t , ^ . ?ao, ,
4 and 5); i'e" the
small effecrsof beam*'idth and attachmentof flange to web).Application of The very thick rolledw shapes(ASTM A6 [1.81,Groups (
rhe tension plate usinganglesand bolts puts the flange bolts and the angles ..jumbo Japes," exnibit low fracture toughnessat the core of the
so-called
essenliallyin uniaxial teusionand the bolt which passesthrough the suspender thick flange ,o *rU:uitii"t tlg the centerof the web adjacen:to it' according
plate in shear,so that tbereis no appreciableeffecton'the stressat point A- ln may cause brittle
to.Fisher und p-#e t2.331.Tbis low fracture toughness (
in the connectionof Fig. 2.9.3aare approx!- are used as tension members' For this '
other *'orCs,the stressconditions i;iil; *hen these t ea*ryW shapes
members[2'34]' (
mately uniaxial in nature. reasontheir use is intendedonly for compression
Next. considerthe tensilesuspenderplate w'eldedto the tensionflangeof (
the beam.as in Fig. 2.9.3b.The stressat point ,{ is now biaxial becauseof the
Etfect ol DYnamlc Loadlng {.
direct attachment to the flange at that point. The weld region, therefore.is
been for static loading
subject to triaxial stress;biaxial from the directly applied loads, plus the The stress-strainpropertiesreferred to so far have (
such as of forge drop -hammers'
resistanceto deformation along the axis of the welds resuiting from continu- slowty applied. f,,iot. rapid load,ing, that
the stress-strainproperties' Ordinarill" (
ous atrachment (Poisson'sratio effect). The design of welded joints should earthquake,or nuclear biasr changJs
\
TO ANALYZEI}'IESTII\IATING
TABLE 2.9.1 THE ELEMENTOF RISK:FACTORS (
OF BRITTLEFRACTURE (FROMREF.2.32)
SERIOUSNESS
(
The loq'er the temperatur-e'
l. Wbat is the minimum anticipated servicetemperature? (
tbe greater the susceptibility to blttle fracture'
can occur onlv under condition of
2. Are tension stressesinvolved? Brittle fracture (
to
, li:tJt#iti; *. material? The thicker the steel, the greater the susceptibilitv (
brittle fracture'
continuity tends to re- (
4. Is there three-d.imensioualcontinuity? Tbree-dime11i.onal
to britde fracture'
srrain the steel from yielding and increasessusceptibility (
presence of sharp oot.h., increases susceptibility to briule
5. Are notches present?The
fracture. (
lvlultiaxial strssseswill teod tp
I 6. Are multiaxial stress conditions likely to occur? (
I
restrain yieldiog and increase susccptibility to brittle fracture'
t -
higher the rate of loading' the greater
t T. I; toading "ppii.J at a high rate? The
I
I
i --
i -
l .
l:-i,*
(
t _
(
1
,( ',ND n?^^:RTrr
2 1 0 / L A M E L L A RT E A R T N G 65
(
( -
lltv
t f\
tr.- _v ,..
( tensile
strcngth'
andtluctility'.
At timperatures
ab-our
6#+tlzd"il r#."i|:
nxd.hratc decrcasein strength.Someincreased
( brittlenesslras beennonrcd w:ith
Iti#r's'train rate. but it seemsprincipally associated
u.ith other f^.tors axready
( dimussed,such as notchesrvherestiessconcentrations
exist and th! tempera-
zur"eeffect on toughness.The more important factor
( relating to Oynamictoa,a
applibation is not that a rapid increasingstrain
rate occurs, but that it is
( conrhined $'ith a rapid decreasing strain rite. The effect of stressuariationis Figure 2.10.1 Dcf:aition of riircct:on
disca$sedin rhe serrionon fatigui. Z Z = Thru.thicknesrdireclron
terminolcgy.(From Ref. 2.36)
( Table 2'9.1-froy Ref.2.32,providesa list of facrors"ro
'tetlner help determine
( or not the risk of brittle iro.tur. is seriousand requiresspecial
c "ialerations." design
( ncss"strainnravcxcecdthe f ield point strain,causingdccoltcsitln tnd leaiing
ro a lamellartear.
( Figure 2.10.2illustratesthe relationshipof a lamellar tear to r *'elded
( 2.10 LAMELLAR
TEARING .yoint.The condition of connectionrestraint is not related to continuitl' as
rcfcrredto by' structuralengineersin the anall'sisof a staticailyindeterminate
( rigid frame.The restraintpotentiallygiving rise to lamellartearingis internal
Lanellar tearing is a form of brittle fractureoccurring"in
planesessentially .iointrestraintthat inhibits the large unit strainsresultingfrom weld shrinkage.
msallel to the rolled surfaceof a piareunderhigh throughthickness
loading.,, Refcrringto Fig. 2.10.3.rvhen the rveld shrinliageoccursin the " thru-thick-
( "F$].In
a highll'restrained weldedjoinr "thru-thickness" strainsareinduced tF
-:-
poorly made rvelds.rough edgesresulting from shearing,punching, or flame (
cutting, or smatl holes. Such flaws may be of no concern; however, under
many cycles of loading the flaw (notch effect) may give rise to a crack that
increasesin length with eachcycle of load and reducesthe secrioncarrying the
load, consequentlyincreasingthe stressintensity on the uncrackedpart. The (
fatigue strength is more dependent on the localized state of stress than is
the static strength. Fatigue is always a serviceload corrsideration;the actual (
serviceload state of stressis what determinescrack propagation. (
The minimum stressantl the gradeof steelhave no apparent affect on the
number of cycles to failure. On the other hand, the specimen geometry, ((
including the surfacecondition and internal soundnessof the weld, have a
significant effect. These factors are reflected in the Srnrcrural Welding Code
Susceptiblederail lmgrcy.ted, Ce.-eil 12.241rulesfor rveldedstructuredesign.
Recent w'ork by Zurraskiand Johnsont2.401evaluatingthe remaining life
in steelbridges has shown that under certain conditions repeatedstressingin
-;:
-1
'.-6teelsectionscan actually increasetheir fatigue life. This phenomenon,known (,'-
as.coaxing, \*'as first studied by Sinclair [2.41] and results from repeatedly
stressingnear but below the fatigue limit and gradually increasingthe stress.
The AISC Specifications [.5, 1.15]in Appendix K4 prescribeno fatigue (
effect for fewer than 20,000cycles,which is approdmately two applications a
day for 25 -v-ears.Sincemost loadingsin buildings are in that category,fatigue
(c)
is generally not considered.The exceptionsare crane nrnway girders and (.
structuressupporting machinery.Fatigueis alwaysconsideredin the design of
Figure 2'10'3 Susceptibilityto lamellar tearing
can be reduced by careful detailing of highway bridges. which are expectedto have in excessof 100,000cycles of
(
nelded connecrions.(From Ref. 2.36)
loading. {
Volume 1 of the Welding Handbook 12-22,p. a02l shows several good
examplesof the fatiguerelationshipsfor weldedplate girdersand cover-plated (
ness"direction,the materialbeineconnectedbecomes beams.Extendeddiscussionof fatigueis givenby Barsomand Rolfe [2.28].
susceptibleto lanrellar (
tearing.The u'eld detailshouldbJ made so that weld
shrinkageoccursin the
rolling direction. Reference
s 2.36 and 2.39 suggesrways of avoiding rhe (
p ro b l e m .
(
2.12 CORROSION
RESISTANCE
AND
WEATHERINGSTEELS (
2.11 FATIGUESTRENGTH (.
Since the earliest uses of steel, one of the important drawbacks was that
painting was required to prevent the deteriorationof the metal by corrosion (
Repeatedloading and.unloading,primarily ia tension,may
eventuallyresultin (rusting).The lower-strengthcarbon steelswere inexpensivebut very vulnera-
:;ilure e'en if the yield rtr.* is never exceeded. (
The ierm failgue means ble to corrosion. Corrosion resistancemay be improved by the addition of
:;:iu:'e under cyclii loading..ltis a progressive
failure, the final stageof which coPper as an alloy element. Horvever, copper-beatingcarbon steel is too (.
:s unstcble crack propagarion.The iatigue
strength is govern.i uy three expensivefor generaluse.
'.::rbics; (1) the number of cycles (
of loiding, (2)"the ,oig, of serviceload
\:;.ss {ihe differencebetrveenthe maximum High-strength low-alloy steels have several times 12.431the corrosion
*a'"ri"i*um stress),and (3) the resistanceof structuralcarbon steel,with or without the addition of copper, as (
size of a.flaw. A frarv is a d,isconti"uitv,-*.rt
as an.*ir.r.ty small sho*n in Fig. 2.12.1.The high-strength low-alloy steelsdo not pit as severely
:?;:il (
In '*'elded assembries, as carbon steels and the rust that forms beromes a protective coating to
a flaw courd be the ..notch', intersectionof trvo
cl':inentsor a "discontinuity" such prevent funher deterioration. With certain alloy elements the high-strength (
as a bolt hole. Flaws may be the resultof low-alloy steel uill develop an oxide protective coating that is pleasing in
(
(
(
- .--t 3 ' A S T M . S p e t i f t c a t i a n l o r S r c e l , S h e e t a n d S t r i p , C a r b o n , H o t . R
2 o!|ed,Strut.turu!
*ffi ff i!ll:,n:-;'TIJJ;:?
231rohnr:,Jil.$::,,s:.i?fi
,;:3:ilfi t
phlladelphia PA: American Socierv for Testing and Materi- ' Steei
(
euu1rv tas;ileg). lg74,lr1-Lll' 1960"A'SteetDeisignFile, Bethlebem
al:. 1988' Fracture'Booklet (
Steelsoi 2.12. A Primer.onE'ntle
Ll4. ASTM. Specfrcarion for High-grmgth Low-AlloyCo{umbium'Vanadium
Srrucrura! grntity (A572-Sic). Philidelphia' PA: A'rirericanSociety for Testing
,,'n:"1,"ift 3:$i?"fil'n';;TT:i::;hY.T,"r*i::lxshanesin
1987)'63-17'
Jownal'nfiC'Zf' 2 (2ndQuarter Engrne
(
and Materials, 1988' T€nsios,"Engineenng
"l'Jmlo-ilup., eringJourna[,
nppri.atioos," (
. r" N^""i"r,r*'
].]5,ASTM.SpecilicationfarHigh.strmgthl.ow.Attoy'Struc|uralstee|with50ki{34'\ 2.34. The u seor
Thick (A588-88a)'Philadelphia' or-Factors
,rlpuJ Minimum Yield Point to 4 ii [100 mmJ R D Stout Evaruadon (
::T:';::g't*.
,rl ti1:',?";?"1'"li ,"An 1981' Researcb
PA:AmericansocieryforTestiagagdMaterials,l9SS..I
law'Alloy' Hot' trulu]ef iriaing Journal,60, Matcb
2.16. ASTM . Specilication for steel, Sheetand Strip, High'strength, (A606-
,ii"r.ur
Significant \l
(
TensionMembers
(
I
(
(
( 3.1 INTRODUCTION Structural steel framework at intermediatefloor level. This level suspcndedfrom roof
:pacc truss systemrvith tensionrods. (Photo by C. G- Salmon)
"':Sl
systcrtl.Tensio:rmcmbersmay consistof a single structural shapeor they rniiy . = lI
Round
izt
Flat bar Angle
Double
r
Starred
( angle
bc built up from a number of structuralshapei. The cross-secl,ions of sorne +;=l
.4 i
I
angle
t It
:-:
t t rl
i
I
ratio (the ratio of the unbracedlength I, to the minimum radius of gyration r) € t
i?l
J L
( docs not provide sufficientrigidity, (c) the effect of bending combined rvith .* i ra nnel Double
S-section
Latticed I'J section (Ame.can
( the tcnsilebehaviorrequircsa largerlateral siiffness,(d) unusual connection rChSilr|el channels (r'ridef lange! Srandard)
detailsrcquirea particularcross-section. or (e) estheticscontrol. :":
(
.*
3.2 NOMINALSTRENGTH
(
( The strengthof a tensionmembermay be describedin terms of the "limit
states"that govern.The controllingstrengthlimit state for a tension member
.,i'
,tf,
1*
5L1
tl t=l
( will bc cither (a) yieldingof the grosscross-section
of the member al'ay from --ji
3u:!t.uc bcx sections
the connection.or (b) fractureof the effectivenet area(i.e., through'theholes) Frgure3.1.1 Cross-section
of twicai tensionmembers.
at the connection[3.1J.
t'(
72 1
@.*....-'
.49+-,=
p- -**- (
74 3/TENS|ON MEMBERS *r; 3.3/ NETAREA 75
--i,,ir- (
t:..
^
(
safety has bden used in design rvhen consideringthe fracture limit state than (
for the yieldinglimit state.
(
l-r,-l (
3.3 NETAREA (
l.rl Elasticnrcses (bt Ultimateconditioo (
Frgure3.2.1 Stressdistribution wrtb boles present. (
.,-l:.,, holes must be provided at the connection. As a result, the member cross-sec-
"i: donal area at the connectionis reduced and the strengthof the member rnay
'::. ' also be reduceddependingon the size and locationof the holes. (
\t/hen the limit state is general yielding of the gross secrion over rhe
Several methods are used to cut holes. The most common and least (
mcmber length, as for a tension member without holes (i.e., with q,elded
:: expensivemethod is to punch standard holes * in. (1.6 mm) larger than the
connections),the nominal strengthTn may be expressed (
diarneterof the rivet or bolt. In general,the plate thicknessis less than the
T, : F,A, (3.2.1) punch diameter. During the ptrnching operation the metal at the edge of (
'-._"'the hole is damaged.This is accountedfor in designby assumingthat the
(
r , r h c r ep : y i e i d s t r e s s : extent of the damageis limited to a radial distanceof + in. (0.8 mm) around
Ar: grosscross-sectional area the hate.Thereforethe total u'idth to be deducted(LRFD and ASD-82) is to (
be taken as the nominal dimension of the hole narmal to the.dirrction of
For tensionmembershav'ingholes,suchas for rivetsor bolts, the reduced (
cross-section is referredto as the net orea. Holes in a member causestress
conccntrations(nonuniformstresses); (
for example,a hole in a plate will gir.e A secondmethodof cutting holesconsistsof subpunchingthem * in. (4.8
risc to a stressdistributionat serviceload as shown in Fig. j.2'.1a.Theory of (
mm) diameter undersizeand then reaming the holesto the finished size after
elasticityshowsthat tensilestressadjacentto a hole wi[ b; about threetimes
thc averagestresson the oet &r€3:Itio*.u.r, as each fiber reachesyield strain (
that of punching standard holes but does offer the advantageof accurate
c.,: F,/E,. its stressthenbecomesa constant
{, *'ith deformationconrinu- alignment.This method and the next method producebetter strength.both (
tng with increasingload until finally all fibers have achievedor exceededthe
staticand fatigue,but this is ignored in designprocedures. (
s t r a r iel , ( F i g .3 . 2 . 1 b ) .
A third methodconsistsof drilling holesto a diameterof the bolt or rivet
When the limit stateis a localizedyielding resultingin a fracture tlirough * plus { in. (0.8 mm). This method is used to join thick pieces.and is the most (
thc effectiu€net areaof a teosionmemberhaving holes,the nominal srreneth
expensiveof the common methds (.'
il, may be expressed
, When greaterlatitude is neededin meetingdimenSionaltolerancesduring
T o : F u A, (3.2.2) :. erection,larger than standardholescan be usedwith high-strengthbolts larger (
than i in. diameterw.ithoutadverselyaffecting the performance.In Chapter 4,
.'"ltcrc (
{ : tensilestrength(seeFig. 2.1.1) - high-strengthbolted connectionsare treated involving the use of oversized,
l.: effectivehet ara?: UA^ (*e Secs.3.4and 3.5) *,: short-slotted,and long-slottedholes.The maximum hole size for such holes is (
1,, : net area . given in Table 4.9.3.
L' : efficiencyfacror(Table3.5.1).
(
( 4' o" F
;
t
( 1:
where s is the stagger,or spacing of.adjacent boles parallel to the loading
;
( -t
.:.
( .:
( A
r r
A r r
' -
i 1
,-
(
( '*t ' a a *l-*t
-.t F
-
* T
T f-j-*r + t i i
i T l
(
( -
6
(ar
w 3 T-r---f-'-l
rbl
' i *
*
r
I
I T L -
l--T--
I
.a; .,.' .t Sussct plates. *hcre the clc;rcnts of tire cross-scction lie esscntialli'ine
_t ,',* commonplane.thc r.'ffcctive net areais tekcn cqualto r{,,,but mav not e\ceed
_ ,"f
- t 55? of thc grossi.rrcrrlo (LRFD-J5.2.band .{SD-83).Tests[3.1]hale shorvn
I
l /
t(
t\
i
-f
,'{ I
rhat rvhenany holcsarc presentin suchshoit elementsrvheregeneralf ielding
on the gross scctioncsnnot occur. there u'ill be at least 15% reductionin
t( Figure 3.4.5 Angle for E:cample3.4.2 rirr:n3thfront tlilt obl:iiled brsedon riclding on the grosssection.
i '
lg ' o. e :- ' . , 2 a- t . l- i = o o ! *'ith lc'gs shou.n ..flallcncd" into one Tablc 3.5.1sui:rni:riz.'-s the ,{lSC rcquircnrenis f<'rreffcctivenr-taret.
prilne. Thc basic trc.ttincntoi the rcilucti.rncoefficicntassumcsthat ivcldcd
i( connections*'ill consistof longitudinaluelds (i.e..parallelto the loadine
( tlirection).When tr.]nsverseu'elds are used alcne there is a seriousloss of
3.5 EFFECTIVENET AREA cfficiency.Welded connectionsfor ten-sionmembersare treatedin Chapter.5
( .rn s'elding..
The net 3rc3 ls contputedin Secs.3.3 and 3.4 givesthe reduced
sectionthat SinceLRFD and .{SD-B3 indicatethat [.i valuesas givenin Table 3.5.1
rcsiststension but still may not correctlyreflect"thestrength.
This is particu- rre to be used " Unlessa largercoefficientcan be justified b_v- testsor other
larly true $'hen the tc'nsionmemberhas a profile consistin!
of elementsnot in rationalcriteria."thc'LRFD and ASD Commentaries [1.6. 1.16] indicaterhat
a common plane and whcre the tensileload is transmitted
at the enciof the thc followingequationbasedon the u'ork of Munseand Chesson[3.9]may be
member by connectionto somebut not all of the elements.
An angle section uscd:
having connection one leg only is an exampleof such
-to a situation.For such J
cases the tensile force is not uniformly disiributed over U : 7 - - -( (3.s
.r)
the net area. To
account for rhe nonuniformity,LRFD and ASD-B3 provide
for an effectiue
ne-tarea l" equal to UAn. rvhereU is a reductioncoefficient.
By using the rvhere x : distancefrom centroidof elementbeing conncctedeccentricalll'
effective net area the nonuniformity of stressis accounted
for in a simole
---.-t to planeof load transfer(seeFig. 3.5.1t
manner.
when a tensile.loadis applied eccentricallyto a wide plate / - lengthof connection
( the srrei!
distribution acrossthe rvidth of the plate is nonuniform. Equation 3.5.2 is an- empirical relationshipthat correlatesrvell with tests
The mechanismby
( wJrichstressgets transmittedfrom thl location of the
apptied load to sections r'r'ithin +107a [3.ij. Equation3.5.2 indicatesthat longer connectionshave
distant from'the load is by shearstressesacting in the increasedeffectiveness of the cross-sectionalarea;horvever.iong connections
( ifun. of the plate. The
fact that the stressis lorver the farther is the location from reducethe effectiveness of the connectors.as is discussed
in Chapters4 and 5
ttre apfued load
( means that the sheartransfer"lags" or is inefficient-.Thus, on fastenersand *'elds.
the nonuniformity
of stre-ssin rvide p-latesor plate eliments of rolled sectionswhen
( a tensile load
is applied nonuniformly, is referredto as ..shearlag,,. E EXAMPLE 3.5.I
( Thus, LRFD and ASD-83 provide that the efflctive net Determinethe reductionfactor U to be appliedin computingthe effectivenet
areaA, is to be
computedas arca for a Wi+xA2 sectionconnectedUy piatesat its trvo fliges, as shorvnin
(
A": Fig. 3.5.2.There are threebolts along eachconnecrionline.
UAn (3.s.1)
(
SOLUTION
( In this case,t$'o elements(the flanges)of the cross-sectionare connected
where U: reductioncoefficient
( Ar: n e ta r e a but one (the web) is nor connected.Check the profile ntio b7/d,
ii iil-E-."""1'"
fypes of fastenerst Special area. t l
per lrne
(
rr€rnbers requiremenls He l t
t l C.G. angles
t l + plate
(a). irlembers having a// cross- 1
(or
F-rcluding flat
welded plates [see -
^ot iL.ti LJ
6 (
( ,
scctionalelements ,
connected to transmit welds) (g), (h), and (i) (b,
5,5:
-{e4*.
- :. . ,,-,(-'.
(
(
'( 84 3/TENSION MEttBERS 3.6 7 TEARINGFAILUREAT BOLT IJOLES 85
(
( Alternativel-v, rhe designermay compute the factor by using Eq. 3.5.r.
( since each flange connectionroadsthe tributary po*ion of the w shape,the
section may be treated as two structural t..t, ., in Fig. 3.5.1c.The half w
( shapecorrespondsto a structuraltee WT7x41, whosecentroidaldistancef is
( given by the AISC Manual as 1.39in. The length / of the connecrionis 6 in.
Thus, Eq. 3.5.1grves
(
.r- 1.39
( U=l--:l - :0'17
t 6^0
(
This shorvsa much
( -lowerefficiencyrvhencomputedthan just.using 0.90.In
general.three bolts in a line is not a good connectionfor this se;tion. If four
( bolts were used in eachline, / becomes9 in. and u increasesto 0.g5. I (a! Failirre by teerlng out
(
( 3,6 TEARINGFAILURE
AT BOLTHOLES
I
1,
( When the material being attacbedby bolts is thin, a tearing failure limit srare, lr I
( known as block shear, may control the strength of a tension member, or the
o
,/,
tension region of a bending member,such is a connectionat the end of a ----YlrT
/ -
(
Y-
...$
(see Chapter 13 for treatmentof such connections).Referring to Fig. Tension
!"*
!l sr,..'
tlt-
3.6.1a,the angle tensionmemberattachedto a gussetplate may have"atearing o / c
( _1:ii
--Qr ^ f a
.' i
failure along section a-b-c.The sbearstrength;n s..iion a-Lplus the tensili rlLr-T
( strength on section D-c will give the strength to resist this failure mode. The /ir- shear/ ol l o
rI
.:. l l
( four holes in the plate of Fig. 3.6.1band c may contribute to a tear-out failure
a c t
if the sum of the shearstrengthsalong a-b and-c-d and the tensilestrength
( along 6-c is less thaa either of the strengthsin general yielding alon!*the (b) Large tension. srnall shear {c) Large shear.small tension
- : : l
LRFD'J4 indibates that the foilowing two equationsmay be used to ,.pr.r.nt :--3t The tearingout failure is not really a fracture failure on both the tension
( the nominal strength ?o:
*In: resistingand shearresistingsections.The failure mode will be a fracture on
( l. Shear yielding-rension fracrure -an
eirherof the resistingsectionsfollowed by yielding on the sectionperpendicu-
fi+ lar to the fractureplaneor planes[3.12,3.13J.
{ T,:0.6FrAoe*
'€:
,,5i;
Consistentwith the limit statesdiscussedin Sec.3.2, the grossareais used
FuAn, (3.6.1) "s-
(
.;#:i*
for the yielding limit state and the net area is used for the fracrurelimit state.
or =jf
Equation 3.6.1 indicates fracture on tbe net area in :ension follorved by
( 2. Shearfracture-tensionyielding yielding on the grosssectionin shear; Eq. 3.6.2 indicates fracture on the net
Tr= 0.6FrAn,* FrAr, section in shear followed by yielding on the gross section in tension. ln
( (3.6.2)
accordancewith Eq. 2.6.5,the shearyield stressz" is taken as 0.6.{,. Similarly,
\ the shear tensile strengthr,, is taken as 0.6d.
where Ao, gross area subjectedto shear yielding Since the block shear failure mode is essentiallya fracture phenomenon
(' - gtoss area subjectedto tensile yielding
4,, - : the proper equation to use to obtain the strength is the one in which the
'
( * A-r: net areasubjectedto shearfracture fracture term is the larger of the two. The simplest procedureis to make the
Ao,: net areasubjectedto tensilefracture compuhtion both rvaysand use the larger result.
(
t'
(
- r- :
86 3/TENSIONl"rEi.rBERS AT CONNECTIONS 87
3.8/ LOADTRANSFER
(
- (
3.7 STIFFNESS
AS A DESIGNCRITERION ,.r2
I (
-J-
Even though stabiliry is not a criterion in the design of tension members,ir is
(
still necessaryto limit their length in order to prevenr a member from
becoming too flexible both during erection and final use of the structure.
Tension members that are too long may sag excessivelydue to their orvn
'f:,
?l o I
tr -; in. thick,
f
"
o,"r @nnectors
in standard holes
(
(
weight. In addition, they may also librate when subjectedto wind forcesas in
an open truss or rvhen supponing vibrating equipment. such as fans or
compressors.
i,t'
,ql
a T
(
'lt I'l
lap joint in Fig. 3.g.1 O.- (
'rnd show free'body diagrams of portions T1q 5 t
of plate I rvith sections taken
through each line of holJs. Assume 10' (
that plate
I - .B has adequatenet area and
.!$ssn61control the capacity
?- f:lg f;10
(
u
\OLL'TTON O-- - | . \
t. l0 (
The full tensileforce r
!,- in ptate '{ acts on secr.ion1-l of Fig.3.g.l. O-- O- (
,:;:ru::tl*:f ".s: secrionsi" pr"" z{ to thereftof section tIlC tno
r-r wlr invorve r.--'- _ 1____ (
,r*r,r"T-,1T_nof acting,
since pan of that forcer+'illhaveatready been { t l . - i
-':rrrleo trom .I
*:-ttn3in plate g olate,{ to plate g. At section 4-4,lao% of r must now be
(a) ftl (c) . . ( d )
(
,*hiteonly 20%of r actsin plate r. since theremust be zcro
Figure3.8.2 Load distributiooi" n"rc L (
(
(
'(
88 3/TENSTON
MEMBERS FACTOR
3.9/LOADANDRESISTANCE -TENSION ME|u{BERS 89
DESIGN
(
(
Net area (staggeredparh l-2-3-2-l): are the santefor all mernbersin the structure.Horvever,the resistancefacior c'
( accountsfor the possibilitythat the act.ualstrengthof the membern'r3i'bt' :ir:'
(2)' .|
( : ;s [lls - 5(l)* o;fu : z.oa
sqin.
rlan thc theoreticallycomputed strengthbecauseof veriations in nlcicri.ri
"L properriesand dimensionaltolcranccs.These variations n'hile individuelll'
(
| s.itltin acceptedtolerancelimits mry combinein the actual structureto givea
\
(, \'-t'/ag srrcngthlessthan the computedvalue.Neither the 9 factor nor the overload
frclors y are intendedto accountfor careless errorsin designor construction.
( on rvhich100%of ?nalso acts. The reliability of designs of bolted steel tcnsion membersusing LRFD has
Net area (staggeredpath l-2-2-l): bcen reportedby Bennett and Najem-Clarke [3.14].
( The design strength fr?, according to LRFD-DI is the smaller of that
(. :i[" -4+t#] :,.zesqin. hasedon yielding in tlrc Srosssection,
t^(
'?
'i; - TENSION 91 (
aa- FACTORDESTGN
3.9/ LoAD ANDRESTSTANCE MEMBERS
90 3 / IENS|OI{ MEMEERS
I
(
-(
are
to dcduct the actualhole; i.e.,the bolt diameterplus fr in. for standardholes. The two design strengthsto be used in accordancewith LRFD-DI
-l-he yielding along the member length.
net areausedin Eq. 3.9.3accordingto LRFD-B2 deducrs* in. from the giu.n;t iqb 1.g."2basedoe generat (
diameterof rhe hole:i.e.,the bolt diameterplus f in. for starldaidholes. [3.e.21
'fhe Q,Tn: Q,F,A, (
Specification[1.15] sectionsused in Load and ResistanceFacror
: 0.90(50X4.75): 214 kiPs
l)csign qf Tensionlr{embersare surlmanzedin Table 3.9.1. (
andbyEq.3.g.3basedonfractureattheconnection'
(
r ITXAIIPLE 3.9.1 e, To: $, FuA" [3.e.31
Dcterminethe serviceload capacityin tensionfor an L6x4xf of A57! Grade (
50 steel connectedwith f-in.-diam bolts in standard holes is shown in Fig. The effective net area -d. is
3.9.1.Use AISC Load and ResistanceFactor Design,and assumethe live load A": UAn (
to dead load ratio is 3.0. in Table 3'5'1 [case (e)]' (
where, according to LRFD-B3, as summarized
U may be computed from
U: 0.85. etternatiuety, the reduction coefficient (
SOI-IJTION Eq. 3.5.2:
The angle tensionmemberis connectedto a gwsetplate, typical of truss x (
;oints. The gussetplate is the plate at the intersectionof membersto which U:1--, [3.5.21
they are connected
I
..lelJl:ully to
t
The maximumstrengthwili be basedon either section 1-1 with one hole where the distancei frorn centroid of elementbeing connected (
angle 0'987 in' The
deducted.or on the staggeredsection 1-2 through two holes. The governing plane of load transfer (seeFig. 3.5.1)is for the case.of the
scction*'ill have 100%of load I acting on it. iengtf,./ af thejoint is 14 in. Equation 3'5'2 then gives (
For s ec t ion1- 1. , 0.987 (
IJ:l-=f:t- :0.93
* (
A n : A , - t h o l e: 4 7 s- ( ; . : 4.2ssq
in. the value specified in
|)o.ro The larger of the theoreticallycornputedvalue or (
U = 0.93,the effectivearea is
LRFD-B3 is acceptable.Using
For section1-2. A ,: I JAn- 0. 93( 3'95): 3: 61sq in' (
A,: Ar*2holes + (s27ag)l Thus, Fq. 3.9.3give5 (
: (
e,Tn: e, FuA": 0. 75( 65) ( 3. 67) 1?9kips
3'9'2 (214
: 4.7s-
t(* . |)o.ro
. : 3.e5
sqin. Thus, the controlling 4,f is the smaller of the values frorn Eqs' (
ffi(0.s0) kips) and 3.9.3(179 kiPs)' (
Q,II, : 179 kips
Sincethe angle doesno"thaveboth legsconnectedto transfer the tensileforce. or load
the effective net area is less then the computed net area, accounting for the The overload factors relarethe designstrengthto the serviceloads {
eccentricityat the connection. effect!. using the gravity load combination Eq. r.8.3 [LRFD-Eq(Aa-2)1,the (
factoredload ?" is
(
Tu:LviQi: l 2 D + l ' 6 L + 0 ' 5 (L , o t s o r R ) [1's'3]
R (tuig are not (
7 s p a@2 " = l ' - 2 ' where in this example the roof loading L,, ,s (snow), and
load (t) is given is three times dead load (D)' Thus' (
involved. The tive
equal factored
applying the safety requiremenl Eq. 3.9.1; that is, letting f,?"
F l l t
N (
(\ load ?, gives
:6-0D (
e , T n : l . 2 D + l . 6 L = 1 . 2 D+ 1 . 6 ( 3 D )
.'Gusset 179= 6.0D (
ptare
Oerait 4
D : 29.8kiPs (
Figure3.9.1 Tensionmemberfor Erample 3.9.1. L : 3D: 3(29.8): 89.5kips
(
(
(
(
( g2 3/TENS|ON MEMBERS
FACTOR
3.9/ LOADANDRESISTANCE OESGN- TENSTON
MEMBERS
(
( The total safe service load I is
( Thus, block sheargivesa lower des.ignstrengththan generalyield or fracture.
T : D * L : 2 9 . 8 + 8 9 . 5- 1 1 9 k i p s following the Commentary LRFD-J4, the larger of Eqs. 3.6.1and
[.lo\!,'ever,
( 3.6.2 may be used to compule the nominal strength,as follou's:
- If this angle connection consistedof a very few large fastenersor if either
( the gussetplate or the anglewere thin elements,tbe shear rupture limit state of r'shear''''o;:;]ffi
LRFD-J4, represenredby Eq. 3.9.4or Eqs. 3.6.r and 3.6.2,inignr grve a lower
(
strength than the lesserof Eqs.3.9.2and 3.9.3. I
;j: ","*,un.,1
( + 58(l.s - 0.47)0.2s]
: o.z5[21.6(7.s)0.25
I EXAMPLE 3.9.2
( 1nt's5tigatethe shearrupture failure mode on the angle L4x4xI attachedwith
: 0.75(55.4): 41.6kips
( rhree f -in.-diam bo]ts ro a |-in. gusserplare, .s iho*o in Fig. 3.9.2. The
material is A36 steel. or
( 2. Shear fracture-Tension yielding:
( SOLWION I Q,Tn= 0.?5[0.6^q.
A o, * FrA,rl
Tbe usual general yrelding and fracture limig 51s1s5
governed by the lesser
( of Eqs. 3.9.2and 3.9.3give : 0.75[34.8(7.5- 2.34)0.2s+ 36(1.5)0.25J
( +,Tn: e,FrAr- 0.90(36xl.9zi): 62.9kips : 0.75(58.4) = 43.8 kips (controls)
( Even when the more correct equationsare used,the strengthis controlled by
Q,Tr: Q,FuAr: SrFrlJAn
( block shear; Q,Tn:43.8 kips which is lessthan tbe fracture strengthof 62.5
: 0.75(58X0.85Xi.94- O.2S)- 62.5 kips (controls)
kips across the net section. This general result is expectedwhen minimum
( The block shcar failure along path a-b-c number of connectorsare used along witb thirr elements,suchas I in. or less.
of Fig. 3.9.2 investigated
( according to LMD-J4 using Eq. 3.9.4 grves E
( e,Tn- +(0.64)1,"
( : 0.75(0.6X58)1,,
= 26.14o" E EXAMPLE 3.9.3
( An,: (length a-b-c lessthree holes) thickness Selecta tension diagonalmemberfor a roof trussof A572Grade50 steelusing
AISC Load and ResistancdFactor Design.The axial tensionis'60 kips dead
( A*:'" .*; - 155
sqin load and 6 kips live load and the member is 12 ft long. Assume {-in.-diam
( - *il ;n:::: bolts will be located on a single gage line in standard holes. Assume the
preferablelimit on slendernessratio L/r is240 (not an LRFD limit;.
(
(a) Select the lightest single angle member.
( O) Selectthe lightest double angle memberhavinglegsseparatedby I in.
back-to-back.
(
L-4x4x
( SOLTJTION . -
For tension members,the design strengthrequirementis
(
e,Tn 2 Tu
(
where the factored load Tu may be governed by Eq. 1.S.3in general, or Eq.
(
1.8.2 when the proportion of dead load is large, as in this case;thus,
(
T,: 1. 2D + l. 6L: 1. 2( 60)+ 1. 6( 6): 82 kips
( or
( Tu: l.4D : 1.4(60) =. 84 kips (controls)
Figure3.9.2 Tensionmemberof Exa^mple
3.9.2.
( In this case, the factored load to be dasignedfor is 84 kips.
;:i
-+-.--:
:.tr'i,
3.1O/TENSlCtlBODS 95
(
94 3/TEl'l$Ct{ }JEil8EFtS sz
_ . (
('
. L4x4Xft single3lglemembel
The strength of the membersmly be controlled by either -:- IJse two holes.must
@le anglemember'For this type of section (
be madefrom the double angle ProPeruesrn
Q,1 : Q ,F .A , = 0 .9 0 (5 0 )lg U. d#u.ted. Selectionshould
AISC Manual'
t
or
I
Q,Tr: Q,FrAr: 0.75(65)1" Required Choicesfrom
Standard Reduction (
Gross AISC Manual
Thickness for Two
The design suesgth Q7" must equal the factored load 7,. Th..area require- Area Double Angle ProPerties (,
t Holes
ments become
:0.94 (
84 I 0f* 2.53 L 3 x 3 x t , A : 2.88,r
: 1'87sqin' : 2 . 6 3 ,r = 0.95
Required Ar:
0ro@-
a
L3x2ix\, A (
: :
t
0.625 2.65 L 2 | x 2 x * , A 7.62,r 0.78 ( ,
84 l6
0.750 2.18
RequiredA,: :: IL't/
?1 csqrn'
tl ( ,
Omt
(
A, l -72 back-to-back'
Required
A,: : : 2.03sqin. Use 2_L3x2\x! with longlegs (
i dF
ffilightlyund.,,.,,ngth.Blockshear(tearingout)canonlybe r (
beendetermined'
The net :uea requirementobviously coutrols since it exceedsthe gross area checkedafterthenui''Ut' of fastene'Jn"t
(
requirement.
Also, the minimum r to satisfythe problem limitation of L/r :240 may IgDs (
be established,
3.10TENSIoN
member i: th:^:T:aded rod' Such
rods arc i
L t2(12) A common and simple tension as (a) sag
minr:m: : 0.6in. the design'stressis small' such (
240 usually secondarymemberswhere (b)-verticatr
inausiriatUiitdings (Fig' 3'10'ia);
rods ro help supportpurlins in ( .
giits in industrial building walls (Fig' 3'10'1b);(c)bangers"
(a) Select single angle member. The required gross area in each case ries ro help support rods to r€si${
balcony 1nig. 3.r0.1c); and (d) de (
depends on the area deducted for one hole, which in turn depenCson the such as rie rods ,;'#;ilta
thickness.The following tabular proceduremay be found useful in making the the thrust of an arch' r*'ind (
with an initial tension as diagonal
selection: Tie rods are frequently used
braci ngi nw ai l s,roo f s, *dt o*. r r . r t '"init ialt ensionef f ect ivelyaddst or b (
to car'le
and vibrational motion which tends
Choicesfrom stiffness una ,eauc.s ieflection can be obuincd bry (
Standard Reduction Required Such initial tension
fatigue failures in ttre connecdons.
Thickness for One Gross AISC Manual (
designingtt,.membersomethingontu'o'4.'offtin..shortfor-a2&1'"o*
t Hole Area SingleAngle Properties can be tightenedafter constnrcuon'
;; bih; use of tu*uu.U.s which (
ir, 0.313' 234t L4x4 x*, A:2.4A,r:0.79t (
L3| x 3 1x 3 , A : 2 . 4 8 ,r : 0 . 6 9 N EXAIUPLE 3.10.1 a;f61
0.375 2.& round rod of A36 steel to carry as
Selectthe diameter for a threaded Load ad (
L4x3x*, A:2.48,r:0.64 deaO load. Use AISC
;;i;. of 6 kiPs live load and 3 kiPs
t6
0.438 2.46 L3| x 2 r x* , A:2.43,r:0.54 i
t
-
ResistanceFactor Design'
(
t -
I 0.500 2.53 !
(
! -
i *_ -..
soluroj'gn (
'(i +
tp.3125: 0.3125
sqin. f :
t _
:
rod is givenby LRFD-J3(TabbrSJgss
of a threaded
strength
sNole:Min r : r, for single angles.
t *-_-
(a) (
'Required Ar:2.03 + ..,*
; 0.?5la(0.75F,)
0.31: 2.3asq in. _ _Q,Tn:
(
t : "
t-:-" (.
,,
rf'
96 3,/TENSIONMEMBERS 3jO / TENSTON
RODS 97
(
(
( roof trusses,which are spaccd 24 ft apart. Use 20 psf snow load, A36 stccl,
:1rdAISC l-oad and ResistanceFactor Design.
(
SOLLTION
( (a) Loads. Assumecorrugatedsteel roofing is used, weigNng 3 psf. and
E
).t
rhat the purlins have already been designed.Their weight may be approxi-
E
'!.
!
*. xliJJi'f,3i;;* .,,u.r,ttremember
which expresses that the design
overload must excecdthe sum of tbe service loads. In the allowable stress ( "
F;-
designmethod,the safetyprovision is't/Q-
For tensionmembers,Uking the factor of safety FS : 7/E, the nominal t",litc'"Iputethe *' " ( '
errective
strength Rn as f,, for tensionmembers,and I8r equal to the serviceload f in *= T:i:j':: T:::1;li :2'09'sq
+ 0'125)0'3125 i :;*' in'
tension,Eq. 1.8.8becornes
,+n' ,t - A - t hole : 2.40- (0.875
A n - t a g " ' -
: . -
of its two ; ,
T- :
tix':ll'r-o
. ^.,^^*-^ rn rhe sussetplate . (i.e-,one
along one leg
n'ieduces the
at=r
(3.11.r)
f*.'.ffi*l3i1;;: ::IflJ""*:ffi'* n"logit *ssASD'83' thesectio net
(
theeffective
The nominal strengthT^ f,ortensionmembersmay be controlled by either tt e member
oi t riliJ"| of the (
.:j efficiency a summary
i"tr. l's'f provides
t;';;
of Eqs.3.2.1or 3.2.2, €. areais 0,8;;;in. u.tuut (
Tn: FrA, : [3.2.1] t reduction factors'
area '/'r is
ic rf
' --- Thus, the effectivenet
Tn: FuA' 13.2.21 ( ,
: : ' ' A ' = l J A n : o ' 8 5 ( 2 ' 0 9 ) : 1 ' 7 8 s q i n '
'*,here z{, : B5osscross-sectional area :-
(
l. : ef f ec ti vnee t a re a : U A ^ (s e eSe c .3 .5 ) ;:(b)Checktheserviceloadstresses.ForA5lzGrade50steel,{,:50ksi
I n= net area(seeSec.3.4) and{:utltt' (
LI : efficiencyfactor(Table3.5.1) ; uu oK
' : ok s i l
: m : ^/ 1, '(5, -k^s<:i- lrFt 'r:_ oo: ' 6 0 $ 3 (
Usinga factorof safetyFS of 1.67,substitutingEq. 3.2.1into Eq. 3.11.1, tf uu- : T
As 2.40
(
:rnd dividing b)'y's to obtain a slressformat gives
T uu 32'5ksil NG (
F rA" T , - : = ' 1 . l k s i> l F o : 0 ' 5 0 4 :
-J-:- -
> - (3.11.2) to- A" 1.78 t
1.67A8 As (
Using a iar3crfactorof safetyFS : 2.0 as typicallyusedfor connections, Thus,thesecti onisnot adequat ebyAllowableSt r essDesignandalar ger (
substitutingEq. 3.2.2into Eq. 3.11.1,and dividing by A, to obtain a .ttress sectionwould be required' (
jorn\at grves
(
FuA, '
,- ( 3 . 1 .13 )
2 .A0 A , A, i.
BEFERENCEg
SELECTED
Then. def-rningfo as computedserviceload stress,T/Ae or T/A,. Eqs. (
3.11.2and 3.11.3becomethe requirementsof ASD-DI, 3 . 1 . G e o f f r e y L ' K u l a k ' J o h n Wnini,?"a.a o h nYort:
' . F i f e r ' a n d JN.* t r u i kwiley
H ' A ' SJobn 'Guid&eson-c'
toDesiga
p, no;r;;J-nu*ra (
criteria
1,":;l
"tl
=0604, (3.11.4) 198?-
3.2. V.' H. Cochrane'
"Rules j:t^ylo Hole Dedurctioosin Tcnsion
84?-848'
Members'" (
L 89 (N1' 16' 1922)' Ttansae- (
Engrneeringlu*t-n"tta' il; of Large RivEt roints"'
t rl (3.11.5) "'-' w. M. wilson'-ili**Jt
3.3.
oi't*Jio
(
1268'
;i;;'AscE" to5 (1e42)'P'
|./'=,..|=o'5or;
(
I
l 1 -
(v
in Tension," Transactioru,ASCE' 12I)(1955), ff33-1154.
(' 3.9. W. H. Munse and E. Cbcsson,Jr. "Riveted and Bolted Joints: Ncr Section
Desig!," Journal ol the structural Diabion, ASCE" g9, sr2 (February 1963),
( 107-126.
( 3 i0. E Cbessonand W. H. Munse. "Behavior of Riveted Conoections in Truss-T1pe
Members," Journal ol the structural Diuision, ASCE, g3, sr1 (January 1957) T
( 1150-1-1150-61;also Transactioru, ASCE, l2.3 (1958),l08Z-112g.
3.i1. William McGuire. Srcel Structures.Flgle*'ood Oiffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
( 1e68(pp. 310-328).
( 3.12. James M. Ricles and JosephA. Yura "strcngth of"Double-Row Bolted-Wcb
connections," Jountal of structural Engineering, ASCE, 109, I (January l9g3),
( L26-t42.
3.13. SteveG. Hardasb and Reidar Bjorhovde."New Design Criteria for GussetPlates
( in Tensiou," EngineeringJournal, AISC, ?2, 2 (2nd euarter 1985), 77-94. ,EEi
Probs.3.4and3.5
Tension Members," Journal of structural Engineering, AscE, lr3, g (August
( 1987),1865-1872. --jj
( _ I * . .
PROBLEMS : ,;E;
separatedback-to'bait<| in. by a connectedgussetplate, and that the
( Y*-.ir_.
connection is w'elded.Assume the slendernessratio is desired to not
( All problerls r8r€ to be done according to the AISC Load and Resistance exceed300.
Factor Design or Allowable Stress Design, as indicated by the instructor.
( Assume fastener strength is adequate and does not control. All hoies are DL LL Length
standard for the bolt diameter indicated. Values of yield stress and tensile Case (kips) (kips) Steel (fr)
( {,
strength,F, are available in Table 2.1.1. For checking shear nrpture strength,
( assumeall distancesfrom centerof bole to end of piece are 1| in. 1 70 z0 A36 20
( 2 65 22 A36 30
3.1. Compute the maximum acceptabletensile seryiceload that may act on a J 70 2A A572Gr 60 z0
( singleangle L6x4xi that is welded along one leg to a gussetplate; thus, .tA 48 30 A36 ))
there are no holes. The sirvice live load is three times tbe dead load. 5 50 30 A572Gr 50 22
(
Solve for (a) A36 steel and (b) A572 Grade 50 steel. 6 80 30 A36 2A
( 3.2. Compute the maximum acceptabletensile serviceload the angle in Prob. 7 80 100 A572Gr 50 28
( 3.1 may carry when connected on both l.gr. Thr 4-in. leg contains a
single gage lile of l-in.-diam bolts, and the 6-in. leg conrains i double 3.7. Selecta singleangle (for the caseassignedby the instructor) to supPort a
( gage line of'{-in.-diam bolts. Assume no staggerof bolts, an&rhat all tensile load. A single gage line of at least three bolts is to be used.
bolts participate in carrying load. Assume shearrupture strengthdoesnot control.
{
l.-
,.
t
I> (
1O2 3/TENSIONMEMB€RS : PFCBLEMS 103
(
(
DL LL Bolt Diameter accortrpanyingfigure. Use A36 steeland assumeholesare for ]-in.-diam
Length - (
Case (kips) (kips) Steel (in.) botts. Base answer on tension strength of the channel, including shear
(fr)
rupture strength- (
I 15 40 A36 1
4 l5 3.12. Repear Prob. 3.11 using a C10x25. Assumethe 12 bolts are in 3 lines (
2 l5 & A572Gr 50 2 t5 parallel to the direction of loading, with the same3 in. spacing.
4 (
3 15 40 A36 I
20
4
Determine the tensile load (85%live load; 15%dead load) permitted by (
4 15 4 A572Gr 60 z 25
8 AISC for a pair of anglesL6X4x* attachedto a gussetplate as shown in
5 10 30 A36 7
8 20 the accompanying-figure.Use A36 steel and ]-in.-diam bolts on stan: (
l0 .=::.-
;*j-,-"".
6 30 A572Gr 50 1_
8 20 dard gage lines whose distancesaregiven inTable 3.4.1-The force T is
I t2 35 A36 L
8 18
t.*=
*:...
-*-.
transmitted to the gusset plate by fastenerson lines .'{ and 8; assume
8 L2 3s A572Gr 60 18 -- only open holes in the 4-in. (outstanding)legs-
E
{ ,
3.8. Selecta standardthreadedrod to carry a tensile force T of 4 kips dead
load and 6 kips live load. Use 4572 Grade 50 steel.'
l'
(
3.15. Given the spliceshoun in the accompanyingfigure:
(a) Determine the marimum capacityT (25%dead load,75% live load) (
based on the 436 steelplateshaving holesarrangedas shown.
(b) What value of s should be specified to provide the maximum (
capacity T as computed in part (a), if the finat design is to have (
t
St:52:5'?
(
Prob.3.10
(
3.11. Determine the maximum allowabletensile load (20% dead load, g0% ftr'
lir.e (
load) for a singrec15x33.9 fastenedto a
|-in. gussetplate as in the +T
f, oiamoors (
(
iit
(
a>T
(
(
Prob.3.15 ( ,
Prob.3.11
( ;
(
l
(
'(
104 3//TENSIONMEMBESS PHOBLEMS r(l5
(
!
t
g.f O. nn L5x3+x* angle,as sbown in the accompanyingfigure,is to carry 20
i kips dcad load and ?0 kips live load using tbe shortest length of
connection using two gage lines of bolts in the 5-in. leg. Wlrat is the
Gusset
Dlale
Single angie
(
!-7xa.I.a:o
a
minimum acceptablestagger,tbeoreticaland specified(l-i". multiples),
( using A572 Grade 50 steel?Neglect shearrupture strength.
---> r
(
t=l
( Probs.3.18and'3.19
(
(
8ffi:"i:i::lli#'i,"o open hole in the 4in. leg will not reducethe strength below its maximurn
Prob.3.16 possiblevalue. If Prob. 3.18 is not solved,assumes is 3.75in.
(
3.20. Design an eyebarto carry'24 kips dead load and 76 kips tive load, using
( flame-cut A572Grade 50 steel plate. (Refer to LRFD or ASD-D3.)
3.17. An f-Sxilx; angle,as shown in the accompanyingfigure,is to carry 20
( kips dead load and 60 kiprs live load. Using one gage line of holes for
$-in.-diam bolts in each leg, what would be the minimum stagger s
-44L I
( in the 5-in. leg, while the holes in the 3|-in. leg may be consideredopen
ones(i.e., not to transmit the tensileload). Use A36 steel.Neglect shear
( rupture strength. ::*
(
(
(
Gusss'-a
80k
(
Other holc not shown
\ (assume at least threel
( P r ob. 3. 17-
(
( 3.18. Compute the minimum value of s that could tbeoreticallybe usedon the
angle of the accompanying figure such that the maximum factored
(
- tensile.force Tn may be iprried. Assume m is large enougb so that a
t
failure pattern through tbe open hole will not govern. Inctude considera-
tion of shear rupture strength.
(
( 3.19. Assuming that s for the angle of Prob. 3.18 is made as large as iequired
in Prob. 3.18, conipute &e minimum distance rn required so that the
(
I
L"
( ,1
F'* 4.1,/TYPESOFFASTENERS 107 (
(
85 92 120 (
A&;gI2.7l, quencbedand I to1
temperedsteel (6.35to 25.4) (s8s) (63s) (82s) (
1 l r o1 l 74 81 105
(Note: AISCd Permits
4.1 TYPES OF FASTENERS (28.6to 38.1) (510) (560) (72s) \.
use only for bolts
ll to3 55 58 90 (
larger than 1] in. '
Every structureis an assemblage of individualparts or membersthat must be (6.35to 76.2) (380) (400) (620)
fastenedtogerher,usuallyat tbe memberends,by somemeans.welding is one and for threaded rods (
and anchor bolts)
such meansand is treatedin Chapter5- The other is to usefasteners, iuch as
r 50 (
rivets or bolts. This chapteris primarilyconcernedwith botting; in particular. I to1| 120 130
A490 [2.81,quenchedand
high'strengthbolts. High-strengthbolts haveessentiallyrepla..d riu.tt as rhe (12.7to 38.1) (82s) (ses) (1035) (
tempered alloY steel
principal means of maliing nonweldedstructuralconnections.Horvever.for
(
completeness, a brief descriptionof the other fasteners.including rivets a-qd .Actual proof load and tensileload obtained by multiplfing given stressvalue by the
unfinishedmachinebolts,is given. - (O.i?$/njlz' where lr: sress area in (
rensile srress u1" i,; A,:0.?854 tD
: diameter of bolt in inches, n - number of threads per
squareinches, D oominal (
3d
ioch.
HiEh-strength Botts o0.5%extension under load. (
"0.?%offset value- (
The tw'o basic types of high-strengthbolts are designatedby ASTtr{ as A3l5
dLRFD and ASD.J.3.
[2.5] and A490 [2.8J,&e materialpropertiesof which are discussedin Sec.2.2 (
and summarizedin Table 4.1.1.Thesebolts are heary hexagon-head bolrs.
used with heavy semifinishedhexagonnuts, as shown in Fig. 4.l.lb. The (3,t1 t::.o449)' (
High-strength bclts range in diameter from I to l:t in
ihreaded portion is shorter than for bolts in nonstructuraiapftications, and
The most coslmon diameteri used in building conitrucdbn are I in. and * in', (
may be cut or rolled. A325 bolts are of heat-treatedmediumcarbon steel in. and 1 in-
whereasthe most common sizesin bridge design are * (
having an approximate yield srrengthof gl to gz ksi (560 ro 630 ir{pa) deveiop a specified tensile stress in
High-strength bolts are tigbtened to
Jependingon diameter.A490 bolts are alsoheat-treated but are of c//oy sreel clamping force on the joint' The actual (
th.*'Jhi.h ,Juit, in a predilcnble
having an approximareyierd strengthof ll5 to 130 ksi (790 to 900 \dpa) through a joint is therefore due to the fricdon
transfer of service lobds
dependingon diameter..{449 bolts are occasionallyusedwhen diametersover bolts are (
I I in' up to 3 in. are needed,and also for anchor'boltsand tkeaded rods. Jeveloped in the piecesbeing joined' Joints containing higb-strength
where high slip
designedeither as slip-criticii (formerly called friction'type), (
106 (
t :
(
(
(
,( 108 4 / STRTJCTURAL
FASTENERS 4.2//HTSTOR|CAL
BACKGROUNDCF H|GH-STRENGTH
BOLTS 109
(
r connection.Their prinrary usc is in light structures.secondaryor bracing
( rnembers, platforms.catrvalks,purlins,girts,small trusses,and sinrilarapplica-
tions in rvhichthe loadsare primarily smalland staticin nature.Suchbolts tre
( also used as temporaryfitting up connectorsin casesrvherehigh-strcngth
( bolts, rivets.or weldingmay be the permanentmeansof connection.Unfin-
ished bolts are sometimescalled common,machine, or rough bolts and nral'
( come rvith squareheadsand squarenuts.
(
Ribbed Bolts
Thesebolts of ordinary rivet steelwhich have a rounded head and raisedribs
parallel to the shankrvereused for many yearsas an alternativeto rivets.The
( actual diameterof a given size of ribbed bolt is slightly larger than the hole
( a) Rivet U) High-strength c) High-strength inter- into which it is driven. In driving a ribbed bolt, the bolt actually cuts into the
hexagon head ference-body bolt edgesaround the hole producing a relatively tight fit. This type of bolt rvas
( particularly.usefulin bearing connectionsand in connectionsthat had stress
Figure4.1.1 Typesof fasteners
reversals.
(
A modern variation of the ribbed bolt is the interference-body bolt shorvn
( in Fig. 4.1.lc which is of ,{325 bolt steeland insteadof longitudinalribs has
rcsistance at service load is desired; or as bearing type, where high slip serrationsaround the shank as well as parallel to the shank. Becauseof the
( rcsistanceat service load is unnbcessary. serrations around the shank through the ribs, this bolt is often called an
( interrupted-ribbolt. Ribbed bolts rvere also difficult to drive when several
Rivets layersof plateswereto be connected.The current high-strengthA325 interfer-
(
ence-bodybolt may also be more difficult to insert through severalplates:
( For many yeats rivets were the acceptedmeans of connecdng members but however, it is used rvhen tight fit of the bolt in the hole is desired and it
today (1990) are virtually obsoletein the United.states.Undriven,.riversare permits tightening the nut rvithout simulLaneouslyholding the bolt head as
( formed from bar steel, a cylindrical shaft with a head formed on one enil;as may be requiredwith smooth loose-fitdngordinary A325 bolts. These bolts
shown in Fig. 4.1.1a.Rivet steelis a mild carbon steeldesignatedby ASTM as'. are, however,rarely usedirt ordinary steelstructures.
(
4'502 Grade 1 (F" : 28 ksi) (190 MPa) and Grade 2 (Fy,= 3g ksi) (260 Mpa),
( rvith the minimum specified yietd strengthsbasedon bir stock as rolled. The
forming of undriven rivets and the driving of rivets cause changes in the 4.2 HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND
(
mechanicalproperties. OF HIGH.STRENGTHBOLTS
\ - - The method of installation is essentiallythat of heating the riVet to a light
cherry-red color, inserting it into a hole and then applying pressureto the The first experimentsindicating the possibility of using high-strengthbolts in
( preformed head rvhile at the sametirne squeezingthe plain end of the rivet to steel-framedconstructionwere reportedby Batho and Bateman[4.1] in 1934.
( form a rounded head. During this processthe sbank of the rivet cornpletely or Batho and B.atemanconcludedthat bolts with a minimum yield strengthof 54
nearly fills the hole into which it had been inserted.Upon cooling, the rivet ksi (370 MPa) tosld be relied on to prevent slippage of the connectedparts.
( shrinks, thereby providing a clamping force. However, thl amount of clamping Follow-up testsby Wilson and Thomas[4.2] substantiatedthe earlier work by
( produced by the cooling of the rivet varies from rivet to rivet and thereforl reporting that high-strengthbolts smallerin diameter than the holes in which
'cannot,be
counted on in designcalculations. they were inserted had fatigue strengthsequal to that of well-driven rivets
(
provided that the bolts were sufficientiy pretensioned.
( Untinlshed Bolts The next major itep occurredin 1947with the formation of the Research
Council on Riveted and Bolted Structural Joints. This organizationbegan by
( These bolts are made from low-carbon steel,designatedas ASTM A30?
lz.4l, using and extrapolatinginformation from studies of riveted joints; in particu-
(/' and are the least expensirc type of bolt. They may not, however, produce the lar, the extensiveannotated bibliography by De Jonge [4.3J,completed in
least expensive connecdon since many more may be required in a particular 1945, was used. From this beginning,the ResearchCouncil has continued to
(
, (
(
110 4,/STRUCTURAL 4.4/DETAILS CF tilcH STRENGTHBOLTS 111
FA,g'ENERS
(
- (
ffiF,:
organizeand sponsorres€atchon high-srrengtbbolted connecdons,and issuc
specificationsat intervalson the basisof researchfindings I,
'to be efficient and economical. bolts were causes, a number sf inherent disadvantages
By 1960, the minimum boll tension was addition to the abo've-menUonea (
increased.The bearing'Iype connectioo was recognizedas an acceptaule have hastenedthe cbsolescence of structural riveting, especiallyfield riveting-
the other
stitute for a rivetedconnecdon,aod the conne.tiondesigned.on
sub- Riveting requireda crew of four or five experiencedpersons'On (
,t, basisof bolt installation do not need to be
slip resistance,known,then as a friction-type cannection,ioulopr"u"ury hand, rhe crews required for high-strength (
only was difficult and unfortunately even the most
be necessarywhen direct tension acts on the bolts or when stress highli skilled. inspection
reversals .r.*, required rigid inspection' Cutting out and replacing (
occur. .ip.ri.n.ed rivetin!
prior
Also in 1960 a simple installationprocedure,known as the bad rivets \r-asan ei,pensiuepio".dut.. Even the preheatingimmediately (
turtt-of-the-nut after cooling.
ntethod, was introduced as an alternative to the torque to driving is citical in developingthe necessarytightness
wrench method
previously required.The economics-ofhigh-strengthbolting The lrincipal facror that delayed immediate acceptanceof high-stlene$ (
furtircr improved washers.In the
rvhen only one washer,insteadof the priviously-required bolts was the high cost of tbe mat;rial including tu'o hardened
iwo, located'under labor cost for installing bolts did not offset the higher (
the element(head or nut) being turned could 6e uiea if the early 1950sthe ieduced
turn-of-rhe-nut cost. Once the washers could be reduced to one or elim!,nated (
nrethodwas used. bolt material
in
In 1962. the requirement for washerswas eliminated exc€pt and the greater strength of a bolt over that of a'rivet could be utilized
in special Now (1990) with even higber (
situations[a.6]. In l9&, the higherstrength4490 bolt was design, high-strength6olts becameeconomical.
introduced. would be
Significant changeswere made in 1976 when higher bort labor cost and corinectiondesigngenerallyrequiring fewer bolts than t
streng,h, ,u.r, the economy is clearly with higb-strength bolts'
rccognized,and strengthswere given for bolts ur.d-in required for rivets,
other than-standard (
Irrrlcs.
fl:e most 'recentspccificationsby the ResearchCouncii (
on Structural
connecrions(RCSC).14.7,4.g1 changesomewharthe philosophyof designfor BOLTS
4.4 DETAI!.SOF HIGH.STRENGTH (
bearing-type connectionsand for friction-type connictionr,'noru
called s/rp- A490 bolt
critical ioints- A more detailed review of inr historical
ia.t grounJ tr,an Both the most commonly used A325 bolt and the occasionally used (
nuts, identified by the
presented here is provided in the RCSC commentary are heavy b,exagon(trexineaa botts with heavy hexagon (
Design Criteria for Bolted a;;d RiaetedJoinrs by Kulak, ta.9l. Tle Guide to
Fisler,'and sfuik t3.u nsrr" rd" si gnui
"hex i onont het opof t heheadasshogninFig. 4. 4. 1.
(hereinafter referred to as the Guide)
ru*-.rL.s researchand makesrecom- Heavy bolts have shorter threaded portions than other bolts; this {
is
mendations which generally form the basis
for current design of bolted reduces the probabitity of having threads occgr w'bere marimum strength (
connections. "ruou, the shank of the bolt. Dimensions of heavy hex bolts and nuts
required
I,
(
(
\
r{-
( 112 FAST€NERS
4 / STRUCTURAT 4.4/DFTATLS BOLTS
OFHIGHSTRENGTH 113
ffi€g
4325 A490
( Type
Boit Nul Bolt Nut
(
VFGF rdgnttltCslo.r
-
( \
(tYocatl
lzq\. r
(
(
t
@ €)I Atcs rat:c:fa Graac r.lark (2)
@ @ OH or ?H i2)
n Grac C O DH.2 o. 2ii
( Ti'olin',1".I"'*
( Figure4.4.1 Hearyhexstructuralbolt ald beavyhexnut. (FromRef.a.9)
2 Seme €t lypa I
a''^. Saria as Type I
(
Noic na^aa:a./ ";.:"I,ifg
( are given in Fig. 4.4.1 and Table 4.4.1. Requirementsfor marking bolts and 3 rdia, irtlaa
r 6C'
'4.4.2.
( nuts, including manufacturer'sidentification, are given in Fig.
Tbe .4325 and 4490 bolts are available as Types 1, 2, or 3. The A325Type
(
(
1 is the medium-carbonsteelbolt that'has been availablefor many years and
is the one that would be supplied if not otherwise specified. Similarly for
A490, Type 1 is the usualalloy steelbolt. Type 2 for both A325 and 4490 is a
3
@ @ " @
(' lorv-carbonmartensitesteelaltcrnativeto Type 1 for atmospherictemperature (1) Additional optional 3 raCiallines at 120" may be added.
(2) Type 3 also accepta:le.
applications. For elevated temperatureapplications Type I must be used. (3) Additionat optional rnatk indicalng weathering gtade may be added.
(
Type 3 for both 4325 and A490 is a weatheringsteel bolt har"ingcorrosion
( resistancecomparableto 4588 weatheringsteel (seeTable 2.1.1). bolt and out assemblies.
Figure4.4.2 Requiredmarkingsfor acceptable
Occasionally,ASTM AM9 bolrc are used where diameterslarger than 1| (FromRef.4.9)
(
in. are required.
(' A variation of the standard A375 and ,4.490used for bearing connections ing nuts. Interference-body bolts have particular applications rvhere high
is the interference-bodybolt as shownin Fig: 4.1.1c.Thesebolts have a biinon bearing capacity'is desired togetherwith stressreversalsor vibratory loads.
(
head and may be used with the standard higb-strength nuts or with self-l9pt-r
(
Proof Load and Boli Tension - Stip.Critical Connections
( ,
Until the 1985 RCSC Specification[4.7J,all high-strengthbolts were required
TABLE4.4.1 A325ANDA490BOLTOTMENSTONS
(FROM
REF.4.7)
( to be installed with a sufficient pretensionforce to create as high a compres'
(in.)
Boltdimensions (in.)
Nutdimensions sion force as practical bet'*'een the piecesbeing connected,such that shear
( Nominal
Heavyhex structuralbolts Heavlrhex nuts forces were transmitted through connectionsby friction betrveenthe con-
bottsize,
( o Widthacross Heighl. - Thread Widthqcross Height, nected pieces. That Specification relaxed the pretension requirement rvhen
(in.) flats.F H length ilats, W H bolts are net subject to direct tension and slip resistancebetweenconnected
( piecesis not rdquiied [4.7, Sec.5].
( L/2 7/8 s/r6 1 7/8 3r/64 When slip resistanceis required, the pretensioningshould be as high as
s/8 I L/16 25/64 l t/4 I L/16 3e/64 possiblewithout chancing perrnanentdeformation or failure of the bolt. Bolt
( 3/4 I t/4 L5/32 l 3/8 I r/4 47/64 material exhibits a.stress-strain(load-deformation)behavior that has no rvell-
( 7/8 1 7/16 35/64 1 r/2 I 7/16 ss/64 defined lield point,. as shorvn in Fig. 4.4.3.Instead of directly using a yield
I 1 s/8 39/64 l 3/4 I s/8 63/64 srress,a so-called praot load is used.Tbe proof load is the load obtained by
( I r/8 I L3/t6 rr/t6 2 1 13/16 t 7/64 multiplying the tensilestressarea* by a yield stressestablishedby using either
I t/4 2 25/32 2 2 | 7/32
( - I 3/8 2 3/16 27/32 2 r/4 2 3/16 l Lr/72
( I t/2 2 3/8 r5/t6 2 r/4 2 3/8 I ts/32 'See footnote to Table 4.1-l-
(
l--
(
1 14 4 /5TRVCTURAL FASTENERS 4.sl|NSTAL|jTrCN
PROCEDURES115
(
1.0 't.5 3 4 5 6 7 3
' | | '-'lroo
, J:oo
. . l -
lTurn of nut 17Turns
It I urn3
z , -U t I
*.
G.
Tension by turnol-the nut
I -- I ,'.'lin.tensilestrengrh --{
T
-]-
- --_i_ I
c'
.s I
- - Min tmsion \ -\ | SafetYmargin I
qJ. . l .9 ! |I l:i,*::l:11,"".n -l'oo
r"'rench i '"" z
(calibrated
I Turn J
1c a o ;f *;; rnethod)
rensioning
6 in.
lo.oaor _ proof road _ i I
i
c
.;
{E
kipsl .9
,us i(48'6 tr 4325 borr
I fso | * ciam 1
o
co
I| 4]-in.e,ip ' -'l roo l 6
-
I Salety margin iot , I
Eolt elongation. in. turnsot nut
(deformation)
Figure4.5.1 Bolt elongationiin a tlpical testjoint.
(FsonFisber,Ramseier, andBeedie [4.111
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
arty variation in the initial snug tightness has insignificant affect on the Bolt elongation.in.
clamp::rgforce. Figure 4.5.2 4325 bolt behavior. (Adapred frosr Rumpf and Fisber [4.12J)
Calibrated wrench tightening uses manual torque wrenches and porver
wrenchesadjustedto stall at a specifiedtorque.Variationsin bolt rensionhave
.,.;enfourd [3.], p. 521to rangeas high as t 30%with an averagevariation of
t 10%. The RCSC Specificadon14.71therefore requires that calibrated TABLE 4.5.1 NUT ROTATION. FROM SNUG TIGHTCONDITION(FROMREF.4.8)
wreqchesbe set to produce a bolt tension at least 5% in excessof the values
Dispositionof ouler faces of bolted parts
specifiedin Table 4.4.2.Furthermore,calibratedwrenchesmust be calibrated
daily and a hardenedwashermust be used under the element (head or nut) Oneface normalto boll Bothlacesslopednot
axisandotherface morethan1:20lrom
being tightened. slopednot morethan norrnaltoboltaxis
Boltlenglh
One rnay wonder whether there is danger of having inadequat€ r€serv€r (undersideof headlo Bothfacesnormal 1:20(beveledwashernot (beveledwashersnot
strengtbif the pretensionexceedsthe proof load; i.e.,'whertit approaches90% end ol bolt) . to boll axis used) used)
of tensilestrength. Figure 4.5.2shows the effect of various turns of the nut
with the margin of safetyindicated.If the calibratedwrench method is used, Up to and including
strengh is the critical factor, with the typical safety margln shown in Fig. 4 diameters l turn l tutrt
4.5.2. The possibility of overtorquing the bolts with power wrenches is not Over 4 diametersbut
considereda problem sincesuch overtorquing usually fractures the bolts and not exceeding8
they are replacedduring installation. In tbe turn-of-the-nut method, deforma- diameters l trl- 3 tu- I turn
tion ts the critical factor with the typical safety margin shown in Fig. 4.5.2. For Over 8 diametersbut
r i : ^
either installation processone can expect a minimum of 2] turns from snug to not exceeo'JJg-Lz'
turn I turn
fracture. When the turn-olthe-nut method is used and bolts are tensioned diameterst i tu-
using I turn increments,frequently.as many as four turns may be obtained
( from saug to fracture. The tunr-of-the-nut method is the cbeapest, is more .Nut rotation is relative to bolt regardlessof the element (nut or bolt) bcing turncd. For
reliable, and is generally preferred over the calibrated wrench method. The bolts installed by l'to* aod less, the tolerancesbould be plus or mious 30o; for bolts
( instatled by I turn and nore, the tolerance sbould be plus or minus 45o.
approved [4.7] nut rotations are indicated in Table 4.5.1.
( Tbe third general category of installation technique, the installation of tNo researcb has been performed by rhe Council to establisb the tum'of-tbe-nut proce'
alternatedesignbolts, usesproprietary fastenersdesignedto indirectly.indicate dure for bolt leng&s exceeding12 diameters.Tberefote, the requircd rotation must be
( 'the bolt tension or automaticallyprovide the
required tension. A proceclurefor determined by actual test in a suitable tetsion measuring device which simulates condi-
( quali$ing suchbolts is prescribed[a.7J.Sometimesthe alternatedesign feature tions of solidly fitted steel.
t.
('
-
cne- :;rlfpl$ 119
P.. 4.6 / NOMINALSTREi\i3THCF lNDt"/lD!'^'L
118 FASTENERS
4 /STRIJCTUfr.AL
(
(
is a twist-offor yielding-t)?eelement.In suchcases,installation must bc']i rl
the most rigid part of the connectionand progresssystenaiically towari thc (
ieastrigid areas. Butt ioint
LaP iotnt {double shear) (
The fourth category is the direct tension indicator tighrcning. Agarn. l {single shear}
procedureis specified[4.7] to qualify any such devices.Tlpically a ha;Cened {a) Shear connections (
washer is used containing a seriesof protrusions on one face. The washer r'
insertedbetweenthe bolt bead and the gripped material with the protrusion. (
bearing against.the underside of the bolt leaving a gap maintained bv thc W s€dron \,
protrusions. Upon dghtening the bolt, the protrusions are flattened and the
gap is reduced.The bolt tension is determined by measuring the remaining (
gap, which for properly tensionedbolts will be about 0.015 in. (0.38 mm) or (
l e ss[4. 13] . Strudural tee
(
(
4.6 NOMTNAL
STRENGTH FASTENERS
OF INDIVIDUAL
(
(c) Tension colrnectrons
Loads are transierredfrom one member to another,by meerls of the conlec- (b) Eccenlric shear
connectlon (
tion betweenthem. A few typical connectionsare shown in Fig. 4.6.1.
The simplestdevicefor transferringload from one steel piece to anorheris (
wirh a pin (a qlindrical pi€c€of steel)insertedin holes that are aligned in ihe
I (
two piecesas shownin Fig. 4.6.2.The cotter pins shown would prevent the pin I
II
ilt )i
from sliding our. Load would be transferredby bearing of the shank of the pin (
I
against the side of the hole. From the free bodies of the pin it rnay be noted I
the transfer betweenplate l{ and B is actually made via shear on the pin (the
(
l l
slight rotation of the pin due to unbalanced moment would be relatively
negligible).There would be negligiblefriction between plates A and B. The
t (
U LJ
( -+P ' Free bodier
or porlrons
of pin (c) Bearingfailure (d) Bearing failure of plate
( Free body plate I of bolt
showing shear
transtet
(
(
-.ure4.6.2 Transfer of load in pin connection.
t
( High.strengtfrbolt
w q
( a
( w
(
I
(c) Tensite [ailure (f) Bending faiture (g) Tensile failure
of olate
( of bolts of bolts
( Figure4.6.4 Possible
modesof failureof boltedconnections.
(
( where Fh : tensilestrengthof the bolt material
f = tensile force io: grosscross-sictionalareaof one bolt
( pf = frictional resistance
,, = coeflicient of lriction
( P -pT ;
_(
force, when the end distanceis lessthan
4.6.2becomes @nnection; or two or more in line of (
1.5d. (
R,: m(a.to.e)
(o.eory1 (4.6.1r Experienceand tradition has recommendedthat the center-to-center
spac'
of 2! diameters ASD-J3'8J' When
ing of bolts be a minimum [LRFD-J3'9; (
or. with the resultingcoefficientslightlyadjusted, strengthbecomes
L-:2.67d is usedin Eq. 4.6.7,the nominal bearing (
Ro: A.41mAbF: (4.6.41 Rn= 3-0Fdt (4.6.e)
(
prevented' When a bearing
Bearlng Strength which is the basic expressionwhen tear-out is
uv Eq. 4.6.9 is achieved and no rupture occurs; th€ (
strength representea -be
The bearing limit stale relatesto deformationaround a bolt hole, as shorvnin excessive.Thus, Eq' 4'6'9 should be used only
elongation of the hole may (
Fig. 4.6.4d.A sheartear-outfailure as shownin Fig. 4.6.4bis closelyrelatedto whei deformation around the hole is not of concern.
not to have the bslt
a bearingfailure. Preferablyf"*.i iit.ogtltt shouldbe utilized' In order (
The bearingstrengthRo b the forceappliedagainstthe sideof the hole to than 0.i5 in., LRFD-J3.6 specifiesreduced strengths'Thus'
hole elongaremore (
than 1'5d and center'to-
split or tear the plate.The largerthe end distance/., measuredfrom the center for usual situationswhereend distanceI is not less
equations for nominal bearing (
of the hole to the edge,the lessthe possibilityof havinga splitting failure. center spacingis not lessthan 3d, the following
Referringto Fig. 4.6.5,the actualtearingwould occur alonglines1-1 and strength are to be used. (
J3.5; ASD'Table
2-2. As a lower bound for strength,the angle c could be taken as zero,giving r In srandard and short-slouedholes (see LRFD-Table
\a
llt ere"eE' - -
Rn = l.40Fdt
lL 1l (4.6.7)
(
L7-tl FACTORDESIGN
4.? LOADAND RESISTANCE (
which may be approximatedas
_FASTENERS
(
Design (LRFD) was
The general PhilosoPhYof Load and ResistanceFactor (
Rn:,".1:1: LtFu (4.6.8)
described in Secs. 1.8 and 1'9' Equation 1.8.1 gives the structural safety
requirement,as follows: (
which applies for the bolt closestto the edgefor the designof a singlebolt
oR,> xt,Q, [1.8.11 (
'(
124 4/STRUCTUML FASTENERS 4.7/LOAOANDRESISTANCE
FACTOR - FASTEN=RS 125
DESIGN
(
( sumrn&tioa of factored loads.or specificallS, for fasteners, Eq. 1.S.1 becomes TABLE4.7.T DESIGN
STRENGTH'
OFA325ANDA49OHIG|i-STRENGTH
EOLTS
(
0R" > P" (4.7.i) Tension sireng:ih Shear strengih
( fu d : resistance factor (for connectorsir relatesto the type of action, Fuo (ksi) (ksi)
suchas0.75for fracturein tension,0.65for shearon high-strength Fastener (ksi) Q: O'75 Q : 0.65
(
bolts, and 0.75for bearingof bolt againstside of hole)
( R,, : nominal strengthof one fastener 4325 bolts, when threads
P* : factored load on one fastener ate not excludedfrom o(0.75^ry) f t0.15{b1
(' shearplanes 120 - 67.5
0.75(90.0) : 35.1
0.65(54.0)
Si+rcethe loading is not related to the tlpe of member. such as tension ,{325 bolts, when threads
( metetreror colunrn,the variousload factor combinationsgivcn in LRFD-A4.l are excludedfrom shear +(0.7s4) +(0.604)
( *rg the samefor all membersin the structure.Horvevcr,the resistance facrc; d planes 120 : 67.5
0.75(90.0) : 46.5
0.65(72.0)
il€codlntsfor the possibility that the actual strcngth of rhe fastener(or 4490 bolts, wben thrcads
( ruuber) may be less than the theoretically computed strength becauseof are not excludedfrom +(0.75.ry) o(0.45d)
vanl*donsin material propqrtiesand dimensional tolerances.Thesevariations, shearplanes 150 - 84.4
0.75(112.5) - 43.9
0.65(67.5)
( A490 bolts, when threads
$'b;lbindividually within acceptedtolerancelimits, may combine in the actual
( sgiqBctureto give a strengthlessthan the computed value.Neither the { factor
cre excluded from sbear o(0.?sry) o(0.60ff1
planes ' 150 - 84.4
0.75(1i2.5) : 58.5
0.65(90.0)
( nor the overload factorsy are intended to account for carelesserrorsin design
or conslruction. rDesign streng$
( The strength of a fastenermay be based ori (t) shear,(2) bearing.(3) {R, equals stress in table times gross bolt cros-sectional area
t
r.Gttsion,
or (4) combinedshearand tension.The nominal strengths'intension,
^h.
(
-.$ear,and bearing were presentedin Sec.4.6.
( or
Deslgn Shear Strength - No Threads in Shear Planes
( oRn: O.tS(O.tSr!)e, (4.7.s)
( The design strength QRobasedon sheor strengthaf the fastener,accordingto
LRFD-J3.3,is
( where 0 : 0.75,a value for the tensilefracture mode as discussedin Chap. 3
0R, = 9(0.00ff) mAo : 0.6s(0.60^*)
^e u (4:7.2)' Fb : tensilestrengthof the bolt material (120 ksi for A325 boits; 150
( ksi for A490 bolts)
rvhere 0 - 0.65, a value selectedro calibrate LRFD [1.151to agreewith Aa: grosscross-sectional area acrossthe unthreadedshank of the bolt
( experienceand use in ASD [1.5J
( Fb : tensilestrengthof the bolt material (120 ksi for A325bolts; 150 Note that the 0.75Abrepresentsthe area through the threadedportion of the
. bolt. LRFD-Table J3.2 indicatesthat the "Tensile Strength" is 90 ksi; thal is,
ksi for A'490bolts)
( n : the number of shear planes participating [usually one (sittgle 0.75F:. As is apparentfrom Eq. 4.7.4,multiplying the gross areaArby 0.75fj
( shear)or two (double shear)as in Fig. 4.6.1a1 gives the correctvaluefor Rn. Using the reducedstresson the gross area gives
Ab: grosscross-sectional area acrossthe unthreadedshank of the bolt the sameresult as using the correct stresson the reducedarea.
( The design strengthsfor tension and shear on ,4.325and A490 bolts are
( Deslgn Shear Strength - Threads in Shear Planes summarized'in-Table 4.7.1.
( The designstrength SR, when threads may exist in the shear planesis based
on Eq. 4.6.4,which gives Design Bearlng Strength
(
The designstrength QR, basedon the bearingstrengthat bolt holes,according
+Ro: P(O.as^ff
) mA6 - 0.65(0.45ry)
*e, (4.7.3)
( to LRFD-J3.6 and developedin Sec.4.6 is prescribedin severalcategories:
( Deslgn Tenslon Strength l. For usualconditions(standardholes or short-slottedholes,end distancenot
The design'strength
QR,based
on the tension
strengthof thefastrnrr, uruording less than 1.5d, bolt spacingcenter-to-centernot less than 3d, and rvith trvo
to LRFD-J3.3 and developedas Eq. 4.6.1, is or more bolts in the line of force), Eq. 4.6.10TLRFD-Eq(J3-1a)Iapplies,
(
0R, : aF:(0J5A0): 0.75F:@.75Ab) (4.7.4)
( 0R,,: E(z.4dtF") ( 4. 7. 6)
- FASTE' :RS 127
FACTOR DESIGN
4 7 /LOAD AND RESISTANCE
126 4 / STRUCTURAL FASTENERS
3d, and with two or more bolts in tbe line of force, Eq.4.6.11'ILRFD- ,t"'itt suengtb of Plate material
ag:
;,: r;
3 bolt
in a line is preferabtyTLRFD-J3'91
where 0 : 0.75 The minimum spacingof bolts (
less than 2l diameters'
diametersand 'nAi not li
to the edge wbet conditions of Eqs.4,7.6 and 4.7-7 are
3. For the bolt closest (
Eq.
not satisfied, 4.6.8 [LRFD-Eq(J3-1c)]applies' ,
of Transmltted Force (
(4.7.8) ::-' Mhlmum End Distance ln Dtrec'tton
9 R o : E L IF , the direction of the
-,. requirement for end distance in (
Equiriion 4.?.10 grvt the
r*'here g : 0-75 (
- f o r c e o n t h e b o l t s u c h t h a t a r u p t u r e c a n nare
o . oused,
"."'.w h eminimum
the a l l y distances
n t h e u s uend accepted
L : end distance in line of force, from the center of d standard Eq, . 4.7.6 una a.l.l
,: . srrengthsgir;;';;. Utdng strengths are used' F'q'
hole or oversizedhole, or from the mid-width of a slottedhole, : must be at least 1l diamete""Wttt"
higher (
to an edge of a coqnected Part
(
"ovalization" can be
4. When hole elongationgreater than 025 in. and hole (
DISTANCES
tolerated,Eq.4.6.9 TLRFD-Eq(J3-1d)J may be used, TABLE4.7.2 }JINII'U}'I EDGE PART)
iOUE' TO EDGEOF CONNECTED
(CENTEROF STANDANO (
0R,, : g(3-IdtF") (4.7.e) l;;;;;;trpbu r-
Minimum edge distance (
rvhere S : 0.75 At rolted edges ol
Ncrninal plates, shapes or bats'
(
At sheared
rivet ot boli or gas cut edges'
edges
Mlnlmum spaclng of Bolts In Ltne of Transmltted Force diarn€ier (mrn)
(in.) (mm) (.n.)
(mm) (
The usual spacing of bolts in the direction of the transmitted forcesmust be at (in-)
least 3 diameterswhen Eqs. 4.7.6 or 4.7.7 are used. Under all other conditions, 7/8 1)'t 3/4 19.1
't7 7 (
t/2 lLl
Eq. a.6.8 applies. Solving Eq. 4.6.8 for the midmum distance L from the I L/ 8 28.6 7/8
'=x
5/8 15.9 ?.5.4 (
center of one fastenerto the edgeof the adjacent hole, 19.1 I t/4 31.8 1
3/4 38.1 r r/8 28.6
't 22.2 1 t/2t 31.8 (
(4.?.10) /8 M.4 I r/4
1 7l.4 1 3/4+ 38.1
1 50.8 I r/z (
1 r/8 28.6 41.3
2 L/4 57.2 I s/8
1 L/4 31. 8
Then, adding the radius d ^/2 of the bolt bole to Eq. 4.7JA givesthe minimum 1 3/4 x dias I l/4 x diam (
t... OverI r/4 Over31-8
center-tNenter spacing (
is at
in'-(3'2 mm) *hen tbe hole
Ro dh tAU edge distances i! this column may be reduced t strength in the
Spacing> (4.7.11) *, .*...i iid-"i tnt marimtm design . (
F"t Z a poinr r*.bere ,o.J'a".*t
element. (
Since R. in Eq. 4.?.U is the reguired nominal srength which equals the {-- |Wbeawersizcorslotrcdbolesareused,seeLRFD.J3.10;ASDJ3.9. (
factored load P acting on one bolt dil'ided by the resistancefactor $, thus, Eq. '*r:
tTb.s"maybeltin.attbecodsolbeamconneclioaanglcs.I
(
l . s
I :+'
;. -;
l - : - - (
(
(
,(
128 4/srRucTURAL FASTENERS - TENSION
4.8/ EXAMPLES MEMBER - LRFD
CONNECTIONS
BEARING-TYPE r29
(
(
4.7.10 gives the minimum end disrancc, as follows: - TENSIONMEMBER
4.8 EXAMPLES BEARING-WPE
( CONNECTIONS - LRFD
R,,
L> [+.z.ro]
Fut The follorving examplesillustrate the AISC Load and ResistanceDesign
method for connectionsof tensionmembers.The principlesrelated to member
where the required nominal strength is the factored load divided by the strengthare discussedin Sec.3.9 and thosethat are fastenerrelatedare in Sec.
resistancefactor g. Thus, accordingro LRFD-J3.10, 4.7.
P I EXAII{PLE 4.8.I
L> (4.7.13) Compute the tensilesenice load capacityfor the bearing-typeconnection in
efr Fig. 4.8.1if (a) the bolt threadsare excludedfrom the shearplane and (b) the
u ' h e r e0 : 0 . 7 5 - bolt threadsare included in the shearplane. Use AISC LRFD Specification
P : factoredload per bolt with l-in.-diam A325 bolts in itandard holesand A572 Grade 50 steelplates.
F, : tensilestrenglh.
of the platematerial The servicelive load is three times the servicedead load.
I : thicknessof platematerial
SOLUTION
The end distanceactually usedmust be the larger of that computedfrom a
(a) Threadsexcludedfrom shearplane.First compute the strength of the
strength requirement and the minimum prescribedby Table 4.7.2 ILRFD-
platesbasedon tensionmembers(Chapter3):
Table J3.71.
A s : 6 ( o - 6 2 5 ) - 3 - 7 5s qi n .
::.--'-
( ,
: 2B.r
: :l1,Tfii#;(rx0.60r3) kipslbort ':t,'
*+,'
D:18-7kiPs
L : 3D: 56'1kiPs (
The designsrrengthin bearingfor usual situationsof 1.5d end distanceand 3rl . - - - l : ^
load I permittedis
-
=!.
(
sPacingis
center-to-center
;g., Thus,the maximumt'otalservice
::=-' = ? 4 ' 8 k i p s( f o r A 3 2 5 - X ) (
sR,, : E(Z.AF"dt) -* T:D+L:18'7+56'1
=i1; in-single
: 64 kips/bott
: a.75(2.4X65X0.875X0.625) j, : shearplane.The fastenerdesignstrength (; ,
oR:;" bort-in
strenlth
Note that for bearingstrength,{ is the tensilestrengthof the plate rnaterial: ,n,"lol,ll',"?ffi".HTLi;;;;t (a).rhe;'ts" (
65 ksi for.A572"Grade50. Thus, shearcontrols and the designstrengthper
3 singleshearfor A325-N* is
;:: , tn tcrb\ -, [4'7 'Zl (
lasreneris 28.1 kips. The total designstrength based on tbe fastenersthen :; QR n: + (0. 45F, b) ^A,
becomcs , (
Rn: 4(28.1) - 112 kips =a.:0.65(0.45X120X1X0.6013):21.|kips/bolt
QTn: (No. of fasteners) |i" '1"--'-- -:--r^ -L-^p ar e there are no changesin the net (
Sincethe singlesheardesignstrength(+7": 112 kips) is lower than the - t:::l-jiJl,,:l'*.ffi
:fililH:;:F"e,i,,nett iizr"r
sin..'in""'i' (
plate dcsignstrengthas a tensionmember(+7" = 122 kips). then
t (
QT,: 112kiPs (for A325-X) :-
T : 0'75(74'8)= 56'1kips (for A325-N) (
..
The end distanceL from the center of a standard hole to the end of the
plate may not be lessthan (LRFD-J3.10) t, to develop thefulr (
i"%er of J-in.-diamA3zsborts required
;l*l[* i" Fig.+.g.2 Portion double
(a of a (
lP z8.r i5 steelplates
"/ . --
>I : n 9 2 i nI. of the AsTzGradJ
srrengrh with threads excluded
tonn"tttion
0.75(6s)0.62s I lap splice connection) for a bearing-typt t'
Ler", I
In the above equation,the factoredload P on a bolt is assumedto be the (
maximum permitted basedon single shear.The 1.5 in. provided exceedsthe
minimum required 0.92 in. from the computation and also satisfies
\
the minimum for shearededgesgveo in Table 4.7.2. (
Rupture shear strengtb,known as block shear, is not checked here (see
(
Sec.3.6); it is not likely to control when f-in. thicknessof piecesis used. Q of bolts
In order to relatethe designstrengthto the serviceload, Eq. 3.9.1must be A5?2 Gnde 65 steel (
used.
I (.
QTN> T" [3.e.11 I
I (
Settingthe factoredsenice load d equal to the designstrengthQf, will give I
I
the marimum acceptableserviceload. Using the gravity dead and live load I (
I
I
'bearingdoesnot controlin other I
( ''rr
regards.the shearrupturemodeis unlikely to
contlol. t
( 4.8.3.
Figure4.8.3 ExaaTple
(
-
JOINTS
4 9/SLIP-CRITICAL 135
>-',' 134 4 / STRUCTURALFASTENERS C
->r
JOINTS
I.9 SLIP-CRITICAL
When slip resistance at service load is desired, the joint is referred to as a
slip-critica!joint. In the 19?8 AISC Specification, such connections were
rcrmed frictian-type connections.All tensioned high-strength bolted connec-
tions aciually resist load by friction. Refening to Fig. 4.6.3, the pretension
joined.
force l" in the bolt equalsthe clamping force betweenthe piecesbeing
Frgure4.8.4 Blocksbcarfailureon plateof F-xanrple
4.8.3. The resistanceto shear is a frictional force pT, where p is the coefficient of
friction.
The coefficient of friction, or more properly the s/rp coefficient,depends
Using the factored load P per fastener of. 77/4: r9.3 kips, the encl bn the surface condition, witb such items as mill scale,oil, paint, or special
distanccL requiredaccordingto LRFD-J3.10is surface treatmentsdeterminingtbe value of p-
"the friction bond is definitely broken
I p 19.3 Slip"is defined as occuning when
L' yqq,: : 1 .7 7i n .] and the two surfacesslip with respect to one another by a rel4tively large
dJt(sg)025 amount" [4.14].The rangeof p varies from 0.2 to 0.6 dependingon the surface
Sincc the computedl.?7 in. exceedsthe minimum from Table 4.7.2ILRFD- condition[3.1].
'fable
J3.71,the end distancemusr be at leasr1.77 in. In order to avoid directly using the coefficient of friction and to permit
The shear rupture limit state ftlock shear) should also be checked; designof slip-criticaljoints usingthe samegeneralapproachas for bearing-type
particularly here, since the plate (i-in.) is a thin one and heavily loaded. coniections, the friction force pT is divided by the bolt grosscross-sectional
"shear stress"on the'bolt.
Referring to Fig. 4.8.4,the preliminary arrangementfor four bolts is to use 2 area Au to obtain a so-called
in. cdge distancesat rhe sidesand end. and 3 in. longitudinalspacing.
Investigatethe block shearstrengthof the resulting,urangement.Using I EXAMPLE 4.9.I
Commentary LRFD-J4, which indicatesto us€ the larger of Eqs. 3.f.1 anrj Determinerhe amountof force P required'tocauseslip of a {-in.-diam A325
3.6.2: bolt loaded as in Fig. 4.9.1,if the slip coefficient p is 0.33 (a typical value for
"clean mill scale" surfacecondition). Using the serviceload force P,
For shear yielding (along b-c and e-/) combined with rension fracrure the usual
"shear stress",
(along a-b and d-e\, compute the f": P/Ac
: 7?hps
QTn:0.75(102) Figure 4.9.1 Example 4.9-1.
I q---
(
( C/als B-Blast-cleaned r 28 34 24 29 20 24 L7 70
surfacesand blast-cleaned
( surfaceswith Class B coatingst
rather than a strengthrequirement,a maryin of safety lorver than that used for
( ClassC-Hot dip galvani"ed
strengthis reasonable. AISC has usedfor this situationa safetyfactor against
and rougbened surfaces 22 27 slip about 70Voof that usedfor strength.
( 19 23 l6 t9 14 16
Overcoming slip does not imply that a failure mode has been reached.
'4, is the uafactored service load ibear per bolt divided However, rvhen connectionsare subject to stress reversal there is greater
by &e.nominal area
concern regardingany slip at serviceload. Repeatedloading causesreduced
tCoatings classified
as Class A or Class B include tbose coatings which provide a mean fatigue strengthrvhenslip has occurred,particularly when oversizedor slotted
slip coefficient not less thas 0.33 or 0.50, respectively, as determined by test [4.15]. holes.are used.
(
(
Since the overali action of the cpnnection is a shearing effect, the "shear
i ( stress"f, in the fr-in.-diambolt ar rheload causingslip tJbegin is .-..-,,. TABLE 4.9.3 MAXTMUM SIZE(NOM|NAL)FOR OVERSTZEAND SLOTTEOHOLES
.\ (ADAPTEDFROM RCSC SPECIFTCATTON
[4.7])
: ( P 12.9
i": - 21.4ksi I Nominal Oversizg Shorl- Long-
( To: 0;d15
; boll size holeso slottectholesr holest
slottect
( (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm)
The AISC Specifications "shearstress"approachto
( [1.5,1.15]use rhe
provideadequateslip resistance in joints whereslip at seruiceload cannotbe s/8 15.913/16 20.6 rr/r6x 7/8 17.5x22.2 11l16xr 9/t6 L7.5x39.7
( tolerated.The limit stateof slip in thejoint is a serviceabilityrequirement.The 3/4 i9.1Ls/16 23.8 L3/L6xr 20.6x25.4 r3/r6xr 7/E 20.6x47.6
7/8 11 '' 1 t/16 27.o L5/r6xr t/8 23.8x28.6 t5/t6x7 3/16 23.8x55.6
actual failure of fastenersin a joint will be as discussed in Sec.4.6; that is, a
( shearfailure of the bolt, tensionfailure of the bolt, or bearingfailure in the
25.4 tI r/4 31.8 r/r6xr 5/16 27.Ox33.3 r/r6x2 t/2 27.0x63.5
r/8 28.6 I 7/16 36.5 3/r6xr r/2 30.2x38.1 3/l6xz L3/16 30.2x71.4
( connected.material. 1/4 3 1 . 8 I .g/16 39.7 5/t6xt s/E 33.3x41.3 s/I6x3 r/8 33.3x79.4
Sinceresistance to slip in "slip-critical"connections is a limit stateto be 3/8 34.9 Lr/16 42.9 7/t6xr 3/4 36.'xM.5 7/r6x3 1/16 36.5x87.3
( investigatedat serviceload, the limiting "shear stresses"to be usedare in r/2 38.1 t3/16 I
I 46.0 e/r6xt 7/8 39.7x47.6 9/16x3 3/4 39.7x95.3
conceptthe samefor LoadandResistance FactorDesignt1.151as wereusedin
'Nominal diametersui to in. (4.?6mm) larger thanbolts U.(ZZ.Zmn) and lessin diameter;
1978AllowableStressDesign.The LRFD and 1989ASD valuesare givenin fi I I
( Table4.9.1. in. (6.35 mrn) larger than I io. (25.a mm) diam bolts; ard * i!. (7.94 mm) larger than bolts I I in.
(38.6 mm) and glcater in diameter.
As may be noted, for the situationof Example4.9.1 the LRFD-J3.5 *
allowable"shear stress"4, of 17.0ksi for .{325 bolts is usedfor slifi-critical Nominally fi in. (1.59 mm; wider tbat bolt diamerer and baving a length n'hicb does not exceed
'connectionscontaining-standard holes.The margrn of safety agaiirstslip
the oversizediameter (footnote') by more tb- * in. (1.59 mm).
tNominally j! in. (1.59
( providedwould be 27.4/77.0: 1.26.Sinceslip is a serviceabilityrequirement, mm) wider tban bolt diagreter and baving a lcngtb longcr than for
short-slotted holes but not exceeding2 | times the bolt diameter.
| ' a
\
-
Fffi" a'
138 4 /STRUCruFALFASTENERS $ fH&<.'-
fi-
! €.ff.-
4.9/SLIP-CRITICALJOINITS 139
jq*adr+&-
i j|l*4!?r+!-
"ffi
t-ffi (
; . ".#fl
*#;
The factor of safetyagainstslip computedaboveis typical:for other b,,ii : .,E#:":.
.;S*F,. (
are all identical
ffi _The requiremenrsfor spacing, end, and edge distances
srz.csand for both 4325 and A490 bolts the variation may be observeclfrt,nr joint is a bearing-type connection or a slip-critical connection. (
I ablc 4.9.2.The clampingforceis the initial tensionfrom Table 4.4.2: ffi *nrrher the ggverns the
F... Si".r the faciored load per bolt will be lower when slip-resistance
T'hc reliability index F (seeSec.1.8) is higher for slip-resistance equations for spacing of fasten- (
*.hcn * ournuer of fasteners used, the bearing-related
holtsarc installedby the turn-of-the-nut method&an whentheyare installctj spacingand end distances. Of course,
ryo-.; and end distancewill permit smaller ('
hr caiibratedwrench [4.161.The AISC Specificadons more likely to control. Generally, slip-resistance
[1.5. 1.15Jdo n.1 *-ii Or minimums are then
rc;coq1i1e the differeflce;rhevaluesassumea t0% probabilityof slip w.ithbolt, (
,€ *ntrols in slip-critical connections,rather than strength in shear or bearing-
installedby the calibratedwrenchmethod.The allos'able"sbeal stress"valuc, .; (
=F-ii.
in LRFD-J3-5 and ASD-J3.6are rounded lorver and slightlylediced fronr .oF
4.93
r n><aMPLE
thoseusedin 1978ASD-1.5.2.2.
RrO.sign the connecrion for Fig. 4.8.2 as a slip-critical connection using
I
(
Thus. the "nominal" stress/ has the units of force per unit area, and the
( u=','1 right sideof the equationbecomesan allowablestressF. Note that only when
Number of bolts : : : : 2.5
R 24.7 rhe bolt is installed without initial tension rvill the actual stressbe R/A6:
(
When threads are included rvithin the shearplanes,the strengthbasedon initial tension in the bolt till causepart or all of the service load to be
( shcar is reduced becauseof the reduced cross-sectionthroughlhe threads. transferredby friction, giving rise to the fictitious "nominal" stress/ acting
Using Eq.4.7.2, i on the bolt cross-sectional area.In either case,Eg. 4.10.2properly expresses
(
the safetyrequirement.
( gR,,:o(O.asry)m,
( 0.65(0.45)(120x2)0.4418: 31.0kips/bolt Shear Strength of Fasteners
( Since this is less than the bearing.strengih(40.5kipsTbolt)compuredin The strengthin shearof a high-strengthbolt is givenby Eq. 4.6.2rvhen threaCs
Example4.8.2,it governsthl strengtt.fnr iequiredfactoredloadto becarried are excludedfrom the shearplanes,
( is 95 kips.The numberof bolrsiequiredfor strengthis
(
Rn: meu$.oar!) 14.6.21
(
of bolts- 2:
Number 3 : 3.1 In termsof the working stress(or allowablestress)designmethod,the strength
0R,, 31.0 is dividedby a safetyfactory/f. Thus,usingthe traditionalfactor of safetyof
( Thus, for this design rhe 3.1 bolts required for strengthexceedsthe 2.7 bolts about 2.5 for mediumlengthjoints (typically2.0 for shortjoints to 3.0 for long
required for the serviceability-ilip-resistance. joints), Eq.4.6.2substitutedinto Eq. 4.10.1givesthe allos'ableshearstress{,,
( -''E
Use 4-]-in.-diam botts (A325-SC).
0.60I:
( ,,,: t : o.zsFj. (4.10.3)
(
4.10 ALLOWABLESTRESSDESIGN- FASTENERS which for 4325 (F! :120 ksi) becomes30 ksi, and for A490 ( F: : 150 ksi)
( becomes37.5 ksi. ASD-J3.4uses.Q - 30 ksi for A325-X (threadseXcluCed
The gineral pirilosophy of Allowable Stress Design (ASD) was described in from shearplanes)and d: 40 ksi for A490-X. The adjustmentfrom 37.5
( Secs. 1.8 and 1.9. Equation 1.8.8 gives the structural safety requiremenr,as (i.e.. 0.25fj) to 40 reflects approximation in the 0.60 relationship between
( follows: tensile strength ,ff and the shear strength r,. The number nt of. the shear
planesacting is assumedto be attachedto the area; Au is really mAo.
* =rn,
(
[1.8.8] \\then th.readsare possiblewithin the shearplanes,the cross-sectionalarea
( should be reduced.to that measuredthrough the threads.Either a smalier area
rvhich expressesthat the design stfeDgthbR" divided by a factor of safety should be used in computng f or the allowable stress {. must be reduced.
( 7
must exceed the sum of the service loads. In the allowable stress dejign AISC has chosento have the nominal stress/ continue to be computed using
( method, the safety provision is.t/e. the gross area A6i thus, the allowable stressmust be reduced.The ratio of
In terms of fastendrg the right hand side of Eq. 1.8.8 becomesthe total tensile stressarea* to the grossarea is approximately0.70 to 0.75; therefore,
( service load R per fastmer in shear, tension, or bearing, as tbe case may be. the allorvablestress'F, ir reducedby that amount to give Fu: 27 ksi for
( Then dividing both sides * ,lr;:ety provrsion y/g gives A325-N (threadsiNcluded within sbearplanes)and d : 28 ksi for A490-N.
t
(
( Lr/r: rsJ=* [4'10'1) 'See footnote at bottom of Table 4.1.1.
, (
4.,
DESIGN- FASTENERS 143
-aa-.: _- -F
FF
''&:..
4.1O/ALLoWABLESTRESS I
t
/ t .
i,..
k
splittingout-of the
As discussed 'u 4.6. the bearingstrengthto prevent
in sec. instead (
TABLE 4.10.1 ALLOWABLESHEARSTRESSFy FOR BEARING-TYPE' gru.n"Uye*l +O9, 1ut u "oeificient3'0
coN NECTloNs (FRol'JASD-TABLEJ3.2) bolt at the end of ioii.ction, --i'i'g, a '
\ !
o f t h e 2 . 4 i n E q . 4 . 6 . 1 0 . H o w e v e r , s i nresearch
c e E q . .has
4.10 o p t ethe
. 6 r v a s a dthat
determined dinthe1978 -i:
. F u
lared on Eq. \ /.
/- ,i
- ASD Specification' whenthe higbervalue is used' Also'
be excessiue
Fastener U"l tl''lPr' deformationof tt',. t otesmay and end distincesfrequentlycontrol (
for i,oft tpuJil
minimum ,.quir"rnents
bearing'
A325-N, threadsiNclwled in shearplanes 21 140
insteaOof the upPerlimit on (
A325-X, threadseXcludedfrom shearplanes 30 210
(
Connectlons
A490-N, threadsiNcluded in sbcarplanes 28 190 SllpCrltlcal (i.e', Frlctlon'Type)
for slipcritical (
A490-X, tbreadseXcludedfrom shearplanes 40 280
Sincesrip resistasnce at serviceroadis the importantcriteri-on
to obtain adequate safety againstslip is (
connections,the designpuiro*plv t9 Atlowable Stress Designor
must also
.Bolts in slip-criticaljoints (i.e.,friction-typeconnections) ii "*"Jing
identical*t.u.,.r-iJr*l'design geiral requirements for. slip-critical (
sarisfytheseallowablestresses. n additionlo satisfyingthe allowable L,oadand Resisi-L i..tor olsignJt*
stressesrelatingto slip resistance asdiscussed in sec.4.9. werepresented in Sec' 4'9' (
connections in
Slip-critical clnnections must haveadeqtlatestrength;accomplished
.. .Allowable limitations for shear (
StressDesignby satisfyin;,1*ffillt.ttt"tt must
The allowableshearstresses{, for A325 and A490 bolts in beanng-type bearin!-typeconnections,and rn addition
connectionsare summarizedin Table 4.10.1. and beari'g g*n "tlu" for (
of slipresistance'
requirem.e-nt
loi;ty ,tt, leit''iceabiliry r.,irry the allowablestresslimitations (
Thus, it would be appropnui.io
Speciiication [4'7Jfor Allowablestress
Bearing Strength of Fasteners givenin Table"i.i.t from oi ncsc allowed slightlyhigbersresses'
(
Specification
T[e strengthin bearingof a high-strengthbolt is given by Eq. 4.6.i0 rvhen Design.Ho*.u.r. iie r9r8 A?D ^f, tootT:t rvas17'5 ksi (
holes, For instan.., ,t. allowable,t.ar'rtr.sses lor for -slip holes and class
bolts are in standardand short-slotted t.rpectiiely, standard
and2zksi for iiisand A490ui,t, whereas the values are (
ASD'specifiiation'
Rn : 2.4Fdt [4.6.101 A surface"onaiii*-in tU. rgzS- the Rcsc specification for use (
t rp..ti4,9
Following the generalworking stressformat of Eq. 4.10.1.the strengthin reducedto rz.o rui and21 tri, Additionll research and the
*a r9g9 AsD Specifications.
bcaringfUq. c.O.tO)is dividedby the factor of safetyFS and the nominal in the 19g6LRFo steeldesigndictated the downward (
hearing area dt to obtain desirefor more uniform safety,ttto-,igtto"t (
adjustment-
[ t =* ]
=[+:dfo] (4.10.4)
,Mlnimumspac|ngotBolts|nLlneo|TransrnlttedForce
(
(
from one fastener to another resultingfrom
: nominal bearingstressunder serviceload (the subscriptp is used The preventionof tear'through in Secs'4'6 (
w.hcre .fo ttt. riar of a holewasdiscussed
'
ratherthan b which is usedlater for bending\
for pressure, high bearingli the uolt uguirrrr
d : nominal diameterof bolt a n d 4 . ? . R e p l a c i n g P / Q b y z r , * t r e ' e Pthe
i s tsafety
h e s efactor l o a d ( b a s e d e i t h e r o n(
r v i c e1/A'W'4312
bearing) per bolt and i "p"ttnts
t : thicknessof plate againstwhich bolt bears shearor (
: allowablebearingstress becomes
4 2P dr. (4.10.?) (
When the factorof safetyof 2 traditionallyusedfor bearingis applied,the Spacing,
nr*T (
allowablebearingstress$ would be
w"v'v P
where : serviceload Per bolt. (
2.4F"dt
Fo: : \.2Fo (4.10.s) F, : tensile strength of'^platematerial
2.0dt '= thickness of the Plate material
(
i
rrhich is the valueof ASD-J3.7for standardholes.When deformationaround dr - diameter of the bolt hole (
the followinghighervalueis permitted:
the hole is not a consideration, A S D . J 3 . 8 s i m p l i f i e s E q . 4 . l 0 . ? b y u s i n g t h g r y m the
i n a lAllowable
boltdiame terdin
Suess (
(4.10.6) place of d^ *t.rtii""olt tor.t # inuo-lued-Thus,
4: 1'54 (
(
(
(
'(
144 4/STRUCTURALFASTENERS 4.1r /EXAMPLES-TENSTON
MEI'TBERS STRESSDESTGN 145
USTNGALLOWABLE
(
(
Dcsign bolt spacing requiremenr for standardholesis ASD-Eq(J3-5),
UsingEqs.3.11.4
and3.11.5,
(
2 P d 7 7 5
( S' p a c ei n- g ) ; 1 + - (4.10.s) f' : A : l; : 2oksi ' : oK
\t 2 J . t J
[o.oor, 3oksil
g
(
When other than standard bolts are used, the d in Eq. 4.10.8is increasedin 7 7 5
( rfo-: : 32.5ksi]
L : =l : 30ksi < [O.SO4 OK
accordancewith ASD-J3.8b. A" 2.50
( (b) Fasteners.The allorvable capacity R in single shear is. from Tablc
( 4.10.1,
Minlmurn End Distance In Dlrection of rransmitted Force
( R(singleshear): mApF,.: 1(0.00t3)30: 18.0kips/bolt
The prevention of splitting out at the end bolt of a seriesof bolrs in a line,
( requires a certain minimum end distane, as discussedin Sec.4.7. Replacing The allowable capacitf in bearing when deformation around the hole is of
PIQ by 2P in Eq. a.7.13g,uo the ASD-J3.9 requirement concern (ASD-J3.7.1)is
(
2P R(bearing): 1 -2Fudt: 1-2(6s)(*Xt) :42.7 kips/bolt
( t= (4.10.e)
The shear value is the smaller of the two (18.0 and 42.7) and therefore
(
rr
controls:
( rvhere L '= end distance from center of entl bolt to edgemeasuredin the tine R : 18.0kips/bolt
of force
( 7 : (Number of bolts)R : 4(18.0) : 72 kips
P : serviceload on end bolt
Fu : tensile strength of the plate material Thus, a serviceload of 75 kips will make the nominal shear stressexceedthe
(
I : thicknessof plate material allorvablevalue of 30 ksi by about 4%, generallytoo high to accept.Note that
( this connection investigatedby Load and ReistanceFactor Design in Example
The distancefrom the ceater of a standard hole to an edgeof a connectedpart 4.8.1 would have been permitted to carry 74.8 kips, assumingthat live load
( is not permitted to be less than the value in ASD-Table J3.5 nor rhe value !
representsno more than7l% of the total sen'iceload.
( from Eq. 4.10.9(ASD-J3.9).
E EXAMPLE 4.11.2
( Investigate rhe acceptability of the connection of Fig. 4.8.1 to serve as a
( slip-critical (friction-lype) connection carrying a service load tension of 41
4.11 EXAMPLES- TENSION MEMBERSUSING
kips. The connection consistsof four ]-in.-diam A325bolts in standard holes
( ALLOWABL€ STRESS DESIGN
connecting A512Grade 50 steelplateshaving ClassA surfacecondition. Use
( the AISC ASD Specification.
! EXAMPLE4.II.I
( Investigatethe tensionmemberconnectionof Examplea.t.r (Fig. a.8.1)to SOLUTION
carry a total service load of 75 kips. The connectionis a bearing-type (a) Tensionmembercapacity. The areas as computed in Erample 4-8.1
( connection,with threadsexcludedfrom the shearplanes,using f-in.-diam are ' --.
( A325bolts in standardholes.Tbe plates are A577Grade50 steel.Use the
A, - An : 2. 50sq in.
AISC ASD Specification.
( Ar: 3 . 7 5s g i n .
( SOLWION UsingEqs.3.1i.4.and3.11.5,
( (a) Tensionmembercapacity.The areasas computedin Example4.8.1
T 4 l
are f.: : 3Oksi]
: 10.9ksi< [O-OOf" OK
( Ar: A o - 2 .5 0s q i n. 4: l}
( '4., 7 " 4 7
- 3-75sq in. f': : 16'4ksi< [o'so'q: 32'5ksiJ oK
( 4: *
t il
F SHEAR
4.12/ ECCENTRIC 147 ( :
146 FASTENERS
4,/ STRUCTURAL
( r
i
I
(
(b) Fasteners-slip resistance.
The allowablecapacityR in singleshearis. (
from Table 4.9.1. M=Pe
4.12 ECCENTRIC
SHEAR Traditional ElasUc (Vector) Analysis
been analyzed by
When the load P is appliedon a line of actionthat doesnot passthroughthe For many years eccentricallyloaded fastenergroups have
subjected to
ccntcr of grarity of a bolt group, therewill be an eccentricloading effect, such ,:: considerinj tUe fastenergroup areas as an elastic cross-section
::: are nominal in the sensethat
as in Fig. a.i2.l. A load P ar an eccentricitye, as shown in Fig. 4.12.2,is direct shear and torsion. The stressesresulting
provide a guide to safety but are not real
statically equivalent to a rnoment P times e plus a concentric load P both they have stressunits (say, psi) and
-F.:..
ari actuaily carried by fricdon' This elastic
acting on the connection.Since both the moment and the concentric load s6essesbecause-theservice-loads
of
contribute shear effects on the bolt group, the situation is referred to as
l :
f:
(
\(
\ 4.12 /EQCENTRIC SHEAB 149
148 4/STRUCTURALFASTENERS
(
( R,
grr
(
,rl', )
( d3 ai l"t
( ?q\'a,J
(
I r \
-(",$ d6
arl
,y1,, i
I
( Figure 4.12.4 Horizontal and vertical
( (a) Connection (b) Forces on @nnectors compooeotsof tbe force R.
Pcosa 10(0.8) (
Mv 120(3) R"..=1'':i:2'00kiPs-'
P
"r :-:6.Gkips (
Lxz + ly' 60
Psinc gP (
Mx 1 2 0 (2 ) Rcy -F: : r.5okips
l
R : --
".Y = ---:4.0 kips i 4 (
Ex2 + Ey2 60
(
P 2 4 n : / L R r * R , " l t+ [ R , * R , . . ] t
R..: t
tT:?=4.OkipsJ
n:1ffi3-82+2'oo)t : 7.09kips (
(
!
Ltl "-.''.1"'
: t:-
(
!,: '
F, . R
t ' (
e. *$
I R. +O
lR. - f", (
i1al
fa, 1,, .:!f,s (
*. fok
o
1". {a
o
7
R o l a ' (
i", 1,, (
t.i". Ia.
€. f", (
o* .Y=-
R, -:'
:.-
-G.=:
G) Forcas acting
(
(o) (b) Forces acting on la3ten€T3
: (e)
on tastengra (
Figure4.12.5 Example4.12.1. Figure 4.12.6 ExaoPle 4.12.2- (
..-i='-
--..-+.
#:
(
(
(
"(
152 4/STRUCTURALFASTENERS 4.12 / ECCENTRTC
Sr-tEAR 153
(
\
( Ultlmate Strength Analysls resPonsers
(
This method, also called ptastic analysis,currently is recognizedby tbe Guide Ri: Rur,(1- "-ror;o'55 (4.12.16)
( [3.1f as the most rational one.
In this method it is recognizedthar the eccentricload p causesa rotation where-Rd, : iuAt.The coefficients10 and 0.55 were experimentallydeter-
( as rvcll as translationeffect on the fastenergroup. The translationand rotation
mined and the maximum A at failure was about 0.34 in. [3.11.].iote tbat e in
( can be reduced to a pure rotation about a point defined as the instantaneous
Eq. 4.12.16is the Naperian base(2.718) and not the eccentricity.For A325
centerof rotarion (seeFig. 4.12.7).
( bolts, the ultimate shear strength r, is approximately 70% of the tensile
The requirementsfor equilibrium are as follows:
strength (120 ksi minimum). Actually the experimentalwork directly obtained
( n _ ruArtobeT4 kips for ]-in.-diam A325bolts in doubleshear,'naking tu equal
{
IF,, : o; I R , s i n o- , p s i n D : o (4.12.13) to 0.7 of 120 ksi.
i- I
The experimentalwork relating to Eq. 4.12.16usedbolts loaded symmetri-
( n cally (that is, in double shear);however,the generalstrength metbod could use
( LFn: 0; E R, cos0, - pcos6 : 0 (4.12.14) any appropriate load R vs deformation A relationship, not necessarilyEq.
i_l 4.t2.t6.
( For the slip-critical connection,a modified strengtbmetbod approachmay
n
be used wherein the resistanceRj from each fasteneris the sarne,say equal to
( ll,t:oi I a,a,-p(e* ro):g (4.rz.rs) R". With frictional load transmission,the frictional resistanceoffered by each
j-l
( fastener is essentiallythe same.
( Actually the concept of instantaneouscenter is identical to the elastic
(vector) method when the resistanceRj is assumed proportional to the
( E D(AMPLE 4.123
deformation (i.e., stressis proportional to strain). For either the elastic or the
Illustrate the general strength metbod by determining the nominal strength
( strcngth method, the deformation is proportional to the distance d, from
load P" that may be applied to tbe fastener goup of Fig. 4.12.5. Use Eq.
the instantaneouscenter of rotation
( 4.L2.16 as the load-deforcration expression,&d :lssume that tbe ma,rimum
For the strength analysis,two approacheshave been used [3.1]. For the
deformation A-", at failure is 0.34 in. Assume the full shank cross-sectionsof
( bearing-type connection, slip is neglected so that the deformation of each
-instantaneotrs 'IlG the bolts resist shear.
fastener is proportional to its distance from the center.
( rcsistance of each fastener is related to its difonnation according to ,its't
load-deformation relationship;-An expression proposed by Fisher ;
( I4.Zll SOLUTION
and used by Crawford and Kulak l4.l7l for this load R vJ deformation A For {-in.-diam A325bolts, 8q.4.12.16 becomes
(
( Ri: 0.?(120x0.6013x1- ,-ror;0'5s
P
( v : 50.5(1- "-roa1o55
(
('
x\
.E
l--b \ The load is applied in tbe y-direction; therefore 6 = 0 Fig. a.12.7).Using
l/di for sin 0, and x,/di for cos 4, Eqs. 4.72.13rbrough 4.12.15
become
t++)
d,
(
-&
( '-4
4\
L^,*,:, (4.12.1,7)
Centroid of
::
rd--
(
( '
lristantaneouseenter
VI faitener group {C.G-l
x'
sLpR t / . : P, (4.12.18)
'of rotation (t.C.l
( *
IR, d,: Pn(e+ ro) (4.t2.re)
( Figure 4.12.7 Instantaneousceoter of rotation.
, (
-
P:"- SHEAR
4.12/ ECCENTRIC 155 rw,
\ * i
154 FASTENERS
4 ,/ STBUCTURAL a
/ ri
\
B'
/ *.
value is ro ; 2.06 in., as shown in the following table:
vl
1 , . = t ' , =5
--
ry R,d,
i--'r-e {t
----fcri r r . Ii n04
, I Fasteners x, li di A R,
r l l
3 " l l
| .et +-4r<x 0.06 3 3.001 0.202 46.7 0.93 r4Q.2
I Ic 1
lc.c. 8.6 8.55 0.5
2 0.06 0 0.060 0.004
i' t 3 0.06 -3 3.001 0.2a2 6.7 0.93 140.2
O l l O o
4.06 3 5.048 0.340 49.6 3e.87 25A.3
i-_."-l Figure 4.12.8 Strengtbmetbod for
Exanple 4.L2.3.
4
5 4.06 0 4.060 0.273 48.7 48.68 197.6
T r r a lr n = 3 i n .
6 4.06 -3 5.048 0.340 49.6 39.87 250.3
138.85 9'19.0
Also. a basicdeformationassumptionis
E q . 4 . 1 2 . 1 8 : P, : 139kips
d.
, (0.34) 979.0
u max
Eq.4.12.19: P n : f f i : l 3 9 k i P s
(a) Since an iterative processwill be required to solve Eqs. (a.12.17 Thus, P" : 139kiPs. I
through4.12.19.let the first trial ro- 3 in. (seeFig. a.12.8).
Studies [4.17, 4.18, 4.2A,4.221have indicated that an ultimate strength
(plastic) analysis is the most rational approach to obtain the strength of
Rixi eccentric shear connections. The elastic (vector) analysis was found to be
Fasteners x, di A, R, R, d, conseryative, making the ratio between strength'and service load range from
di
2.5 to 3.0. However, sincethat elasticmethod does not properly reflect actual
behavior, the margins of safety are variable from case to case,though cons-er'
l 1 3 3.162 0.r84 45.9 74.53 145.3 vative.
2 1 0 1.0 0.058 32.2 32.23 .32.2 *ECCENTRIC LOADS ON FASTENER GROUPS" pfo'
The tables
3 1 - 3 3.162 0.184 45.9 14.53 145.3 vided in the AISC Manuals [1.?, 1.1?l for eccentric shear are based on the
4 5 3 5.831 0.340 49.6 42.5L 289.1 ultimate strength concepr described in this section. ilhe first edition of the
5 5 0 5.0 0.292 49.0 48.99 244.9 Guide t3.U .contained some polynomial functions that approximated
6 5 - 3 5.831 0.340 49.6 42j1 289.1 the theoietical solutions for bolts on one or two fastener lines. Brandt [4.191
19530 r rqrg has provided a practical way of making a general solution to theseproblems.
Sllp-Critlcal Connectlons
E q .a . 1 2 . 1 8 : P" : 195kips The same strength procedureis recommended[3.iJ for slip-critical connections
as for bearing-type connecrions.since slip-resistanceis a serviceabilityrequire-
i 145.9 ment, not a strength requiremeat, it is logical to investigate the s$ength of
E q.4 .1 2 ,1 9 : P n- : 143kips
either type connoiion by the ultimate strmgth approach describedabove.
n iiefened procedure for anaiysis of slip-critical connections at servics
Sincethe vrluesare not identical,furthertrialsare required.One will generally 6 constant for all fasteners,say, at
load is to consider the resistance Rr"shear
find thar P,, from Eq. 4.12.19is relativelyclosc'to the correct value even whatever is the ma:rimum acceptable stress" F, (see Table 4.9'l frOm
though Eqs. 4.i2.18 and 4.12.19give valuesthat are not very close.A trial RCSC t4.TD.Since the bolts in a slip-critical joint must be installed with iritiat
value of ro thrt will give { betweenthe two valuesbut closeto the value from tension, thire will be a fairly uniform clamping action between ths pieces
Eq. 4.12.19will make the calculationconvcrgerather rapidly. The correct beingjoined.
1
-.(
i.
156 4 / STRUCRRALFASTENERS 4.r2 lECCENTRTC
SHFAR 157
(
(
r EXAMPLE4.12.4 may be interpreted as the allowable value for a slip-criticsl connectionancl P
( RcpeatExample4.12.3(Fig. 4.12.5)using Ri: R, as for a slip-critical the safe applied load. For ;-in.-diam fasteners,usine F,.: 17 ksi (seeTable
( connectionusing$e instantaneous
centerapproach,similarto the ultimate 4.9.1),givesfor singleshear.
strengthmethod.
( R,, : 17(0.6013): 10.2kips
( SOLUTION
and the serviceload capacity would be
For R,: R, and6:0, Eqs.4.12.13
through4.12.75
become
( P : 2.86(10.2)'= 29.2kips
( Rt -- I I : o (4.12.20)
d,
Load and Resistance Factor Deslgn
(
R , I cIil * - " : o (4.12.21)
r EXAI!{PLE 4.12.5
Compare the sen'iceload capacitiesP of the eccentricsbearconnectionof Fig.
( RrI d,-p(e*ro):Q (4.72.22) 4.12.5when investigatedby various methods.Solveassumingthe connectionis
( (a) a bearing-type connection with threads excluded frorn the shearplane, and
Try ro : 2 in. Referringto Fig.4.12.8,
(b) a slip-critical (friction-tpe) connection.Assume the live load is 80% and
( dead load is 2Aa,o of the total. Assumethe plates are thick enoughthat bearing
( on the plates does not control. Use {-in.-diam .{325 bolts and AISC Load and
xi
Fastener xi di ResistanceFactor Design Specification.
( li
di
( SOLUTION
1 0 3 3.0 0 (a) Elastic analysis-bearing-type connection.
( 2 0 0 0 0 R : 10 kips (fasteners4 and 6 in Example4.12.1)
( J 0 _ -3 3.0 0
4 4 3 5.0 .0.8 The design strength $Ro h shear on the boit for a bearingt)rpe connection
( 5 4 0 4.0 - 1.0 \_._n (A325-X) is
( 6 4 -3 5.0 0.8
20^0 L6 eR"= O(0.60ry)^eu 14.7.21
(
: 28.1kips/bolt
: 0.65(0.60x120x1)0.6013
( :
From Eq.4.12.11, The factored serviceload R, is
(
P: R"I R , : 1 . 2 D + 1 . 6 L : 1 . 2 ( 2 )+ 1 - 6 ( 8 ): 1 5 . 2k i p s
( ;,:2.6R,
Since the factored load (15.2 kips) on the critical fastener is well below the
( From 84.4.72.22, design strength of 28.1 kips, the load P on the eccentric connection may be
( R"Ed, increasedptopbrtionally. Thus,
P: -R.(20)
n::2'86R"
( A- P : 24(28.7/L5-2): 44-4 kiPs
( For this assumption,fastenerNo. 2 is at the center of rotation and therefore is (b) Elastic analysis-slip-critical connection. The design strength fR, is
"shear stress" from Table 4.9.1
not involved in F4. 4.12.22. Also, fastener No. 2 is assumed to have no stiU 28.1 kips/bott-as computed in (a). The d
(
contribution to F4.4.12.21. When ro is assumedslightly larger than 2.0, Eq. is 17 ksi for 4.325 bolts i:n standard holes. Thus, tbe serviceload bolt capacity
( :
_ 4.L2.21gives P 3.6R" becausex/di: 1.0 for fastener No. 2. When ro is for slip resistanceis
assumedslightly smaller tban 2.0, Eq.4.12.21 gives P : 1.6R" because'xi/di
( - - | for the same fastener.Thus the value P : 2.86R" from F4. J222 is Allowable R : FomAa: 1?(1)0.6013: 10.2kips/bolt
( acceptedas the answer(i.e., ro : 2.0 in.). If a factor of safety is applied, R" The computed maximum load per bolt is 10 kips, very closeto the limit for the
t"(
sa
*4-!.
v (
. 159 4 / STRUCTT!?AIFASTENERS 4 . 1 2/ E C C E N T R T C- . ' i A R 159
( ,
* (
slip-critical connectic,n.strength in sheardoesnot govem. Ttus. (g) Summary. (
. P : 24(10.7/10):24.5 kips
(
(c) ultimate strengtb-bearing-type connection.The designstrengthgR" Bearing-Type Slip-Critical
is still 28.1 kips/bolt as computedin (a), *'hich meansthe marimum nominai Procedure Load P Load P (
resistanceR,, per bolt is 28J/Q:43.2 kips. Thus, Pn from Example4.12.3 (
must be reducedin the ratio of 43.2to sraldmum R, (i.e.,a9-6kipsj. Thus. Elastic(r'ector) method 44.4kips 24.5kips
51.8kips (
Strengthanalysis
$Pn: 0.65(13e)(al.Zlal.e) = ?8.7kips lnstantaneouscenter 29.2kips ( i
The factored load on tbe connectionis AISC Manual - interpolated 50.7kips 27.9kips
) 1 . 6 ( 0 . 8 p :) t . 5 2 p
P n : 1 . 2 ( 0 . 2 P+
Equating P" to 0P" Sves (
Thus, one may note the elastic(vector) method producesthe most conserv'ative
P : 78.7/1.52 : 51.8kips
result. I
(d) Instantaneous c€nter-slip-critical connection. The service load ca-
pacity from F"xample4.12.4is (
\(-
SHEAR
4 . 1 2/ E C C E N T R I C 161
( 160 4 / STRUCTURAT=
FASTENERS
''. - .:
(
Ivlore complicated formulas have been developedto compute the ma{-
(
mum strcssor force cn a fastencr.but no direct solution fcrr the nurnberuf
( connectorsor the nurnberof rou'sis possiblefrom suchcquations'
( r=fi r EXAI\TPLE4.12.6
( Determinerhe requirednumberof *-in.-diamA325 bolts for one verticalline
of fastenerse - @ in the brrcket shownin Fig. 4.12.10.Assumeit to be a
( beariug-typeconnecrionrvith threadsincluded in the shearplanes (A325-N).
( Use AISC Load and ResistanceFactor Design-
iI Resisrins consistins
secrion
resistance
( I l-,-. of c-onnectot
unirs161ydittrbuted SOLUTIO:T
j
( I (a) Factored load. Using the gravity load equation,Eq. 1.8.3,
(
il P": 1.2(7)+ 1.6(41): 74 kiPs
U (b) Design strength of a fastenerin a bearing-typeconnection.
( --l l- o,o
=2
/fi (width) =I
*
( +P., : g(O.aSfj),neo (shearstrength-double shear)
Figure4.12.9 Moment on a single line of fasteners.
( : 42-2kips (controls)
: 0.65(0.45)(120X2X0.6013)
( 1f \ The R value (here gR,) has nor beenadjustedfor the direct sheareffect; try 4
- Rnz 12 \ Rn3p
(
- M : 4 6 ; . j t t " r ,:|f f i (4.12.26) fasteners.
(d) Check the adequacy using the general ultimate strength analysis.
( Starting with rhe assumptionthat the instantaneouscenteris 3 in. to the left of
Solving Eq. +;tZ.Z6 f.or n2, one obtains
( the vertical line'of fasteners,severaliterations are required to obtain satisfac-
6Mtn-1\
( (4.r2.27)
(
n :
& [" J
which as a first approximation becomes
( 7I DL, 41KLL
( lM (4.r2.2s)
(
V&
which is suggestedfor design use.
( l" ot"t"
Since Eq.4.12.28 is for moment alone acting on a single row of fasteners,
( the numerical value for R to be used in it should be adjusted to account for
436 steel
direct shear and for more than one row of fasteners-It is suggested.touse a
(. ,reducedeffective R for the direct-sheareffect and use an increasedeffective R
( for the effect of lateral spread. For lateral spread use a multiplier on R of 1.0 Figure 4.12-iA Exanple 4.L2.6.
, ( for one line up to about 2.0 for a squarearray of connectors.
P 4.12/ECCENTRICSHEAR 163 (
162 4/STBUCTURALFASTENERS
(
(noting that M equals Pu dmes (
tion of Eqs.a.12.1?through4.12.19.The final resultsare tabulatedbelorv.It rr Tbe momen'tcomponent R,, from Aq. C.tZ-ea
n6rctl that quite a few iterations may be neededto get the values of. Pn front c) is (
P"eY
Ei4s.4.i2.18 and 4.12.19exactly eQual;however,the initial assumptionof R,'=ffiF Ic.rz.sa] (
,,, : 3 in. gave P, : 111 kips from Eq. 4.12.19.The authorshave found thar
even the first trial givesa reasonableapproximationof the answer. (
verify that answeris ro : 2.55 in. to the left of the line of fasteners: rx2 + Ly' : zl?\'+ (6)tl : 8o in'2
(
72(d6 (
Rix,
R,,:f : 3 2 - 4 k i P s" +
Fastener xi di ai Ri R,d,
di (
the resultantis obtained'
Then, usingEq- 4-12'12, \
i 2.Ss 6.00 6.519 0.340 49.6 19.39 323.2
2 2.55 2.00 3.241 0.169 45.2 35.53 146.3 R,: :36'7 kiPs< [oR" :42'2kiPsJ' (
!'ffi
3 2.55 - 2.00 3.241 0.169 45.2 35.53 746.3 (
2.55 - 6.00 6.519 0.340 49.6 19.39 323.2 the mostheavilyloadedbolt doesnot exceed
4
'10934 . " Thus, the factoredload =R, 9l areaccept' (
939.1 the design""nj'h;R; cz'z ttipt for A325-N'Thus'4 fasteners
able. (
li, *ur, be notedthattheedgedistanceL measured in the,!11ci:L"trtT
E q . 4 . 1 2 . 1 8 : P, : 110kips (LRFD-J3.10) requiring that L > (
,.r,.t','u',1',""t;;;;"st satisfyEq. 4.?.13 loaded ^ t r is
bolt
8 q . 4 . 1 2 . 1 9 : P, : 110kips (Equal provessolution)
heavilv
- r ----:r-. r^^l-l
;i';;:,-Ja ro'."nl onthemost
L ir
ffffiq,i."ffi,.fi;, (
"ia ut P it, the original equation' t
Note that the solution aboveis for singleshearand has assumedthat no AlzlN uott'@4-i"' p (
iii a_4{-in.-diam
threadsare in the shearplanes(A325-X).Also, the maximum R,, even though
logically computed using Eq. 4.12.16,cannot exceed the LRFD-Table J3.2
(
r EXAMPLE 4.12J
specifiedvalue (basedon 0.6.Fj : 72 ksi), A325 b.oltsin standardholesfor (
Determine the ,.quir.O numberof |-in.-diam
4.12.11,alsu*ing 4 vertical rows' Use a slip-critical
Ro : o .6 F :A b : 7 2 .0 (0 .6 0 1 3: ) 4 3.3ki ps the bracket plate of Fig.
-mi1 (
scale (Class {; surface condition' and use AISC
connection u,ith clean
Then. { must be reducedin proporrionthat 43.3 kips is to the maximum R. (
Load and ResistanceFactor Design'
(i.e., 49.6 kips) in the table above,
(
P, : 110(43-3/49.6): 96 kips
(
for A325-X in singleshear.
1--
r6" = 5t DL,55'LL
For A325-N, this value must be multiplied by 2 for the double shearcase (
of this example, and multiplied by 0.7 becausethreads are possible in the
I (
shearplanes(A325-N). . . l l l . . l
Compare OP, with { using the shear-relatedp value since shear con- . . l l l . . ;
trolled the fastenerstrength, o . llr. i
::ii::\X
A36 steel
(
:
[op, : 0.65(96)2(0.7) 8? kips] t [P": 74 kips] oK 2-in. (
phte on
The above showsthat 4 fastenersin a line are more than adequate.Investiga- each llange (
tion (not shown) for 3 fastenersindicatesthat 3 fastenersare not adequate.
(e) Check the adequacyusing the elastic(vector)method.The direct shear wl4 x 127 (
componentR- from Eq.4.12.11is (
Standard
-P..
r' --
72
"Rs r - : : l 8 . O k i p sI 9a9e (
q 4'12'7'
IN Figure 4.12.'11 Frcenrric sbearconnectioo of Example
(
(
:
\
. (
lr 164 4,/STR1pTURALFASTENERS SHEAR
4.12/ ECCENTRIC 165
' (
(
SOLUTION
( In the above equation. the senice load per plate is 30 kips, and the load per
(a) Factoredload. Sinceone-halfthe load is carriedby eachplatein a
: line of fasteneri is 30/4, which muStbe usedsinceEq. 4.12.28applics to one
singleshearsituation,useone-halfthe total load in all calculations
for one
( line of fasteners.No adjustrncntin R rvasmadecithcr for direct shear or for
plate.Usingthe gravityloadequation,F4. 1.8.3,
severallines of fasteners.Try 5 bolts per row.
(
P, : 1.2(5)+ 1.6(55): 94kips (or 47kips/ptare) (d)'Check rhe adequacyusing the generalultimate strength analysis.
( Referring to Fig. 4.72.12,and using the samemethod illustrated in Example
(b) Designstrengthof a fastener
in a slip-critical
connection.
For strength,
valuesare as for bearing-type 1.12.6, the value of ro is found to be 3.03 in. to the left of the centroid of the
(- connections.Assumeno threadsare to be inlhe
shearplanes(A325-X).For singlesbear, fastener gtroup:
(
0R, : g(0.604\^eo (shearsrength-singleshear)
Rixi
, ( R.d,
: 0.65(0.60X120X1X0.4418)
: 20.7kips (controls) Fastener xi li di A, Rj
( di
t;:"'
166 4/STRUCTUFAL FASTENERS 4.13/ FASTENERS tN AXTAL
ACTTNG TENSTON 167
(
connection[4.7J.
R.:#:qf :3.76kips t - s
(
(
Prestress Eftect of Hlgh-Strength Bolts Under Extemal Tenslon
R": - 3 o ( 1 6 ) s:'37.s6 o k i p s . -;- ('
# I : g _
In order to understand the effect of an externally apptied load on a preten-
sioned high-strength bolt consider a single bolt and the tributary portion of (
Actual R = (1.50+ 3.oo)2
+ (3 .7 6 )2= 6.34kips< 7.5 i *
OK the connectedplates as shown in Fig. 4.13.1a.The piecesbeing joined are of
i
I _1ir
;G (
- !:tf
q,!&
(
(
(
i
(-" 168 4,/STRUCTUML FASTENERS
4.r3lFASTENERS
ACTTNG
tNAXrAL
TENSTON 169
(
(
I e I e*t"-"r = Next,substitution
of 8q.4.r3.3for e,.andEq. 4.l3.4for c, into Eq. 4.1-7.7
( ; I roao /o' I?"t"'J' gives
,/
(
(
,r-rrF-
,Tl--]n
E
!t- ro : . T r - T t + P
A r Et AoE,
(4.r:i.ri)
( c' l The moduli of elasticity.8, for the bolt and E, tor the plate are cssenriallythe
( l " l(a)
+
(b)
4=Flrelension
installation same and may be eliminated.Then soh'ing fcir Tl gives
( {c)
(rr- r)*- r n -r , + p (1.13.e)
Figure4.13.1 Prestress
effecton boltedjolat.
{
(
(
thicknessr and the area of contact betweenthe piecesis A Prior to applying
o.
externalload the situation is as sho*n in Fig. +.i3.tb, wheie the bolt hasbeen
n('-*l-n('.*,').,
installed to have a pretension force ?i (values as in Table 4.4.2). The pieces
( beingjoined are initially compressedan amount c,. For equilibrium, Tt-Tr.h (4.13.i0)
(-
C,: To (4.13.3)
( The external load P is then applied and the forcesacting are shown in Fig. r EXAMPLE 4.13.7
( 4.13.1c.This time equilibrium requires Assume{-in.-diam ,4325bolts are usedin a direct tensionsituationsuchas in
Fig.4.13.2.With bolts spaced3 in. apart and havingl+-rn- edgedisrances,rhe
( P*C1=7, (4.13.4) tributary area of contacr may reasonablybe about 9 /q in. If the maximurn
rvherethe subscript / refersto final conditionsafter applicationof the load p. external tensileload permittedby AISC Load and ReslstanceFactor Designis
(-
The force P acting on the systbm lengthens the bolt an amount 6, applied, how much does the bolt tensionincrease?Assumethe sen'iceload is
( betrveenthe undersideof the bolt head and the surfaceof contact betweenthi 20% deadload and 80%live load.
( trvo connectedplates,
__- SOLUTION
o Tl- Tb
( Er:- (+.r:.s)\ (a) DesignstrengrhfRr. Using 8q.4.13.1,
AuEt
( 0R, : 0.75.qe(0.75A): 0.75{120X0.75)0.6013
: 40.6kips
rvhere Et: modulus of elasticityof the bolt
( - Tt - final force in the bolt after exrernal road is applied
"l
( At the same time, the compressionbetweenthe plates decreasesand the
plate thicknessincreasesan amount 6r,
f
(- 6P:Et (4.13.6)
(
where Eo: modulus of elasticityof the plate material
e q = final compression force between the pieces being joined, after iffened
anglgs
(- external load is applied
seition A - A
(
(
A_ 9
: 15 4.13.2.
Figure4.13.3 Exarnple (-
nr: o.6olt
This neglectssubtractingthe bolt areafrom the total tributary area,but little
differenceresults.Using Eq. 4.13.10with the load P per fastenerequal to its and.ResistanceFactor Design assumingthe load is 10% dead Loadand 90% (
ma.rimumvalue R gives tive lga{..
(
26.7
T 1: 3 9 + : 3 9 + 1 .7 : 4 t).7ki ps SOLUTION (
1 * r, (a) Design strengthfR" per bolt. Using Eq. 4.13.1,
(
The increase in tension is 4.3%. The variation in actual pretension from : 37.3kips
gR,, : 0.75ry(0.15A): 0.75(150X0.i5)0.4418
installation may be expectedto exceedthis amount, so that this increaseis not C
of concern. Furthermorethe tributary area used for the example(9 sq in.) is (b) Calculate the factoredtensionforce 7,.
probably the minimum one might encounterin practice,sincelessthan a 3-in. (
pitch and gageis rarelv used. ru: 1.2(0.1x140) : 218kips
(
The important conclusionfrom this exampleis that no significantincrease \1.6(0.ex140)
in bolt tension ariseswttil the external load equals or exceedsthe pretension (c) Determinethe numbern of bbtts required. (
force, in u'hich casethe piecesdo not remain in contact and the applied force Tn 218 (
equalsthe bolt tension. : : 5'9' saY
6
If the connectioncan distort and give rise to "prying forces" thesemust ;& fr: (
!
'('
172 4 / STRUCTURAL
FASTENEBS 4.14 / CCMETNED
SHEARAI.IDTEt'lSiOtl 173
(
( a circular rclationship
(
(
(
l#]'.[#]'=,0 (.r.i4.1)
( may intuitively sense that the moment shown will be relieved before a'r where C is a constant.Agreementwith the more exactrelationshipis shorvnin
significant tension force can be developedin the fasteners.Such connections 1-\. Fig. 4.14.2.Multiplying Eq. 4.14.2by 0,R", and solvingfor Ru, gives
( are used when.little end momentis desiredto be transmitted.An exceptionto g,Rn,
this occurs in the caseof a very deep beam such as a plate girder. ^
----=- R.,,.
( R,., s CQ,R n, - UU (4.14.3)
Referring next to Fig. 4.14.1bin which the applied .o-.nt is transmitted f,,,R,,,
( through the flangesof the beam, the situation is different. [n this case a large
The AISC Specifications format by dividing all
[1.5, 1.15]bave usedthe .ttrsss
applied moment is intended to be transmitted so the connecrionis made at the
( terms by the gross cross-sectionalbolt area Ab. In addition, rvhen the
flanges, the elementscarrying most of the moment. Chapter 13 deals with this
expressionsfor SrR,, and Q,ftooare substituted,4.4-74-3 becomes
( type of connection.Figure4.14.1cand 4.14.1dtypify the two types of fastener
( loading in combined shear and tension which are developedin the following
parts of this section. 6
i f f . r n f l AA,r R,,
R;; . ^0.7s(o.7sF:)Ab - e0.75(o.lsF:)
(4.14.4)
(
nr='' A, 4
(4.14.5)
( fu,30.56F:C-1.44f,,
Bearlng-Type connectlons - Load and Resistance Factor Desrgn When threads are pc5ssiblein the shear planes the coefficient 1.44 becomes
(
In earlier sections, the nominal strengths of fasteners loaded separgtely in 1.92.The Specifications [1-5, 1.1.5]have used C :1.25 to obtain the straight
( line in Fig. a.14.2.and the coefficients \.M andl.92have been taken as 1.4
shear and tension were treated.When the full strength in tension is required,
( the full strength in shearis not simultaneouslyavailable. Basedon experimen- and 1.8, respectively,for threadsiNcluded and threadseXcludedin the shear
tal studies,A.r,t,3.11,the strengthinteractionequationmay be representedby planes.The term F'j has been used instead of f,, to signify an upper limit for
(
, (
s*I :il
- 1
P 4.14/coMBlNEO SHEARANDTENSION 175 (
174 4 /STRUCTURALFASI'ENEBS
(
R4 F;. MPa (
qfl-
tenston
1.0 {
=1k= L = 12.2 tsi
R* l' ,i
- L = 15'7 ksi (
Q,n;l I fr;'=t.o f- - 9.f ksi
r
];:-k-"\ L: r2.t ksi
( '
.i
AfSC designt/ (
& -t.o
*H- (
I
1.0
- ,"# anu*
*x-
( '',
Figure 4.14.2 Nondimensionalshear-tensionstrcngtb interaction curve: bearing-typc' (g
(
connections. I
.fs- {A =
-j. -
\ It'
| '.
/' ':l
ft-
a nominal stresscomputedat factoredload level.For A325 bolts (A325-X) Eq. F,;* 2z-orsi
4.14.5becomes
F,l,s 0.56(120x1.25) -'t.&4fu, (4.14.61
( :
F,j,s 84- 1.44f", (4.14.7)
Thus, LRFD-J3.4 and Table J3.3givesfor A325-X,
..:
( . f
FJ,s85-l.4f,u (4.14.7)
Equation 4.14.7illustratesthe typical AISC Specificationformat for use (
u'ith bearing-typeconnections.The specific equationsare summarizedfrom F; = zt.8 rsi
LRFD-Table J3.3 in Table 4.14.1,and the A325 and A490 equationsare F; = tg.s rsl (
sh o wnin F ig. 4. 14. 3. (
(
TABLE4.14.1 TENSTON
STRESS.
L|MTTF;
WHEN WITHSHEAR
COMBINED
(FORBEARTNG-WPS (FROM
CONNECTTONS) LRFD-TABLE
J3.3) (
Fri, 2A 30 40 50 6!
(
1C
Fastener (ksi) (MPa) F;. ksi (
.4'307bolts 39-1.8/""<30 270- 1.8f,,,<210 Figure 4.14.3 Interaction relationship for combined shear and tension in bearing-type (
A325-N bols 85-l.g/,,<68 590*L.8f"u<470 connections,LRFD-Table J3.3.
(
(tbreads not excluded)
.{325-X bolts 85-f.4Ls68 590-L.4f"u<470 (
(thrcads excluded)
A490-N bolts 105-1.8/,,<M 730- 1.8f,,s 580 Sllp.GrltlcalConnecdons (
(threadsnot excluded)
A490-X bolts f06-1.4f"us84 730- l. f,o s 580 Since a higber factor of safery againstslip is necessaryfor slip-critical (
(threadsexcluded) : {' connectionJthan for bearing-tyPe,any reduction in the clamping forces (
(developedduring the pretensioning of the bolts; due to an externallyappligd
'Nominal stress due
to factorcd load acting on grqssbolt cross-sectionalare4
:
::3
?
iensiteior* R, (ier bol9 wilt reducethe clampingforce,and hencereducethe (
fu, - Ru,/At,.
friction force. (
i:"r !+o
*. :
i * !
(
(
(
( 176 4/STRUCTURALFASTENERS ,l 4.r4 / ooMBTNED ANDTENSTON
SFiEAR 177
(
I
Again, a straight-lineinteractionrelationshipis used: but one that is more
I
I
Solving Eq. 4.14.8 for the maximrtmservicetoad shear stressV/Ab tha,t
i conservative than the type of Eq. 4.14.2 for bearing-t)?e connections.The t
II
may exist in the presenceof tension,glves
constant C is reduced from 1.25 to 1.0 for slip-critical connections.ln
( addition. since slip resistanceis a serviceload consideration,the numerator
=a[ro (4.14.e1
( terms of Eq. 4.14.2becomeserviceloads T and l'(rension and shearon a bolt;
I [t":;] ;]
that may simultaneouslyact, and the denominator terms becomethe maxi- Letting /" be called {,', the allowableshearstressrvhen external tension is
( mum forces permitted in slip-criticalconnectionssubject to tension or shear also present, and substitutingthe valuesfor F,, the ailowable shear stressin
( acting alone: the absenceof tension for bolts in standardboles,one obtains from Eq. 4.14.9
w,l-[;]='o
the limitations of LRFD-J3.5:
( (4.14.8)
( / r\
F,j s 1?11- ; I A325boltsin standard
holes (4.14.10)
\ r o/
(
rvlrere Fu : maximum nominal service load shear stress V/Ar permitted in
( slip-critical cdnnectionssubjecrro shearonly (LRFD-J3.5,Table F: < zr [r - +) oo* boltsin standard
holes (4.14.11)
\ , D /
( . J3.4)
These equations are shown in Fig. 4.14.4.
The useof the initial tensionforce ?, from installation of the bolts reflectsthe
( "prestress" concept
discussedin Sec.4.l3. Until the externalload on a bolt r E)GITTPLE 4.14.1
(. exceedsthe precompressionforce betweenthe piecesthe teasion force in the Using Load and ResistanceFactor Design, determine the adequacyof the
bolt wiII not changesignificanrlyfrom its inirial tension ?.r. fasteners in Fig. 4.14.5 when l-in.-diam A325 bolts are used in (a) a bearing-
(
type connection (A325-X) with threadseXcluded from tbe shearplanes, and
{: (b) a slip-critical connection(A325-SC)with Class A surfacecondition and
standard holes. Assume the column flange and the ST sectiondo not govern
(
the answer.The gravity loading is 10%dead load and 90% live load.
(
SOLUTION
( (a) Check connection as a bearing-typeconnection (A325-X). Obtaining
( the tension and shear componeotsof the factored applied force, -'
( + 1.6(0.eX75)
Pual.2(0.1)(7s) = 117kips
/(
(
o.2 0:4
N'
Py P-75k
(
Figura 4.14.4 S];pcritical conaections. Figure 4.14.5 Exaraple 4.14.1.
,'( ...*
Ff
4/STRUCTURALFASTENERS
ANDTENstoN
4.14/ CoMBNEDSHEAR 179 (
178
(
! EXAMPLE 4.14.2 (
Thc factored loads ?" and Vu pet bolt are
Determinethe maximum value of the load P in Example4.14.1assuming(a) a
TensionTu:93.6/6 : 15.6kips/bolt (
slip-critical connection, and (b) a bearing-type connection (A325-N) with
70.2/6 : ll.7 kips/bolt threads possible in the shear planes.Use AISC Load and ResistanceFactor (
ShearV,:
Design and assumeClassA surfacecondition with standard holes.
(
Using Table 4.14.1,
SOLUTION - (
F,i,: 85 - I .4f," s 68 ksi (a) Slip-critical connection.The serviceload forces are
(
Muttiplyingby At for ]-in.-diam bolts, the abovebecomes Tension@mPonent = P, : 0.8P
(
Max Tu : F,!,At Shearcomponent: Pr: 0.6P
(
: 8 5 (0 .6 0 1 3-) t.4 V u< 6 8 (0 .6 0 1 3) The load per bolt in shearis
(
: 51.1 - l.4V, S 40.9kips V : 0.6P/6 : 0.10P per bolt
(
The load per bolt in tensionis
Tu: 15.6< [Max r, = 51.1 - 1.4(11.7)= 34.7kipsl (
Note that the 34.7 kips limit from the linear ioteractionequationis usedsince T : 0.8P/6 : 0.133perbolt (
it does not exc€edthe upper limit on that value of 40.9 kips. In addition, the i r\ (
shearvalue 11.7kips/bolt must be checked.The designstrength(Eq. a.7.1)in F,:-: l?lt - j Ia.ra.roJ
singleshearis 4 (
/ 0.133P
\
d,R,,, : O.O5(0.60
r!) me o F , :! 1 7 t 1- (
39 J:rr-0.0s8P
: 0.65(0.60X120X1)0.6013
- 28.1kips > 11.?kips (
OK The maximum serviceload shear V per bolt pgrmitted on {-in.-aiam bolts is
(
The connection is very conservativelydesignedas a bearing-t1peconnection. Ir{axp : F,!A6: (l? - 0.059p)0.6013: 10.2 - 0.035P
(b) Check connectionasa slip-criticalconnection(A325-SC).For strength. -:- " (
a slip-critical connection must satisfy the same strength.relatedcriteria of a Equating / to \{ax Iz gives
(
bearing-typeconnection.The shearstrength was investigatedin (a); bearing 0 . 1 0 P: 1 0 . 2 - 0 . 0 3 5 P
strength was given in the problem statementas not controlling. P:76kips (
For serviceability, the adequacyof slip resistancemust be checked.The I
The strength in shear,tension,and bearing must also be checkedas if this were (
serviceload forcesper bolt are
a bearing-.typeconnection.For somevery slip-resistantsurfaceconditions the (
I,: 0.8(75)/6 :10 kips/bolt strengthas a bearing-typeconnectionmay control insteadof slip resistance;a
relatively unusualsituation. (
v : 0.6(75)/6 : ?.5 kips/bolt (b) Bearing-typeconnection(A325-N) with threadspossible in tbe shear (
From LRFD-J3.5,Eq. 4.14.10, planes.The factoredloadsare
(
P , : \ . 2 ( 0 . 1 ) P+ 1 . 6 ( 0 . 9 ) P: 1 . 5 6 Pk i p s
(
Tensicncomponent: P,., :0.8(1.56P) : 1.25Pkips
(
-fhe Shearcomponeot- Put: 0.6(1.56P) - 0-94P kips
serviceload shearcapacityper bolt is (
The factored loads per bolt are
Max P : FJAI- 12.6(0.6013)
: 7.6kips/bolt (
T"= 1.25P/6 = 0.208P
which exc€edsV : 7.5 kips; therefore,the bols are satisfactoryas a slip-criri- (
V"= 0.94P/6 - 0.156P
cal connection. t (
{
(
(
(
(
180 ' 4/sTFucTuFALFASTENERS '.1 SHEARAND TEr,lStON
4.14/ COT.JBINED 181
(
(
(
(
FromTable4.14.1,
F',:85 - 1.8fuoS
68ksi
Multiplyingby At for fr-in.diambolts,rheabovebecomes
M* 7" - F,i,At
I loads (threadsexcludedfrom shearpfune)is
F',: 85 - 1.4fu,,
and thedcsignshearstrength
is
< 68ksi (A325-X)
d.Rn,: 0.65(o.6oF!)
ntAu
( - I .Bv"s68(0.6013)
85(0.6013) The linearinteraction iar Fj, may,in general,
equations as
be expressed
( - 51.1- 1.8V"< 40.9kips
F',: Ct - Crlro 3 F, (u)
( EquatingT, to Max 7" gives rvhcre C, and C., arc constants.
( 0 . 2 0 8 p : 5 t . t - 1 . 8 ( 0 . 1 5 6 p=) 5 1 . 1- 0 . 2 8 1 p Convert Eq. (a) into a force equation by multiplying by the bolt area 16;
thus
( P : 105kips
F,i,At: CrAo- CrfuoAu3 FurAo (b)
( Clteckthat the Ma,*T" from linear interactiondoesuot exceedthe 40.9kips
upperlimit, or, if EA6 rcpresentsthe total area of all bolts, then F;,EAb: Elu and
(
f,,DAu - LVu, giving
( Ma* 4, : 51.1- 0.281(105)
: 21.?kips< 40.9kips OK
LTu- CrEAb- CzLVuS gRn, (c)
( In addition,the shearstrengthmustbe checked,
rvhere If, and lVu are the total factored tension and shear forces, respec-
( O,R": 0.65(0.4SF:),nA
b i,ively,applied to the connection.Solving &. (c) f,orLAu gives
( : 0.65(0.45X120X1X0.6013)
: 21.1kips c'Ev"
E A.:ET"+ (d)
( :0.156(105)
V": 0.756P : 16.+kipso 21.1kips cr
OK
( rvhich is the basic desigttequationfor bearing-t)?econnecti.ons.
Tbe valuesof
Thus, the maximum value of the service load p is 76 kips as a slip-critical
-.- C, are 85 and 106 for A325 and 4'490, respectively,and the values of C, arc
( connection and 105 kips as a bearing-t)pe (A325-N) cotrDection E. 1.4 when threads are eXcluded(A325-X) from the shearplanes and 1.8 when
( E E)(AMPLE 4.143 threadsare iNcluded (A325-N) in the shearplanes.
For A325-X bolts, Eq.(d) becomes
( Determine the number of l-in f-in.-dian A325 bolts required ro car$f a shearDv vs.J s
force consisting of 14 kips dead load and 56 kips live load, and a tension force LTu+ L. LV,
(' of Z4ldps dead load and 96 kips live load. The connectionis ro be designed (')
85
( such that the resultant force act"stbrough the centroid of the connectioo. Ust
Load and ResisranceFacror Design. (a) DesigD as a bearing-type (A325-x) For this example,the factoredserviceloadsare
( connection, and O) design as a slip-critical (A325-SC) coonrctioo having Class
A surface condition and standard holes. LTu: 1.2(24)+ 1.6(96): 182kips
( ' -:.-
L v u : 1 . 2 ( 1 4+) 1 . 6 ( 5 6 ) : 1 o 6 k i p s
( SOLWION
In this design it seemsapparent that since both the tension and the shear and usingEq. (d) whichis expected
to governgives
(
forces are of comparable magnitude, it is tikely that neither the maxinum
( LT' +-\48V" - 182+ 1'4(106)
shear strength nor the maximum tension strengthof the fastenersmay be used, Required
LA^:
"'.b : 3.9sqin.
as may be observedfrom Fig. a.1a3. Use of design charts 85 85
( l4.24lis one possible
-- approach- The following approach l4.241may be used when charts are not The use of Eq. (e) satisfiesthe tension requirement.Tbe shear strength must
( available. also be checked.
' (a) Bearingtype connection. From iable
( 4.14.1(LRFD-Table J3.3)" the
interaction criterion for maximum nominal stress in tension under factored 0,R,,,: 0.65(0.60)
(120)(1)r, : 46.8A
t kips/bolt
(
(
v
tf- rr + r,o1-1
l t EXAI\TPLE4.I5.I
(
Determinethe capacityP for the connectionof Fig. 4.15.2if the fastenersare
lnitial compressiv: Stress on contact Finat stress on
stress on cont3ct area- area due to applied load contact area l-in.-diam A325-X bolts subject to shear and rension in a bearing-type
( (c) (d) connectionwith no threadsin the shearplane. Use AISC Load and Resistance
Factor Design,assumingthe load is 20%dead load and 80% gravity live load.
( Figure4.15.1 Stresses oo coatactsurfaceof mcoeat-resistingconsectioo,consiae;nf .
initial tensiol in the bolts. 1'
SOLWION
( (a) Compute factbredload P".
( ' to be installed lvith a prescribed initial tension in them whether the jornt is ) t . 6 ( 0 . 8 P:)1 . 5 2 P
P u : I . 2 ( 0 . 2 P+
( considered a bearing-type or a slip-critical connection (RCSG 14.71,Sec. 8).
This tension in each bolt will precompressthe plates or sections being joined. ^l l -l
( For the situation of Fig. 4.15.1,the neutral a:cis.under the action of moment
( M will occur at the centroid (CG) of the contact area; that is, ^t d/2 for the 11lfl
(
rectangular contact area shown
The initial bearing pressurefoi as shown in Fig. 4.15.1c is assumed to be
I
H-FI -lor
( uniform over the contact area bd and is equal to 2
l"llll"l x
-l(Y
r',
(
f o , : *bd (4.1s.1) 3
l.llll"l X
rt)
(
tl" I
E_lJ
N
4
( where ETo : the pretension load times the number of bolts. The tensile"stress
f* at the iop due to &e applied moment is .
L-unJ
(
. Md/z 6M (h)
4.15 / SHEARANDTENSION
FROMECCENTRTC
LOADTNG 187
186 4/STRUCTURAL FASTENERS
I
(
(b) Compute the factored shear and teasion on the bolts using thc bolt cross-sectional areas comprise the resisting section:
assumptionthat applied loads do not overcomeinitial compressionbetw'cen 'Mv (
Mv
-
the piecesbeing joined. Referring to Fig. 4.15.2,the neutral axis for flexure is f
lt : (4.1s.6)
I LAoy,
at mid-depthof the contact area.Equation4.15.5,using the factoredmoment
(.
ivl, and the maximum factored load Tu per bolt for M and 4,*n.0, respec- When all fastenersare the samesize(as is usual), A, may be combined with /,
tively, and noting the moment M, equalsthe load P, times the eccentricitl'e to obtain the tensileforce I in a bolt. Thus, (
o f 3 i n. , giv es
-
6 M". :. p l d _' pi l- - -6- (' t -. s_ z- pl X
: 0l t .l i2112 +
_ 3P1 T:Aof,: (4.15.7)
"t T :
tzLa
-
I z0z)' Lt', J #
*;1
.r .-
In order to show that Eq.4.15.5is identical to Eq. 4.15.7,let the depth d (
Note that since there are two vertical lines of fastenersthere is a 2 in the .-S.5.
,.3-
u""'fi'J:[:::ih::il: E:-
tk-
of the contact area equal np, where n is the number of fastenersin one line;
iii#'ll;a'ybya'borts
is -_=- Eq. 4.15.5then becomes
3Si,
-.E: (
I
P..
v. u - - - -
t.52P
: 0.190P
*:,:.-
-:#,.
r : f r r *t ) - 6 t ,I (4.1s.8) (
Ln
"14;_ -
(c) DesignstrengthsSftn of bolu ia shearand tension.In shearthe design .FT
$ote that p0 - \/2 is the distance from mid-depth ro the outermost
strcn g t h0, , Rnois *-
ffi- fasiErierand correspondsto y of Eq. 4.15.6.Further, a single line of fasteners
spacedat p apart may be treated as a rectangular resisting section of width
e. R,,u: 0.65(0.6orf ) * o -{* ('
A/p and depth np.The momentof inertia of such a sectionrvould be
: 0.65(0.60)(120X1 )0.4418: 20.7kips
and in tension the design strength FJ,A, is reducedfrom its maximum value I:;i(i)'^" (4.1s.e)
by virtue of the simultaneouslyacting shear; thus, from Table 4.14.1 after -f
mu l ti p ly inB byA t , = which correspondsapproximatelyto the moment of inertia of the bolt areas, !
OK
: F -
T,: A.274P: 0.214(78.4): 16.8kips < 30.0kips OK - g
SOLUTION
:*'.
.. "E
(
Therefore.the serviceload capacityP is 78.4lcrps. : * (a) Bearing-type(A325-R connection.The factored load { is
'"€-'-
;' (
& = 1.2(8)+ t.6(s2): 92.8kips
?q3
+ € The designshearstrengthfR,n for fastenerssubject to shear alone is
Conslderlng Inltlal Tenslon - Simpllfled Procedure
As long as the initial compressionbet *'eenplatesresultingfrom initial tension
= o.oi(o.oo4r
O"Ro, )na,
in installed bolts is not totaily counteractedby external load, one may = 0.65(0.60X120X1)0.6013
- 28.1kips
c<rmputetensilestressin a bolt by rhe flexure formula f - M-v/I as if only the
a
' (
188 4 / STRUCTURAL
FASTEIJEFS 4.15lSltEAR
ANDTENStOr.t
FROUECCENTRTC
LOADTNG 1 8 9
(
(
One could check4 bolts per line,
( IP
I
I
t { o,rrnA32sbons : +[{r.s)t+ (4.s)tJ
L1,2 : 9oin.2
(
( Il .^ v 92. E( 8) - 1. 5
R,,: -*-:37.1kips<38.1 kips OK
( #:
oK :
MaxR o: F,lAt: 10.0(0.6013)
(
(
: ll l _li[:;ijTi::,>247kips : 6.0kiPs= [Ru : 6.0kips] OK
, (
F PROBLEMS 191 ( t
190 4/srRUcruRAL FASTENERS
( . i
'4.16. "Sen'iceability (
Thur. 5 bolts per line exactly meetsthe slip resisnnce requirementand is more Theciiore V. Gaiambos,T. A- Reinhold. and Bruce Ellingwood.
Limit States: Connectioa Slip," Journal of the Stntctural Diuision, ASCE" 108. (
than aCequatefor the strengthrequirementsin shear and tension.
Itse i0-;-in.diam A325 bolts,5 pcr row. I STl2 (December1982).2668-2680
"Eccentrically Loaded Bolted
4.1?. Sberwood F. Crawford and Geoffrey L. Kulak. ( )
Connections," Journal af the Structural Diuision,ASCE, 97, ST3 (Marcb 1971)'
765-783. (
"Ecceotrically Loaded Slip-ResistantConnectioas," Engi'
4.18. Geoffrey L. Kutak. (
SELECTEDREFERENCES neeringJournal, AISC, 12,2 (2nd Quarter 1975)' 52-55.
"Rapid Determination of Ultinrate Strengtb of Eccentrically
4.19. C. Donald Brandt- ( ,
4.1. C. Batbo asd E H. Bateman. "fnvestigations on Bolts and Bolted Joints." Loaded Bolt Groups," EngineeringJournal, AISC, 19, 2 (Zad Quarter 1982),
94-100. Disc. by Cedric Marsh, EngineeringJournal,19, 4 (4tb Quarter 1982), (
Sccond Report of the Steel Stnrctures Research Committee- Londoa: His
- 2L+215; Nestoy lsenkis, Engineering_.!_gtrygl,2I), 1 (lst Quarter 1983), 46;
Majesq/s Stationery Office, 1934. (
4.2. w .lv{. Wilsoe and F. P. Thomas."Fatigue Testsos Riveted Joints," Bulletin 302, 2 (Znd Quarter 1983),88.
"Nonlinear Analysis of Eccentric Bolted Connections."
EcEg. Experlment Station, U. of lllinois, Urban4 IL.. 1938. 4.20. Avigdor Ruteaberg. ( i
4.3. A- L R De Joage."Riveted Joints; a Critical Review of tbe Literature Covering . EngineeringJournal, AISC, 21, 4 (4th Quarter 1984), 227'236.
"Bchavior of Fasteoersand Plates with Holes," Journal a! the (
Tbck Developmenl" New York: Anericaq Society of Mechanical Engineers. 4.21. l. W. Fisher.
1%5. Structural Diuision,ASCE 91, 5T6 (December1965), 265-286. (
"Plastic Bebavior of Eccentrically-Loaded Ccanections," fngi-
4.4. AISC. *Slaposium on Higb-Suengtb Bolts," Proceedings o! AISC National 4.22. Carl L. Shermer.
"
Engineering Conference.New York: Americao lttstitute of Steel Construction. , neeringJotrnal,AISC, $ 2 (April 1971),48-51. *High-
(
L950.22-43. 4.23iEugene Chesson,Jr., Norberto L. Faustino, and William H. Mu"se.
4.5. Willias H. Muase. "Researcb on Bolted Connections," Transactions,ASCE, l2t Strength Bolts Subjected to Tension and Shear," Jowtal of the Structural (
( 1 e 5 6 )1
. 255-1266. Diuision.ASCL 91, ST5 (October1965),155-f80. ( ,
"Design Charts for Bolts with
4.6. *Rivets and Higb-Strengtb Bolts, A Syrcposrrrm," Transactions,ASCE 126, Part 4.24. Hans William Hagen and Richard C. Penkul.
Ii (i961), 693-820. . Combined Shear and Tension," Engineering Journal, AISC, 2, 2 (April 1965), ( ,
4.?. Researcb Council on Structural Connections. Allaryable Stress DesignSpecifica- 42-45.
"Eccentrically Loaded High Strength (
tion for Strvctwal Joins UsingASTM A325 or A490 Bols- Chicago, IL: American 4.25. John R. Veillette and Jobn T. DeWolf.
Institute of Steel Coostruction, November 13, 1985. Bolted Connections,"Jotrnal of Stntctural E4gineering,ASCE. ltl. 5 (May
(
4.8. Researcb C-ouncilon Structural Coonections- Lmd and ResistanceFactor Design 1985),1003-1018.
Specificationfor Structursl Joinu Using ASTM 4325 or 4490 Bolu. Chicago, IL: (
.{-c:ericanInqlitute of SteelConstnrction"September1, 1985.
( 1
( i
(.r
\
( PRCBLEMS 193
192' FASTENERS
4 7 STRUCTURAL
(
(
or as spccify the value to be used.Llse(a) a bearing-typeconnection(A325-X),
planes, bearing-typewith threadsincluded (N) in the shearplanes,
( "Type and (b) a slip-critical (A325-SC)connection.
i slip-criticat lSCl connection,as indicated under the heading
( Connection." Specifythe minimum dimensionsA and B appropriatefor 4.4. For the caseassignedby the instructor,determinethe number of boits
the connection. requiredto developtbe full capacityof the double angle tensionmember
(" shorvnin the accompanyingfigure. Use a double row of bolts without
( stagger.Detail the connection.
% % Bolt
( Dead Lire Plate Diameter Type
( Case Load Load Steel (in.) Connection % % Bolt
Dead Live Angle Diameter Type
( 90 A36 3/1 A325-X Load Steel (in.) Connection
1 1 0 Case Load
( 2 1 5 85 A36 3/4 A32s-SC
3 1 5 85 A572Gr 50 3/4 A325-N 1 1 0 9 0 A572Gr 50 3/4 A325-X
( 4 2 0 '80 A572Gr 50 3/4 A.325-SC 2 1 5 8 5 A572Gr 50 3/4 A325-SC
5 2 0 80 A572Gr 60 7/8 A325-X 3 3 0 7 0 A572Gr 50 7/8 A325-N
6 4 0 60 A572Gr 60 7/8 A325-SC 4 4 0 6 0 A572Gr 50 7/8 4325-SC
( 7 1 5 85 A572Gr 65 7r/8 A490-X
8 1 5 85 A572Gr 65 7/8 A490-sc
(
(
gussetplste
(
(
(
(
( o o Prob.4.4
(
T+- o o _+T
( 4.5. For the single angle rension member of. A572 Grade 50 steel in the
( o o accompanyingfigure, how many |-in.-diam A325bolts are required for
the connection?The load I is 80 kips live load and 20 kips dead load.
( Assume a slip-critical connection(A325-SC)is to be used. Design the
( . shortestfeasibleoverlapof piecesfor the connection,and detaii it.
( Prob.4.1
( 4.3. Determine the serviceload capacity T for the butt splice of Prob. 3.15
. when sr : s2 - 2 in. and A325 bolts are used with no threads in the
( _ shear planes. Specify the end distancesrequired and evaluate whether or
( not th! given stagger of 2 in. is sufficient. If the 2 in- is not adequate, Prob.4.5 and 4.6
(
Tffii..
--F-iE:' -
Fr' ;\R":.;
E i?'1 PROBLEMS 195 C:
194 4/srRucrufiAl FASTENERS t
--.i- -ii:
-'n:
( \
t t i i l l
o o ': o o
lr = 0.625in. (
t- = 0.60in' (
Detail the coonection.
a;-
+::'_
+
:&-
l t i i l l
o o r lo o
(
, r ll r l
A36 steel =a: l
(
TI :_:_
--qr
f -
(
l'<-
fll ;_-
iF
-_; .- a
(
cuset4l (
plate
:=- ta)
',:l;
- (
Prob. 4.7 Prob.4.9
=--- (
-:
4.8. Design and derail the double lap splice shown, to develop maximum *. (
:l!
tension capacity assumingthe load is 20% dead load and 80% live load. :--:' (
The steel is A35 and Ar325 l-in.-diam bolts are to be used in a ::
R,-ftxre
bearing-typeconnection(A325-X) with no threads in the shear planes. (
.-
What is the resulting serviceload capacityof the joint? (
tsft x rz
ts-frx r (
-1r;' (
tt
l1 (
l1 9' - > T
T *
It (
ll
(
(
I - ..4>T
t-frx ra (
(
Prob. 4.8
(
(
4.9. Determine the serviceload capacityof this teasion chord splice of two Prob.4.9
(b) CrosEsection
channels.The steelis A5?2 Grade 65, and the f-in.-diam A325 bolts are (
rn a bearing-r]?e connecdon(A325-R with no threads in the shear
(
planes.The load is 25%dead load and 75% live load.
(
(
) (
(
I
^l( 195 4/STRUCTURALFASTENERS
.j PROBLEN1S 197
(
( 4'1o' Compute the maximum serviceload P causinseccenrricshearon the 4.13. RcpcatProb.4.1i as a slip-critical(A325-SC)connecrioninsteadof a
connection of the accompanyingfigure. The lJaciing is 25% derd load bearing-tlpeconnection.
(
and 75% live load.The bolts are-;-in.-diamA325 boits in a bearing-r1'pe
( connection(A325-X) with threadsexclucledfrom tire shcar plane. As- 4.14. Selectthe propcr diameterA490 bolts for a bcaring-t_\'pe
cunitcction
sume the bracketplate has adequatestrength. (A490-X)if the loadingis 10%deadload and 90%live lo:rd.
;(
(a) Use the elastic(vector)merhod. (a) Use the ehstic (vector)merhod.
( (b) Use the strength method with rorarion abour the instantancous (b) Use ultimatestrengthanalysis.
center. (c) Use AISC tables, "ECCENTRIC LOADS ON FASTENER
(
(c) Use AISC tables, "ECCENTzuC LOADS ON FASTENER GROUPS.''
( GROUPS", with interpolation.
( 8k
l'l
( l-"'tu" r l
Asume plate has
adequatestrength
(
(
: Pr ob. 4. 14
(
(
Prob.4.10 4.15. Assuming the fastenerscontrol the capacity, determine the bolt size
( required for the connectionshown when the load is 10% dead load and
( 90% live load. The connection is a bearing-type (A325-X) containing
4-11. For the ,{36 steelbracketplate of the accompanyingfigure,calculaterhe
A325bolts.
( maximum service load P (15% dead load and g5% live load) when
(a) Use the elastic(vector)method.
l-in.-diam A325 bolts are used in a bearing-rypeconnecrion(A325-N) (b) Use ultimate strengthanalysis.
( with threadsincluded in the shear planes.
(c) Use AISC tables, "ECCENTRIC LOADS ON FASTENER
( (a) Use the elastic (vector) method.
GROUPS.''
(b) Use the ultimate strength merhod. .\
( (c) Use AISC tables, ..ECCENTRIC LOADS oN FASTENER-
( GROUPS''.
( ' 6 "
P
(
( - o o t
I
( I
(? o o
i/
G/
( aYt o o
- o o l" nr'i.
( t l
( l-r:l
( P rob.4.15
Prob.4.11
(
a
( 4.12. RepeatProb. 4.1.1;exceptuseonly 6 bolts insteadof g; that is,2 at 3 in. 4.16. For the connectionof the accompanyingfigure containing |-in.-diam
vertically insteadof 3 at 3 in. A325 bolts in a slip-critical connection, determine the serv'iceload
(
, (
-
e ]ROBLEMS \ ' l
t96 4,1 5'FT..€TI-dRAL FASTENERS 199
( ,
t') ll
€,
.')
o ilo I (
(a) Use the elastic(vector) merhod.
(b) Use the instantaneouscenter-constant slip resistancemethod for o ti i ol rl (
slip-critical connecrions(seeExample4.12.4). (
tc) Use AISC tables, "ECCENTRIC LOADS ON FASTENER Prob.4.19
GROUPS.'' (
': : ; For the eccentricshearloading of the accompanyingfigure, rwo vertical (
lincs of ;-in.-diam A325bolts are usedhaving a 3-in. spacing.Selectrhe 4.20. For the eccentricshear loading ol the accompanyingfigure, {-in.-diam
A325 boits are used in a single vertical line in a bearing-type (A325-X)
(
proper number of bolts for a bearing-type(A325-X) connection. The
!i:ad is 40% dead load and 60% live load. connection. The loading is 7 kips dead load and 33 kips live load. (
(a) Use the elastic(vectorlme&od.
(
(b) Use the ultimatestrengthmethod.
(
Column (
flange
gt (
'Ee
Top row of bolts 0 a
(
q o
(
Contacl (
surface for
Prob.4.E (
^1"
.T
(
Prob.4.17
\
Prob. 4.20 and 1.2. i
_ ; ( l
r
(
t (
4 / STRUCTURALFTTSTENERS
PROBLEMS 20r
( ...J
( Determine the number of bolts required.wbat thicknessof piecesis cali-r'at 3 in. requiredto nrakethe connectionto the
fi-in. column flangc.
( required to avoid having bearing control and still use minimum edge The ioad is 10 kips dead load and 60 kips live load.
distances(seeLRFD-Table J3.7 or ASD-TableJ3.5). (a; Use a bearing-type(A325-X) connccrion.
( (a) Use the elastic(r'ecror)method. (b) Use a slip-critical(A325-SC)connection.
(b) Use the ultimate strengrhmethod.
(
(c) Use AISC tables, "ECCENTRIC LOADS ON FASTENER
( GROUPS.'' { oi",nnazs
436 steel
( 4.21. For the connectionof the accompaoyngfigure, subject to direct tension
and shear, two angles,4 x 3i x f, are used to carry their maximum
( D
capacity as a tensionmemberof A36 steel.Assumethe connectionof the o
( angles to the structural tee (WT) web will be along a single gage line as cl
(
r /
(
't(t{3ira
ff{-
-s--
AND HISTORICAL
5.1/TNTRODUCTION DF/ELCPMENT 203 (
EF
Chapter5 *.; ( .
"r*s'
*
,F. (
: Y.:
'g':. (
g::.
(
Welding
Ea
:tt_
;&.
(
&''
€
* -" (
*
.9.
(
*:,
€
#--
rw,
(
4F;'
*.
42. (
..L-
(
.aa
4:;-j
'*<-
(
Fi-
f6 (
----
iiF.-
jJ: (
.{:-i.--
;E
(
E.
DEVELOPMENT
ANDHISTORICAL
5.1 INTRODUCTION €
Welded truss as parr of roof spacetruss syste6. (Photo by C. G. Salmon) (
The processof welding denotesthe joining of metal.piecesby heating to a :!:.;
( ,
"welding"
plastic or fluid state.with or without pressure. In its simplestform, ]+:
ments [5.2] reversing the polarity of transformer coils. He received his first (
iras been known and used for severalthousandyears.Historians have specu-
patent [5.3Jin 1885and the first resistancebutt welding machinewas demon-
lated that the early Egypriansmay have first usedpressurewelding about 5500
6 " :
€i
(
itrated at rhe American Institute Fak in 1887. In 1889 Charles Coffin [5.2J
:3:'
B.c. in making .opp.i pipes fiom sheetsby overlappingthe edges and -T. 'the
was issued a..pateqt for flash-butt welding and this became'one of (
hammering. Winterion tj.it has reported that Egyptian art objects dating
important butt weldingproc€sses.
about 3000 e.c. havebeen fo'undon which gold foil has been hamnreredand . (
Zerner, in 1885,introduced the carbon arc welding process,making useof
LL-
fused onto the basecopper.This type of welding, called forge wilding, was - - ; i
206 5 / WELDING
(
s 2/EASTCPROCESSES 207
(
(
(
('
(
arc welding(SAW).
Figure5.2.2 Submerged (
T}::
(
arc must be made and globular-t1pe,rather than a spray-type,depositionof Figure 5.2.3 Gas metal ils wglrling (GMAW).
metal occurs. It is desirable in design becausethe as-weldedmechanical
propertieshave been found to be superiorto propertiesobtainedusingorher
types of electrodecoatings. the molten weld. Special uses of this method are described by Craig is.rl,
Lyttle [5.8], and Dillenbeck and Castagno[5.91.
originally, this merhod was used only witb inert gas shielding, bence, the
Submerged Arc Weldlng (SAln
ilame MIG (metal inert gas) has been used. Reactive gas€salone are ganerally
In the SAW processthe arc is not visiblebecauseit is coveredby a blanketof not- practical; the exception is Co2 (carbon dioxide). The use of CO, has
granular, fusible material,as shorvoin Fig. 5.2.2.The bare metal electrodeis become extensive for welding of steels,either alone or in a mixture with-inert
consumablein that it is depositedas filler mateial. The end of the electrodeis gz$es.
kept continuouslyshieldedby the moltenflux over which is depositeda layer Argon as a shielding gasworks for welding vinually all metals; bowever,it
of unfusedflux in its granularcondition. is not recommendedfor steelsbecauseof its expenseand the fact that other
The flux, which is the specialfeatureof this method,providesa cover that shielding gasesand gas mixtures are acceptable.For wetding carbon steel and
allows the weld to be made without spatrer,sparks,or smoke.The granular some low-alloy steels recent research [5.9] indicates the best overall perfor-
flux is usually laid automaticailyalong the seam ahead of the advancing m2nce is obtained using 80% CO2 and 20% helium. Traditionally, it has been
electrode.It protectsthe weld pool againstthe atmosphere, servesto cleanthe reconrmended[5.10] to use either a mixture of 75% argon and 25% Cor, or
weld metal, and rnodifiesthe chemicalcompositionof the rveldmetal. lO0% COr. For low-alloy steelswhere toughnessis i:mportant,tlie recoinmen.
Welds made by the submergediuc processare found to have uniformll' dation [5.10] is to use a mixrure of 60 to 70%helium, 25 to 30% argon, and 4
high quality; exhibiting good ductiliry, high impact srrength,high dehsity,and to 5% COr.
good corrosion resistance.Mechanicalpropertiesof the weld are consistently The shielding gas servesthe following functions in addirion to protecting
as good as the basematerial. the moltea metal from the atmosphere. r
The combinationsof bare-rodelectrodesand granular flux are classified
l. Controls the arc and metal-transfercharacteristics.
under Aws A5.17 or A5.23.Th.y are designatedby a prefix F followedby a
2. Affects penetration,width of fusion, and shapeof the weld region.
two-digit number indicatingtensilestrengthand impact strengthrequirements
for the resulting welds,and followed by EXXX classifyingthe electrode.The 3. Affects the speed of welding.
designationsappearin Table 5.13.1underthe SAW process. 4. Controls undercutting.
The submergedarc method is commonly used to weld steel in shop By rnixing an inert gas with a reactive gas the arc may be made more
fabricationoperationsusingautomaticor semiautomatic equipment. stable and the spatter during metal transfer may be reduced.The use of CO2
alone for welding steel is the least expensiveprocrdure becauseof its lowei
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) cost for shielding gas, higher welding speed, better joint penetrarion, and
sound deposits with good mechanicalproperties.The only disadvantageis that
In the GMAW processthe etectrodeis a continuouswire that is fed from a it gives harsh and excessivespatter.
coil through the electrodeholder, a gun-shapeddeviceas shown in Fig. 5.2.3. The electrode material for welding carbon steelsis an uncoated mild steet,
The shielding is entirely from an externallysupplied gas or gas mixture. The deoxidized carbon sunganese steel covered under AWS A5.1E and listed in
distinguishing featuresof this merhodare rire high rates at which filler metal Table 5.13.1 {see also Tabie 2-3.1). For welding low-alloy steel a deoxidized
i;an be transferred,and the gaseousshietdthat is uniformly provided around low-alloy materia! is necessary.
,(
208 s /'w[LDtNG s 2/BA.S|CPROCESSES 209
(
(
The GMAW processusingCO, shieldingis good for the lorvcr carbon and Vr'ire Euiig
Flux ccred electrode and contact lube
( lcrv-alloy steelsusually usedin buildings and bridges.
( Base plaia 1
(
Figure5.2.4 Electrogaswelding witb a flux cored electrode.(Fronr lVeldingHandbook
( Electrogas Weldlng (EGW) t2.221)
( The EGW processis a machineprocessused primarily for vertical position
'.r'elding shownin Fig. 5.2.4.Either flux cored or solid electrodesmay be used.
(
This method is used to obtain a single pass weld such as for the splice in a:
( '=
heavy column section. Weld metal is deposited into a cavity created by the
separatedplate edgeson two sidesand water-cooled"shoes" or guidesto keep
(
the molten metal in its proper location on the other trvo sidqs. The gas
Molten
( shielding is provided either by the flux cored electrode,by externally supplied slag bath
Electrode
gas, or both.
( 'Welcl
pool
vrraler-cooted
( Eleetroslag Weldlng (ESW)
Weld metal
shoe
( required becomes large. Becauseof the slow rveld travel speed used in this
.:-'rt
, (
v
5.4,/WPESOFJOINTS 211
(
21O s / ViELDllrG
(
analysisdf the carbon steels.Most mild steelsfall well within this range.while (
pr()cessa weld with relativelycoarsegrain structureand low notch toughness
i s th e r es ult . higher-strengthsteelsmay exceedthe ideal analysisshown in Table 5.3.1. (
An excellentreviervof electroslagweldrnghas been provided by Raman When a mill producesa run of steel ii maintains a compteterecord of its
chemical content which follows all shapesmade from the particular ingot. If (
[5.14]. Schilling and Klippstein[5.15Jhave reportedresearchon elecrroslag
rrcld:ngfor bridges,and Fense.Wood,and Fisher[5.16]report experiencervirh the designeris concernedabout the chemistryof a particular gradeof steel,he (
elcctroslagu'eldingon weldedbridges. may requesta Mill Test Report. Any variation in chemical content above the
ideal values may be evaluatedand special welding proceduresbe set up to (
insure a properly weldedjoint. (
Stud Weldlng -' '
- :
0.10mar 0.30
Sulfur ;.:&:- (c) Tee loint (d) Corner joint (e) Edge joinr
0.035mar 0.050 i - :
i 4F'
Phosphorus 0.030max 0.040 ,,l*f: Figure 5.4.1 Basic types ol weldedjoints
;+
it.5+-;
T+
t- -tiF
r'!!F
\
, (
212 5/WELD|NG 5 5 / rYPESOFWELiiS 213
(
( Tee Joints
Lap Jolnts
( This type of joint is usc,Jto fabricutebuilt-upsccrir:l' suchas t*s. I-rh:pes.
The lap joint, shown in Fig. 5.4.2. is the mosr common type. It has ts'o
( principal advantages: plate girders.be.rring.stiffcncrs.liangcrs.brackets.and in gencra!.p!:'ces
1. Ease of fitting. Piecesbeing joined do not require the preciseness in framing in at righi anglesas shorvnin Fig. 5..1.1c. This t;'pe of ji::t is
( especiallvusefulin ihat it permitssecticnsto be buih up of flat platesiltir c',r
fabricating as do the other tlpes of joints. The pie,cescan be slightly shifted to
( accommodateminor errors in fabrication or to make adjustmentsin length. be joined by either fillet or groovewelds.
2. Ea.seof joining. The edges of the pieces being joined do not need
( special preparation and are usually shearedor flame cut. Lap joints utilize Corner Joints
( fillet welds and are thereforeequally rvell suited to shop or field rvelding.The
piecesbeingjoined are in most casessimply clamped togetherrvithout the use Corner joints are usedprincipally to form built-up rectangularbox sections
( of specialjigs. Occasionallythe piecesare positioned by a small number of such as used for columns and for beams required to resist high torsional
erectionbolts which may be either left in place or rem6vedafter the weldingis forces.
(
completed.
( A further advantageof the lap joint is the easein which platesof different Edge Joints
thicknessescan be joined, such as in the double lap joint in Fig. 5.4.2e.The
Edgejoints.are generallynot structuralbut are most frequentlyused to keep
reeder should especiallynote the truss connection shown in Fig. 5.4.2cand
( two or more platesin a given plane or to maintain initial alignmeet.
considerthe difficulty in making sucha connectionby any other type of joint.
As the readercan infer from the previousdiscussions, the variationsand
( combinationsof the five basictypesof rveldsare rirtually infinite. Sincerhere
( is usuallymore than one way to connectone structuralmemberto another.ihe
designeris left s'ith the decisionfor selectingthe bestjoint (or combinarion
( joints) in eachgivensituation.
(
( 5.5 TYPES OF VJELDS
(
The four t)?es of weldsare the groove,fillet, slot, and plug welds as sho'."1in
( Fig. 5.5.1.Each type of weld has specificadvantagesthat dererminerhe extent
of its usage.Roughly. the four types representthe following percentagesof
( weldedconstruction:groovewelds,159o;fillet welds,807c;the remaining57c
( are made up of the slot, plug, and other specialrvelds.
(
Groove Welds
(
The principal use of groove welds is to connect structural members that are
( aligned in the sameplane. Sincegrooverveldsare usually intended to transmit
( the full loadbf.tle memberstheyjoin, the rveldshouldhavethe samestrength
as the pieces joineci. Such a groove rveld is kno*n as a contpletejoint
( penetrationgroaueweld.When joints are designedso that groove rveldsdo not
extend completelythrough the thicknessof the piecesbeingjoined. such welds
(
are referred to as partial joint penetrationgroooe welds. For these, special
( designrequirementsappiy.
d-f I There are many variationsof groovewelds and eachis classifiedaccording
(
(
U::J (d)
to its particularshape.Most g"rooveweldsrequire a specificedgepreparalion
and are named accordingly.Figure 5.5.2 shows several'rypesof groove u'elds
and indicates the groove preparationsrequired for each.The selectionof the
( proper grooveweld is dependenton the welding proc€ssused,the cost of edge
, ( Figure 5.4.2 Examplesof lap joints.
I$a
214 5/,ilrELDtNG s.5/TYPESOFWELDS 215 (
(
I
.i;-
r:: -
need special preparation such as beveling or squaring since the edgeconditions ( ;
Section A.A \E('
(
Section A'A .iF
. . /
D=
-/ ,r*_.
, t-T..-t
{=<=
A
-;
" 7::
(
5-i-li-+
l l r I
t t t t
F
(.
ial Square (b) Single-V (c) Double-V I . -
l l
t
-r t l
(
(d) Tee connection (e) Brackets (0 Beam bearing
-€
:Fiin
plates (
N:D r=C3 {-E3 :.;.i{.
&5
*- (
(0 Single-U
R
(d) Singlebevel (e) Double bevel
p
3r (
{=<=
(
{=.1=
(h) Single-J
fl<- (i) Double-J
-ir
-':- (
(gi Double-U (
(g) Column base plates (h) Pipe connection (i) Beam brackets
Figure5.5.2 Typesof groovewelds. '"'i5l
*:. (
: .+.
(
prep3rations,and the cost of making the weld- Groove weldsmay also be used
in tee connectionsas shonn in Fig. 5.5.3. 3 (
Flllet Welde JL
0) Built-uPsections
(
(
Fillet welds owing to their overall economy,erse of fabricating, and adaptabil'
ity are the most.widely used.A few usesof 6llet welds are shown in Fig. 5.5.4. (
Figure 5.5.4 Tlpicat usesof flhl weHs.
(
(
C
(
216 5 z'li'ELDiNG BASICWELDSYMBOLS
(
PLUG Groove or Bun
( EACK FILLET OR FLARE
SLOT SOUARE v BEVEL U J FIAREV EEVEL
(
\
(
^^ \ fl llV V V V \r t(
SUPPLEMENTARY
WELDSYMBOLS
(
CONTOUR
Ends curved as BACKING W€LD ALL IIELD
SPACER WELD
( per LRFD and ASD-J2.3.b AROUND
FLUSH coNvEx
For otherbasic and
supplementary wald
( syrnbols.see
( STANDARD
LOCATION
OF ELEMENTS
OF A WELDINGSYMBOL
(
Frnishsymbol Groove angle or rncluded
( Figure 5.5.5 Slot and plug welds in combination lritb fillet welds. angle of counlet5rnk
ConloursymSol lor plu8 lvelds
(
Rool openrng, deplh Length ot wetd rn rnches
( resulting from flame cul,ting or from shear cutting proceduresare generally of ftlhng lor plug
adequate. and slot welds
Prlch (c. to c spacrng)
( Eftective
thtoat
ol welds rn rnche:
----,
Depthot preparation \
( or sizein inches
Slot and Plug Welds \ \ Freld weld symbol
Referencet""
(
Slot and plug rveldsmay be usedexclusivelyin a connectionas shorm in Figs. -.-f T.\ Weld all arcsnd symbol
( 5.5.ic and d, or they may be usedin combinationwith fillet welds as shownin ..== process
Specrtrcalon,
\\ a gE
ot othet reference I o o
Fig. 5.5.5.A principal use for plug or slot welds is to transmit shearin a lap : =g \_)
( joint rvhen the size of the connectionlimits the length available for fillet-or- =--=- -a
3^
.i oo
( other edgewelds.Slot and plug rveldsare also useful in preventing overlappinB'.=-€ = : p
Tail (omittedwhen <vl
parts from buckling. reterenceis not used) Arrowconnectsrelerencelinelo arrowside
( of ioint.Usebreakasal A or B to signlfy
Basicweldsymbol thatarrowis pointingto thegrooved
( or detailreference memberin bevelor J-grooved joints.
( 5.6 WELDINGSYMBOLS
l&te:
( Before a connectionor joint is welded,the designermust in some way be able Siizc.watd-symbol..l6rEilh ol wald ar|d spacingmust raad h thlt oder trom tstt to.ight abng ora retsreiEr tin . Netoet
Orbilation ot rotgroncatino rpr locatitn ol tho 8rory dtsr8 ftr rris.
( to instruct the steel detailer and the fabricator as to the type and size of weld
'rvelds Tlo porpendiarla leg ot N,. l/. l), ( watAsycrDob rilrst bo at |etr
required. The basic types of and some of their variations are discussed Anow an4 OtrrerSEe *'alclr are ot the ssng si:o uru€6sooroil,iso shown. Drnsnsirns ol fittelrekb must be shownon
( in Sec. 5.5. If individual and detailed instructions were needed each time a bofi t'|c Antr Silasnd thc O0ror SiJe Syn$ol.
Th! point ol tho liob wotd Synrbotmust point toward trto r'r.
connection was made, the task of providing directions for making the joint - Syrttbol! sppty b€nrgon Bbrud changg3h dhtctbfl ct reErrg rntess goreme'<tby lho
"dn
( dirnensirned.
ara.rrf ryntol o. orhonvis€
rvould indeed be formidable.
Ircse synbols do nol orprcftty prgvijs tof thc cG3eOra bequcnily ocqrs ln strueturalrgrlq *he'' cluplbatcmgtorisl
( The need for a simple and yet accurate method for commrrnicating --=
1:F
(strchrs stitf€nors)occurson th9 f8r gids of a web or gussct pbta. Tho latricatng industryhss adop:od this coovontroo:that
whon lho Utlrr€ ol tho dotailroatonatdiscto€6 thc exbtbnce ol e rogrroer on ttn tar s6o as rirottas on trrsnea, sida,the weklrng
betrveenthe designerand fabricator gave rise to the use of shorthand symbols *s shown kr the n6ar side sh8[ bo duptrcatedoo thg lar siJ6.
(
that characterize the type and size of rveld. As a result, the American Welding Fi:
( Society standard symbols,shown in Fig. 5.6.1, indicate the t)pe, size,length, AueHcrN lHsrmte or Sreel Coxsnucnox
and location of weld, as well as any specialinstructions. Figure 5.6.1 Staadard welding symbols. (From LRFD Manual [1.17] and AWS A2.4
( g
: !
Most of the commonly made connectionsdo not require special instruc- Is.3e]).
( tions and are typically specifiedas shoun in Fig. 5.6.2.For a more detaileduse 4
.E
l r
(
217
THECUALIWif:" #:L::D
5.7/ FAclaRS AFFECTING C9t' :cTloNS 219
w
218 5 ,/ WELDIf\tg
i
(
i,uot ,r"tot I Groorev'relds
{
nr+ (
M
Frctron atdacltin{ lcg
Square groore
*tlded frorn both
(
rid6.
tron/n onlv on ons $reld (
#ren borh rider ue thc
Back (
9ouge
SingllV welcledlrom
$/eld all around one srdehaving ! in. +'1F:- ' Figure5.6.3-Detailsshowinguseof weldingsymbols'
root opening and 30o angle
within the V.
'*.'
3tj':
welds in
2G.-:
'g However, in this particular detail, it would be better to make the fillet
during the field erecdon
Figure5.6.2 Commonusesof weldingsymbols' the shop since the plug weld might be overstressed
feasiblen'ill be made in the shop, due to
pro..rr. In general, ,r tuny welds as
Therefore it is importfit that the designer specify
Lconomic considerations.
those welds that are to be field welded'
of rvelding symbols the readeris referred to the American Welding Society'
Aws A2.4 [5.39].
The readermay feel that the numberof symbolsis burdensome.However. 5.7 FACTORSAFFECTINGTHE OUALIW OF
the systemof designatingweldsis broken down into a few basictlPes that
are WELDEDCONNEGTIONS
set of Whenever
instructions. a particular connec-
built up to give a to*pGt. of many
tion is used in many paru of a structure,it may only be necessaryto shorv
a Obtaining a satisfactory welded connection requires the conrbination
of the weld and ending with
typical detail as stro*o in Fig. 5.6.3a.Wheneverspecialconnections are used' individual skills, Uegl;ing witb the actual des€p
engine€r needs to be aware of &e faetors
t-nfv should be detailed sufficiently to leave no doubt as to the designer's the welding operati;n. The structural
accordilgly'
intentions,as shownin Fig-5.6-3b' that affect ttre quatity of a weld and design the connections
in Fig. 5.6.3b the deslgnerspecifiedthat the plug rveld be nude in the
shop and grgund flush while the doublebevelweld connectingthe gussetplate Proper'Electrodes, weldlng Apparatus, and Procedures
to the column be madein the field. Sincethe designerdid not specifyrvhether After the proper electrode material is specified to matcb the srength
of the
the fillet welds attachingthe angleto the gussetPlatewere to be m:'rdein the iteel in thl pieces being joined (see Sec. 5.13)' the diameter of the welding
shop or in the field, thJ steelfibricator would be free to nrlke the decision.
(
(
220 5 / WELDTNG 5 . 7 / F A C I O R S A F F E C T i i : GT h E C : - i A L t r yO F W E L D E DC O N T t I C I I O N S 221
(
(
-i r--B
: i
(
(' {:tD rl
tl
--l L- Rool opening F
( (b; Berel with backup plate
iai Bevel with feathered edge
( (b) Hor:zontal
(a) Flat Spacer
(Removed belore
\ welding second side)
(
(
(
f=4 " -lL Land(roottace)
(c) Bevel with a land (d) Double bevel with a spacer
( (c) Vertical { (d) Overhead
( Figure5.7.2 Typicaledgepreparations
for groovewelds.
Figure 5.7.1 Welding positions.
(
penetrationweld. Occasionallya spacer.as shownin Fig. 5.7.2d,is providedto
( preventburn-throughbut is gougedout before the secondsideis welded.
electrode must be selected.The particular size of the electrodeselectedis
( basedon the sizeof the rveldto be made and on the electricalcurrentoutput
of the welding apparatus.Since most welding machineshave controls for Control of Distortion
(
reducing the current output, electrodessmaller than the maximum capability Another factor affectingweld quality is shrinkage.If a single bead is pur down
( can easilybe accommodatedand shouldbe used. in a continuousmanneron a plate, it u'ill causethe plate to distort as shou'nin
Since the weld metal in arc welding is deposited by the electromagnetic Fig. 5.7.3. Such distortions will occur unless care is exercisedin both the
(
field and not by gravity, the welder is not limited to the flat or horizontal designof the joint and the weldingprocedure.Figure 5.7.4showsthe resultof
( u'elding positions.The four basic welding positions are shown in Fig. 5.7.1. using unsymmetricalwelds as compared to symmetricalrvelds.Although there
The designershould avoid wheneverpossiblethe overheadposition, sin€ it-is:. are many techniquesavailable for rninimizing distortion, the most common
( the most difficult one. Joints rveldedin the shop are usually positionedin the '. one is that of staggeringintermittent welds as shown in Fig. 5.7.5a.and then
( flat or horizontal positions but field welds ma.v require any welding position returning to fill in ttre spacesas shorrr in Fig. 5.7.5b,a typical sequencebeing
dependingon the orientation of the connection The welding position for field shorvn. For many structures,such as plate girders, short segmentsof rveld
( welds should be carefullyconsideredby the designer. (though not usually regular intermittent rvelds) may be used at strategic
( locations to give enough strength to hold all pieces in place; then the
( continuouslines of weld are placed.
Prcper Edge Preparatlon To minimize shrinkageand to insure adequateductility, the AWS Code
( (Table 4.2 of Ref. 5.25) has established minimum preheat and interpass
Typical edge preparationsprovided for groove rveldsare shown in Fig. 5.7.2.
temperatures.-Forwelds requiring more than one progression(pass) of a
( The root opening R is the separation of the pieces being joined and is welding operation along a joint, the interpasstemperatureis the temperature
provided for electrodeaccessibilityto the base of a joint. The smaller the root
( of the depositedweld when the next passis begun.
opening the greater must be the angle of the bevel. The featherededge as
( shown in Fig. 5.7.2a is subject to burn-through unless a backup plate is
provided as shown in Fig. 5.7.2b.Backup strips are commonly used when the
( \ Pra
?o
*''"S
fusion
the previ-
ously compretedweld; i.9., in the directio' opforit. to
lenositing ln"orpfat,
fi
the progressof welrting the joint.
2. Allow for rhe shrinkage to occur by
(a) Tipping the pldtes so after shrinkageoccurs they will
aligned.
(b) Using prebendingof pieces
be correctlv
- --- ---'i
(a) lncomptere fusion *-qF
(b) Inadequare joinr penetration
3. Balance shrinkageforces by
(a) using syrnmetry in welrring; fillets on each side of
a piece con-
tribute counteracting effects.
@) Using scatteredweld segmens.
(c) Using peening;stretchingthe metal by a seriesof blows.
(d) Using clamps,jigs, etc.; this forcesweid metal to stretch.as Gaspirker
it cools. Undercut
I 3 5
7 9
7 b 8 10 (e) Slag inclusions
(a) Initial (b) Finat
Figure 5.7.5 Sequenccsfor intermittent *.elds.
:: Figure 5.8.1 Possrtle
weld defects ."
(
'(
224 s /wELDING 5.9/ TNSPECTTON
ANDCOi-iiROL 225
(
(
nol becn properlv cleanedand are coatedu'ith mill scale,..lag,oxides,or other Cracks
(
foreign matcrials.Another causeof this defectis rheuseof weldingequipment Cracksare breaksin the weld metal. either longitudinalor t:ansl'erseto the
( of insufficient current, so that basemetal doesnot reachmeltingpoint.-Too line of weld. that result frorn internal stress.Cracksmay also exlend fronr tht'
rapid a rate of s clding u'ill also have the sameeffecr. weld melql into the base metal or mey be entirely in the base mctal in the
(
vicinity of the rveld. Cracks are perhapsthe most harmful of *eld defects;
( horvever,tiny crackscalled microfissuresmav not have an;- deiinental effect.
lnadequate Joint Penetration Some cracks form as the weld begins to solidify, generallv caused by
(
Inadcquatejoint penetration means the rveld extendsa shallowerdistance brittle constituents,either brittle statesof iron or alloying elenierts.forming
( through the dcpth of the groovethan specified,as sho*n in Fig. 5.8.1,where along the grairr boundaries. More uniform heating and slo*'er cooling rrtll
( c()nlpletepcnetrationwas specified.Partialjoint penetrationis acceptable
only prevent the "hot" cracks from forming.
rrlrcn it is so specified. Cracksmay also form at room temperatureparallel to but under the u'eld
( This defect, relating primarily to groove rvelds.occurs from use of an in the basematerial. Thesecracksarise in low-alloy steelsfrom the combined
(' unsuitable groove design for the selectedrvelding process,excessivelylarge effects of hydrogen, a brittle' martensite microstructure, and restraint to
clectrodes,insufficient welding current, or excessiverveldingrates.Joint de- shrinkageand distortion. Use of low-hydrogen electrodesalong with proper
( signsprequalifiedby A\\tS 15.25,Sec.2.6 through2.101shouldalwaysbe used. preheatingand postheatingwill minimize such "cold" cracking.
(
i
( Poroslty
5.9 IN S P E C TION AND CO NTRO L
( Porosity occurs when voids or.a number of smail gas pocketsare trapped
during the cooling process.This defect results from using excessivelyhigh The enormous successand $owth in recent years in the area of structurai
(
current or too long an arc length. Porosity may occur uniformly dispersed welding of buildings and bridgescould not have occurredr*ithout some means
( through the weld, or it may be a large pocket concentratedat the root of a of inspectionand control. The welding industry has led in the developmentof
fillet weld or at the root adjacentto,a backup plate in a grooveweld. The guidelineswhich, if followed, virtually insure a sound weld. The inspection
(
latter is iaused by poor rveldingproceduresand carelessuseof backupplates. and control procedure should begrn before the first arc is struck, continue
( .--.:. throughout the welding procedure, and if necessary,? pretest of the joint
( should be made to assure its satisfactory performance. Since such close
Undercuttlng supervisionis not possiblebn every weld made, the following susestions will
( serveas a guideline td achievegood structural rvelds:
Undercutting meansa groove melted into the basematerialadjacentto the toe
L of a weld and.left unfilled by weld metal. The use of excessivecurrent or an
l. Establishgood welding procedures.
i excessivelylong arc may burn or dig away a portion of the base metal. This
defect is easily detectedvisually and can be correctedby depositingadditional
weld material.
2.
3.
Use only prequalified welders.
Use qualified inspectorsand have them present.
( 4. Use special inspection techniqueswhen necessary.
(
Good weldigg procedurescan be developedfrom recommendationsfrom
('' Slag lnclusion the AWS, AISC; and the manufacturersof rvelding supplies and equipment.
Slag is formed during the rvelding processas a result of chemicalreactionscf The procedure to be followed will depend on the chemical and physical
( properties of the materials, the types and sizes of weld, and the particular
the melted electrode coating and consists of metal oxides and other com-
( pounds. Having a lower density than the molten weld metal,the slagnormally equipment used.
floats to the surface,where upon cooling, it is easily rimoved by the welder. All welders should be required to have passed an American Welding
( SocietyQualification Test beforebeing permitted to make a structural connec-
However, too rapid a cooling of the joint may trap the slagbeforeit can rise to
( the surface.Overheadrvelds as shown in Fig. 5.7.1dare especiallysubjectto tion. Although this is usually considerddadequate,it doesn't prot€ the ability
slag inclusion and must be carefully inspected. When several paises are of the welder to make welds at the actualjob site, particularly if the welds are
( . unusual or difficult and were not specifiedin the Qualification Test. Happily,
necessaryto obtain the desiredweld size,the weldermust removeslagbetween
( each pass.Failure to properly do so is a common causeof slaginclusion. most welding contraclorsexercisecontrol over their weldersin such situations.
._!q
I
( a-!B!
?t;*
-r*,
44t r*
sja/EcoNoMIcSoFWELDEDBUILT-UPMEMBERSANDcoNNEcT|oNS 'd
r''
' &
226 5 /'S€LDING
a1
: -
l
/ F
1
B
4
r ' F
%Fl '-
T,?
il
ia
il ( ,
I *.,u'nnI
I -"'r I
u t
a ' .
r.rr Botted grrder sectton
t ( r t
\=-/
l J l
a
--- -t -l:-- Qamo
machines,
,['iil;';e availabilityin the shopof automaticwelding
OF WELDEDBUILT'UPMEi#BERS
5.10 ECONOMICS
AND CONNECTIONS
:tffi:
.:';;;;{11'5::1ry'l:3,*::.il::f,":Y
liilru;*i'.i1"'-*..ffi -\ -- -r rL- ^',^ll^$rilirrr
I
:lT-Hilt"""milt,h:piecestobe"''i9i1ii:,:"::.:::::1?:il0:'"":::
oI sPeclal JrE) rur rrvrertr6 Erv r'v'vY
for a continuous operatlol n wbereas
field welding
Ln be scheduled
$srns trf t h c ntto, *otk /\eL-- ^-o?,rrinns
Overall economy in welded connectionsis difficult to evaluate' must often wait for cranesand specialerection
equipment' Other operauons
used c.in
factors to be consideredsuch as the amount of electrodematerial bc welded can be difficult if not
to be placcd ()n such as rhe proper preheatingof piecesto
easily be computed while other factors such as the value
I
(
a
' ( .
i
a
228 ) l;,':LD|NG I
l ) 1 i . ' S l , ' E/ , i j i j i i i . r ' , i n L . t . ,
-:1.^;i'.,!;lr;i
i ; r - 1 _ EV1 r : : _ r S zlV
(
(
impt'rssibleto perform in the i:eld. Other factorsthat influenceg,eldins,costs TABLE 5.11.1
'.
" li Z [ t : l L t i : i ' " ' V f l l , a i l i ' J 1 . 1 ' . ' . . ' . t t ; - L C T | \ i i . - I h : ] C . A T
l . i i i ' ; r l . l l i . J lS
( are. FCI PARTIAL JOINi Frl.,if iilr.IiO:j C-:O',':',','ELDS
',!,
( A l i r P T E D F R O I , {A V J S D l i 27j ;;:-:S 2 7 AND 2iA 3t
( l . Cost of preparingthe edgesto be wclded.
t . The amount of s'eld nl;terial required.
( 3. The ratio of the actu:l sc tinte to ovcralls.eldingtime.
D a s em e t a l
( 1. The amount of handli:g required.
t h i c k n e s s( f )
5. General overheadcosis. ol thickersparl
( joined
The factors listed above are generallyunknown io the designerbecause
( the :abricator is usuallynoi seiecteduntil after thedesignhasbeencompleted. (in) (mm'i (mm)
rh: proper aad most econonicalt]'Demust be selected. L/4 <T< t/2 6.4<T< r}.i 3. i16 ) 3/ i6
( r/2 <T< 3/4 L2.7<T< 19.0 t ; '4 6 t/4 6
In most instan€s the designeris not as concernedrvith the specificcost of
( 3/4 <T<Lt/2 19.0<7"< 38,1 5/ 16 8 s/16 6
a "i'eld t)?e as with the relatite cost. Donnelly [5.26] has developedfactors < ,lA
I t/2 <.r< 21/4 3 8 . 1< r < 57.1 8 3r'g 10
rel:iing the cost of fillet and goove rveldsof common sizesto the cost of a j..'16
( 2 L/4 <r<6 5 7 . 1< T < t 5 7 8 1 i', l3
sin::le-pass]-in. fillet rveld 6 < T T52 <T -i"''16 8 s/8 16
( Currently (1990),rveldedconnectionsare used for the vast majority of
shop connectionsand a suable though not a majority of field connections. rWeld sizeis the leg dimcnsion
( of fillet u'cld.The q'cldsizeneednot exceed the
Ivfore extensivetreatmentoi iveldingcost is availablein the WeldingHandbook thicknessof the thinnerpart joined.For this excepdon.particularcareshouldbe
( [2.2?,Chap. 8] and from Blodgeu,[5.27]. takcnto providesufficientpreheatto ensureweldscundness.
*Minimu* sizefor bridgeapplications is 3/16 in.
(
tFor metric,minimumsinglepassweidsmustbe u=d.
( 5 .11 S I Z E A ND L EN G T H L IM IT AT ION S F O R FILLE T W E LD S SException:f is thethinnerpartjoincdrvhenspccia: prcbeatprovisicns
of .\\\'S-.i.1.-
( ---t-' are uscd.
Since all s'elding involves tbe heatingof the metai pieces,prevention of ic;o
( '.
rapid a rate of cooling is of fundamentalimportancero achievinga good rveld.
( Consider the trvo extremethjcknesses of platesin Fig. 5.11.1,each of rvhich
has received a bead of fillet weld. Most heat energy given off during the tially limited to a horizontaldissipation.In othci rvords.the thickerthe piate.
( welding processis absorbedb1'platesbeingjoined.The thickerplaredissipates the faster heat is removed from the n'eidin-zarea. ther-cbylo*'ering ihe
the heat venically as well as horizontally whereasthe thinner plate is essen- temperaturein the region of the q'eld. Since a minimum tcmperatureis
(
requiredto causethe basemetalto becomemolien.it is thereforenecessanio
( provide as a minimum, a weld of sufficientsize(and heat content)to pfevent
the plate from removing the heat at a faster rate than it is being supplied.
(
t\ ru,"p.,.,,*-f'\ Llnlessa proper_temperature is maintainedin the area being weldeda lack of
( fusion will rdsult.
( lsdisrriburion L_
(
Minimum Weld Size
(
To help insure fusion and minimize distortion the AWS 15.251 and AISC
( Specifications[1.5. 1;15]providefor a minimuni size*'eld basedon the thicker
of the piecesbeing joined. The requirementsfor fiilei r.veldbasedon the ieg
( - {r) Thick p!:ie (b) Thin plare
dimension a of the fillet and for partial joint penetrationgroover'.'eldbaseC
( Figure 5.11.1 Effect of thicknesson cooling rate. on the effecti vethroat( see. Sec. 5. i2)
ar e givenin Table5. 11. 1.
(
v i
r;
I
( 66. 4 rnnr m
mi i F-' LRFD and ASD-JZ.2.b recommend the use of end returns, whenever ( i
t<; ri4- : . = I
for other limitations the readeris referred
l: practicable,as shown in Fig- 5._11-.3. (.i
q -
[1.5'1.151-
\
F. !o theAISC Specifications
. i
am.r = no specrf rc
.timir
I
'
( ,i
{effectivenessma}'
be limited; see ( ;
. Sec.5.14l
AREASOF WELDS
EFFECTIVE \ :
1"
7 1
, !64mml d-.. =, - t
\
i
/,i
{1,6 mrni
*-
I , mr itrrngth, of the various typesof welds discussedin Sec.5.5 are basedon ( i
I
'.
elfectiaeareas.The effective areaof a groove or fillet weld is the product of the i
-.elfectiuethroat dimension I, times the length of the weld. a i
\ .|
I I
.t
:,- The effective throat dimension-depends on the nominal sizeand the shape
a
\ ;
i of the weld, and may be thougbt of as the minimum width of the expected i
Frgure5.11.2 Maximum weld size. €:=--
=- failure plane.
ls.e.v I L
|/.F.r
-:.F:--'
-*.-.-.
k
-H:_r-
Si
(
Maxlmum Fillet Weld Slze Along Edges *
-:s GrooveWelds
ffii*. (
The maximum sizc,of fillet weld used along the edgesof piecesbeing joinc.l r. 1ffi - T.hr effective throat dimension of a full penetration grocve weld is the
(
limited (LRFD and ASD-J2.2.b)in order to prevent the melting of rhe hlr.. Fi thicknessof the thinner part joined, as shown in Figs. 5.12.1aand b. For a
materialat the location where the hllet would meet the corner of the pl:rrcri $,*, pariial joint penetration groove weld, the effective throat may be less than the (
the fillet were rnadethe full plate thicknes-s.
Thb maximum permitted r: {.,;,.- €--,-depth of the chamfer. For example,when bevelor V joint gtooves'havean
included angle at the root of the groove less than 60o but not less than 45o (
Fig.5.ll.2): F_
"€:- (
l. Along edgesof material less than |-in. (6.2t-mrn)thick, the mininrunr ;+,' t.=Tr (
sizemay be equal to the thicknessof the material. := to=T
:+::-: I
2. Along edgesof material I in. (6.4 mm) or more in thickness.rlrc : 1 l l (
maximum size shall b. * in. (1.6 mm) lessthan the thicknessof rhc f + r, \ll
t l
12
I
+
material.unlessthe weld is especially designated
on the drawinsstr,irr' ' | (
l--:: I t
built out to obrain full throat thickness. .-i- |
(
T, (Tz
(a) (
Mlnlmum Etfective Length ot Flllet Welds
(
When placing a fillet weld, the welder builds up the weld to its full dimenritin .
as neat the beginning of the weld as practicable.Horvever,there i5 3le,sr i ;r (
slight taperingoff in the region where the weld is started and where ir en.jr ft'
i \
e= D -l' tr.zm-t
O (
' '
Therefore. the minimum effective length of a fillet weld is four times rhc 45o € a ( 60" (GMAW and FCAW
to' D
nomioalsize(LRFD and ASD-J2.2.b).If this requirementis not met. the srzc
vertical and overhed
pcitions)
(
a)60"
of the u'eldshall be consideredto be one-fourthof the effectivelength. rf\z (
M
l r t l
(
( ,i iI
(
lo *o
I
I
(c) 8€^rel or V iont (d) Bsvelor V ioint ( I
Figure 5.12.1 Effective throat dimcnsions for groove welds (LRFD ard ASDJ2.l.a) (
Figure5.11.3 Usc of eod returas. made by SMAW, SAW, GlvlAW, and FCAW.
(
_(- i
( t
(
'( ..t
.a
232 5/VJELDING .
t
1
STBINGTHOFWELDS
5.13/ NOHrr'rAL z$t
( i
{
( I
t
' ( .' 'tl: 5.13 NOIIIINAL
STRENGTH
OF WELDS
i
( Sincerveldsmust transmitthe entire load fiom onc memDerto anothcr.ri'elds
must be sizerjaccordinglyand be formed froni ihe correct electrodcr::atc:irl.
( For desigr)purposesfillet rveldsare assumedto transr-.'lit
loads throus.hs'!;ear
( (a) (b)
slress on the effective area no matter how the fillets are oriented on ihe
structural connection.Groove welds transsut loads -xactly as in the pieces
( F,gure5.72-2 Effectivethroetdimensions
for fillet wclds(cxceptby submergcd they join.
arc
( process). The electrodematerial used in welds should have propertiesof the basc
material. When properties are comparable the weld metal is referred to as
( "matching" weld metat. Table
5.13.1 gives "matching" rveld metal for manl'
( ASTN{ structural steelsused in buildings and bridges.
n'hen SMAW or SAw processesare used, or rvhen the GIr{A\\' or FCAW
( processesare usedin verticalor overheadpositions,the effectivethroat is the
cepth of the chamferless |'in. when the includedangleis 60q or more, the Strength of Groove Welds
( efiective throat is the full depth of chamfer for all four processesmentioned. Complete joint penetration groove welds are considered to have the same
Effective throat requirementsfor the groove situationsmentioned.as well as strength on the effectiuearea as the pieces being joined. Welds subject ro
(
others,are given in LRFD and ASD-JZ.7.a. tension normal to the effective area must be made rvith "matching" rveld
( metal, where the propertiesof the weld metal are comparableto thoseof the
( base metal. In compression,where stability of the compressionmember is
Fillet Welds usually the major factor, the weld metal strength is permitted to be one
( classification(10 ksi) lower than the "malching" base metal requirement.Tbe
The effective throat dimension of a fillet weld is nominally the shortest authors recornmend,however, that malshing electrodes be used-wben the
(
distance from the root to the face of the rveld, as shown in Fig. 5.12.2. membermay possiblybe used in tensionin the future.
( .\ssuming the fillet weld to have equal legs of nominal size a, the effective Thus. the nominal strength R,- of weid per inch of length is basedon
( throat t " is 0.707a.If the fillet weld is designedto b_eunsymmetrical(a rare yielding of the basemetal, which gives
situation) with unequal legs,as shorvnin Fig. 5.I2.2b, the value of t. mustJre-.
Rrn: trF, tenstonor comPresslon ( 5 . 1 3j 1 )
( computed from the diagrammaticshape of the weld. The effective throat ..
(
dimensions for fillet welds made by the submergedarc (SAW) processare (s.13.2)
(
modified by LRFD and ASD-JZ.Z.aas follows to account for the inherently
superio_rquality of such welds:
where
,": .rr*l;*.'f;::SIrllT.rD
P. : yield stressof the basemetal
( 1. For fillet welds rvith the leg sizeequal to or lessthan f in. (9.5 mm), the Note that as discussedin Sec.2.6. tbe shearyield stressis taken as approxi-
*--"- mately I (actually 0.6) of the tensioa-compressionyield stress.When "match-
{/ . effective throat dimensionshall be taken as equal to the leg size a.
2. For fillet welds larger than I in. (9.5 mm), the effectivethroat dimen- ing" electrodematerial is used the weld material is somewhatstrongerthao the
( sion shall be taken as the theoreticalthroat dimensionplus 0.11in. (2.8 base material; thus the strength of the welded joilt is controlled by the base
( mm) (i.e.,0.707a+ 0.11). material properties.
When the groove welded joint is subject to shear, the weld metal is
( permitted (AWS-Table 8.4.1 12.241)to be of lorver strength than the base
metal; i.e., less than "matching" *'eld metai. in which case the strength Fr*rq
( Plug and Slot Welds of the weld material must be used instead of Fr, in mmputing .Rn,'.
( The effective shearing atea of plug or slot welds is their nominal area
( (sometimes called faying surface)in the shearingplane. The resistanceof plug Strength ol Fillet Welds.
or.slot welds is the product of the noninal cross-sectiontimes the stresson
The strength R,,- of a fillet weld per inch of length is based on assumption
( * that area.
that failure of such a weld is by shear on the effective area whether the sbear
(
" ( ..',]:;
2..:,
: ,i{
. r':,"
:.r€
. t
l -
5.13 / NOMINAL STRENGTHOF WELDS
F+.* (
( '
Tensile slress
?
along bar (
I I |.
F -^
H E'3 a
_ta
! x Y
Il ^
. i 3
I
i- d.J
(
.-! I c''l
. d
rJ J,i a.l
.
I .;
a.l
icl
E €5 ?TT;
lr-
l< \ ; It; - : t
ll w?, Ip f/
(
; i:t t
E
eiir iq,
'7 7 I a ' f - * >< c =i a X
t! <>r =! (
? E E " }t < i J I
9Y <;jj
i
=
I I c-
(
I ':x t_
o
(J
E ot
@
d x
l=
I ./i X
j e r
..d
&
(\t
l.l 5
2 ( t
i c-t - c .
.lx
a lap joict with longitudinal fillet welds'
lal
9
s .Xx
i "r;
t< F[ure 5.13.1 Typical stressdistributioo in (
rl F
1C O)^ br+ l s tx
!, ob
o
- tl l
9 E? r-. X
il w:i * iII R x i*I 'J oO ,=
' & 1
(
la4
= ? . !
a l I
t s3 -
-o
.ai li.
< x t<x t x 4a X,it
;':*7. a t " 3
,^-) (
l > I| r -
q l ltaX
l q
l
U) ;t - x* > = l>= J a t a
J
t<
l * - -
<L
*
<i.:- ! otJ at . ^ : (
l<rL = ' = !
? . . 9
F
-_:x
i (
3 (J g t : I 7 - cc =c j
-E
!
GI )\ ox rti
I - ' t a ' )
9 V i ? (
(Y ea xn b
v
a
l Il r , ? 1 ! i :: (
Ir:*
l! Efr< - 1 ?
d a
o
tlj
8Ee < X ? I i. ' ? :x ? *
. J 1 = ' - r
= : 2 = '
F
E
E
' v a X q X '>= t /,
i< ?3.: l(,
l 3=
- v
- --=:: t 4
(
=€ =R
* a + .= ,'
? ? , ? 1 2
E
<l:i <'A 1 :;
i<rr (
€' ; +! =
2 €
) ? ,
F
z ]
r '
- -
J - t
c J -
(
irJ
- c l ) -4 = *
t
UJ
IY
i cq) ; . Y ' 7 ,
n -
(
-z ^
*
a
T
-
U
- .
' J V -
5 o E. -7. E= , 9 5 4 - a (
:U:- ! F 5
a -
UJ
c
o
o Y .== a O
F d
n ;
x 6
r r ) r ) <.. ! E c P ' 7 J
(
h
i6;
Fg 6;?
I
I
a.r g
's!- i 9 y , i
E L7:
ut 4 d
i sI t -
> ) < {d>< o
b
a
-
!
d y
(
1 ??s t
: C ) r.l O -.:l€ .J a 3
(DQ) i ' o g = :
cc uL o-
+ ! t r | I
i t ? € 3 t z 2 ' ? . 8> . 9 3 :
LU
) t9(,
* 6 gEjii $ ! ! i F l =
3 : ' . 1 > , *- ... 7 = -
i i*.+
(
! I ? E i i ?e
€ r t
<': ? , qE ! J
1 -'z a L b
E:f I-.
:?,55
'i".:
rt
o = \ J ! ,
it l2- .J . 2 ^ A E = 3 E' 2 2 !
's'!;.
(
4 Fges
(rr)rnr-
i c r o a
F r : c c C
(, r, fi l'- izAij
F
7: r-
C
Lats<- , E * r * i C.+1!?r,
e .:a-.
."
:
O
F
< J
(\l
<<!l Euii, !
''i
= i
J '
t
:
l *r.:
f +":.
-
(
.€Ys= <.= i-:
E,:F,.
/
A
l
€ 5.H+
>- e ..7
c 7 . 3
4 i . - ;
. - r l
t--
(
; .= ':A! !
. ^ 7 ? r t n
9
9 s F t :
9 e J =
I- (
p J e = =
()
UJ
o.
o
) - 'i 6E> rt >
'-? g
) ' A - :
<c , - c ; ' ; ' ;' E I (
J CI
2 r ^ >E ) , ? - V A 'J J. -
-
(
joint with traosversc 6llet rcldr
r i + *
( FY = l
3
c l o
,.
( \ ,l \
L
n -''l
( Ll
v {
< - _ - E n n J
v - - ( - -
I . t,
lll'li
c
r c r
( o
J
(
( -ol-,,
( 0 0.02 0.04 0.c5 0.08 0.1
" r, -=:trtIIIZ Detormation
J, in.
( Y
{a}
Figure 5.13.4 Load-deformationrelationship for a |-in. E70 fillet u'eld. (From LRFD
( (b)
Manual [.17]).
F:gure 5.13.3 Typical stress distribution in a tee joint
( with fillet welds (shear
!ransverseto fillet).
( 5.14 .LOADAND RESISTANCEFACTORDESIGN_ WELDS
(
The generalphilosophyqf Load and Resistance
FactorDesign(LRFD) rvas
(' Fig. 5.13.3-Due to the tendencyof the fillet to rotate about point
C, the describedin Secs.1.8 and 1.9. Equation1.8.1givesthe structuralsafer,v
maximum stress fr-in tension irn the y-direction is approximateiyfout
' J tfme5 requirement,asfollows:
( the averagestress-fvs. .! '
The load-deformltion relationship of a fillet rveld has been studied +R,2Ltiei [1.s.1]
( by
Butler, Pal, and Kulak Is.zgl, Kurak and Timmler
[5.30],Swannell[5.31,5.32]
( and Neis tf .l.l111ndi-sshownin Fig. 5.13.4,wherethe riader.uy otr.*e rvhere 0 : resistancefactor (strengthreductionfactor),valuesof ivhich for
that
the strength is relat-edto the angleat rvhich the weld is loaded.ihe longirudi- rveidsare given in Table 5.i4.1
( n-alwelds in Fig- 5.13.1are loaded ar 0o (parallel to the weld ds); Fig.
5.13.a R, : nominal resistance(strength): R,,, for welds
( shows considerable ductility Qarge deformation capability) for
sucf, welds. 1 : overloadfactors(LRFD-A4.1)
Figure 5-13-2shows transversewelds loade.dat 90o;'fig. S.if.4 shorvsgrearer Q, : senice loads(selSecs.1.8 and 1.9)
( strength but considerablylessductility for such weids.
Equation 1.8.1 requires the design strength 0R, to equal or exceed the
( Note also from Fig. 5.13.4that even though rhe srrengthof a fillet weld
-the summation of faaored loads,or specificallyfor welds,Eq. 1.8.1becomes
becomes greater as ihe angle to the axis of weld inireases, that extra
( strength is not utili-ed by the AIsc Specifications (s.14.1)
[1.5, 1.15]. rn, ,n.a, fR,o 2 R,
( strength of the weld materiar,taken at 0.6FExx,is tbe upper limii where 0 : resistancefactor (for welds the 0 factor is the same as for the
used.
The fact that welds will deform plastically (constant load with increase
( in material it connects;that is, 0.90 for the yielding limit state and
deformation) before failure permits relatively simple rreatment of fillet rvelds
:
( loade{ both parallel (d 0") to the axis of the weld and perpendicular R,*: :#'T#iTnffiTJ;lil'L,r,h orwerd,
butno!toexceed
(d - 90") to the axis of the we!d. It is assumedthat the plastic
defonnation the nominal strength per unit length of adjacentbasematerial
( will permit all such welds to resistequally anyvhere along their
lenlth= R,, : factoredload per unit length of weld
(
, (
. -rt
-wELgs ' 239
-
DESIGN
FACTOR
511/LoAD ANDRESISTANCE / - t
238 5 /WELDING
-;s
: :i3 -'
( ,
'
,s
:#"=
- d 5
(
(
" (
' { ,.:t
\ 24O 5/IAELD|NG : I
- .I { 5 14 / LOADAND RESISTAI-ICE
FACTORDES;Gtj _ 9,.:LDS 241
( t
. l
I
( I
TABLE5.r4.2 DESIGNSHEAR
STRENGTHOFFILLFTWELD.9F,*.(kips/in.) T A 3 - = 5 . 1 4 . 4 V J I L D S- - A I S CS P I C I F I C A T I O N S
RIF:5ENCES
( (SHIELDED
METALARCWELDING)
( Nominal Eftective
size lhroat Minimumtensilestrengthof weld (ksi)
Topic
( (in ) (in.) 90 100 il0
( Filler metal and flux for rvelding A3.5 A3 {,
r/8 0.088" 23gb 2.77 3.17 3.56 3.96 4.36 Eifective net area ttJ B:
( 3/t6 0.133 3.58 4.18 4.77 5.37 5.97 6.56 Dcsign tensilestrcngth D1 D:
r/4 0.L77 4.77 s.57 6.36 7.t6 7.95 8.75 General JI
( s/16 0.221 5.97 6.96 7.95 8.95
Ji
9.94 10.94 llinimum connecrionstrengtb Jl.5 ll l-l
{ 3/8 0.265 7.16 8.35 9.54 10.74 11.93 i 3.12 Balanccdweld connection J1.6 i l.e
7/16 0.309 8.35 9.74 11.14 1? S? 13.97 15.31 \\'elds J2 J?
( t/2 0.354 9.54 11.14 t2.73 t4.32 15.9i 17.50 Groove q'elds J2.t J2.t
e/16 0.398 10.74 t2.s3 t4.32 16.11 17.90 19.69 Effective areas
( J2.1.a f a :
J:.-t-d,
^
5/8 0.442 rl.gr 13.92 15.91 17.90 19.88 21.87 Limitations J2.1.b J2.i.b
( rr/16 0.486 t3.12 15.31 17.50 19.69 ?1.87 24.M Fillet welds t1 1 I?T
3/4 0.530 74.32 16.70. 19.09 21.48 23.86 26.25 Effective arcas J2.2.a J !.4.4
( Limitations J2.2.b Jl.l.'b
ur, = 0.707 rimesleg size a :
( A.707(L/8): 0.0ggin. Plug and slot welds J2.3 J Z^:
bgr. Designstrengtb 12.4 11 r
10.60Fox ) : 0.75(0.707a)(0.60times tensilestrength) JL.A
( : 0.75(0.700(1/1ix0.60x60)
: 2.38kips/in.
(
( A summaryof the designstrengthsof rveldsis given in Trble 5.14.1.A
TABLE5.14.3 DESIGN
SHEAR
STRENGTH
oF FTLLET
WELD,+R* (kips/in.) summaryof the AISC Specificationsectionsrelatingto rveldsar..'pears
in Table
( (SUBMERGED
ARCWELDING) 5.14.4.
(
Nominal Effeclive
size throal Minimumtensilestrengithof weld (ksi)
( E EXAJ\{PLE5.I4.I ,
(in.) (tn.) 70 80 90 100 110 Determine the effecti-vethroat dimension of fr-in. fillet rveld n:ade b1- (a)
(
shieldedmetal arc rvelding(SMAW), and (b) submergedarc x-elcling(SAw).
I/8 0.125" 3.38" 3.94 4.50 5.06 5.63 6.19 in accordance
( ' 0.188" with the AISC Specificarions[1.5,1.15].
3/t6 5.06 5.91 6.75 7.59 8.44 9.28
( L/4. 0.25A^ 6.75 7.88 9.00 i0.13 11.25 12.38
5/16 0.313" 8.44 9.84 L1.25 12.66 14.06 15.47 SOLUTION
( 3/8 0375" 10.13 11.81 13.50 15.19 16.88 18.56 (a) t": 0.7A7a: 0.707(0.4375):0.309in.
7n6 0.419b LL.32 t3.21 1s.10 16.98 18.87 20.76
( (b) r" :0.707a + 0.1i : 0.707(0.4375)
+ 0.11 : 0.419in.
r/2 a.463 12.51 14.60 16.69 78.77 20.86 27.94
9/t6 0.508 Thesevaluesa10in agreementwith thosegiven in Tables 5.74.2(for S\IAW)
( 13.71 15.99 18.28 20.56 22.85 25.t3
s/8 0.552 14.90 17.38 ,22.35 and 5.14.3(for SAW). E
19.87 24.83 27.32
( Lr/r6 0.s96 16.09 18.78 2L.46 24.14 ?6.82 29.5L
3/4 0.640 17.29 20.17 23.05 2s.93 28.81 31.69
(
E EXAII{PLE 5.14.2
( ut" = = tF:::
s leg size for sizes s 3/S in. Determine the desigtrshearstrengthfR,,,u of a f -in. fillet rveld produced by
b -
t" 0.707a-+ 0.11 for sizes > 3/8 ia.
--::. (a) shielded metal arc welding, and (b) submergedarc weldin_a.Assume E70
, car.
(
qo6orExx
) i:."
,:. electrodeshaving minimum tensilestrengih F** of 70 ksi are used,acccrding
( : ::I[i)!],::ffi;,::Hffli? 1E:
'+ to AISC LRFD Specification.
( ' ,;.;
..:. i:-i
1
.-!L_
I -
l
f-,*' 242 5 /WELDING 5.14 / LOAD AND RESiS;ANCE FACTOR DESIGN-!'JELDS 243 (
(
SOLLITION
(a) SN'IAWprocess.t,:0.707a: : 0.265in. Acco.rtlinsr,,
0.707(0.3?5; |l
Eq.5.14.6,
+R,* : Qr,(0.60Fr**)
(b) SAWprocess.
: 0.75(0.265)(0.60)?0
t,: o: 0.375in.
: 8.35ki ps/i n.
Thesevaluesagreewirhthosein Tables5.l4.2and5.14.3
'wj
r EXAIIIPLE5.143
Determinethe designshearstrengrhfR" for a |-in.-diam plug weld usingI..-,i
elcctrodematerial.Use AISC LRFD Specification.
SOLL'TI ON
SectionA-4 Section 8-8
Assuming the weld diameterD satisfiesthe limitations of LRFD-J2 1 b
'. (a)
re'latingto the dimensionof the piecein which the plug weld is made. {bf
: 0.75(0.4418X0.60)70
: 13.9kips
Sectionsb-b and c-c trill not b€ critical since two lines of ,*'eldtransfer
as shown in the equationfor maximumeffectiveweld
load acrosstwo sections,
Maximum Etfecllve Flllet Weld Slze sizeacrossthose sections,
In Sec.5.ll the limitationson maximum and minimum fillet weld siz,ean,.! ) : 9 (0.6d)r,
9a(0.707)(0.60FExx (5.14.10)
length relating to practicaldesignconsiderationswere given. Those rcquirc.
ments relate to the size of weld that is actually placed. Regardingstrcngrir. F..t.,
dmancff: 1.41 (5.14.11)
however.no r,r'eldsof whateversizemay be designedusing a strengrhgrcrrci ' .f E X X
than availableon the adjacentbasematerial.
Consider the two lines of fillet weld transmitting the shear I/ acr.,.. Consideringthe four fillet welds of Fig. 5.14.1b,sectionsd-d and e-e are
section a-a of Fig. 5.1a.1a.The designstrengthgRn* of the fillet wetd r. the same as section a-a; therefore, Eq. 5.14.9 applies. On sections/-/ and
given by Eq. 5.14.6.The design shear rupture strength eF,An, of the br.c g-g four fillet welds transfer load acrosstwo sections.Thus,
materialis 0.75(0.6d) (net areain basematerialsubjectto shear;accordin{:t,'
LRFDJ4. Equating the capacityper inch of the weld meral to rhe shc:rr ) : O2(0.6F,) t,
O4a(0.707X0.60FDS( (s.14.12)
capacitl per inch in the basematerialgivesfor shieldedmetal arc w'etding
and again Eq. 5.14.9is the result.
0Ro* (weld) : gRo (basemetal) Even when fillet welds @nnect members that are in tension, the transfer
of load by meansof the weld is a sbear transfer to the base pieces wben the
z,a (0.707)(0.60FErn; : 6 (0.6F,) t, (5.ta.st fillet welds are parallel to the direction of the load. For such cases,the
0.60dr, maximum effective weld size concept still applies.
Futr
d max
cfl
: 0 .7 0 7 ( 5 . t 4 .t' i
2(0.707)0.60FExx Fexx r EXAMPLE 5.14.4
Determine the design shear strengtb OR,,* to be used for the flange to web
where tr : thicknessof basematerial connection in Fig 5.14?. Tbe plates are A36 steel and electrodes having
F" : tensilestrengthof basematerial Fexx : 70 ksi are to be uscd with (a) shielded metal -g wslding (SMAW) and
F.** : tensilestrengthof electrodematerial(70 ksi for 870 electrodcsl (b) submergedarc welding(SAW).
t,(
i1'
TAELE 5 15 1 ALLCJJABLESTRESSES ON EFFECTIVE AREA OF WELDS TABLE 5.t 5.2 ALLoWABLE RESISTANCE F* OF FILLETWELDS. KIPS / lN. (
( A S D i 1 5 t ) - T A B L EJ 2 . 5 ( U S E DB Y P E R M I S S I O N
OF A|SCi . ( S H I E L D E DM E T A LA R C W E I . D I N G \
.r4,i
(
Required Weld Nomrnal Ef{ec1r'.'e throal
Typaot WeU atlC Slress' ( A S D - J 22 a )
Minirnumlensile strengthof weld (ksi) (
Slrength Levef'' size
(in ) (tn ) 7C 80 90 100 r1c (
Cornplel*Petxlratlon G roore Welds :.::';;;
Fr.:-.-"
r/8 0.088 1. 59 1. 86 )11 2.39 2.69 2.e2 (
Tcrnsbn norn''al to Same as base melal
3ir6 0.132 2. 38 2- ?8 3.18 3. 58 3. 97 4. 37
eftectirre area EL.
(
t/4 0.177 3. 18 3_71 4.24 4.17 5.30 5.83
(bmpression normgl b +'
5/15 0.221 3.98 4.64 5.30 5.96 6.63 7.30
eflective area 0.265 4.77 5.57 6.36 7.L6 7.95 8.75 (
3/8
Wdd netaf wilh I slrengrh €F.
,tF;: 7/16 0.309 5.57 6.49 7.42 8.35 9.28 10.?l (
Tensbn or clrngressicn Same as base melal levef equal b Cr lesS rhan -:- 0.353 6.36 7.42 8.48 9.54 10.60 I1.66
paralel lo aris ol weld 'malcfirq'weld
meld rr
L/2
e/16 0.398 7. 16 8. 35 9.54 10. 74 11. 93 13. 11 (
permilled.
Shearon efieclivearea 0.30 x rcminal lensile s/8 0.141 7.95 9.?8 10.61 11.93 13.26 14.58
0.486 8.75 10.21 1 1 . 6 7 13. 12 14. 58 16. 04 (
strargth of vcld melal (ksi) l L/ 1 6
3/4 0.530 9.54 1 1 . 1 3 r2.72 14. 31 15. 91 l?. 50 i
GrooveWeldsd
Parliat-penelratbn 5i1: Y
(
Compressigt normd lc
eflective area
(
Tensionr ccrnpressien Same as base metal One may dererminethe nomirialsafet-v- provision (y/Q) by comparingthe
(
parallello arc of weld" Weld metal wilh a slrenf l: designstrengthgRn* in Load and ResistanceFactor Design(Sec.5.1.1) *itlt
hvef equal b or less than the allorvableload R*. Using the valuescomputed in Examples 5.14.2 and (
0.3O x nondnal lensile -malcfing'web
meld rs 5.15.1for f-in. fillet weld rvith the SlvtAW process and E70 electrodes.
strargth of wdd metal (ksi) (
permilled.
Tensbn rsrnal to effecfve 0.30 x noninallensile 0Rn* : 8.35kips/in. LRFD QesienStrength
(
area str€ngthol wdd melal (ksi),
ercept teraig slte3son base R . : 5. 57kips/ in. ASD Allou'ableLoad (
metalshall nol exceed0.60 x
yield slressof base melal (
FillelWeHs \
TABLE 5.15.3 ALLCUJABLERESISTANCER- OF FILLETWELDS, KIPS/ lN
Shear on efiecfve arca 0.30 r nominal lensile Weld netal wilh a strengln (SUBI'ERGEDARC WELDING) T (
strenglho{ weld melal (ksi) bvet equat b c less than
-matclirg'weld meld ts (
Nominal throat
Etfective
Tensioncr crrnpression l,.tinimumtensile slrenglh of wetd (ksi)
germillEd. srze (AS}J2 2 a)
Parallelb axis of weld" (in ) (in.) 70 100 I I ,'\
.. li
( Fronr Eq. 5.15.1and using0.?5as the 0 facror.
(
(
F S : 1 = : , , , 9 ; "- : 2 . 0 0 +-
tl<
R" . 0 .7 5 (5 .57)
(
Thus, the nominal strength R,,*.usedin LRFD is trvice the allou'ableload R*. Figurea.',6.2Designsketchfor Example5.16.1.
( usedin ASD. Typically, the allowableserviceload is obtained by dividing the
*rcngth by a desired factor; for connections2.0 has traditionally been used.
(
Once the safe serviceload has been established,that load may be dir.ided by (b; Compute the tiricknessrequiredfor the plates.
( an elasticcross-sectionalproperty, such as area. to obtain allorvablestress.
iT,,: eFrAr: 0.90(50)18 (yieldinglimir state)
(
QT,,: QF,A,: 0.75(65)1. (fracturelimit sute)
(
5.16-WELDSCONNECTINGMEMBERSSUBJECT Since there are no holesand no eccent,ricityof loading, tbe effectivener area
( TO DIRECTAXIALLOAD. l" equals the gross areaAr. Thus, from the above two equationsit is noted
( that 0.90(50)< 0.75(65);rherefore,
In the design of rvelds connecting tension or. compression members, the
( principal task is to insure that the welds are at least as strong as the members 110'4
Required
- ' - - -n.:
- s J+- - : z.45sqin.
they connectand that the connectiondoesnot iatroduce significant eccentric- 0.90(50) 45
( ity of loading.
( 2.45
Requiredr: in. Use 16 x 6 plates .
6:0.41
( Groove Welds
(c) Select electrodeand an AWS prequalifiedjoint. From Table 5.i3.1,
( In the caseof full joint penetrationgroove rvelds as shown in Fig. 5.5.2, the use F7X-EXXX ( Fexx : 70 ksi) flux electrodecombination. Referring to
( full strength of the cross-sectionmay be developedby selectingthe proper AISC LRFD Manual [1.17] section "WELDED JOINTS" or AWS 12.251
electrodematerial correspondingt<i the base material as indicated in Table Table 2.9.1, selecta prequalifiedsingle-V-groove rveld designatedB-L2a-S.
( 5.13.1,and specifyingan AWS prequalifiedjoint. The designation B refers to a butt joint, L refers to limited thicknessof
( material for this weld (in this case2 in. ma"ximum),and S refersto submerged
arc rvelding.The weld requiresthat a backup plate be used.The detailsand
( 3 EXAMPLE 5.16.I
rveldingsymbol are shorvnin Fig. 5.16.2. E
For the plate tension member (Fig 5.16.1)carrying axial serviceloads of 60
( kips live load and 12 kips deadload, selectthe required thicknessof the plates
E EK{}TPLE 5.16.2
(A572 Grade 50 steel), the proper electrodematerial, ild specify a proper
( Repeat Example 5.16.i, exceptuse .4572 Grade 65 plates,a square-groove
AWS prequalified groove'joint. Use Load -and ResistanceFactor-Design.
weld, and submergedarc rvelding(SAW).
(
( SOLTJTION SOLU-TION
(a) Compute the factoredload to be carried. (a) Detirmine'the requiredplate thickness.
( .
T u : 1 .2 (1 2 )+ 1 .6 (6 0 ): 110.4ki ps tf'l
( Required
o,: !: : 1. 89sq in.
o.e0(6s) s8.5
(
i.89
( t : ---;-
6 : 0.31in.
l [-T-l
Requiied
' Use f6 x 6plates.
.-+ l a" +---
( 60kLL I t oorr_r-
ll I (b) Selectelectrodeand specifythe proper prequalifiedjoint. From Table
T 2 KD L 1 2 KD L
( - 5.13.1, use F8X-EXXX flux electrodecombination. From LRFD Manual
Figure5.16.1Example 5.16.1. [1.17] or AWS [2'.251Table 2.9.1,selectthe square-groove weld designated
(
(
-
5.rG/ WELDSCONNECTING
MEtilBERS TC DTRECT
SU&,EC.T AXIA';LOAD 251
(
5 z'UIELD|NG
(
(b) Selectthe electrodematerial and selecta proper prequalifiedAWS (
I
t6 lfirex joint. From Table 5.13.1,use 860 electrodes.
From the LRFD Manual [.17,
, . / o {
72k , 7zr i. S-ftZi or AWS 12.251Table 2.9.1. select the double-bevel-groove joint
< ' *
I designated TC-U5a. (
(
5.16.3Designsketchfor Example5.16.2.
Frgure l,lote:On the basisof strengthonly, a single ]-in. bevel (TC-U4b) could have
been used insteadof the double-bevel-grooverveld specified. However, weld- (
ing the stem of the tee from one side only may caus€ excessivewarping and (
B-LI-S (LRFD Manual p. 5-181)as indicatedin Fig. 5.16.3.ftris u'eld hl, introduceseccentricityinto the connection.
zero root opening and is prequalifiedfor material no thicker than I in. I (
I' t
r32k i--!xz (
/
rtl Gussetf
lI il r/ _ - rI K {E 6 0 95k
(
oi. (
__U/_
t t (
l"
t ?
l-2 luu*luu*
v t {
(31 l'roblcm (b) Solution (a) Problem (b) So{urion
(
Figure5.16.4Example 5.16.3. Figure5.16.5Example5.16.4.
(
(,
(
(
'(
5/WELD|NG
5.16/ WELDScoi.llJ:CTING lvlE[tBERSSUBJECTTo DIRECTAXTALLOAD
(
( SAUITION
( Rcferring to Sec.5.11,LRFD-Jz.z.bgivesthe follorvinglimits:
edges g! the angle rather than more corectly ar rhe center of the efiective
( fact, the transversedistancebetweenlongitudinal fillet welds may not exceedg throat. The force F, rvill act at the centrOidof the rveld length which is located
.in. unlesstbe effectivearea.provisionsof LRFD-B3 are applied. at d/2. Taking momentsabout point ,{ located on the bottom edge of the
( In this example,use |-in. fillet weld, 7 in. oo earh side as shoivn in
t
( Fig.5.16.5b. i
Gusset{
( E EXAMPLE 5.16.5
Rework Example5.16.4using |-in. fillet welds.
( I
?
''r
( SOLUTION
since the nominal size is less than $ in.. the effective throat l" is the-full
.*
( t
leg dirnensionwhen using submergedarc welding. I
t
(
0R,,,,,: fr"(0.60Fe*x): 0.75(0.25\42
- 7.87 Y'tps/in.
tT Figure5.16.7Balancingthe weldson a'tensionmemberconnection.
( " ta
.1
, ( t rJ
-. 1e
.-f,
TO DIRECTA1IALgOAD
MEME:3S SUBJECT
S.16lgELDS CONNECTING
255
(
t
254 5/WELOING
(
'-:;1'
to the distancc'
remaining requireJ length to F, and 4 in inverseproportion - . /
from the centerof gravitY. "desirable": ho\\'€r'cr
Note that apiroximately balanced welds are I
I... .na connectionsof staticall.v-ler:rdcd
LRFD-J1.6. does nol requirc it for /'(
single angle,double angle and similar members."
anJ (
The foregoing discussionof balanced welds is valid for both Load t- Figure5.16.8 EramPle 5-16.6. I
I
I
f ) '
(
'r
5,/WELDING s.16/WELDSCONNECTTNG
MIMBERS TODIRECT
SUBJECT AXTAL
LOAD 257
(
( .
..
-Lox ax|
11
('
<r--.- -a
-
{-r t4
( :s :" ll - . -" I | +.+-rJ
Hoe -Ir-
|.yra
( < _ t '
'E 3 .
,igure 5.16.11 Forcesacting for Example 5.16-7
( Figure5.16.9 Balancingthe n'eldsfor Exanpie5.16.6-
( SOLUTION
and rvhichcan still be placedin
This time try * in. as moreeconomical
( (c) Determine the lengthsof weld to be usedfor the connection.Referring
onepass.Usingtheforcesin Fig.5.16.11.
( to Fig. 5.16.9,
1s0(1.94)
( F z : 0 R ,,* .L n :4 -1 8 (6 ) : 2 5 .1ki ps rt : -;r : 48'5kiPs
( From moment equilibrium about the back of the angle (at Fl), - Tu- F, - Fr: 150- 48'5: 101'5kiPs
4
( - 25.1(3)
150(1.e4)
Fi: : 36.0kips . fR,* : 6r"(0.60Fo*): 0.?5(*)42: 9.84kips/in.
( 6
rvhichis lessthan the shearrupturestrength(1i.0 kips/in.) of the angle;
( Summation of forcesgives therefore,the rveldcontrols.
( Fr: T, - F1 - Fr.- 150- 36.0- 25.1:88.9 kips F, 48.5
1,.
-h'r - :-:4.9in. Use5 in.
9Rn,. 9.84
\
F, 36.0
Lnt: : :
(
_ ffi aJd 8.6in. Use9 in.
L*.t:
n
:
101.5
: lo.3in. L/se1l in.
( -&" ll;-
( n 88.9 Use weldsas summarized
in Fig. 5.16.12.
Ln3: : : 71.2 tn. Use22in.
.. ;-
gfi ;;;
.+.I - --:
r_ O
( . . \
F7X (typ.)
( Use weldsas shownin Fig. 5.16.10,thoughfor better economythe largest
weldsthat can be placedin onepassare preferredand thiswouldalsoreduce
( the connectionlength.
(
( ' EXAMPLE 5.16.7
ReworkExample5.16.6if theweld at the endof the angleis omitted,andthe Figure 5.16.12 Solution for Example 5.16.7.
( SAW proceisis usedinsteadof SMAW.
t
( - :
r EXAMPLE 5.T6.8
Dererrninethe serviceload i" permittedon the connectionin Fig. 5.16.13if thc (
load is 80% live load and 20% dead load. The steel is A36 and Load and
(
ResistanceFactor Designis to be used.
(
SOLL'TION
The designstrength0Rn..per inch suppliedby the |-in. fillet weldsis E ->/ b3d \- n--$xe
F{ 31 6- v 5 Figure5.16.14 Example5.16.9.
as.- (
+ R, *: S r.(0 .6 0 F = * x ) . "{F
€L-;
G (
+0.tt)]a2: 74.6kips/in.
: 0.?5[o.s1o.zoz) €.=-
€ r E)GNIPLE5.16.9
(
but not to exceedthe shearrupture strengthof fhe plate, ,F' Corpure rhe serviceload capacityof the connectionshownin Fig. 5.16.14
the SMAW processare used.
: 19.6ki ps/i n. *.- *hen A573 Grade 50 steeland weldingby (
M ax f R" *. : 9 r(0 .6 0 F ,): 0 .7 5 (0 .7 5 )(0 .6 0)58 Assumethe sen'iceloadis 83%live load and17%deadload.UpeAISC.Load
*===== (,
FactorDesign'
and Resistance
The strengthprovidedby the fillet weldsis E
* (
Tt: L-(OR'.,) : 10(14'6): 146kiPs
"'
#- From Table5.14.2, a fr-in. 870 fillet weldprovidesSR"" : 4.18kips/in' ' (.
The designstrengthQR, prorided by the 1|-in. diam plug weld is fillet weldsis
s. ft'. resistanceIr providedby the (
' ? T r : L * ' ( o R , * ): 2 ( 5 X 4 ' 1 8- ) 4 1 ' 8k i P s ( ,
?n,: oR": o.?519(0.60)70 : 74kips :---
.::-: -
4
= I, providedby the |-in. wideslotweldis
The resisrance (
The total factoredload may'be equatedto the total designstrength. i:j..'
:
i: ' - : / a' \' 2
r"B (
Tu= Tr * Tz: 146 + 74 : 220 kips :' F a y i n gsar lrqe a:-
I "Jrrr6 + Z . Z S ( ] ): l . 9 l s q i n .
,}-
8 I
Checkthe tensilecapacitl'of the plate: : 60. 1kips (
; 7.,: QR n: 0. 75( 1. 91) ( 0. 60) 70
. *
Q T n: 0. 9 0 { i . : 0 .9 0 (3 6 )(9 )0 .7: 5 2 1 9ki ps (control s) (
t eT.: T, + Tr : 41. 8+ 60. 1 : 101. 9kips ( cont r ols)
Q T n : 0 . 7 5 F " A , : 0 . 7 5 ( 5 8 X 9 ) 0 . ?: 52 9 4k i p s
,€ Note that slot has a semicircularend (LRFD-J2-3-b,par' 4)'
which makesthe sen'iceload capacity T Check the tensilecapacityof the plate: t (.
iF
2 1 9: 1 . 2 ( 0 . 2 r ) + 1 . 6 ( 0 . 8 r:)1 . 5 2 7 tr*g :
QTn:0'90r,'ls : 0'90(50Xs)0'375 135kips (
: iis*
f : i4-1kips : 146kips (
: A: QT,: 0.75F,A,: 0.75(65X8)0.375
i+ ***i::: (
iF- Thus,the serviceloadcapacityT is
t-lxs I c"*.t t +*FF.
,F::- 1 0 1 . 9 : 1 . 2 ( 0 . 1 ?+?1. .) 6 ( 0 . 8 3 f ) : 1 . 5 3 I
:9,:. (
T: 67 kips =
(
r EXAMPLE 5.16.T0 )
I Design an end connectionto developthe full tensilestrengthof a C8xl3-?5 is
(
.. a lap length of 5 in. The channel of A572 Grade 50 steel is connectedto a
in. gusset.plate,and the fillet welds are to be made by the SMAW process
-...- t "" (
;: anA t*y not exceed
Figure5.16.13 Example5.16.8. |-in. Use Load and ResistanceFactor Design. (
(
(.
.3
'l
, t) :i
260 5//wELDING I 5.17 / ECCENTRIC _STRENGTH ANALYS|S
SHEARCONNECTTONS 261
.l
( a
I
:
( SOLUTI 0N c8 x 13.75
( (a) compure the designsrrengrhof the channel.
Fronr Table 3.5.1,the
effectivenet area l" is 0.E5ls.
(
QT,: 0.90F,.18: 0.90(50)4.04: 1g2kips
+ 7,: 0 .7 5 F ,Au : 0 .7 5 (6 5 X 0 .9 5 ) 4.04
: 167ki ps
(
(b) Selectfillet weld size a and compute lengrh required.
(
Min a : fr in. (Tabte5.11.1)
(
Max a : 0.303- * : 0.24 in., say I in. (Fig. 5.11.2)
(
wlrile |-in. weld must be usedon one end along the channelweb, Figure5.16.15 Solutionfor Erample 5.i6.i0.
( |-in. rveld
could be used along the flanges.It is better not to mix the fillet sizei so try
|
( in. all around.
( 0R, , *,: { t" (0 .6 0 fo * ) : 0 .7 5 (} )(O .Z OZ)a2:5.57ki ps/i n. 5.17 ECCENTRIC
SHEARCONNECTIONS
*'hich cannot exceedthe shearrupturestrengthof the basemetal,
_STRENGTHANALYSIS
(
( M ax eR, , * ,: 9 l (0 .6 0 4 ,) : 0 .7 5 (0 .3 7 ;)(0.60)65
: 11.0ki ps/i n. There are many situationsrvherethe loadingof fillet weldsis neithcrparallel
to nor transverseto the axis of the fillet rvelds,as shorvnin Fig.5.17.1.
( The weld controls.
Analysis of such eccentricloading casesis complicatedby the fact that, as
( shown in Fig. 5.13.4,the load-deformationbehavioris a function of the angle
R e q u i r Le nd : 3 oi n . 0 betweenthe directionof the resistanceand the axisof the fiilet rveld.
( *,: #:
Since-thelengthall aroundis only 26 in.,additionalcapacityfrom fillet rveid
t
in a slot, slot welds,or plug welds,is necessary.
( (c) slot weld. Try a slot weld in accordancewith LRFD-J2.3.b.
( '\
Min rvidth cf slot - (r + *) (roundedro next odd fr in.)
( : 0 .3 0 3+ 0 .3 1 2 5: 0 .6 155, say j { i n.
,
( Max widrh of slot : 2i (weldthickness): 2i(0.303) : 0.6gin.
( Load Tu to be carried by slot weld,
( RequiredTu:767 - (26 - 0.68)5.52: 26 kips
(a) Shear and torsion (b) Pure torsion
(
TrV it-in- rvidth of slot and estimatethe slot area as rectangulareven rhough t
( Length required : : 1 . 2i n .
( 0.7s(11/16)42
Max length of slot : 10 (weld thickness): 10(0.303): 3.03 in.
(
Ut. u tlot weld it" "1, The final designis shorvnin Fig. 5.i6.15. Nore that the
(
ffitmustbesemicircularorhavecornerSroundeptoa
( radius not less than the thicknessof the parr containing slot (LRFD or (c) Shear and bending
Y
ASD-J2.3.b). I Figure 517.1
( Tlpes of cccentric loadile.
, , \. ( , :
r*F *-
j -_8.
-5-; -::
(
5 17 / ECCENTRTC - STRENGTHANALYSIS
SHEARCONNECTTONS
262 5lwELDiNtl 1". '
.'.;t
:-' R,
(
Element
ln a mannersimilar to that usedfor eccentricloadingon boltedcoilncr-
ti<rns(see Sec. 4.12). the strength of an eccentricallyloaded fillet riclt!
(
configurationcan be determinedby locating the instantaneous centcr ,,i wdd torces act
(
al centroids ot
rotation,using the load-deformation relationshipof a fillet weld. The resr,- elefnents
t,i.lnccR, of a tt'eld segmentat any distancefrom the instantaneous c€rrcr rr (
proportional to such distanceand acts in a direction perpendicularro rhr r
radial distanceto the segment.Unlike bolts,however.wherethe load-delorni.i-
tion relationshipis independentof the direction the shearforce acrs on rh( (
circular bolt cross-section,the fillet weld strengrh dependsbn the angtc (
betweenthe applied force and the axis of the weld resistingit.
A^^:, t R, i\ cent", ot
Until the availabilityof calculatorsthat could readily obtain the valuer
from complicated formulas, a trial and error procedureto determine rhc
center (
strengthof eccentricallyloadedconnections,either bolted or welded.\\'r.rS ntri
feasible. Thus, traditionallythe elasticvectoranalysissimilarto that discusse.! (
for bolts was used for eccentricallyloadedwelds.as is explainedin rhe nev
(
section(Sec.5.18).
Though the AISC Specifications [1.5,1.751do not,prescribethe methodr:i (
analy-sisto be used for fillet welds eccentricallyloaded in sherr, the mr'rsr
rational procedureseemsto be the strengthanalysisproposedby Butler. Pai. (
and Kulak [5.28.5.29Jwhich formed the basis for the 1978 ASD Mhnuai Figure 5.17.2 Resistance R of a fillet weld segment. (
tables.Somemodificationbasedon more recentwork by Kulak and Timmlcr
[5.301was used in the development of the LRFD Manual [1.171tables.Thc I
conceptand generalprocedureof the strengthanalysisfor both setsof table. (
are the same. rotational; that is, the combinationof the rotationaland translationalparts
Tide [5.34, 5.351and Brandt [5.36] have given an excellentderailcd will be purely rotationalabout the instantaneouscenter. (
treatmentof the method used by AISC for rhe ASD Manual [1.7]. Thc Using the LRFD Manual[.17] symbols,Eq. 5.17.1ma1'be expressed
(
computerprogramby Brandt [5.36]is useful. - & rJ " , . t ' ' r
R, : R,.ul,[1 - "t 1A: (s.17.2) \
A more complicatedproblemof eccentricshearparallelto one of the axc.,
of the weld configurationcombinedwith a force acting at 90o to the sherr (
force has been treatedby Loomis,Thornton, and Kane [5.371.Thesedesign where e : naturallogarithmbase: 2.718...
aids are primarily for beam connection angle welds, including C-shaped. '
R,.,rr,: ultimate shearload on an elemenl
L-shaped,and lines,wherethe beamis subjectto axial tensionor compression.
10+0 (
The more recentwork of Kulak and Timmler [5.30]forms the basisof rhc R,.,,,,: (0.791Fr**1.) (0 in degrees) (s.17.3)
presentationthat follows. The practical application of this method b1' an f0 ;;3E (
indir-idualdesignerrequiresthe use of a computer spreadsheet or other kr:pAo:8.274e0'orl4o (s.17.4)
(
software.The strengthof a weld segmentper unit lengtirhas beengiven[5.29j
b; A, : deformationof an element: :' J,.* (s.17.5)
r*". I
R , : R , , u r , [ l- " - r o , ] ^ ( 5 . t 7 .)i (
Ao : 0.11 in. (maximumdeformationfor 0 : 0o)
n h i ch is a c ur v es uc ha s th o s efo r 0 :0 , 1 0 ,3 0 ,a n d 9 0oshow ni n Fi g.5.13.1. ri : distancefrom instantaneouscenterto an element "(.
The original work and formulaswerefor |-in. fillet weld with 860 electrodes: r,,,", - distanceto elementfarthest from instantaneouscenter
I
the more recent update used |-in. weld with 870 elcctrodes.The procedure
involvesdividing the n'eld configurationinto elementsas shownin Fig. 5.17.1. a,.-" : aol3
- [ ) * ,]-0" (o indegrees) (5.17.6) (
When an eccentricload causestranslationand rotationof the weld configura- I
tion. there rvill be some point about which the entire deformationwill be k, - | - 9.4"0'otoe (s.17.7) (
I,
, l
* (
il
, ( 264 5/WELDING il 5.17 /ECCEIiTRIC SHEARCONNECTIONS_ STRENGTHANALYSIS
. l 265
:l
( I
,l
( The procedureis as follows: -l
-:
( I- Divide the weld configurationinto segments, say l-in. Iong segments.
i
( IR,r, +ERiri
.on __- T - (s.17.e)
( e+ro The rveld size is I in. and E70 electrodesare used in the SMAw process.
i
Assumethe basematerialstrengthdoesnot govern.
( . - ;
14,: O; P,=E(R,)r+I(nr)" (5.17.10)
( SOLUTION
(a) Divide the weld configurationinto segmentsi in. long. The resisring
( P, : ER,cos0,+ IRj sind, (5.17.11) force will be assumedto act at the centerof a segment.The instantaneous
( centerwill be usedas the origin, as shownin Fig. 5.77.3.
ll. compare rhe valuesof Pn from Eqs.s.r7.g and 5.17.11.If they are equal (b) Seledtaltrial location for the instantaneouscenrer (lC) of rotation.
( the solution is correct.If they are not equal, revisethe trial value of ro and Assumesay r0 : 4 in. Then computethe coordinatesof the centroidsof the
repeatthe processuntil Eqs. 5.17.9and 5.17.11give the sameresulr. segmentsand the angles4 and 0, for the vertical and horizontal segmenrs.
(
respectively,as shown in Table 5.i7.1. Note that IC will generallybe on rhe
( oppositeside of the verticalweld line from the point of action of the load.*
E EXAMPLE 5.I7.I
( Determine the nomi-nalstrength P, of the C-shaped fillet weld configuration
(' shown in Fig. 5.17.3.The horizonial lengths ut. I in. each and the verrical i
'The use of a spreadsheetprogram.
length is 14 in. The eccentricload is applied at 3.5 in. from the 14-in. lehgth. such as l.otus l-2-3. tvill allou' a rapid solution of this
l' problem by trial and error.
( :
( - . . tt
=k
r (
_l
-
f
5 /V.JELDING 5.17/ ECCENTRTC - STRENGTHp; :ALYSTS
SHEARCONNECTTONS
ComputeR,.,,,,for eachsegment.
Illustratingfor segment !
I
I SHEARCONNECnONS- STRENGTHANALYSTS
5.17 / ECCENTRTC 271
27A s /WELOINb
{
/
TABLE 5.17.5 SOLUTIONFOR EXAMPLE5.17.2 (ro : 7.08 in.) ($ 9ompute the safe service load P using the factored gravity load
combination. LRFD-A4.I, Eq. (Aul-2).For the given 75% live load and 25% i
Computed used
dead load,
Seg 0, A, -u, A, fl.urr Ri Ri (8), R,
Pu: l'2D + l'6L
(,
| 47.3 0.0365 0.03m t4.94 r4.69 7.4? 5.46 766i
0.0354 0.4322 15.04 14.87 QP o: Pu: 1. 2( A. 25P, + 1. 6( 0. 75P): 1. 5p (
2 50.8 7.42 5.75 tt].::
3 53. 9 0.0345 0.0345 15.1? 15.0r 7.42 . 6.00 li8.lt t 6P- 94.8
4 42.5 0.0382 0.0278 t4.79 t4.43 7.42 , 5.47 7l i- P:i;:,,:63kiPs (-
-
5 37.8 0.0401, 0.0261 t4.62 t4.12 7.42 s.ao 66.5: (
6 32.4 a.u27 0.0244 14.38 t3;r3 7.4? 6.77 62.30
7 26.3 0.0465 0.0230 14.04 13.22 7.42 6.66 58.65 r EXAMPLE 5.173 1
..SOLUTION (
1'
F r om 8q. 5. 17 .9 , '"
(a) Strength anall'sisusing basic concepts.The nominal strength of this ('
\
P ^ : 2 ( 6 3 . 1 4 :) 1 2 6 . 3k i p s connectionas determinedin Example5.17.1is
1
\
FromEq.5.17.11, P, : 231kips
(
8 3 .5 ) : 126.3ki ps
P,: 2 (6 6 8 .0 3 )/(7 .0 + (b) Allowable stresson a fillet weld. From ASD-J2.4, the allowable
(
resistanceR is
Thus. the nominal strengthP, is 126.3kips. (
, .5 -1 03. For ]-i n. w el d usi neI:' ti
( e) Us e LRFD Ma n u a l [.1 7 ] ta b l e s p R : l. ( 0. 3Fr **)
electrodes. = 0.707(0.25X0.30)70
: 3.71kips/in. (
a : (e - xL)tL :(3.5 - 0.45)/14: 0.218 \(
- 3.0/14: 0.114 (c) Reducethe computednorninal strength into the sen'iceload range so
k : kL/L /
that the maximum force on any weld segmentdoes not exceed3.71 kips/in. I
k:0.2 0.214 0.3 The maximum resistanceis 15.06kips/in. at segment1 (Table 5.17.4).Thus. (
a : 0.2 1.694 7.962 the allowableserviceload P is
0.218 1.655 1.692 1.920 C :7.692 I
Ty ( P , t ,- . + P , e . )y q_----..
tt, _ _
tx
_-
(5.18.4a)
IP IP t,
:EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE':.'.
The maximum force R will occur at points A and B. The propertiesof
.,*;"- lines will be used.
f,
'Y ,:":(P'e,+Pre')x ( 5 . 1 s . 4)b (a) Locate the centroidof the configuration,Taking momentsabout the
Ip Ip
€-1.. I
EJ'ver.tjcal weld.
= -
1ry
^ t r \ ^
2(6)3 {
where Ir: I, * Ir: I/,, + Leit + I/.,., + LA xz (S .tl t._si X: - = l8 in . ''"
-
-?-
-- 2(6)+g
-:---
In Eq. 5.18.5.i and ! referto distancesfrom the centerof gravityof the ueld (b) Computethearea(length)and thepotarmomentof inerriaaboutthe (
-.{J
group to the center of gravity of the individual weld segments..f., and /,. centroidof the configuration.
F=-
'-::. (
refer to the mornentsof inerda of the individualsegmentswith respectto rhr-ir
own centroidalaxes. :2(6) + 8:2oin'
j= I
"."
':
I 'o : * + 2L1 6
' (4 . 1t
)+ in3
g] r ,[ut,.z)'l*8(18)]: 314
5: ---
lJ
t
f t
Iy
( 5 . 1 86 )
v
For practical situations,the first term of Eq. 5.18.6is neglectedbecause.
u.irh
r. small. the term is not significantcomparedto the other terms.Hence
line u'elds (i.e., as in deriving Eq. 5.18-Twirh r.: l) and using ihe general Figuro5.18.3 Example5.18.1.
(
' ( 276 . s,/lirEudrnro 5.18/ ECCENTF:C
SHEAR - f ijisriC ryECTOR)
CONNECTTCxS Al.r{LystS 27T
(
( TABLE 5.18.1 PROPERTIES
OF WELDSTREATEDAS Lii.j=S (c) Compute the ciimponents of the force on thc rvelclat poinrs I and B.
( Section From the direct shear.
Secfion illodulus Polar Moment of Incrtia, lo
b:width; d=deptlr
( J,!9 about Centerof Grat!ry
R ::::
'fl
: { t . i 5 k i' pi ., s' -7- ' j .1 1
( )2
L 20
S:a t'^ =
L{2 Frorn the torsion f about the centroid of rhe configurarion.
( O
(
(
' lro_]l i )^ : d-
J
"
,o (3b'+ d')
, - d---?-
R..:
Tv
T
:
1 5 (1 2 . 2) 4
3*
:2.33 krps/in.->
( i5(1:'1)4':
l-uJ R' l. : ! : : 2 . 4 s k i p s r . ,j i n .
3. E-T , b ( 3 d :- b r ; lP 314
,tr
( d
S=bd ,o =-----
6
i f
. 8bt +6bdz + d3
,o =--1l-
serviceload P is 15 kips (80% live load and 207cdead load). Compare rhe
resultsusing(a) elastic(vector)analysisfrom Erample 5.18.1and (b) strength
analysisas describedin Sec.5.17,both uith AISC Load and Resisrance
Design.Assumethe plate thicknessdoes not affect the result.
Factor
( - bo
t'
2b+d
( :: SOLUTION
- d 2 ^ 2bd+d2 ,i-
v' = - 5=- , _bt+6b2d+gd3
,o---_lF (a) Elastic (vector)method. According to LRFD the facrorcd load must
( b+zd 3 :
be computed,
do
( \\ ::-
?d+b - P u : 7 . 2 D + 7 . 6 L : 1 . 2 ( 0 . 2 ) 1+5 1 . 6 ( 0 . 8 ) 1:5 2 2 . 8k i p s
( l-*1
(
7.
IEI S=bd+I-
S2
a
5
,o
(b+d)3
, =--A-
The maximum load (lips/in.) on the rvelddue tc the factored P rvill be (using
the resultfrom Example5.18.1for P : l5 kips),
( R u : 3 . 9 6 ( 2 2 . 8 / 1 5 ) : 6 . 0 2k i p s / i n .
( 8. 'ru]
r !-uJ
e:b*u" =--J- ^ Zbd+dz
I
t9
_ b3+8dt_
t2 b+zd
do
.{ 0R,,'. : 0.75a(0.707)(0.60FExx
Weld resistance )
( : 0. 75a( 0. 707) ( 0. 60) 70
: 22. 3a
.{
s[tr
r -
( l-r-l The rveldsize'requiredis then
)Z b3+3b[+d]
( S = b d +- a IP R, 6.02 5
J Requireda : : : a'27 in" saY in'
( +R^ 223 ;
l3 3.35 3.35 -0.50 :.5.1 the angle 0, of the resisting force R, to the axis of tbe weld. It makes no
l4 1.46 l.{5 -0.6r 0.10 differencewhether R, acrsar an angleto tbe plane of the welds (Fig. 5.19.1)or
g:2gJ9 2S5^iO whether it acts in the plane of the welds (eccentricshear as in Secs.5.1? and I
5.1s). I
**/
(
tl
( t, Strengthanalysisdividing the weld on the tensionside of the neutrll a.iis
( into segments,the resistance of eachdepcndingon the ang.lethe resistanc.-
makeswith the weld axis using the formulasin Sec.5.17.The rveldon thc
( compressionside of the neutral axis is assumedto have only a resistance
( tt tl parallel to the weld axis.The compressionforce from bendingis assumedto
ttJ
be carried by direction compressionof the piecesbeing rveldedusing a
( triangular distribution with the yteld stressat the extreme compression
( Frgure5.19.1 Wcldsin sbearandbending. fiber. The instantaneouscenteris then locatedby trial in a mannersimilar
to that illustrated for eccentricshear.Detailsof the procedureare described
( by Dawe and Kulak [5.38J;
( 2. Strength analysis exactly as for eccentricshear. In this procedureall rveld
The situationin Fig. 5.19.1is commonlyreferredto as shearand bending, segrnents,both on the tensionand compressionsidesof the neutralaxis,ale
( u'hich is actually the stresscondition on the bracket plate supponing the load assumed to have resistance.This procedurewill give the values in the
P. The rveldsnrust carry the loads in the samemanner that the rnemberSeing LRFD Manual tables.
( connectedcarries them. The stressesare shown in Fig. 5.19.2. 3. LRFD Manual tables.
( For loading of the.weld configuration'in shear and tension,one must 4. Elastic (vector) analysis.
realize that the yelSsegments subject to compressionare not free to rotate;
( thus, if a strengih analysisis made the compressionregion should be assumed
I EXAMPLE 5.19.1
( to have a compressivestressdistribution between the piecesbeing welded.
Compute the size of E70 fillet weld required for the shear and tcnsion
Dawe and Kulak [5.38]reportedthat relatively good agreementwith testswas
( connection in-Fig. 5.19.3a,using the SMAW process.Assumethe column and
obtained using any of a triangular,parabolic,or rectangularstressdistribution
the bracket plate do not control. The load is 80%live load and 20%dead load.
on the compressionside of the neutral axis.
( and Load and ResistanceFactor Designis to be used.
Tbe LRFD N{anual[1.17]doesnot contain tablesfor the caseof shearand
( bending. The tables for eccentricshearare suggested[1.17] to be used for.g[.
casesrvhere" the connectionmaterial betweenthe welds is solid and doesnot' SOLUTION
( (a) Compute the factoredload P,.
bend in the plane of the welds."
( Alternatlvely, the elastic (vector) method is conservativeand relatively : 15. 2kips
Pu: L2( 0. 2) i0 + 1. 6( 0. S) 10
easy to use for loading in shearand tension-
(
(b) Use the traditional elastic (vector) method. The weid segmentsare
(
treated as lines having a thicknessof unity (1.0).The direct shearcomponent
( sl P \ v P M c M
z\ztir,z;
) 7=G, 7=3
(
(
n
N.I
n
E
t
:--1
l
I
:.'{ l"-1 tf, Lr'.
l l l l
=\l =l = V=c I l r
H
( -l Fl V
A-
I i
h
:
I
t
E T
- ! l
r
= t r
t
( 11 E I
E 5 E
E I
( V E F aar
( Figure 5.19.2 Stresseson vertical lines of *'eld acting in shearand bending. Figure5.19.3 Example5.19.1.
t.( 1|.(F
F!"' 282 5/WELOING 5 I g / LOAOS
APPLIED
ECCENTRIC
TOTHEPLANE
OFWELDS 283 ( ,
( i
is assumedto be carried equally by eachs€gmentof weld, For rmoment alone on one line of weld, (
M M , (
' ' ' = ! =*
(R,),, : * :- vo.76kips/in.
'' R- - - (5.19.1)
A 2 (t' )L , 2 (1 )1 0 m T-r,,1
kips/in.
.S \ c (
The rensioncomponent(horizontal)due to the moment pe is Sincethe maximum valueof R is eR,n (
ItIc 15.2(6)5 6M ( \
(R,),: : : 2.74kipslin. .0R,,*:V
T l6ef 9w ( ,
r : *[z1ry1roltl-166.7
where in.a 6M (
The resultant forcc is Required (5.1e.2)
!_: +R*
RequireQ
d R,,: W :2.g4kips/in. Equation 5.19.2 for welds correspondsto Eq. 4.12.28for bolts. Sinceit is (t
correct only for moment alone, R,,- should be enteredas a reducedvalue to
The designstrengrhof 870 electrodefillet weld is (
account for direct shear.
gRn, : gr.(0.60F**) : 0.25(0.707)a(0.60)lO
:2:..ja (
I EXAMPLE 5.19.2
and the fillet weldsizea requiredis (
Determine the length L required to carry the load indicated in Fig. 5.19.4,.
when 75% of the load is live load and 25%is dead load. The weld to bi usedis (
3
R e'q u i r eod: ? Y : 0 . 1 3 i n . , s a y tn' *-in. E70 fillet weld. use AISC Load and Resisrance Factor Design.
223 G ( \
(c) Use LRFD IWanual[l.l7l rables,p. 5-91. For weld using F . , ' l i SOLUTION ( ,
electrodes, (a) Compute factoredload {:
(
P,: r.Z(o.ZtcO
+ 1.6(0.75).40
60kips
a = e/L: 6/10: 0.60 (
/<:0 (b) Estimatelengthof weld L requiredby using Eq. 5.19.2:
(
F i n dC : 1 . 1 0 7
0R,,* - 0.?5(a)(0.707)(0.60)70
= 22.3akips/in.
(
T ablev alue: g P" : C C .D L : 1 .1 0 7 (1 .0 )(D)10: 11.07Dki ps :22.3(5/16) : 6.96kips/in.
(
RequiredD - l5.Z/1f.07 - 1.4 Mu - 60(4) : 240 in.-kips per Z linbs of weld
(
Requir eda: 1.4 /1 6 : 0 .0 9i n ., s a y I i n .
Required I =
lM : ll in' (
The elastic(vector)methodis as expectedmore @nservativethan the srrenerh \/ fC'O (
methodrepresented by the LRFD Manual tables.The minimum desirablerrzc
(
to be usedfor this situationis probably in.
fr
Usefi-in. E70 fillet welds. (
(
Design for Lines of werd subfect to Bendrng Moment
( ,
Ev'ens'hen there'are moderatereturnsat the top of lines of fillet weld. an
estimateof the length requiredmay be obtained Ly using the sameapprLlcl: (
a-susedto dererminerhe numberof bortsin a line io so. 4.l2. rn Fig. a.ll.v. (
R/p hts units kips/in. which becomes+Rr,, the designstrengrhat de rop of
the linesof s'eld. (
Figure 5.19.4 Example 5.19.2.
(
(
( t
(
. ( n l
:
-t
284 . 5,/WELD|NG i SSLECTEDRETEREI.ICES 28s
(
1 a
( --t
a
A reducedvalue of gR,,*. hasbeenusedto accountfor the directsheareffcct. i
The designstrengthof E70 elecrrode
( since the *-in. returns at the top add somerhing;rry r. : 10 in. - 1 ii-ir. fillet *'eld is
(
(c) If the rcrurns are neglected,the LRFD ltinual t1.171tables,p. 5-91.
can be used to obtain an approrimateresult, as follorvs:
I
I
sR,*,: or"(0.60Fo**)
( i : 0 . 7 5 ( 0 . 7 0 7 x * ) ( 0 . 6 0 ) 7: 0 6 . e i k i p s / i n .
a : e /L : 4 /1 A: 0.40
( k : 0
The designstrengthOR,",exceeds
the 6.?1kips/in. rcquircd:thus. L : 1 0 i n .
( Find C : 1.549
is adequate.
( T a b l ev a l u e: e P n : C C T D L : 1 . 5 4 9 ( 1 . 0 ) ( o ) t:0 1 5 . 4 9 Dk i p s , UseL:10in.
( ForL: 8 in.,
( Find C : 1-299, requireda : 0.29in.. say'fr in. SELECTED
REFERENCES
( (d) Elastic (vector) method.The actual weld configurationhas the *-in.
returns rvhich make the centerof gravity of the weld configurationlie closerto. 5.1.K. Winterton. "A Brief History of Welding Tcch:rology," iileldrng attd lr.letcl'
( Fabrication,November 1962'.December1962.
the top than the mid-depthassumedin part (c). Also. thereis no indicationin
5.2."100 Yeals of Metalworking-welding, ssezing ar:d Joinin?," The lron Age.
( the LRFD tables that thosetablesshould be usedrvhenthe load is applied June 1955.
such as to cause moment and shear.Thus, it may be prudent to use a 5.3.H. Carpmael Electric welding and lvelding Appliances. London: D. van Nos-
(
conservativeelastic (vector) analysis. trand Company, 1920.
( Locate the center of gravity of the configuration, 5.4.Preston M. Hdl. "77 Years of Resistanceweldin3." TIte lltelding Engineer,
February 1954,54-55; March 1954.36-37; April t954, 62-63.
( _ 2(10)5 100 ) . ) . w. L. Miskoe."The centenaryof Modern welding, 1885-1985-A commcmo-
y : -:-;-----------= : - : +-7o ln.
( 2 ( 1 0+ 0 . s ) 27 ration," WeldingJournal,65, April 1986, L9-24.
5.6.D. W. Morgan. "Classification and Use of Mild Steel Covered Elcctrodes."
( The direct shear component(R.), is computedassumingthat none of the.,
\' IYe[dingJounnl, December1976,1035-1038.
shear is carried by the returns, 5.7.E. craig. "A unique Mode of GMAw rransfer," welding Journal,6d, Sep'rcm-
(
ber 1987,5i-55.
P 6 0 5.8.K. A. Lyttle. "GMAW-A
( (R"),: : 3.ookips/in. versatile Processon the Move," lvelding Journal,62.
: u: 410) March 1983,15-23.
( 5.9. V. R. Dilleobeck and L. Castagno."The Effects of Various Shielding Gascsand
The tension componentdue to the moment pe is Associated Mixtures in GMA welding of Mild Sleel," l4relding Journal, 6,
( SeptemberL987,45-49. (Seealsoletter from Nils Larson, Chairman, Committees
2L3 c50 and A55, American welding society, and author's reply, 67, March 1988,6.)
( 'Ix : - + 2L(5 - 4.67)2
+ z(O.s)
(4.7q2
72 5.10.Aws. welding Handbook,Tth ed., vols. 2 and 3. Miami. FL: Arnerican welding
( Socidty,-1978,1980.
(10)' 5.11. "Office Building
_ Columns Field Spliced r*ith Self-Shielded Welding
( + (4.76)2: 190.5in.3
+ 20(0.24)2 Wire," WeldingJournal,65,October1986,53-54.
6 "Self-Shielded
( s.t2. FCAW SpeedsHigh-fuse Construcrioa," WeldingJour-
60(4)4.76 nal, 8, April 1984,47 -49.
( ( R " ) , : -lg5; : 6.00 kips/in. 5.13. . "Self-ShieldedFCA Welding is a Breezein the Windy Ciry," lTelding
Journal,67, March 1988,47 -48.
(' 5.L4.A. Raman. "Electroslag welds: Problerns aDd cures," rvelding Jounw!, 60.
The resultant force is
( DecemberL98L,17-2I.
oR, : yG oot'+Goot' : 6.7rkipslin.
Required 5.15.c. G. Schilling and K. H. Klippsteia. "Tests of Electroslag-welded Bridge
( .*
-4 Girders," WeldingJournal,60,December1981,23-30.
,*
$
! (
#
tit
".-d
.?
.:E:
-.tilt* . .
'.e-:'
286 5/WELD|NG
nF:-.--. ( ,
' PFOBLEMS 287
;.-- ( t
&
5.21. R. Fenn. "Ultrasonic Monitoring aod Coouol During Arc Welding," ll'eiJtn: l:-
;.-..
-
PROBLEMS (
Journal. 64, September 1985, L8-22. i:
(1
5.22. Paul D. Watsoo. "Design for Welding Examination," Welding Jounu!.61. All problems are to be done accordingto the AISC Load
-n and Resisrance
Febnrary 1982,32-35. Factor Design or Allowable StressDesign,as indicated by (
5.23. C. M. Fortunko ald R. E. Scbramm."Ultrasonic NondestructiveEvaluationr,,! :.- the instrucior. All
given loads are serviceloads unless othinrise indicated. (
Butt Welds Using Electromagnetic-Acoustic Transducers,'; WeldingJournul. 6l Wbenever.possible,
show all answerson a design
v sketch(draw
':--'- to scale)using appropriatewelding
February 1982,39-46. ;'.. (
iymtols.
5.24. Ronald Selner. 'Dye Penetrant and Magnetic Particle Inspection,i' ll'elJt*i +
(
(
r-*'a
(
(
Prob.5.4
(
( A36
5.5. Specify the plate thickaessand rveld size to be used for the joints in the
( accompanyingfigure. The loads are 70% live load and 3A%dead load.
( State weld material to be used for the shielded metal arc process
(SMAW). Cgmpare A36 and A572 Grade 50 steels for each joinr.
( Indicate the preferreddesignfor eachjoint.
(
( , = ,', A572Grade5o
(c)
(
Prob. 5.2 175k
( 60k
(
' (
(
(a)
( T
Prob.5.5
(
(
R.-t"u n--]xe
( 5.6. For the joints in the accompanvingfigure.satisfythe requirenrenrs
stated
Prob. 5.3 in Prob. 5.5.
t l
5 /WELOING PROBLEMS 291 ( t
( ,
(a). Use A572 Grade 42 steel. ( :
(b) Use A572 Grade 65 steel. ( ,
(c) Use A572 Grade 42 steel,with fillet welds instead of groove weld.
(cf) Use A572 Grade 65 steel,with fillet welds instead of groove weld. ( t
( r
( '
(
(
Prob. 5.6
(
s.7. Design the reinforcedlap joint shorvnin the accompanyingfigure. Thc
plates are 7 in. wide of A36 steeland the SMAW processis used.Refcr
to AWS Joint DesignationBTC-P4.The given load is 25% deadload and
75%live load.
P.rg!,5.9
Prob.5.10
Prob. 5.8
5.11. Design a balancedconnectionfor two 7x4X: angtesconnectedby their
long legs to a |.in. gussetplate. Develop the maximum service load
5.9. Design the tensionplate attachedto the wide-flange(W) section as u'cll capacity \20% dead load; 80% live load) and state is value. A572 Grade
as the welds, assumingthe SMAW proc€ssis used.The load is 70€ live . 60 steel is used and welding is by the SMAW process.Detail the joint to
load and 30%deadload.. balance.theloads and still give the shortestpossibleoverlap.
(
, (
5 /WELD|NG d PROBLEMS
( FI
!a
(
( Prob.5.14
2 - 1 6 . . 1* *
( 5.15. For the connectionshou-n in the accompanyingfigure, what is the
T
( . maximum requireddesign strengtb +R"*? The load is 907olive load and
1070dead load. What weld size is indicated if 870 electrodesare used
( with the SMAW process?
(a) Use strengthanalysis(i.e.. locate the instantaneous
centerb"vtrial).
(
(b) Use AISC Manual tables, "ECCENTRIC LOADS ON WELD
( Prob.5.12
GROUPS."
(c) Use elastic(vector) method.
(
5.13.Assumea f-in.-rvideplate usedin a lap joint musr carry 30 kips dead
(
load and 115 kips live load, and a possibilityexistsof some accidental
( eccentricitythat cannot be computed. To insure a tighter joint, a
l|-in.-diam plug weld is to be used. Determine the thicknessof the
(
plate,the amountof lap, and the weld sizefor the bestjoint. Assumethe
( . gussetplate to which the 9-in. plate is weldeddoesnot control any of_t!-e-
design.Use A572 Grade50 steeland the SMAW process.
(
( o
{ 1 5 0m m )
(
( Prob.5.15
(
5.16. For the connectionin the ac@mpanying figure, satisfy the requirements
( of Prob. 5.15.
(
( + 6k {26 kN}
(
Prob.5.13
(
(
5.14. Determine the minimum length of slot in order to develop the full 6
{ 1 5 0m m }
( , strengthof a C12x20.7welded to a |-in. plate. Use the same sizEfiller
weld over the entire-length,and assumeit is to be placed by the sMAw
( process.Assumeserviceload is 35% deadload and 65%live load.
Prob. 5.16
(
294 5 /WELDING PROBLEMS 295
(
5.17. For the bracketshownin the accompanyingfigure,calculatethe seniec 5.19. Rdpeat Prob. 5.18,exceptuse |-in. fillet weld on the side and |-in. on
load capacity P (W% live load and 10%dead load) basedon rhe weltt. the end. The steelis 4,572Grade 50.. (
Neglect the returnsat endsand assumethe'SMAW processis to be used. (
5.20. Compute the service load capacity P for the welded bracket of the
(a) Use strengthanalysis(i.e.,locatethe instantaneous
centerby trialt. accompanying figure. The load is 70% live load and 30% dead toad.
(b) Use AISC Manual rables,"ECCENTRIC LOADS ON WELD (
Neglect the returnsat the outer ends of the C-shapedweldconfiguration.
, G RO UP S . ' '
The weld size is I in. and E70 electrodesare used in the shielded metal (
(c) Use elastic(vector)method.
arc process. (
(a) Use strength analysis(i.e., locate the instantaneouscenter by trial).
(b) Use AISC Manual tables, "ECCENTRIC LOADS ON-WELD (
GROUPS.''
(c) Use elastic (vector) rnethod- \
(
24_-* (
A36 neel ir li
t l I
I t l
It-'61ezo I r t
(
- tl .l r ll
9 " ir ir (
I
|
I
i l
l l
(
P r o b .5 . 1 7 I r t
il (
l l
t l
('
5.18. Compute the maximumacceptableserviceload P for the connectiono[ Prob.5.20
lhe accompanlingfigure.The load is 85% live load and 15%deadltud (
Ignore the eflect of returnsat the lov,erend of the connection. (
(a) Use strengthanalysis(i.e.,tocatethe instantaneous 5.21. Repeat Prob. 5.20 if the verticaldimensionof the weld configurationis
centerb1 tnalr. (
(b) Use AISC Manual tables,*ECCENTRIC LOADS ON WELI) 12 in. insteadof 8 in.
CROUPS.'' 5.22. Repeat Prob. 5.20 if the vertical dimensionof the weld configuration is 4
(c) Use elastic(vector)method. in. insteadof 8 in. , (
(
(
t-
l
(
(
t'-4"
I (
1_ (
(
(
Probs. 5.18 anct5.19
Prob.5.23 (
(
(
C
'{'
{ ' . + - . .
( 5.24. Repeat Prob. 5.23 if the vertical dimensionis 12 in. instead of 16 in.
Prob.5.28
T, 5.25. RepeatProb.5.23if the verticaldimensionis 8 in. insteadof 16 in.
( 5.26. Repeat Prob. 5.23 if the horizontaldimension is 4 in. instead of 16 in. 5.29. RepeatProb. 5.28if the serviceload is 40 kips.
( 5.27. Use the elastic (vector).method to derive a general expressionfor the 5.30. For the bracketof the accompanyingfigure, satisfythe requirementsof
required weld sizeon the seatangleof the accompanyingfigure in terms Prob. 5.28.Note that A572Grade 50 steelis usedinsteadof .436.
(
of the factored load {, the leg length L, and the eccentricitye of the
( applied load. Assume870 electrodeswith the SMAW processare used.
Use the following assumptions:
(
(a) Ignore the returnsat the top.
( (b) Use an averagereturn of L/12.
(c) Use a return equal to twice the weld size.
( If e: 2J in. and I = 6 ir., determinethe weld size neededto carry
( P : 38 kips (80% live load and 20o,odead load). For the rveld size
selected,check the capacity P using all three assumptions,and also
( compare uith the result using the AISC Manual, "SEATED BEAM
( CONNECTIONS.''
Prob.5.30
(
(
(
(
(
( Prob.5.27
(
5.28. For the bracket of the accompanyingfigure, determine the length I
( required rvhenusing *-in. fillet weld with the SMAW process.The load
( is 70% live load and 30% dead load. Verify your result using the
following procedures:
( (a) Strengthanalysis(i.e.,locatethe instantaneouscenter by trial).
(b) AISC Manual rables, "ECCENTRIC LOADS ON WELD
(
GROUPS.''
\ * (c) Elasric(vector)'method.
(
, (
F C
6.2 / EULERELASTTC
BUCKLINGAND HISTORTCAL
BACKGROUND 299
(
Chapter6 (
(
(
(
CornpressionMembers (
Partl: Columns (
(
\
(
(
:
(
(
6.1 GENERAL (
other, the sarnelogic is applied here to the pin-end column, which having zero (
In this chapter, memberssubjectedto axial compression'forces are r(r bc end rotational restraint representsthe member with leasl buckling strength.
treated. Referred to by various lersu, such as column, stanchion.posl. and At any location z, the bending moment M" on the member bent slightly (
strut. these membersare rarely if ever actually carrying only axial comprc\. about the x principal axis is (.
sion. However, whenever the loading is so arrangedthat either the entl M'= P! (6.2.1)
rotational restraint is negligibleor the loading is symmerricallyappliedfronr and since (
membersframing in at the column ends, and bending may be considcrcd d'y M, (
negligiblecompared to the direct compression,the member can safelr hc (6.2.2)
designedas a concentncallyloaded column.
E:-EI (
It is u'ell known from basic mechanicsof materialsthat only very sht''rr the differential equation becomes r
(
columns can be loaded to their yield stress; the usual situation is rhrr
d'y P
buckling.or suddenbendingas a resultof instability,occursprior to develop- (6.2.31 (
ing the full material strength of the member.Thus a sound knowledget''f dr'*EIY:o
(
compressionmember stability is necessaryfor thosedesigningin structur]l After letting k2 = P/EI, the solution of this second-orderlinear differential
steel. equation may be expressed
- g
f=Asinkz*Bcos&: (6.2.4) (
?-r*
ti -sc (
rr,
6.2 EULEREUTSTICBUCKLING i--'.
9.i.r' (
AND HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND
*--.-- (
+*-
Column buckling theory originated with Leonhard Euler in l?il.l [6.11.An
initially straight concenuically loaded rnernber,in which all fibers remarn
!- *-
(
elastic until buckling occurs, is slightly benr as shown in Fig. 6.!"1- Though (
Euler dealt with a member built-in at one end and simply supporrcdat thc' - Figure 6.2.1 Euler column. (
298
. (
(
6/COMPRESS:ON
MErilBEre_ PAF- C O L U M N S
3C1
m
(
':.... -' "E'
:._ 'Fc r = (
,-:.' A KLhr2
;, +
;:-
- J .Section A-A
\
::. I (
n=fm
LL!!JJ-_-T
e = sressat
tangenr
mo<rurus
load(uodeflectedf
(
l n r
lA l-change in rtresr
|
at tangenrmodulus
load (deflected)
e-$ainanEt€a!bucging
\
(
(
(
formulas have been used, as well as otber more complex expressions,in order I (
to fit the curve of test resultsin a reasonablyaccurate,yet practical manner.
As a general approach, Euler elastic buckling governs the strength for
large slendernessratios, yield strengrh p- : F,A. is used for short .olurnnr.
and a transition curye musr be used for ihelasficbuckling.
t\
t-l \
lt"'"" \ _
(
(
(
E,
Loaddeflaction
(
Stresgstrain
6.4' INELASTIC
BUCKLING Figure6.4.1 Engesser
originaltangentmodulus&eory, 1889. I
Since ordinary length columnsbuckle when some of their fibers are inelasric.
having a modulusof elasticitylessdran their initial elasticvalue,rhe logic of Euler'sequationto become (
Engesser,Considdre,and Shanleyis explainedin this section,generallyfollou'-
ozE, (
ing Bleich[6.9, pp. 8-20J. ?
--c': - 4: - (6.4.1)
At (Xt/r), I
where P, is the tangent modulus load.
. Baslc Tangent Modulus Theory (
This theory. holever, still did not agreewith test results, gving cornputed
loads lower than measuredultimate capacities.The principal assumption that (
Euler's theory penained only to situationswherecompressivestressbelorvthe
elastic limit acts uniformly over the uToSS-S€ction when unstableequilibrium caused this tangent modulus theory to be considered erroneous is that as the
occurs.Engesser[6.3] and Considdre[62] were the first to utili2e thJ possibil- member changesfrom a straight to bent form, no strein reversal takes place.
In 1895 Engesserchanged his theory, reasoning that during bending some (
ity of a variable modulus of elasticig. In EngesseCstangent modulus theor,r
the column remains straight up to the instant of failure and the modulusof fibers undergo increasedstrain (lowered tangent modulus) and some fibers are (
elasticity at failure is the tangent to the stress-straincun'e. The relationships unloaded (higher modulus at the reduced strain); therefore a combined value
should be used for the modulus. (
are shown in Fig. 6.4.1. The theory prescribed that at a certaiq suess.
: P^",/Ar,.themember could acquirean unstabledeflected
S, shapeand thar (
the deformation at 4, is governedby E, - df/dc. Thus Engessirmodified Double ModulusTheory
(
. To examinethe processof columnbendingat stresscsbeyondthe elasticlimig,
considerthe sectionof Fig 6.4.2from which Engessedsdouble modutus,or
'Scctions so markec "reduced" modulus, is dcvelopcd
lsay b. omitted rvithotrt loss of contiauity.
;r,- Thry concept had logic to it which was (
(
r
- (
,'(
6/ COMPRESSION - PARTt: COLUMNS
METJAERS BUCKLING
6.4/ TNELASTIC
(
(
and at thc loadcd fiber.
( Symmetrical
In planeof bending Ad:d, E,
. : - - (6.4.3)
\ ,a l(m:tt,
. .
( 6t rd. dzy
-py: E,# . s)dAz $ls)
!o'rr(rr-'6)da, u# I:'vr(vr+
(
(
I
'l
r"--l--" Force eqriitiU*.rmrequires
( (6.4.10)
('t'dAr:Il'n*,
(
which, using Eq.F.4.8,gives
(
( ^ d'y fa, ,. -d'Y 'ndA,
fdz
4A; J-rtd,4r:Ei J
(6.4.11)
( Figure 6.4.3 An elenent & along the axis of the column in the unstable equilibrium
( position. Using Eq. 6.4.11,it is seenthe termsinvolving 6 canceleachother in Eq. 6-4-g.
,'(
!::fi:
e"iiF
' *r*. 307
6.s/RESTDUALSTRESS (
306 - PAFTT
6,/ CO}$PMS$ON MEMBERS I: COLUMNS
(.'
decreaiing strain; thus P is incrlased by an amount dP (point B of Fig. (
thus giving
6.4.4a):As each incremen_t of curvature iakes place P will furthdr increaseas
d2y ,a, >
long as dC dT.T'Ite increased compressiveforce dC iscomputed using the (
- Py= E,?; ,d'y tt
('rlilt* E# fi'r:*, tang.nt modulus, E,, while in the region of strain reversalthe elastic modulus' (
E, is used to compute dT.The double modulus theory, which similarly treated
loading and unloading fiben, did not acc€pt dC > dT, but rather only (
ilt * r fafi*,7*P]': o
#fe,fi'fi
a:- 10
(6.4.12) consideredequilibrium positions near the perfectly straight one. (
L For practical purposesthe increaseof capacity from P, to P, (Fig. 6.4-aa)
can be n-eglectedfor design use. Therefore the tangent modulus load may be (
l-rluation 6.4.12 is obviously of the same form as &e eiastic buckling
treated as the critical load, Le., the load at which bending begins. ( ,
cquadon, f4.6.2.3. Thus for tbe double modulus theory,
(
P,,:ilt,("\il, +efo'fidA,l (6.4.r3) 6.5 RESIDUALSTRESS (
Residual stresses€lrestressesthat remain in a member after it has been-iormed \
Shanlay Concept - True Column Behavlor into a finished product. Such stressesresult from4lastic deformations, which
(
in structural stJel may result from several sources:(1) uneven cooling which
To undersulrrdthe actual behaviorof a column as.explainedby Shanley[6.aJ '-
occurs after hot r_ollingof stmctural shapes; (2) cold bending or cambering (
in 1946, consider the rectangular section of Fig. 6.4.4 subjected to axial -
during fabrication;-(3) punching of holes and cutting operatioas during
compression.For loads below the tangent modulus load {, the ideal column " fabrication; and (4) welding. Under ordinary conditions thoseresidual stresses (
remains pcrfcctly straight with zero deflection (point A af Fig. 6.4.4a).The
resulting from uneven cooling and welding are the most important- Actually (
load P, at point A may most coirectly be defined as follows [6.10J:"The
the important residual stressesdue to *'elding are really the result of uneven
tangent moduh.lsload is the smallestvalue of axial load at which bifurcation (
cooling.
of the eqrrilibrium positions c:tn occnr regardlessof *hether or not the
Tf,e mechanism of residual stressdue to uneven cooling is treated in the ( :
transitioa to tbe bent position requires an increase of axial load." Consider
WetdingHandbo.ok12.22,Chap. ?l and the effect of residual stresson compres-
that at onset of bending (infinitesimalsurvsture) there will be an infinitesimal (
sion structural members appears in the Guide to Stability Design Criteria for
increase in adal strain and stress A/r. By the time the curvature becomes
Metal Structures[6.8, PP. 33-451, prepared by the Structural Stability Re' (
finite, i.e., the point N movesto ,\, some strain reversal must occur if the
searchCouncil. This latier publication wiU be'extensivelyreferred to as the
column cross-sectionis to developa resistingmoment to maintain equilibrium (
with the momeot due to the external load P6. For small but finite valuesof ttT
f;$:i."ge or H-shaped sections, after hot rolling, the flanges, being (
cun'ature lb.eincrement of load representedby stresson the area of increasing
the thicker parta, cool more slowly than the web region. Furthermore the
strain exceeds the increment of load represeatedby stress on the area of
flange tips hiving greaterexposureto the air cool more rapidly than the region (
at tf,e junction of flaoge to web. Consequently, compressive_ residual stress
(the that cool fastest). (
exists .t fl"ug" tips and at mid-depth of the web regions '
I, ot'\- while tensile residual stress exists in the flange and the web at the regions
where they join. Figure 6.5.1 shows typical residual'stressdistribution on
(
't''E
t (
rolled beams. Considerablevariation can be expectedas the true pattern u-iil
{r)
I'
(b} (c)
. tangent modulus E,,on one fiber is-not the same as that on an-adjacentfiber-
In a rolled stil'shape the intluence of residual stress on the stress-strais -
curve is shown in Fig. 6.5.?- using avcrage suess on the-gross area as thc
( ,
__.(
. t
6/COMPRE$SION MEMBERS-PA.BT t: COLUMNS 303
pression (-)
I
sai,35 ksi
t ( 2a0 [4Pa]
Tension (+) ..ension
saY20 ksi
Weldedrf (f i0 l'lPa) llelded box
coaiPression
Figure6.5.1 Tlpical
Figure6.5.3 Tlpical rcsidualstressdistributionin rveldedsbapes.
steel gives the same effect as that obtained for a material such as aluminum, stress
WelCingof built-upshapesis an evengreatercoiitributorto resiclual
which is not perfectly elastic, when'it contains no residual stress.Thus,
than coolingof hot-rolledH-shapes[6.13].The platesthemselves generallv
assumingttre tangent modulus concept applies, column stiength may be said
have little residualstressinitially becauseof relativell'uniform cooling aftcr
to be based on inelastic buckling becausethe averagestresi-strair cun.e is
rolling. Horvever.after the heat is applied to malie the welds.the subsequent
nonlinear when maximum column strengthis reached.
nonuniformcoolingand restraintagainstdistortioncausehigh residualstresses.
Whereasil, was once believedthe nonlinear portion of the averagestress-
Figure 6.5.3 shorvstypical residual stresspatterns on welded H and box
strain curve for axially loaded compressionmemberswas due endrelylo initial
built-up shapes.
curvature and accidental eccentricity,Huber and Beedle[6.1lJ have verified
Oire should note that compressiveresidualstressestvpicalll' occurringat
that residual stressis the primary causeand the other factorshave a relatively
flange tips are higher in welded than in rolled H-shapcdsections.Thus the
minor effect. Residual stressesat flange tips of rolled shapes have been rolicd
columnstrengthof suchrveldedshapeswill be lorverthan corresponding
qreasuredas high as 20 ksi (138 Mpa), a hi'gh percenrageof th, minimum
shapes.On the otherhand,the rveided-boxshape,ha'''ingtensileresidualstress
specified yield stress for steelssuch as A36. Residual strissesare esr.ntiuiiv
in the cornerregionsthat contributemost to the stiffnessas a column,t'ill be
independent of yield stress,depeirdinginstead on cross-sectionald.imension-s" ratio. Shernran16.14,
strongerthan a rolled shapehaving the sameslenderness
and configuration since those factors govern cooling rates
[6.12J. 6.i5] has studiedri:sidualstresses on rolled tubular nrembers.
( Having acceptedthat residual stressesexist, such information must be
used to obtain a column strengthcurve (averagestres.svs slenderncss ratio)
( earll;1950s.column design rvas
that can form the basisfor design. Until the
( basedon many formulas, all of which tried to empiricallyaccount for column
(
(
(
qlq
g,
FD
s behaviorexhibitedby tests.By clearlyindicatingtliai the tangentmodulusrvas
the proper criterion for strengthand by identifying the role of residualstress,
the Colutnn-ResearchCouncil (noiv Structural Stability ResearchCouncil
16.81)has made a significantcontribution.
(
(
|i{embers with
residual stress TT 2 3 INCLUDING STRESS
RESIDUAL
CURVES
OF COLUMNSTRENGTH
6.6* DEVELOPMENT
( Averagecompressivestrain
€ Shaded portion indicates
erea which has achieveda The following anal,vticalapproach,patternedafter Huber and Beedle[6.11]
( stress
- - - ' f
f
and Beedleand Tall [6.16],is intended to shorvthe logic to obtain a column
( Figure 6.5.2 Influence of residual stresson average stress-straincurve. strengthequarion.Column strengthcan be obtainedb1' tn'o generaimethods.
, (
310 MEMBERS_ PART I: COLUMNS
6,/ CCI..4PRESSION STRESS
6 6 / COLUMNSTRENGTHCUFVESINCLUDINGRESTDUAL 311 (
( t
(
r--'
I
I (
applicationto inelasticbuckling of columns.
The following developmentis made with the objective of obtaining a
R:6 (
relationship between averageexternally applied stress and the slenderness -.
ratio. Thus the capacityof a membercan be obtainedby a simple multiplica- ij
I M M (
ion of safe stresstimes grossarea, without regard to what the actual stressis
o-i,: equivalent Ef
:=-
E'l
(6.6.3)
1 . , .Y ' t
at any point in the cross-sectionor what is tbe true fesidual stresspattern.
As a starting point consider steel which as a material is perfectly elastic Thql (
until a certain strain e.,,is achievedand then is plastic (i.e., constantstresswith _ . '. (
increasingstrain).A coupon cut from the web of a rolled shapeexhibitssuch .-' E' r:+:!n',*'* (
behavior,as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 6.6.1.The solid lines indicate the
behavior of an H-shapedrolled sectioniocluding residual stress.
To account for the effectsof early yielding due to residual stress,consider
-- E'- +l^r,,'* ( 6. 6. 4)
( :
(
one fiber at a distance x from the axis of zero strain due to bending (Fig. -:'
6.6.2\. The bending is taken as an infinitesimal amount consistent with
which may be called the effectiuemodulus and used in Eq- 6.4.1 as an (
equilibrium at the tangent modulusload. The bending moment contribution
equivalentvalue for 8,. (
from stresson the one fiber is
If the idealizedelastic-plastic.f* curve of Fig. 6.6.1a(dotted) is used (for
: Fr, E, : 0) the bending stiffnessof yielded parts (
d,V : (stress)(area)(moment
arm) : (0E,x)(ae)(r'l (6.6.1) f . F,. E, = E and for f
becomeszero: however, the iuskting strength will be the same as a column
which for the entire cross-sectionbecomes (
whosemomentof inertia, .[., is &e moment of inertia of the portion remaining
elastic.Equation 6.6.4then becomes I {
u : t^oe,xz
dA: of^E,x2dr4 (6.6.21
E t - I. (
E , : 7 [rl , r d , q : E ,+ (6.6.5)
f,Z E,
r (clastic part only) (
'.c ' =
a -
IKL/rl2
The stressat which the columq may begin to bend, from Eq. 6.3.1,is (
F
6
E
' J
Euler
(
-2t (6.6.6)
q,
g F e
'., = 713 (
r-7,
(
(6.6.?) (
€, Strain € KL/r
{l} (t,) (c) (,-
Figure 6 6.1 Comparisonof coupon *itb H-shaped rolled section containing residual In order for Eq. 6.6.?to be'uscful, the relationship between f and f' must be (
stress. established.
(
(
(
(
, ( +
312 G/COMPRESS|ON
MEMBERS-PART
t: COLUMNS i l
.f
1 6.6 / COLUMNSTRENGTHCURVESINCLUDINGRESIDUALSTRESS 313
( "
.
t
l
( I
..r
Case A. Buckllng about Weak Axls e
Case B. BucklingaboutStrongAiis
t
A reasonableassumptionr';ill be that the flangesbecomefully plasticbcfore Again. assunringrhc *'eb is clast.ic,but neglectingits contribution tot'erd thc
( the rvcb yields (seeFig. 6.6.3). moment of incrtia gii'cs approrirnatcly
( E,:
nominalincrementalstress dP/A
:M:;
A"E
(6.6.9)
l
Using tangentmodulusdefinitionand Eq. 6.6.10,
( ' - E
(
E,A : ArE : (,q* * zkAl) E (6.6.10)
Z M r : +- A *
(
which, upon eliminatingthe zkAt term from Eq. 6.6.15,gives
( n'here An: web area - 2,4"/ll,
A7 = grossarea of one flange -F I : : l r , , q /e (6.6.16)
(
,{ : total gross area of section r L zer+A*/3 l-
( Thus
SolvingEq. 6.6.10for k and using Eq. 6.6.8in Eq. 6.6.7gives
*2Ek
( An Fn: (6.6.17)
r: !'A - ( 6 . 6 . 1)i. ( KL/ r f
( ,ul, 2Ar
( is the approximateequationusing Eq. 6.6.11for k, or mole exactlyusingEq'
(
(
:F.,:#:#l#-+)' (6.6J2)
6.6.16in Eq. 6.6.7gives
'c'
r
nzE ln,,e7r-2A"./31
r
( which includes the effect of the elastic web, for buckling with respectto the
weak axis (y-y). for buckling with respectto the strong axis (x-x).
( From lhr fot.going developmentit is apparent that two equationsare
necessaryto'properly determinecolumn strengthof l-shapedsections,,one for
(
strong-axisbuckiing-and one for weak-axisbuckling. Although the valueI"/l
( is noi itself a function of the residual stressdistribution provided that it
( satisfiesthe generalgeometricrequirementas shown in Fig. 6.6.3;neverthe-
less,the critiial stress{r, computedas the buckling load divided by the gross
( area,has a relatiOnshipwith KL/r that doesdependon residualstress-
( Note that if the jtress-straincurve for the materialis not elastic-plastic,
Figure 6.6.3 Portion of section tbat has i.e.,if E, is neitherE nor zero,then the more generalequation,Eq. 6.6.4,must
{ Yielded flange tips y'ielded. be usedinsteadof Eq. 6.6.5.
, (
(
INI-L\IL'I1r\7 faLsrvv'rL
STRENGT|I fluHvbb
6.6 / coLUMN
Fa
l: COLUMNS
MEMBEBS-PART
6/C0MPRESS[Oil
314
.1
Slenderne:oratio. KUr
SOI.(.J T I O I J
fiber is the same' Until a fibcr for Example6'6'1'
For any exrernalload the strain on every Figure6.6'5 Columnstrengthcurve
yield, the applied load is
,.o.h., the strain e, at first
p: Iyae-1e
J 11- WhenFrr:P/A>zF,/3'theflangetipshaveyielded'makingf'lessthan
I; thus '
After a portion has becomeplastic,the applied
load is r. (u/z\' 1
p - ( A - A , ) r r I* ^ ! * 7:T:E
(t"/t\ -
2F, trze "u
entire section remainselastic'
F*:T - ,
stKL/r\z
tn rhis problem for fl : P/A s2Fy/3 the @
and I,: /; thus'
E,: E,in which caseE'is EIr/l
KL
"E : zl.z (point2, Fig.6.6.5)
t r :- 2 0 '
'"' - =
I (xt1r\z
F,.
greaterthan 2F,'/3.When F",: P/A:
for averagestressinfinitesimally
KL __ F'(-ooo) : 65.4 (point 1, Fig. 6'6'5) nzE
r I ---
r V (2/3x1oo) F"r:Fr:
WtE
Ff!3
r EXAMPLE 6.6.2 morereelistic lineardistribution of
.+ ;r:,ffiilft".:ffin for.the
curve
srrength rn H-shaped
nf an
Fr13
+ buckrinsor
:',',1Hii..l:Jil:HiJ;#;s. i""'rl1'
- -r- ^-.:- L..^Lliic H-qhened
@-*'s
Mrt^\ and
r'ap"r /lr\ F,:
^-l (b) ksi (6e0
l(Yl ksi
F : 100 {690
i a r R..srdutl<trcssPrltettl (b) Coupon slrcssdraln
+ :::',ffi';[ffi::ilild;;: rzso iJr.'
diagnm
€
- =;=- urp"l Neglect
' t
lYr r ar. the effect of tbe web'
.A
+t
Figure6.6.4 Data for Branplc 6.6.1. *!
.::
3-
___*J
(
(
, ( q
. 6/coMpREsstON MEMBERS-eARTt: GoLUMNS .1F
316 6.6/COLUi,'1N STnENGTHCUFVESTNCLUDING
RESiDUALSTRESS
' i' l, 317
( ,
( Assumeno r:-r 'l
t, F
residualstress II
' .
y 1 v
( in rherveb . P r-----l
_|l Fyi3 t t
ldeal elasric.plastic t l
( fl
6 = 29,0@ ksi
\d:a
!---l
! -
|_
t-- {
\-'F{
( \ t--1
f\ E = x
7
tsl--l
( E t_a
H
A El _!_-_.{
Fr/3 t9
( Veries.
il
'.r I licsidualstresspJttcrn -. JL- dependrng
( tb) Coupon strcss-straind::gram (a) ElasllC CaSC on f
f <2Fyi3
Frguie6.6.6 Datafor F-:cample
6.6.2.
( | + Fy.'3
( t -2FY/3
( SOLUTION
For an averagesuperimposedstressf - P/A S 2F,/3 the entire section 2F/i3
(- remainselastic(Fig. 6.6.7a):thereforeE, : E, and
(
(
tr r
-c
2F..
3
:rlE
Q-|,.trNH
(KL /r)2 - " 1 lL---J I
2,,!
(
For an averagestressdue to applied load greater than zFy/3, part of the
- l rN
-ll H
( cross-sectionis plasticand part elastic,as in Fig. 6.6.Tb.Duriirg this stage,the
( changein srressis not the santeon all fibers, becausethe modulusof elasticityis
not the sameon all fibers.
(
nzEI"Tl (b) Elasto-plastic case
( ,Fr r : @ f > 2Fv13
( / = superimposed elasticlibers
stress,on
['-+]? (')
expressed UsingEq.(c) to elimina
," , {rJ^ Eq. (b) gives
+)(:-?)"J
(
( P"r: zfro,-,(:Xr- (b)
P n : z a-' {+[)r? - +]{}3))
[('-?)?
( _
which is the shadedarea of the stressdiagram in Fig. 6.6.7b.From sirnilar
r't
: A,F,['-;(+)'] ( d)
(
I
|
(,
-
a
\
318 6l COMPRES$ON - PAFITl: COLUMNS
MEMBERS 6.7/SSRC STRENGTH
CURVES 319
Thus If the rveb of the sectionwereto be included, I"/I could easilyinclude the
F-:4
P
-q['-i(?)'l (eI
web terms. Furthermore, Eq. (b) could also have included the web terms. Such
inclusion of the effect of the web bringi in the variable A*/At and in most
i
(,
casesthe effect is small.
l*;.-- Finaily, curves similar to thoseof Fig. 6.6.8 can be obtained by using an (,
#' -:
*'hich is used in combination with Eq.(a). Tbe results afe presentedin Fig. ;f average stress-strain curve for a short length of rolled shape as referred to
6.6.8. +. earlier in this section,in which caseEqs. 6.6.12and 6.6.18can be usedwith the (
#- E, obtained from the "cross-section"stress-straincurve. I (
::tt*-
.* {
Fo Fo
6.7 STRUCTURALSTABILITYRESEARCHCOUNCIL(SSRC))
for for STRENGTHCURVES I
: 36ksi : 100ksi KL
+
D
F", {"
(ksi)
Fy
(ksi) r
l.
0.50 0.664, 24.0 t09.2 69.7 65.4 Based upon the methods distussedin Sec.6.6, column srength curyes can be
0.45 0.73 26.3 89.0 73.0 s3.4 ..obtained for weak- or strosg-axis buckling with various distributions of
0.?87 28.3 72.0 78.7 43.7 (,
0.40 rgsidual stress. For most prqctical situations it has been reported that an
0.35 0.837 30.2 57.0 83.7 34.2 assuired linear distribution of residual stress in the flanges results in a (
0.30 0.880 1t.7 4.1 88.0 26.s reasonableaveragecolumn curve [6.20].Furthermore,the developmentin'the
0.25 0.917 33.0 32.9 91.7 19.7 previous section (Eqs. 6.6.12and 6.6.17)showsthat for the same slenderness
0.20 0.947 34.1 23.2 94.7 13.9 ratio, H-shaped column sectionsallowed to bend in the weak direction can /
0.10 0.987 35.5 8.0 98.7 4.8 carry less load than columns permitted to bend only in the strong direction.
Compressiveresidual stresswhich is greatestat the flange tips accounts for
this strength difference. t
; 5 0
r",:4['-
#(+)'J (6.7.1)
(
(
I.
(
\ (
6/COMPRESSIONMEMBERS
- PARTt: COLUTTNS
6.7 / SSACSTREI.iGTH
CURVES 321
(
(
Note that l" :
( : 4 when the parabola and the Euter hy'perbollit'ccoin,-.
tangentto eachother.Thus 4.6.7.4 appliesfor ,\. s,tI; fcr greatcrvalucs
( of tr., the Euler equationapplies,
( F n 1
r i for tr. > r'J ( 6 . 7 . 5)
tv A;
(
(
strength Equatlon - Basls lor Load and Reststance Factor Deslgn
( The parabolicequation,Eq. 6.7.4.providesa reasonableapproximationfor r,
(2) Weak axis.
( parabolic column strengthcun'e that prouidesa transitionbetu'eenelast;cbuckl:ngand
residualsiress
vielding,reflectingessentiallythe effect of residualstress.Traditronalil',ecci-
( dental eccentricity and initial crookednesswere accountedfor by using an
( increasedsafety factor as the slendernessincreased.Load and resistancefactor
designphilosophy providesfor a constantmargin of safety for all columns. If
( the strengthtruly varieswith slenderness, then the nominal strcngth P, shoulci
( account for it.
(
(
( o.5 1.0
Slenderness
lunction.l"
(
-: L R F D ,E q .6 . 7 . 7
( '
A , :
'.t
- l i -
'
r \ ;,E
h f
4 F..
( tr2-
--c = (6.7.:)
A S D .E q . 6 . 7 . 1 0
times1.67
.Qr(Euler)
( I r'r
l - - l
\
( \ {xrt,)' I
( tr.:g
r
t| [ ,it-L
T (6.7.-1)
(
In terms of the slenderness
parameter1", the ssRC parabola becomes 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
(
Slenderness?alio,KL/ |
4, , 12.
( t - -
for 1,.s ,/T (0.r.+; Figure 6.7.2 Comparisoa of columa critical stress .[, for using LRFD Eqs. 6.7.7 ard
F r ' 4
( 6.7.8 witb 1.67 tirnes ASD Eqs. 6.?.9 and 6.7.10, for {, : 36 ksi.
U
s.5itar,
a
_9trigl-
l, - !rtt:t'1,
2C,'J' 1.4
' cr
T
L R F D f o r m u i a { € 2 - 2 )o r ( 8 2 - 3 )
Fo:
L (67.e)
5 3(KL/r) (KL/r)t 1.2
- + _ !
The denominator of Eq. 6.7.9 is tbe safety factor that increasesas thr.' lc - Slenderness
Parameler (
slendernessratio increases.Putting part of the strength relationship into thc Figure 6.7.3 Comparison of LRFD equations for {' for columnssi& data from
safetl frctor hides the fact that the nominal strergth decreasesas the slender- physical tests. (Test data from Hdl [6.241)
(
' (
324 6/CorvrpREssroNMErviBEFS
-- pAsTI COrur"lf,JS
( 6 B / ' L O A D A N D R E S I S T A N CFEA C T O RD E S I G N 325
(
comparethe erperimenrar data[6.r4J*.irh thc LRFD cquarionfor
( {,. other
reccntproposlls for coltrlttttstrenqthcurvc.strave
hccn gi'en bv ltondal and
( Maqut-ri
[6.:6] and Rorrcr[6.25J. ai rvclias rhc tlrreeSSR(](.un.esl. 2. and 3
neniionedpr*iouslv [6.ti].Lui anclchen
( to.l7Jhavediscrr.rsed thc dcsignot
colum:rs*'ith inrperfcctionsusin_ea bea,;:_..iolunin(seeChap. i:1 approach.
(
Cotumns Having VaryingAxial Load, SteppeC
( Cotumns, and
Tapered Columns
( (L
special tre3lnli'nt is rcquired uhen the axial loacl
varics along the length 400
( and/or the nt.'mberis not prismaticover the cntirecolumn .:
length.The reader - r t
[5.32]for taperedbarsundcrsteppedaxialloads. ;
(
( 6.8 LOAD AI{D RESISTAI{CEFACTORDESIGN
(
The_siren-qth
requirementin road and resistancefactor design according
( LRFD-E2 ma1'be stated to
(
+ ,P, > Pu (6.g.1)
( rvhere f. : 0.85 n
o 20 .io 60 80 100 120 140 16c i60 zcn
( P" : nominalstrength: A"F,
c Slendernessratio.KL.,'r
4, : Eqs.6.7.7 ancJ6.7.E
( P, : factoredserviceload (seeSec.1.9) according to Load and
Figure 6.8.1 Critical column stresses F* versus KL/r
( Equations6.7.7 and 6.7.g for Rcsistance Factor Desig!, for various yield stresscs.
{, are appricablein design of ordinary...
( rolled H-shapeds:ction columns;horvever,*h.n
thin-rvalledplate elements
are usedin the cross-section, LRFD-E2 and LRFD-Appendix B provide for
( using a reduced efficiencyof the section. When Since Q : 1 for all rolled H-shapedsections(stanclardW. S, and M
a thin element exhibits shapes),the developmentof the logic behind the use of the Q factor is
instability(local buckling),such an erementdoes
( not carry its proportionate rcsen'edfor Sec.6.i8 in Part II on platebuckling'
shareof the load. This may occurwhen the width/thickneis
ratio iimits tr,' of The critical stress.f, equations,Eqs. 6.7.7 and 6.7.8,are shorvnin Fig.
( LRFD-Table 85.1 are exceeded.
6.8.1 for F,.- 36, 50, 60, 70, and 100 ksi. LRFD Specificationsection
( - _ LRFD Appendix B introducesa reductionfactor e into Eqs. 6.7.Tand rcfcrencesfor axial compressionare givenin Table 6-8-1-
6'7.8 $'hen the width/thickness limitarions of LRFD-Table
85.1 are nor
( satisfied.Thus. rvhenlocarbucklingof one or more prate t -
componentsor the
cross-section may occurprior to achievingthe overallbuckling strength Singly Symmetric Double Angles and Tees
( of the
member.the { in the .Q, equationsbelome,
,[o F,,, giving ror trie criticar Hot.rolled double anglesand tee sectionsusuallybucklein the flexuralmode
( stress4,, the following:
based on KL/r rvith respectto the x- or .).'-axis. However, since the shear
( l. For X;E < 1.5, with the centroid of the section,a
center (see Sec. 8.4) does not coincide
torsional effect is possible.Though the subject of torsion is not treateduntil
( 4r: (0.65g9^' .)0r (6.8.2) "COL-
Chaprer 8, the reader should note that the LRFD Manual tables
2. For x,tfj > 1.5,
( UMNS" giving design axial strength+.P" for doubleangJesand struc'.uraltees
/ 0.877\ include the effect of rhe flexural-torsionalbucklinglimit statein the calcula-
(
4 , : l - ^- -- .l n (6.8.3) tion of {,. Since torsional is
stiffness significantlyrelatedto the cube of the
( \ I' thicknessof the elemerts(flangesand rveb)this effectrviil only be significant
- PARTt: COLUMNS
MEMBERS
6,/ COMPRESSION 6.8/LOAD ANDRESTSTANCE
FACTORDESIGN (',
( t
_AISC SPECIFICATTON
TASLE 6.8.1 AXIAL COMPRESSION REFERENCES The'modified slendernessratio ( KL/r)^ is also dependenton the slip- (
resistanie of the connecdons.LRFD-E4 provides:
Speciticationseclions (
Toprc LRFD[1.1s] ASD[1 sJ l. For snug-tightbolted connections:
(
Local buckling limits for
" noncompact" stctions
Local buckling limi6 f61
85.1 85.1
I KL\
[;,|*=
(+)".t;)' (6.8.4) (
(
"compact" scctioos 85.r 85,1 For weldedconnectorsand f,orfully-tightenedboked connections: (
Slendernesslimits B7 B? g
Braced frarne, delinition C2,.L c2.1 For - < 50, (
ri
c2,.2 c2,.2
(+),.(;
Unbraccd frame, definitioo
e2, (
Ef fcctive lengtb facters C2 I KL\
Column formulas, basic E2 E2 - ro]
\2
(6.8.5) ( t
Built-up members EA v [;)^:
Slcndercompressionelements Appendix85.2 Appendix85.2 a (
Alignnrent chart Comrqentary
C2 .CommentaryC2 For - > 50,
ri ( ,
I KL\ I KL\ (
( 6. 8. 6)
t;l^: t;J. (
on sections having very thin components, such as light-gage sections.Thc
modification of tr. h the d equations to account for flexural-torsional I KL\ (''
where | - I : slenderness ratio of the built-up member acting as a unit
buckling is given in LMD-Appendix 83. \ r l o (for the /-axis in double angle members) ( ,
The compressionmember srergth of built-up sections,such as double
angle members,is also affected by the closenessof fastenersattaching thc : : largest slendernessratio of an individual component (for (
elements together and slip-resistanceof these connections.A double angle ri
the z-axisof a singleanglebf the double angle member) (
compressionchord member of a truss can only behave as a single element
compression member when the two angles are adequatelyattachedto each I KL\ (
other so that rvhenthe flexural buckliqg limit state is reachedtherewill be no
relative axial movement(sheardeformation)of one angle relativeto the other.
[;l- : ratio basedon the connec-
modified (increased)slenderness
tors (for double ang;lemembersthis replacesKL/r based (
on y-axis)
The effects of fastenerspacingand connection tigbtness (slip resistance)have (
been studied by Libove [6.39],Astaneh, Goel, and Hanson [6.40],and Zahn : distancebetweenconnectorsmeasuredalong memberlength
and Haaijer [6.41J.The LRFD-Ea design rules for built-up members are
r, : minimum radius of gyration of individual component (for
discussedin detail by Duan and Chen [6.82] as well as in Ref. 6.41. (
the e-axis of an angle)
The applicarion of the modified slendernessratio to the double angle (
member appliesonly when (KL/r)rexceeds (KL/r),', however,the modified (
Column Strength as Atfected by Connector Spaclng ratio should also be checkedwhen (KL/r), is the larger by only a small
When the controlling buckling mode "involves relative deformation that amount. In effect, the modified value alwaysreplaces the (KL/r), for the (
producesshear forcesin the connectorsbctween individual shapes,"a modi- double angle member. (
iied slendernessrario (KL/r)- is used.For the double angle section,this urll
be the casewhen the controlling flexural buckling occurs in the plane parallel (
Tubular Sectlons
to the outstanding legs (y-aris for LRFD Manual properties).When the !-*:
(
controlling fle.rural buckling limit state is basedon slendernessKL/r in the i_F_. The formulas for F., are applicable for tubular sections.Additional informa-
plane parallel to the back-to-backlegs (x-axis for LRFD Manual properties). r€lE tion on tubular compression members is available in the *'ork of Sherrnan (
the angles will move parallel to each other and the connectorswill not affect [6.14, 6.15,6.331,as well as Snyderand Lee [6.34,6.351,Chen and Ross [6.36J, ( , 1
i--r l"
n
I < 0.7L
I
( til 4
l '
l
I
I
-=-
l_
l
lt I I
-L
( , { ' t :
7m.
(
l" l" l q
( l" rlJ) Braced lrame. ttxecl base
End rotalions rbt End rotations ($ r jr
( unreslrained
One end Par"i:aliyres:ra:ned \
fullyrestrained restratned, other at eac:r en3
( unreslratned (dr Unbraced trame. trxed base
Figure6.9.1 Effccrive lengtb KL; no joint translation.
( Figure 6.9.2 Effective lengtb KL ior frames.
I
(
6/COMPRESSION I\,IEMBERS- PART t: COLUMNS (
( t
o (
C'q C q q C ql q u! e. c? n -. oO (
oo ro .n t\. oo o o o o o o E
rJ'- qJ
'4!& ( f t 8 L , ! , ' , ! , 1 ,, 1 l l - L l l l , l , l , I , I I
c.)
(
{l,ttA
T_ rp ry'
) / t
I
c., (
' ! t
I | l //
1 l
l
l o o € ts <o ol3
6 -
- €
tu
(
t
L l
l
l
,
; o d o o o l i
.r,
(
II
I l lrr ;:
cl
(
LI I ' U I
-l._ i^ (J
"h p ;
KL-2L C:
"h Pari,at /X
t
restraint
,r"j,
ur-
S
I
c3
oO
(
(
\ ( l q5= 8IrT'NTTTrl
qeqqq q
l l l I I
qr9ul
l ' l ' I
q c?
l ' l i a
q
(
\ I c)o tnso Gt
c
oo o o I o
r
c
!
o
- c t
@ (
I U ) F
@
tjE'.--
-
331 (
( ,
(
'r I
1l
6/COMPRESS,Ci{ MEMBERS- PART l: COLULINS LENGTH
6 9 / EFFECTTVE 333
( I
(
The inflectionpoint rvouldthenbe at mid-hcightand thc'buckledshepc'*ould
t Ilobinsorr i6.521have giveir I( r'alues for the general case of an elastic
( bc as in Fig. 6.9.3.r. ro:.aticnlllyrestraincdcolunrn(both *'ith and rvithout sidesn'a1' elasticr,'-
T he pr ac t ic als i tu a ti o ni n a n i tn b ra c c dfi rms ' i s that d i s al ,r' .i .,\,:reater lr r r t l u. r . . ri; r ; : :
strni nt).S u' i tzkvl nd Wang[ 6. 53]havesunt m lr izt i buckli; : 1'
(
than unity.Frrrthernrore. thergis no sirnplc'r.,'ai' of obtrininqe vai'.r: ::.--::lan rvhicheffectii'elcngthscan bc obtaineCfor framesone-bayu'idcaii.l u- tc iii
( evalrurtingthe end restraint.LRFD-C:.3 rcquircsthlt .f, "shall bc j.icri:rined storieshigh.
( by structuralanalrsisand shallnot be icssthan unitr'." The nrost commonly used procedurefor obtaining effectivelength is t,
use the alignment charts originallv developedby O. J. Julan and L.' S.
( Larvrence,and presentcdin detail bl'T. C. Kavanagb[6.54].' The alignment
Alignment Charts for Evaluating Etfective Length Factor K chart rnethodusingFig. 6.9.4is also suggested by the LRFD Commentan'as
( "adequate" K
For trrdinary design. it is entirely impracticalto analyzean entire frarre to satisfyingthe "analysis" requirementof LRFD-C}.Z to get
( values.
dercrmineits buckling strengthand the effeciivelengthsfor the membeis.
\farious investigatorshave providedcharts to permit easydetenrnination For sirnplesituations,one may use Fig. 6.9.5frcrr the .SSRCGuidel6.SJ.
(
of frame buckling loads and effective lengths for comnronlr'€rrCourrt€red For braced framesit is ahvaysconsen'ativeto take the K factor as unity. and
( siruations.Effectii'e length factors K are given by Andersonanci\\'ood*'ard some interpolationis possiblefrom Fig. 6.9.5.For unbracedframes,except
perhaps for the flagpole-typesituation of Fig. 6.9.5, case (e), an arbitrary
( [6.:,S]for steppedcolumns,Sandhu[6.31]for columnsharing an intermediate
axill load, Lu [6.-19]for gabled frames, and Hassan[6.50Jfor .r:re-story, selectionof K is not satisfactoryfor design.
( onc-bavframes,heving verticalloadsapplied to the columnsat an inrermedi-
( ate point in addition to the load at the top. Galambos[6.51]has presented Adlustment of Allgnment Chart K Factors
thcrn for one- and two-story, one-bay-wideframes, and Gurfinliel and for lnelastic Column BehaYtor
(
The design of columns in ordinary construction iavolves slendernessratios
( KL/r in the inelasticbucklingrange(i.e., 1," < 1.5 or 4, > about 0.5F,).The
(b) rfr
inelasticbuckling strengthis given by Eq. 6.3.1,
( I
I
I il l l
I
I I
I
"r
I
( I t l
I
i n2F
t Y Y I
t r : t ' u t
l
[6.3.1
( ?'i l t 9 9
? r'r ( KL/ r ) z
tl lli i li
Euckled l l
l r rvhere E, is the tangent,modulusof elasticity at stress Po/Ae. When the
( shape of
column
r l
l l alignment chart is used to evaluate K there is an implicit assumptionthat
( sholn by
dashed
lr
t
ll t i elasticbucklingcontrols.When the column is inelasticand the beam is elastic,
line \ v I l t
( I t/ the adjustmentmay be made in'the restraintfactor G used in the alignment
* *
I T chart. The G factor would then become
A
(
( I I
I tI firf
I :
Ginerastic G.,*u"[A] (6.e.1)
I ffi:
( rvhere
TheoreticalK value 0.5 0.7 1.0 r.0 2.0 2.O
F t r Eq.6.82
( Recommended design values ni:en
0.6s 1.0 1.2 2.O n et 'cr.iaelastic
(6.e.2)
ideal condition! are aDDroxirir3!ec 0.80 2 .l 0 , " s r E
'/ I cr.clastic Eq.6.8.3
(
#' Rotation fixed, Translalion tixed
The procedureof using Eq. 6.9.2 and various simplifications for practica!
(
(
End
coriditions
code
Y
tr
Rotation free, Translation fixed
(
Figure 6.9.5 Effecti'.'e leagtb factors for cenually loaded colusrns nith vanous
'The derirarion rvas preseotedin Cetail in the 2nd edition (1980) of tbis tcxt (pp. 843-tl5l).
( idealizcdend conditcas. (Adapted from Ref. 6.8, p. 52)
, (
6 / COMPBESSIONMEMBERS- PART l: COLUMNS 6j0 / LRFDOF FOLLED SHAPES(W. S. AND M) 335 (
( ,
TABLE6.9.1 ADJUSTMENT&OFRESTMTNTFACTOR
G' TOACCOUNT
FORINELASTIC modifiedby Disque[6.581. The Yura-Disqueprocedurewaspresented in the (
_ FORA36STEEL
BUCKLING coatextof Allowable StressDesign where E/E could be approximated as
(
IJF:. For LRFD the numeratorof Eq.6.9.2may be taken P_dA, since if
^ E, F"r.,*r. LRFD Eq(E2-2) Eq.6.82 T
'":'
E F"r.*,. LRFD Eq(E2-3) Eq.6.8 3
proplrty designedthe strengthOP, *ilI approximatelyequal P". Note that Eq. (
6.9.2becomes (
KL
; F " ' &
T^
-
KL
r ^
F
Et O[fL.,0",,1,{,
,:E=;f&;14= --ffi (6e3) (
(
0.20 17. 8 35.4 o04 0.82 73.L 27.2 0.58
o.?2 19.6 35.3 0.05 0.84 74.9 26.8 0.60 LRFD F4(E2-3),Eq.6.8.3,is actually0.877timesthe Eulerequation,whichis (
o.24 21.4 35.1 0.06 0.86 76.7 26.4 0.62 closero g (i.e.,0.85)timesthat equation._Tbuq to usethe
it seemsrcason_able
0.26 23.2 35.0 0.07 0.88 78.5 26.0 0.64 load as the numeratorof F-q.6.9.2and (
0.28 25.A 0.90
noninal stressPJA, underfactored
34.8 0.09 80.2 25.6 0.66
0.30 26.7 34.7 0.10 0.92 82.0 25.3 Eq. 6,8.3 as the denominator. ( ,
0.68
0.32 28.s 34.5 0.11 0.94 83.8 24.9 0.70 Valuesof B, @q. 6.9.2)have been tabulated for A36 steelin Table6.9.1.
"Stiffness ReductionFactors"and also
0 .34 30.3 34.3 0.13 0,96 85.6 24.5 0.?1 The LRFD Manual tl.l7l calls these
0.36 32.t 34.r 0.14 0.98 87.4 24.1 0.73 i-:i- includes values for {, - 50 ksi.
0.38 33.9 33.9 0.15 1.m 89.2 23.7 ,i- \. For truss compr-essionmembers,end restraint may be present and joint
0.75
0.40 35.7 33.7 0.17 1.02 90.9 23.3 0.77 I : trarsladon is prevented so that K rnight logicaily be less than 1.0. Under
4.42 37.4 33.4 0.19 1.04 92.7 22.9 0.7E | =- static loading, stressesin all the members remain in the same proportion to
0.u 39.2 33.2 0.20 1.06 94.5 ?2.5 0 80 - - one another for various loads. If all members are designed for minimum
0.46 41. 0 32.9 022 1 .0 8 96.3 22.1 0.82 - weight they will achieveulrimslr capacity simultaneously under live load.
0.48 42.8 32.7 4.24 1.10 ],
98.1 21.7 0.83 Thus restraintoffered by membersframing at r^joint disappearsor at least is
0.50 M.6 32.4 0.26 t.L2 99.9 2t.3 .':
0.85
- greatly reduced.The SSRC,therefore,recortmends using K :1.0 for mem-
0.52 46.4 32.L 0.28 1.14 1 0 r.6 20.9 0.86
0.54 48.1 3 1 .9 o.29 1.16 103.4 20.5 0 ii7
: bers of a rnrssdesignedfor fixed-positionloading. When designingfor moving
;1-
0.56 49.9 3 r.6 0.31 1.18 1 0 5.2 20.1 0 8e load systemson tnrsses,K can be reducedto 0,85 becauseconditions causing
0 .58 51.7 31.3 0.33 1 .2 0 107.0 19.1 0.9'j maximum stressin the memberunder considerationwill not causemaximum
0.60 53. 5 31.0 0.35 1 .7 2 1 0 8.8 19.3 09l stressin the membersframingin to provide restraint [6.E]-,
0.62 55.3 30.6 0.37 L .2 1 1 1 0.6 18.9 0 q: When the adjacentmembersframing at the ends of a column are heavily
0.64 57.L 30.3 0.39 1.26 1L2.3 18.5 0.9i loaded compressionmembers,they may have a destabilizingeffect instead of
0.65 58.8 30.0 0.41 1.28 1 1 4.1 l E .l 0.94 stabilizing the memberbeing considered; in effect a negatiueG-factor. Bridge
0.68 60.6 29.7 o43 1.30 1 1 5.9 17.7 0 95 and Fraser [6.81] havc presenteda procedure to'account for such negative
0.70 62.4 29.3 0.46 1.32 tt7.7 t7.4 0 96 G-factors.
a.7z 64.2 29.0 0.48 1.34 119.5 17.0 0 9?
0.74 66.0 28.6 0.50 1.36 1 2 1.3 16.6 0.e7
0.76 67.8 78.3 4.52 1 .3 8 123.0 16.2 0.98 6.10 LOADAND RESISTANCE FACTORDESIGN
0.78 69.5 27.9 0.54 l.4i) 124.8 15.8 0.9s oF ROLLED SHAPES(W, S, AND M)
0.80 71. 3 27.5 0.56 L.42 t26.6 15.5 0.99 SUBJECTTO AXIALCOMPRESSION
t
*G defined in Fig. 6.9.4 and us€dwith Alignment
Charts (Fig. 6.9.a). t : -
r -:. In this sectionreferencenill be made to the LRFD Manual, Part I which givc$
i- --
a,.
properties of the rolled shapesand Part 2 which contains column load tables.
l
1 j . . - General Procedure
1,=
Whetber Load and ResistanceFactor Design or Allowable Stress Design is
: : i
t.!&:
:
usd, the sUengthof a compressionmember is based on its gross area lr. The
strcngth is always a function of the effective slendernessratio KL/r, and for
: E
t=f; --t -,
!:..
: i -
aSr
ri-;.
# - j
:-?'-.:--.
;J.-..
\
, r 6 'JPF€SSIC.
:COLUN,INS 6.1O/ LFFD OF ROLLED SliApES C'J.'.S, AND M) 337
(
( sltrpes,Q : 1.0, thus thc specialprc'.'isions of LRFD-Ap;cndi.x B arc'noi
( ffiu, onrhesecr,on
serected.
ilJft; "r'ffi;I;;rn{T,:k:::,fr; i nvol ved.Fror ir Fig. 6. 8. 1 one m i; hr esr im ar cF, , = }i ksi ( KI . / r =
-:).
rirdirect proccss unlesscolumn-ioad A l ternati vcl v.LRFD For m ula( E?- i. tcr LRFD "\ LllERiC, {L \ ', \ i- L; i. . ) '
tabr...iare
s'v s'
available.
sr' The gcncral proce-
( dure to satisfy Eq. 6.g.1is: TABLE 3-36 could he used.'fherec.uircdareamav then bc computcd.
( l- compure rhe factored service load
combinations,as discussed { u using
---' ail appropriate load
: -?:-:
in Sec.l.g. R e 'q u i r cAd6
n: L 1 1 . 9s qi n -
( 2. .Assum.".:ltl Q "F, . 0. 85( 27)
stress{, basedon an assumedKL/r.
( 3. Compurethe gross..u ..io required (c) Select a sccrion. Since buciuing in the ri.eak d;rection [based oil
noi-ir,1g.4,).
4' select a section. Note rh"ai the widthfttriitness (KL/r),|w'ill control the strengthfor \['shapes when Kl is the sames'ith
( I, limitations of
- LRFD-Table-B5.1 to preven-tlocal buckiinf respectto both x- and /-axes, the r"i3iitestsectionsfor this problem rvill be
rur, be sarisfied.This is
discussedin part II orthis chaprer,p;;;lily thosehaving the least r,/r,.. A high r, indicatesexcessivestrength*'ith respect
I
sec.6.16.
t' Basedon rhe largerof (KL/r\, o,r'1xt/rl, to the strong axis,* hich may be utilizedonly by proriding additionalbracing
( for the sectionserecrecr,
compute the critical stress.1" in the rveakdirection.
( {' lompure the-desigrr;t;;;rh"L a" : e,FnA" for rhe secrion. Using the Column Load Tablesin the LRFD Manual [1.17] Part 2, one
7. comparc e.p, with p-. tihcn',t. ,tr.rriittpronia.d might select a W8x48, the lightest W8 that has at least th- required area.
( does nor exceed
the strength requiredb1' more thrn a f.o; perc.nt Furthermore. the W8 sections have the lorvest ro/r, for a given area. Try
the design*,ourd be
( accepUble,othenviser€pi.,etStcps2 throughZ. W8x48 section.
- (d) Check the \\'8x48 section.A : l4.l sq in.
( -XAMPLE 6.TO.t
-c_tthe Jightest w section of A36 steel KL
( to sene as a pinned_endmain - : 92' F.r: 23.0ksi
"rember column r6.ft rong-g carry an-axiar It'
compressionload of 95 kips dead
( load-and-l00kips live roadin a biacedsrructure,
as shownin Fig. 6.i0.1. use Q,P n : Q , F, , Ar : 0. 85( 23. 0) 14.: 1 19'5( 14'1): 276kips
Load and ResisranceFactor Designand indicate
( the first three choices.
I e,Pn: 276 kipsJ > lP": 274 kips] oK
( SOLUTION "NUMERiCAL
(a) Obtain facrored loads. Note that LRFD Manual VALUES" TABLE 3-36providesa
( -1 tabulation of 0"4, for values of,KL/r.
pn: t.Z D + t.6 L : Since the iJesjgnstrength gP, exeeedsthe factored load {. and since no
1 .2 (9 5 )+ 1 .6(100): 274ki ps .r.
( (b) Estimate srendernessratio and obtain other section having this area has a lower rJr.r, the W8r48 is the lightest
esrimared .e,. since the as-
( sumptio_nof hinged .ld! is made, rh_eeffecti;. section available.Deepersectionswill be healier, as follorvs:
i;"g,h Kt equarsthe acruar
length L, i-e.,K:.1.0. consideringKL:
( 16 ft asi moderatetyrongrength,
the slendernessratio might be est]mated Area
at aboui 70 io g0. For roiled w F' Q,Pn
( Section (sq in.) KL/r, (ksi) (kips)
(
(
H;"ged\=Vl
I' W8x48
w10x49
wl2x50
14. 1
14.4
14.7
92
76
98
23.0
26.6
2r.7
276
326
27t
1st choice
2nd choice
NG l% short
(
w14x53 15.6 100 27.3 282 3rd choice
(
( i:5il,j t
5l
(
Hinsed4-l I E)(AMPLE 6.10.2
( Selectthe lightestW sectionof .436steelto seryeasa mainmember30 ft long
(
(
I, Figuie6.10.1 Example6.10.1
to carryan axialcompression load of 50 kipsdeadload and 110kipslive load
in a bracedstructure,asshownin Fig. 6.10.2.The memberis assumed pinned
(
7' 6 / COMPRESSTON MEMBERS - PART t: COLUMNS (
( ,
Potentialbuckled t ^ .#-.
to (Kt), : 30 ft. For equal strength with respect to
(KL)rtitut .orr.sponds (
il;iil;";, l" l" .5h., tbe x- ahd y-axes, (
:*:
,&*.
(KL), (KL),
'tl Assume hinged tco and - (
tl bottom lor x. and y.axis
rl bending rx fv
A36 tl (
tl
steel tl (KL). 30
v Assumehingedar mid.heighr Equivalent(Kt)n = : -; : l7-3 ft (
lt\
tl
lor y-axis bending only Ur; t.tJ
(
r5'-0 ll
ll Porential bucklecf For ( KL), : 17.3 ft, the W8x40 has a designstrengthg.P" of only 208 kipt;
tl
shape if K,L,lr, gorrerns therefore it is not acceptable. (
tt I
starting$'iththeshallowW8 sections
andworking
s towardthedeeper
sections. --r
find
wl*f
Potenti8l
bucklec!
Potential
buchled II
e,p,: ?J!Ip, r,/r, : r.73 shape shape t
wl0x45 $"pn:?!l Hp, iyi, = 2.15 ir
(KL)/
if
(KL), n'-o'
W 12x 45 , f,
kips
e " p o :2 5 T i g i r: Z.OS 9OVernS 9Ovems I ou,
cnoceo
Sincctireacrualsupportconditionsare suchthat (Kl) I
2(KL)r.if r*/rr 2
2' rveaka'riscontrols and tabular loadsgive the *.tr., ,:
and \\'1lx-1j are obviouslyaccephble.
answer.Thus.wl0x45 eI l "l
Since r,f r,, for 1v8x40 is less than 2, strong (a) (b)
axis bending controts.Thc
strength may be obtained from thc tables
by Jnrering with-the equivalenr Figure 6.10.3 Exanple 6.103.
(
J j' v\riv,rnLoorUN MEMBEFiS_PART l: COLUMNS STR:SS
6.1I / ALLoWAELE OESTGN 34it
' ( ':
(
For equalstrengthaboureachaxis,
elemente given in ASD-B5.I. Table 6.8.1 gives ASD Specification section
( referencesfor memberssubject to axial'compression.
" : 37'8
( : l'8 (coincidentally
thesame.as
rv T K,)
. E)(AMPLE 6.II.T
( Check the adequacyof the Wl0x45 sectionfor the conditions of Fig. 6.10.2if
(d) selcctsecrionsfrom LRFD cotumnLoadrabres.
( the Allowable StressDesign were used.This is the ssction selectedby LRFD
Wllx72 : r,/r, < 1.8 Equivatent(KL) ,.= 37.g/1.?S
: 21.6ft in Example 6.10.2.A36 steel is used and the serviceloads are 50 kips dead
( load and 110 kips live load.
( Q,Pn= aaOkips OK
Wl4x74: r,/rr.> 1.8 (KL)" : 2l fr SOLUTION
( Q"Po- 387kips NG (a) Compute slendernessratios.
(e) Make finarcheckon wl2x72, I = s97ina.
{ At rhispoinr it may be (KLI, 1.0(30)12 (KL)r
notedthat the Yura-Disquemodification on G for inelasric'uucniing-touro _ - -l .2o J( 1-s ) 1 2- 8 e ' 6
( ha'e been made' The lorverthe slcnderness ratio ihe grearer*iii"u. tr,. rx t:83'3 ;:
reducrionon G. The foilowing*ilI 'tustrare the proceiure.
( compuie th.
slenderness
ratios. (b) Compute allowable stress{. Compare the KL/r with C. (Eq. 6.7.11)
( (KL),,: to determine whether the short or long column formula apphes:
( r,
S)rz
5.31-
: 85'4;
r yrx . = r r3.04
(1tP=82.e
fffi : 2r22g,oao
: 126
*= [6.z.ttJ
(
From Table 6.9.1, for the slenderness
ralio gj.4, find B,: 0.71. Now the \r J,
( elasticG value must be reduced;.thus,
Since the controlling KL/r of 89.6 is lessthan (,, the allowablestressis based
( on the parabolic equation for inelasticbuckling, Eq. 6.7.9.Thus, by calculation
or from ASD "NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE 3.
(
ri.T rrre
*jsnJ;;;;l; f;l:,::'::];;,
significantdifferencero +p" for-thisproblem.xt7,
wi,,ma,ce
(
(
(
0.4, : 2l "
.3 ksi from LRFD NU!\{ERICAL vALUEs"
Q , P n : Q , F , A r : 2 1 . 3 ( 2 1 . 1: 4
becomesg3.1.
) 4 9 k i p s> 4 l g k i p s
OK
TABLE 3-36
Fo:
5
- + -
l,-*#1,,
3(KL/r')' (KL/rlt
= 14.3ksi [6.7.91
(b) Select a preliminary size as a basis for er.aluating the effective length
Try W10X49: e"Pn:369 kips for Fr: 50 ksi factors K. While it is rare that a frame member s'ould be designedas axially
Wl2X53i e,Pn: 390kips for loaded, it may occasionallybe proper for some interior members having
4, : 50 ksi symmetricalloading. Note is also made that the axidly loaded memberis one
boundary for the more typical beam-column interaction formula discussedin
There can be no assurance Chapter12.
lhat sectionsselectedusing the ratio 5a/60 wrll It is given that (Kr) ,: 2l ft for tbe plane perpendicular to the frame;
satisfy design requirements;hbwever,such a procedure q,ill
sene as a first thus, a preliminary member might be determined from interpolation in the
tri a l. Chec k W i0x 49 fo r p ,:4 4 0 k i p s w i th
4 :6 0 ksi . U si ng { .-e.l .Z ro LRFD Manual Column Load Tables,
obtain.l,-,
(K L) , : 21 f t Fi- ndWl2x72. e, Pn: 449 kips
KL
x" :- ,l-5_ : 17.6(12)r-?d--_
,, U7E as{Y i6oo :1-20 (c) Evaluate the effective length facror K. using I = 597 in.a for
w12x72. compute G,ooin accordancewith Fig. 6.9.4 and as discussedin
Then using Aisc "NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE LRFD Commentary C2.
4, obtain e,F,,/F,
L(EI/L)*ru".o, . 597/21
Q,F"r/F, : 0.465 G,oo : o'64
E@d; 2$82)/40:
f.4, : 0.465(60): 27.9ksi : 10 (accordingto LRFD Fig. C-C2.2)
Goo,,o,o
I' Lateral load, resultingfrorn rvind, earthquakegravity, or other cause. rvherefl, is a factor to correct for nonuniform stressacrossvariouscross-sec-
2. Slope, with respectto the line of thruit, Oue Uotir to unintentional tional shapes.The shearcontributionto cun'aturebecomes
initial curvature and added curva(ure developedduring the buckling de p,, dv PB,.d't
Process. : (6.11.3)
3. End eccentricity of load, introduced either by the end connectionsor dz AGE: AGdi
fabrication imperfections. The total curvatureis the sum of Eqs.6.2.3and 6.12.3,
Certainly the shearfrom lateral load must alwaysbe consideredin design. d'y P.v* PB,,dzy
-E =
Items 2 and 3 should at the leastbe estimated.AISC Specifications
[1.5,f .i5J d*: AG d*
require providing an arbitrary shearresistance(in addition to any computable
which gives
shear) of 2Vaof the compressivestrength of the member for lacing tars in
dlv Pl I l
Iatticed columns (seeFig. 6.12.1). - - - - - : -- ! -l---1..:O (6.12.4)
Solid-webbed sections.such as W shapes,have less shear deformaticjn-r' 4-z' EIlt-PP,iAG)'
than do latticed columns usinglacing bars and/or batten plates. '\
which is of the same forni as Eq. 6.2.3; thereforethe modifieCform of the
Eulercritical load is '
(
z p
'cr
:
nzEI
L2
1
p,.r?tt]
(6.12.s)
(
( Z l0l ;aG,
[,
-
LL AG-F l
(
(' 7 l0l sheareffect
(
7
7 l0i
pl
In accordancen'ith rhe previousdiscussionon basiccolumn strength.G and E
can be replacedby the tangentmodulusvalues,G, and E,, and E,/G,: 2(1 +
p), and L can be replacedby the effectivelength Kl. Further,combiningthe
(
(
7 sheareffect rvith KL gives
(b) (c)
Doubk-
id) P., '|E,
( lacing
Lacing
and
Battens !?',",u,.0 l
'
- - : - (6.12.6)
baltens
platcs A (a,.KL./r )-
( ^
Figure 6.12.1 Types of latricedcolumns.
( w here d,.: l I + 2( 1 + p) r 'P, , / ( KL/ r ) =. Thus t he shearef f ect m ay be
i (
i.q:l- -
'
--f- 5' MEMBERS u7
6.13/ DESIGNOF LATTICED (
tts.
-..
346 6 / CO|{PRESSION MEMBERS- PART l: COLUMNS ;***;'
i. "'|+'
+i-s (
I
accountedfor by an adjustmentto the effective length. For W shapeswhen Such effective length modification will rarelv effect the design of short (
bending about the weak "*is, F, averagesabout 2. Using F : 0.3 for steel.
rgy:
:ris.- colum* in braced systems.
s: (
typical valuesfor a are r*!"''
s- (
KL/r: 50 du : 1.01 :i+
6.13SDESIGNOF LATTICEDMEMBERS (
=i 70 : 1.005
2: Under most specifications,latticed members are designed according to de- (
: 106 : 1.003
*: railed empirical rules most of which are related to local buckling requirements.
-i --
(
For slendemessratios less than about 50, yielding controls, so-thai the shear
i€
Two examples follow that illustrate some of the provisions of t RFD-84
'effcct
on solid H-shaped columns is equivalent to an increase in effective
"+ib (simitar to ASD-E4) as well as generd proceduresfor built-up sections.The (
lcngth of lessthan 1%,whicb can be safely oeglected.
&t.
-=*h : ieader is referred to Blodgett [6.65]who has summarizedthe AISC prorisions
SF
along with other information concerning built-up section design.
(
"+.-
.T:.
(
Lattlced Columns '';;;.
-l:3
columns with lacing, battens,or perforated plates is available in the S.SRC column dependsonly on ft and essentiall!'is independentof thickness.Thus (
Guide [6.8f and elsewhere16.62-6.eL selectingtr establishesthe slenderness ratio. and vice versa.Appendix Table
(
The Structural Stability ResearchCouncil [6.8] reports the suggestionof
Bleich[6.9]that "a conservadve estimateof the influenceof 60o or 45o lacing, (
as generallyspecifiedin bridgedesignpractice,can be madeby modifying the
effectivelength factor" K to a new factot arK, as follows:
KL
For - > 40, or=@ (6.r2.7)
r 1.48"
I
(
(
KL
For -
r
t--' l- 6r
i.'-u- (c)
(
(
KV
| ) i,""sc L*ing bar (
I t
FDl /
(
l* t' CEEEE:t
I
( "The inclination of
Al shows the relationshipsbetweenthe radius of gyration and the geometryof (c) Design single lacing. Accordiirg to LRFD-p4,
( lacing bars to the aiis of thi membershall preferablybe not lessthan 60o
for
the cross-seclion.Thus from text Appendix Table A1,
( singlelacing...."
r = 0.42h For { l OO. (Fig. 6. 13. 1b) b: , 20 - 2( 3') : 14 in. , assum inguse of
KL 360 857 distanceberweensiandard gagelines for bolts. This would be approximately
Approximate- = - center-to-center of rvelded connection.Thus
r 0.42h h
Lt = 2b tan30" : 2(1a)0'577: 16'2 in' Use 16 in'
P,,: 1.2(100)
+ 1.6(475) : 880 kips
"When the distance
One might prefer to use 15 in. since LRFD-E4 states,
berrveerthe linesof rvelds... is more than 15 in., the lacingshallpreferablY
Required be doubleor be madeof angles-"
area* For a singleangle'
h Approx. F", O.4rt AI L, - 16 r at iof or l
(in.) KL/r (ksi) (ksi) (sq in.) Angles : 16. ' ^ '.o[ slender
r v ' !4<- 4l I ness oK
r; 0.978 overallmember
24 35;t 45.5 38.7 22.7 "Lacing shall be proportioned to p-rovidea
L6x6xl A:23.0 According to LRFD-E4,
L5x5x* A:23.44 shearingsiiength normal to the axis of the member equal to 2% of the
22 39.0 M.7 38.0 23.1 Sameasabove compressive designstrengthof the member-"
2l 40.8 M.3 37.6 23.4 L5x5xi V : 0'02(880): 17'6 kips (8'8 kips per side)
20 42.9 43.7 37.2 LJ. I L5x5x*
The force in one bar is
rAlso from LRFD " NUMERICAL VALUES" P ,: V/ cos€ = V/ cos30o: 8'8/ 0'866: 10'2kips
TABLE 3-50.
*Required A, : PJ(Q"F",).
L s vo for singlelacing
The 20-in. section is preferred,since the floor area occupied is likely more
important than the additional 0.44 sq in. of cross-section.Investigate 4- -,*.
t -
rr
ri-:rl
fw
*:0.288t (Fig.6.13.1d)
L 5 x5 x f , as s um ingQ : 1 .0 , UA , Y b t
. 16.1
I,: Ir: + [ t : . 0 + 5 . 8 6 ( 1 0 . -0 1 . 4 8 ) t ]: 1 7 5 6i n . a : 0 . 3 9 7 i n . U s er t i n '
rmin - =+
0.288(140)
1756 L 16.1
F o r r : r t i n . , - : o . t r r 1 o o r t 1: l 2 s
fr: ly: : 8.66in. (Approx 0.42(:0) : 8.40 in.)
2y44
KL 1.0(30)12 ..NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE 346, q,F", : 13.0ksi.
- : 41.6i From LRFD
; ,* Q"F",:37.5ksi (TABLE3-50)
' - 10- 2
' Requir edn : 0'78 sq in'
Q,Po: Q,F,,A'= 37.5(23.44)
:878 kips= (Pu: 880kips) OK f f i:
( 0. 78
Use4-L5x5x* with lr : 20in. W i d t hb : : : 1 . 7 8i n '
( 0.4375
(b) Local buckling control. For Q : 1.0 to apply, angJesraust satisfy
be
( width/thickness limits of LRFD-B5.1 to prevenr local buckling. In this case, Sinceno holesare requiredfor connectors,tensionon net sectionneednot
investigatedfor this design.
( s 1 t76
fb t . |' [ m : 1 0 ' 7 JI oK U sebars * x 11.
( i ': ffi: (d) D.rtg" rhe platesat ends (LRFD-E4,par.7). The tie platesshould
(Fig'
( Developmentof AISC limits appearsin Chapter 6, Part II oa plaie srrengrh. .*t.nd alonglhe lenlth of the membera distanceequal to the distanceb
( .-{
-
6.19/ oESIGNOF LArncED MEi'r8€RS 351
Fs - PARTl: COLUMNS
MEMBERS (
350 6 / COMPRESSION
(
shape,
(a) selecr trial section.using text ApPendix Table Al for a box {
6.13.1)from the end of the member.use a length of 14 in.
r = A.40h
b 1 4 (
-t -> - : - : 0 . 2 8 i n . KL 360 900
50 50 - = -
r 0.4h h
Lte tie plates* x 14 x l'-8".
Area= 4ht
I
(e) Examine the effect of shear on the effective length, Eqs- 6.12.1 or
6 . i2 . 8 .
KL Required
r
= 41.6) 40, UseEq.6.12.7
h Approx. Fn 0 4,t
Area'
At
Plate
Thickness
i
(ksi) (ksi) (sq in-) (in-)
(in.) KL/r
2l I
Thus the effectivelength should have been increased8% due to shear. The b
-(solid plate) = :67 > : 4l.l I |.iG
negtectof end restraintProbablYis, in most cases,equal io about the same t 5/16 I
!
increasein effectiveiength-
"'18 41.6 35.4 24.9 0.35
50
56.3 39.7 33.7 26.1 0.41
r EXA:IIPLE 6.13.2 l6
26.9 0.45
Redesignthe column of Example6.13.1usinga weldedperforatedbox shape 15 60 38.4 32.7
in Example6'13'1'
1Fig.Oll3.2).The factoredload P, is 880kips as computed
tAlso from LRFD "NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE 3-50.
SOLUTION tRequired A, = PJ(+,F",)
One important advantageof a welded shapeis the number of individual
componentsin the shapeis minimized..Four platescan be usedfor this welded are probably ac-
Without performations,2PLs- rtx16 and 2PLs- *I!
shaje. whereasa bolted or riveted sectionrequiresfour anglesin addition to ratiosin accordance with LRFD-B5-l.
ceptable,satisfyingb/r
plates. r*'here acc€ssis re-
Usually, ho*Juei, such shapesar9 used on bridges
quired for maintenanceso that perforationsmay be desirable'
or less of total
Perforated Assume perforationsto Ue b in. wide (frequently one-half
=
width) and /r 18 in. '
f,r
t t l l
Net areaavailable= 2(l8X*) + Z(tr - 8Xl) :24j5 sq in'
- ll14 in.a
1,,= fr(18)'(*)+ 2(exl)(8.?s)2
lol .,j-o Solid
plaie
tfim- : 6 . 7 1 i n .
lni
i
I
t -
f
l Y "- \ 2435
t t Perforated
glate
[:t
l,l
l0l l-
I
1.0(30)12
u""__, iE-
i r !
i e..--: =,
= 53.7; g.F",- 34.4ksi (TABLE 3-50)
Er-
ffi*-
: (
'(-
352 G/coMpREsstoN MEMBERS-PARTt: GoLUMNS
(
(
(
Trv 2PLs- *xt8 and 2H-s- jxtZ (perforated): PARTII: PLATES
A , : 27.0sq in. Iy: 1775in.a
(
I r : 1744in.a r, : 6 .60i n.
(
KL 1.0(30)12
- : : 54.6;
( r 6j0 0.4,: 34.2ksi(TABLE3-50)
( q P , : + ,F,,Ar: 34.2(27.0)
: 933kips> (&: 880kips) OK
( ( b) Chec kproportioning
of plares(LRFD-E4).
( l. Circck b/r ratio for entireperforated
plate:
( b 1 7 1 3 1 7 \
- : - : = : 3 - 1> l = - = : 54.Ei OX
( u.) _
\ i,4 r6.s t
( l. Clrcckb/t ratiofor unstiffened portionwithinhole:
( b .1.5
: - 9 > t 7 6 : 1 0 .\7 1
( ; 0J l; Or
\ lt' I
( 3. Chcckproportions of access holes(LRFD-E4): TO STABILITYOF PLATES
6.14* INTRODUCTION
( Lengthof hole
........=....--.--\-
j Lengthof hole : :
\\'idth of hole 2(8) 16 in. max All column secrionswhetherrolled shapesor built-up sectic!:sare composed
( has been given
of plate elements.Up to this point in the chapterconsideratio:r
dista-nce
( i clear distance\ - i ,Transverse \ only to rhe possibility of buckling of the member based on the slendcrness
= t^".t-':" ty5s
( \ b.t*..n hotes
I I\ -nllttttwelds lI
or connectlng
It may be, however,that a local buckling will
ratio for the entire cross-section.
occur first in one of the plate elementsthat make uP the cross-section. Such'
Clear spacing betn.eenholes : 17 in. min.
( locai buckling meansthat the buckledelementwill no longer take its propor-
L,'se2PLs- |x l8 (solid) and 2PLs-* x t; (perforated)rvith holes tionate shareof any additiona!load the column is to carry; in otiier words, the
( is reduced.
efficiencyof the crosS-section
E The theory of bendingof platesand elasticstability of platesare subjects
(
that shouldbe studiedin depthby the advancedstudentin strucluralengineer-
( ing. The brief treatmentthat followsis intendedto give the reaCerthe general
( idea of plate buckling necessary to properly use and understa::dcurrent steel
specifications. The general approach and terminology foilorv that of
( Timoshenko[6.66,6.671.
( Before ong'can treat the stability problem, the differenrial equation for
bending of plaresis required,just as the differentialequalicn for the bending
( of a beam, Eq. 6.2.2,was used in the slendercolumn stabilil' treatment in
( Sec.6.2.
(
Ditlerential Equatlon for Bending of Homogeneous Plates
(
First, the strains will be obtainedin terms of displaceme:iis.Let h: plate
( thickness and t/, u, and ru equal the displacementsin ihe x. ''. and z
directions,respec'.ively.Referringto Fig. 6.1a.1,consideran ele::'ie::tof a plate
(
,,,
J3J
-
a
354 lN PARTil: PLATES
6/COMPRESION MEMBERS TOSTABILIWOF PTATES
6.14 ,/ INTRODUCTION
( t
-
{\.'
{
/-
\
Ya,
6X ('
(\
(\.
0x
strain y,r. Thus (
u*
0u
- u
' \.
_ y:
3 - :
0u
-,7 A2w
(6.14.3b) ('
I
0u 0y
Tdx /'
":#:
0u
a-
(6'1a'1a)
.
, 0u
1' xr- v : _ +
0x x:-'l#.#):-"# (6ra3c) I
/
-y (6.14.1b)
0y Next, making use of Hooke's Law expressingstrains in terms of the
(
Au 0u
'fry:Yr+Yz=E* stressesor,or, normal slressesin the x' and y-directions, and rr.,.,the shear (
t
(6.1a.1c) stress.
U,
l . (
Expressingthe displacementsin the plane of the plate in terms of the lateral r (6.1a.4a)
cr: Irotl /a'
f r a -d v
f"
?r'-F-Ei
. o' n
l l
-o'-
Y
u r?# a,
o y -
,,=*i{=y, +
Frgure6.14.2 Deformations of plate dcocot in xy ptaoe.
l-'
(b) Figurs6.14.4 F4uivalentsystcms
-
.
( t
:
( : - €
356 6/COMPRESS|ON MEMBERStN PART pLAifS
ti_
.H
.l
61a T TNTRODUCT|ON
TOSTABIL|W
OFPLATES 357
a I
SubstitutingEqs.6.11.4into Eq. 6.14.5 :t
gives :l- r Note that plate bending involves double curvature (a dish-shapedcleflec-
(
. .t : tion surface for the plate). The narrou'er and longer in plan a plate is. the nrore
o'
( , - 12 the bending causescun'3ture to be one directional. A beam is a speciai caseof
ll6y* lto,- or): :
E(or ; a plate since it has a narrow uidth and long span. For beams the Pciss,,.n's
a It o, - - or, maximun t = or; thus ratio (p) effect is neglected. Fcr instance. if the menrber i5 n31s1-r\\' in the
\ t-direction and long in the x-direction, Eq. 6.14.8a for the plate l\'culd become
1 i - a
I
a + p+ p* r): I
- Et3 d2w
;(l c t
I
-F
i
M,: (6.14.e)
(
G-
E I 12
2 ( 1+ p y (6.14.6) ,l where the partial derivativesdisappearbecauserc is no longera function of -r'.
C Soli'ing Eqs' 6'14'4 for stressesin ternis
t
If Eq. 6.14.9is multiplied b1'the riidth b to changefrom rnomentpcr unit
of srrainsand substitutingEqs.
6-14.3for the strainsgive stresses
in terms of cun.atures. width in the y-direction to total moment. Eq. 6.14.9rvould be the differential
( equation for beams,
, -zE i A2n
02w\
(
6': l;-rl;= - t-,; T I (6.7a.7a) dlw
r-p-ld-x oy- ! r t^_- - EI - - ( 6 . 1 4 . 1) 0
| dx'
( -z E
i d tn . -r" 6 t * \
J,. : ;---- i F=- _ l where I : t3b/12.
( I -P-1 ci-r-
- . a l (6.14.7b)
dl,- | In theoryof piates.the sign conventionis that M, is the bendingmoment
^ t
( tI
( r-o'
( 1 M,d.x
r-
I
t f"'l,dY
( 1
( f-
2 ,/ (o,.* o)o,
(
/ aM_\
( a v 1 a * zi
\",,'ff
( Figure 6'14'5 A ptate elementin bending Figure 6.14.6 Free-body forces involi'cd in rotatioa about .tre y-axis. (Fo;ces involved
$cre thai forces on faces at x : 0 aad
t,.
( 1'-0notshown.i in rotation about tbe .r-axrsnot shcen.)
358 o/COMPRESSIONMEMBERSlN PAF|Tlt PLATES TC 3Tr.3lLlw c; PI-ATES
6.14/ |NTRODUCTIOiJ
7
where gb is the load per unit length along the span of the beam. in the x-direction. Thus
w - X(x)r(y) (6.14.?0)
T [(;) ]":o
(
( an ordinary fourth-order homogeneousdifferential equation.
The solution may be expressedin the form ;t;l :Ir'-
N, 1ntr12 l"'
lT)'1'
Y : C, sinh ay + C, coshay + C, sin By + Cocos p; (6.14.22) ,to m'r12
( |
where * ;l
I',.: olt=^r,
(
( " : l ii(^"\, lW;*=
t;, *V;lr;f a n dP : lyti- l - al + ti^l-l D:r2[1a
A',:7[;E*^;l
b12
(6.r4.21)
\ J V D \ a l
(
Thus the entire plate deflectionequationis
( Since N, : {,t and D : Et3/112(l - p2;1,the elasticbuckling unit stress
| . mnx\.
ru : rint, dy + C, coshdy + C, sin By + Crcosp7.1 may be expressedas
( lsin ; J(C,
( (6.11.23) nzE
F"r: k ( 6. 14. 28)
which must satisfy boundary conditions. Assuming the x-axis as an axis of 12(1 - p')(b/t)'
(
symmetry through lhe plate, i.e., identical support conditions aiong the two
( edgesparallelto the directionof loading,the odd function coefficientsC, and rvherefor the specificcasetreatedhere
( C. must be zero. Thus
ll a bl'
k:l-:*nt-l (6.14.?e)
( w : (C z c o s h a y* C o c o s B y ,i
) n^" (5.14-2l.) Lm b a l
a
( Usingsimplesuppcrtconditionsat y : b/2 andy - -b/2, reqoi:esthar at'" The buckling coefficient k is a function of the type of stress(in this case
( y: +b/2, uniform compressionon two oppositeedges)and the edgesupport conditions
I b b\ mix (in this casesimple support on four edges),in addition to the aspectratio a/b
( = 0: + CocosBTJ sin-; which appearsdirectly in the equation.
.w
larcosha7 The equation for plate buckling, Eq.6.14.28,is entirely generalin termsof
( rcJ4'25)
02w b b\ mrx
: 0 : | Czdzcoshc
^ ^
- Co7'cosF, tt;
k and the developmentleading up to it for this one casemay be considercd
( Ay, I i. illustrative of the procedure.The integern indicatesthe number of half-rvaves
,|
( For a solutionother thanC, = C4:0 it is necessary that occur in the x direction at buckling. Figure 6.14.8showsthat there is a
for the determinant
of the coefficients
to be zero.Thus minimum value of k for any given number of half-waves,i.e., the weakest
( condition. Ii is noted that this weakestsituation occurswhen the length is an
even multiple of width, and that multiple equalsthe number of half-waves.
( (o'+ F2)cosh
"f,*, UX:o (6.14.26) Thus, setting a/b : n gives k : 4. Further, as m becomeslarger the li
( Sincea2 + -B2 unless1ty'- 0(atrivialsolution),ildsince cosha(b/z) > 1, equation becomesflatter and approachesa constant value of 4 for latge a/b
the only way Eq. 6.14.26can be satisfiedin the real problem is for ratio. This givesfor the elasticbuckling stressequationof plate elementsunder
(
uniform compressionalong two edgesand simply suPportedalong the two
( b edgesparallel to the load,
cos8, :0
( Therefore 4n2E
F,, ( 6. 14. 30)
b 7 l 3n 5r 12( 1- p2\ ( b/ t ) 2
( B r :7 , ,T ' T,
etc.
' (
(
fl
(
G/COMPRESSTON tN pAFtTil: pt-ATES
MEMBERS
( 6 16/AISC W|DTH^H|CKNESS
LIMITSTO ytELDSTRESS
ACHIEVE
(
Low b/t
( Fr,/ F, may become greater than unity. For plates wirhourresidualstrcss
I (referring to Fig. 6.15.4)three regionsmust be considcredfor csrablishing
(
i7
ID
strength; elasticbuckling (Eulerhyperbola),yielding(segmenrsAB, A'B,ltntl
( clE -**'?,oon;"u'nn'
A" B), and st,rainhardening.
o SimPle
suPPorr lf Fn/Fy is defined as7/\, Eq.6.14.28for platesthen becomes
(
$E ffi-
Risidstraisht - p2)
I . : ;b Vl F,(12x1
< ;
(
Straight line indicates
strength
W (6.r5.1)
( uniform stressprior to r =rhickness nzEk
buclrine iT-i
ffi-Trm
(
Average axial strain
lt"l
Laj
It is observedfrom Fig. 6.15.athat. s'hen comparedrvith columns(cun'e a),
plates (curvesb and c) achievea strainhardeningconditionat relativelvhigher
( values of 1,.. In the earlier discussionon columnsthe value of tr. at u'hich
Figure 6.1S.3 Behavior of plate under edgecompression. strain hardening commences(tr0) was assumedto be zero becauseof its
(
relatively small value. The I'aluesof l,o for columnsand platesunder uniform
( edge compression for Fr: 36 ksi (2a8 MPa) are given as follows from Haaijer
reached.Further increasein load can be achievedbut the portion
of the plate and Thiirlimann [6.70]:
( farthest from its side supports will deflect out of irs original plane.
This
out-of-planedeflectioncausesthe stressdisrributionto be nonuniform
( even
though the load is applied through endswhich are rigid and perfectly
straight. Columns lo : 0.173 (KL/r: 15.7)
( Figure 6.15.3showsthat plate strengthunder edie compression
consisrsof Long hinged flan l,o : Q.{-Sj (b/t : 8.15)
the sum of two components;(1) elasticor inelasticb-ucklingstress
( by Eq' 6'14.28,and (2) post-bucklingstrength.Also one shouldnote
represented Fixed flanges tro: 0.461( b/ t : 14. 3)
post-bucklingstrength as the width-to-thicknessratio b/t becomes
the higher Hinged webs tro- 0'588(b/t : 32.3)
( larger.For Fixed webs tro: 0.579(b/t : 42.0)
low valuesof b/t, not,only will post-bucklingsrrengthvanish.but the
( enrire
plate may have yielded and reachedthe rtrJin-huti.ning
condition, so that
(
From the above,the importantfactordeterminingtro is rvhetherthe plate
( \ J
--
element is supported along one or both edgesparallel to loading.*'hilc the
(b) Plate o-- t-
degree of rotational restrdint along the loaded edge (simply supportedor
$-
( .\:
.. rf
..()
Strain hardening (
Elastic buckling (
- 12 Ek - 1
( )
Fr(l2X1 - p'XO/t)" E
Transition i (
..E1,.'
Fp ! t
4 T----l----r---- (
t = Thicknes
Post-buckting (
nreng0
(a) Unstifened elemcnt (b) Stiflened element
(plate supported along
troroo (
(plate with onc edge free)
all four edges) Io 0.7 1.0
(
Frgure6.16.1 Buckleddeflectionof unrformlycompressed x. = gFrE
plates. ( ,
Figure 6.16.2 Dimensionlessrepresentatioaof plate suength in edgecompression-
For design purpos€s,performancecriteria must be establishedto decide
what range of l. valuesmay be acceptablein design arid how conservative
(and simple) or liberal (and relativelycomplicated)should be the specification \ -
expressionsfor plate strength. pl.qqeswith large b/t ratio exceedsbuckling strength, i.e., they exhibit post-
buckling strengrh.Thus strength for plales may be shown in a dimensionless'
fashion as in Fig.'6.16.2.
6.16 AISC WTDTH
/TFilCKNESSLTMITS)\, TO ACHTEVE To establishdesignrequirements,the desiredpeiformancemust be ascer-
YIELDSTRESSWITHOUTLOCALPLATEIIUCKLING tained. The local buckling of a column componentmay logically be prevented
prior to achievingfull strengthof the column basedon its overall slendernss
For a better understandingof the background for these requirementsthe ratio KL/r. The performancerequirementwould then be
reader is inr"ited to delve into the subject of plate stability and strength as
1, (6.r6.1)
introduced in Secs.6.14 and 6.15. However,it may be sufficient for manr.
purposesmerely to understandthat componentssuch as flanges,webs,angles. component overall
and cover plates, rvhich are combined to form a column section may them- element, column
selvesbuckle locally prior to the entire section achievingits maximum capac- i.e.,plate
ity. Typical elementsare shown in Fig 6.15.1. The buckled deflection of
uniformly comPressedplatesis shown in Fig. 6.15.1where two categoriesare meaning that acceptable b/t ratios would vary pepending on the overall
apParent: (1) "unstiffened" plate elementshaving oae free edge parallel to slendernessratio of the column. If post-bucklingstrengthwere considere{ the
loading; and (2) "stiffened" plate elements supported along both edges relationship would be additionally complicated.
parallel to loading. For many years the AISI Specification[.12J for cold-formed steel has
Plates in compressionbehaveess€ntiallythe same as columns and the used the approachof Eq. 6.16.1,and also included treatmentof post-buckling
basic elastic buckling expressioncorresponding to the Euler equation for strength.AISC (LRFD and ASD-Appendix B) also includessimilar provisions
coiumns has been derivedas F4. 6.L4.28, to consider post-bucklingstrength.Once buckling of a compressionelement
has occurred, the efficiencyof the elementto carry load is reduced.
trzE Design limits are generallysimplified to assurethe compressionelenent
F.o: k
12(1- pr)(b/t)' Io.ra.zaJ will reacb yield stress {, without local buckling occurring, even though t?te
u'here k is a constantdependingon tlpe of stress,edgeconditions,and length slendernessratio of a columg may prevent the element from reaching yield
to width ratio; p is Poisson'sratio, and b/t is the width/thickness ratio (sec srress.The width/thickness (b/t) ratios tr to prevent local buckling until the
Fig. 6.16.1).Typical & valuesarc given in Fig. 6.15.2. yield stressis reachedare the tr, valuesof LRFD and ASD'85.
It is known that for low b/t vdueg strain hardening is achievedr*irhout The requiiement to achieveyield stresswithout local buckling is
buckling occurring, for medium values of b/t residualittrss and imperfec- kn2E
tions give rise to inelastic buckling r?rcs€nted by a transition curv., "od fo, Fo- >4, (6.162)
large h/t buckling occurs in accordancewith fq. e.tA.Z8. Actual strengrh for 12(1 - p2)(b/t\'
6/COMPRESSIONMEMBERS
tN PARTil: pLATES YIELDSTRESS 369
TC ACHIEVE
LIMITS
6.16,/AtscWIDTH^HiCKNESS
(
b
- < 5120
I
,IT (6.16.3)-
severaldifferent yleld stresses.Note is made that for (a; and (b) cases
..stiffenbd" "lemJnts.the LRFD ,\, limits havethe residualstressf deductcd
ttnder
a
V 4,ort shapes,tensile
( from F), under the root sign. For rolled and welded box
which is representedby point ,4 at tr. : 1.0 on Fig. 6.16.2,a point lying above in sec. 6.5.This means
residualstresses are inducedat the cornersasdiscussed
( the transitioncurve.Thus a reducedvalue of 1,. should be used to the tensile stresses must be
minimize that ,*.hencompressive externalloadsare applied
striss P/Asis F, on the element it is
( reducedtozero; thus.whenthe nominal
( 'For SI,
with {. in I{Pa (6.16.3) "no:':cornpact"limii'
.ASD.85.l docs not usc lhe symbolsl' forwidth,/thickncssratio or I' for
(
, (
DEFOFMATION rtt I
1 . . 6.17 /Atsc WIDTH/THICKNESSLIMITS:TO ACHIEVEPISSTIC
F' 370 . 6 Z COIiIPNESSION IN PARTII: PISTES
MEMBERS (
(
FoF PLATEELEMENTS
TABLEG17.1 wlDTHnHlcKNEssRATIOAeLlMlrS
actually (F, - 4) at the important regions near the supports. Since the PUNSTIiSTMIN IN AXIALCOMPRESSION
rO ACaOT"TN.,TODATE (
superimposedstresslevel is actuallylessthan {,, the limit tr, can be permitted Stitlenedelements
larger, For unstiffened elements,the stressat the free edgeis predominant and
unstrfleneq ebments (
Fr LRFDand AS}B5.1 LRFDand ASDBS.l
Fy
residual stressis generallylow or cornpressive;thus no reduction 4 is used for (MPa) ( E q .6 . 1 7 . 3 ) (Eq 6.176) (
(ks.)
such elements-
31.7 (
36 250 10.8
2W 10.0 29.3 (
LIMITreTO ACHIEVE 42
6.17 AISCWIDTH/THICKNESS 45 310 9.7 28.3
stqN rFtcANT PLASTICDEFORMATION 50 340 9.2 26.9 (
380 8.8 25.6
55 2S.5- (
Sometimesplate elementsof the cross-sationmust not buckle until they have 60 410 8.4
undergone significant compressivestrain exceedingthe strain €y at fkst yield, &1 73.6
65 450 (
that is, strain into the plastic region,as shown in Fig. 6.17.1.The lower the
width/thickness ratio the greater the compressivestrain r that can be ab-
(
sorbed u"ithout buckling. In axially loadedcolumnsthere would be no"needfor
tions tr ^ areintendedto achievecompression plasticstrainabout7 to 9 times (
the ability to undergo plasticsrain becausethe overall strengthof the column the strainn.r.rrury ro reich srrainhardening.Thus,the
..-;;;t";;;;:;;ir (
based on its KL/r would not requireplastic deformatioit. However in beams. elementlimit tr, is
Jnstiffenedcompression
as discussedin Chapter 7, the flangestnight be required to undergo significant ( ,
plastic strain without hauing local buckling occur.
Referring to Fig. 6.16.2,1" must be restrictednot to exceedtr' if strain
_sr
b 6 5 (6.17.3)i
(
hardening is to be reachedwithout plate buckling. From Fig. 6.15.a. tr. should (
not exceed about 0.45 for unstiffened compressionelements and 0.58 for Eq. 6'16'4with tr. : 0'58 gives
For stiffenedelemenrs.
(
stiffened compressionelements.
For unstiffenedelemenr, Eq. 6.f6.4 with tr. : 0.46 gives
b k t-T
- <2965 or e3'7V ( 6. 17. 4)
(
t 4,* 1'*'
b k k (
- < 2350 - restraintas the
when k = 4, the minimumvalueassumingedgerotational
or 74.3 (6.17.1)
t psl
F/, {"*- valuesfor CasesA
between
hingedconditiont*i"^1v thg k lies somewhere (
When k : Q.425(its leastvalue),Eq. 6.U.1 gives "nOC of Fig.6.15.2)'fu.6'17'4gives (
b
- (- :
48.5
(6.17e
b 187
6 1 7 s )(
I /{,, ksi
;=ffi ( ,
compressionele-
Since residual stress effects disappear in the plastic range and material LRFD and ASD-85.1 prescnbethe limit for the stiffened
imperfections have less effect, Eq. 6.17.2 is an overly severe limitation. ment as
Furthermore, the strain at onsetof strain hardeningis 15 to 20 times e, and b 190 (
- 1 :
* (6.17.6)'
that amount of plastic strain is not necessaryeven for achieving the plastic
t /{,, ksi (
moment strength discussedin Chapter 7. The LRFD and ASD-B5.l limita-
elementsand Eq' 6'17'6 (
A tabulationof the limits, Eq. 6.1?.3for unstiffened
discussionsrelative
for stiffeneAel.m.nrr, upp.,,i in Table 6.17.1.Additional (
(
I b 171
Stress r Plastic I Srrain
'For SI, *ith 4' in MPa -s (6.1?.3) (
i- teg'ot-hardening t ,IF,
: l (
Figure6.17.1 Plasticand strain-bardec.ng b 500 (6.r?.6)
-5
regioosof stress-suainrelatioushipfor (
steel
I
/4,,
(
l5F
E*:-:
372 o/coMpREsSONturgl,raEns
tNpARTtr:pLATES FOR STRENGTHOF PLATEELEMENTS
6 l8lAISC PROVISTONS
The AISC and the AISI [.12f havechosento treat thin elementsaccording. t()
6.18SAISC PROVISIONSTO ACCOUNT Eqs.6.18.2and 6.18.3,althoughactuallyeitherequationcould havebecnuse.j
BUCKLTNG -
FOR THE
ANDPOST-BUCkUTC
Siner,rcilii for either t1'peof elcment.Becauseof the large post-bucklingstrengthof tlru
OF PLATEELEMENTS stiffenedelement.one can imaginethat it ftas buckledand part of the elemcnt
is no longer active.On the otherhand, the urrstiffenedelement,u'ith relativelv
'{s discussedin Secs-6.15 and 6.16, prate little post-bucklingstrengthmay be thoughtof as not buckling becauseof the
"'tiffened" erementsin compression,either
Qr "unstiffened" (seefig. o.to.t), have strength use of a reducedstress.
after bucklinghas
r'ccurr€d,i.e.. post-bucklingstrength.stiffened
eremenl have a rarge post_
bucklingstrengthrvhileunstiffeneJelements have oJy u fittle. However,since Effect on Overall Column Strength
rhc strengrhof such erementscan be evaruated,
the;;l; good reasonto provide
for its use as has been done the sp.ecdication For design. it is desiredto use gross section properties;thus for stiffeneci
in 1o, ti, Design of cold-Formed
siee/ srructurol M embers[l.lz], firsi intioduced'in elements
1946.
From Fig' 6.18.1ait is apparentthat the nomiaal srrengthp^ot
. astiffened A^, ,
elementmight be expressed as D
t n (6.ts.+I
Agrorrr-.
r,: t d, (6.i8.1)
fouf(..) and for unsriffenedelements,
involving an integration of a nonirniforn stress f
distribution; or alternatively, - (6.18.s)
an "effecrivewidth" concept(Fig. 6.1s.rb) may P^ : 7 f^rrArror, Qrf*r.Auo*
be used: ./mlr
P,: tbrf^_: A"fff*o, (stiffenedelement) (o.rs.z) where Q" and Q, may be thoughtof as shape,or form. factors.
A cornpressionsystemcomposedof both stiffenedand unstiffenedcle-
n'here bu: effectivewidth over which the maximum stress
may be consid- ments rvould be treatedas unstiffenedfor establishingthe stress,f",r; then the
ered uniform and give the correct totar capacity. - -*; effectivewidth for the stiffenedelementsis determinedusing.f... : /u,r.Thut
Figure 6'18.1cshows that Eq. 6.18.1is equally valid '\ the total capacity rvouldbe
for the unstiffened
elementexceptthat the stressdistributionis not sy'mmetrical Pr : f t sA"t t (6.18.6)
about the center
of the element.If a reducedstress
faue<./.* is ur.J, the unstiffenedelement which gives
f ^. . ^ A^, ,
P, : #(,f.* ) ;-( l*,o*) : e,Q of^,*1r,.,,,, (6.18.7)
lmax d gross
flx)
For - s C.; (
r
O =JIffi lar
f:
(
F,,-eF,['-
#(*i'] (6.18.s) -'
a'
i
tf (
-.
\-
0.65
o.so mfu,-, with k - 0.425
(
where Q : Q,Q.. From Eq.6.18.8,when Fn: QF,/z the sleriderness
ratio is
{$4 l o 7 6 i ' \ (
*"
2 r2 E G Yt-G i_g=ry1
cr= (6.18.e) -#..=
.
(
QF,,
( ,
:li: Ao.oo= €
gt
Whenever )\d{0 > 1.5 in LRFD, or KL/r t C. in ASD, the effect of
Iocal buckling on overall column strengthis negligible;thus, for more slender
.:i]F
:ire:-l
*--.
.g\- ^.-#(?)a=
UE
I rc,
Referringback to Fig. 6.16.2,one may note that when Q is lessthan 1.0 it :-.- F-.,pl"re 4r,pt",.
-
, (6.r8.10)
meansthat 1,. > X0. A transitionparabolacould have been usedto compute : 'Q': F,
f'*,",n'
the reducedstress.For simplificationa straight line has been used for singJe
anglesas shown by CurveA in Fig 6.18.2.The straightline usestr": 0.7 as and for compressionflangesof beams,
r€
the maximum for which Fo = Fr, and takes the proportional limit trorooat F -,pt"t 4t'ptot.
F ---T- - (6.18.1i)
,/7, approximatelythe sarneas for overall column buckling. However, bbcause vr:,
t cr, bea.ar llang,e '
of somepost-bucUingstrengththe theoreticalEuler-typecune (Curve C) has f.;
Y
been raised to give the AISC cuwe (Curve B). Many different expressions - 7
could havebeenusedu'ith the samelogicalresults. 3*'s Form Factor O, for Stlttened Elements
LRFD-Appendix 85.3.a aud ASD-Appendix 85.2.a give.similar stress
€-+ The concept of using an effective width over which stress may be considered
reduction equations for unstiffenedflanges anll the stems of tees.Theseother von Kirrmirn
rmiform, even thougfi it it actually nonuniform, w&sdevelopedby
-i5
equadonsare approxirnatelyproportionalto rlk, as may be noted by reference Winter's equatio!, the format oi
to Eq. 6.16.4and Table 6.16.1.The table contains the k valuesused for the t6.731and larer rJdifi.d by Winter t6.741.
.€=-
_d-
(
7.4
(
(
-m
6.0
|.-D-1
t .
l l
I
I 'I I-n-,I , +LJL-'
(
(
4.0
3.0
m = l m=2 m=3 m - 4
ffi, (
(
(
;=7["-&J
br' 326| 64.9
(6.18.14)-
Q < 7, 4, it redefinedas QF", in the LRFD Specification.
Finally, Qo as definedby Eq. 6.18.4is
(
( +:#1"-d,#l (6.18.15) where Adt: lsror. - I(b - bu)t-
Design Properties
( The differencebetweenEqs. 6.18.14and 6.1g.15can be expiainedpartly
by the difference in the assumedrotational restraint (moment along tbe In computing the nominal strength,the ioilosing rules apPl)' in accordancc
( supportededges,Fig. 6.18.1b). *'ith LRFD-Appendix B5.3.c.
( Additional discussionof the effective width for stiffened elemenrs'fi--' For axial compression:
compressionis available in the work of Korol and sherbourne '\
( 16.75,6.761, l. Use gross areaAr'for { : FoAs.
Dawson and walk er 16.771, and Abdel-sayed t6.7sl. sharp 16.7g)ias consia- 2. Use gross area to compute radius of gyration r for KL/r.
( ered stiffened elementshaving one edge stiffened uy a iii. Kalyanaraman,
Pekoz' and Winter [6.80] havi proposld an effecrive width For flexure:
expressionfor
( unstiffen'edelemints.
l. Use reduced section properties for beams rvith flanges containing
( Since a column cross-sectionmay include unstiffened elements rvhich
stiffened elements.
under presentdesignproceduresutilize reducedaveragestressrather than an
( effectivewidth, the controliing stresson unstiffened il.rnrnt, is used as the Since the strengths of beams do not include Q factors relating to thin
applicable maximum stressacting on the stiffened elements.Thus the stress compressione-lements, it is appropriateto use section propertiesbasedon
(
/is effective afea,
(
( f:+ (6.18.16)
For beam-columns:
l. Use gross area for P".
2. Use reducgdsectionpropertiesfor flexure involving stiffenedcomPres-
( sion elementsfor i{n, and Mnr.
( 3. Use Qo and Q, for determining P^-
4. For {; basea on lateral-torsionalbuckling of beamsas discussedin
( Chaptir 9, the maximum value of Fo is Q,Fn rvhen unstiffened
rFor SI wirh in MPa
/
": ttj[t--gl
( t ,/f L- Qtifi l (6.{8.14) compressionelementsare involved.
| (
(
378 6/COMPRES.SION tN PARTit: pt-ATFS
MEMBERS 6.19/ DESIGNOF I,4EMBERS
ASAFFECTES
3Y LOCAL6UCXI.II.IC 379
(
Etfecllve Wldth in Allowable Stress Deslgn braced in the plane of the truss every z ft, bur onty at rhe ends (
in t'he,
transversedirection. Assume the two anglesare attachedtogetherwith (
in Altowable StressDesign,the nominal strength { would havero be divided fully-
tightened bolts and the spacingof connectorsis closeenough that
by a factor of safety rc give the allowable load P. Dfviding rhe nominal the double (
angle member reachesits maximum axial load strength.f N.g.ct
strengrhgiven by Eq. 6.18.2by the factor of safetyFS. gives any contri-
bution to lateral support from the roofing. Complute the
maximum axial \
P, f^^' ryrvice compressionload this member can.be permitted to carry. The service
r: =ao-r13- (6.18.21) load is 30%dead load and 70% graity live load. Use A5?2 Grade (
FS 50 steeiand
Load and ResisranceFactor Design. (
The term (l^JFs) may be thoughr of as the allowable itress .e. The
important conclusion here is tbat &e effective width 6, to be uied in SOLUTION (
computing the allorvable capacity at service load is the same b, wed in (a) Check local buckling. The 8-in. legs of this double (
angle member are
comPutingstrengthP,. lf Eqs.6.18.14or 6.18.15were useddirectly,the service unstiffened compression elemens. Chec[ whether or not *iatnTtnickness
load stress/ would have to first be multiplied by the factor FS. Instead. ratio l, exceedstr, of LRFD-B5, (
ASD-Appendix Bl.2.b changesthe formula by replacing/ with 1.65/, thus (
grving for Eq. 6.18.14,
( r : i : # : 1 6 . 0>) ( ^ , : (
bE
- =
2s3|
- 50.3 I #:#=ro.?)
t /r[t'o wl (6.18.22)
"flnce I > 1,, local buckling
will control and the sectionefficiencyis reduced.
(
(
Using LRFD-Appendix 85.3.a,the reductionfactor
which is ASD-Appendix B Formula (.4-85-7). e, i,
(
Q,: 1.340
- o.oo447(l
),,r''/ (
6.19 DESIGNOF COMPRESSION \ r /v
MEMBERS
AS AFFECTED
BY LOCALBUCKLINGPROVISIONS {
: 1.340- 0.0044?(16)fi0 :0.834
(
Design of single and double angle struts, structural tees, welded built-up (b) compute designstrengthe,pn.For axial compression,properties
I-shapes.and most other built-up sections,includ.ingbox-type sections,in- of (
the grosssection are used.From ttre RlsC Manual properties
voh'es the close attention to width/thickness limitations lo preuent local of sinlle angles
and propertiesof double-anglestrutswith short tegsuack-to_back, (
buckling. Rolled w, s, and M shapes have proportions suih 'that local
buckling will not occur (that is, O : 1.0)prior to achievingthe strengthof the A , : 1 1 . 5s qi n . (
section based on the overall slendernessrritio KL/r. t (
The following examplesillustate situations.wbere < 1.0. /, : 1.08in. r" : 4.00in. for f -in. gusset
ptate
o
(
r EXAMPLE 6.19.I Assuming r( = 1.0 for truss membersas discussedin sec. 6.9.
A double anglecompressionchord memberfor the truss of Fig. 6.19.1consists
(KL), r.!(tltr:r, (KL), (
of 2-L8x4x|, having short legs back-to-back.The 2g-ft-longmember is _ _ lg(x)rz - 84
rx 1.08 ry 4.oo- (
using LRFD-Formula(A-85-il), Eq.6.g.2,wirh A" givenby Eq. 6.7.3,
-y:
2 L 8 x o l* J 0 . 8 5 9i n . (
-
tor gross
s€clion
tr.-+{E:*lm:1., [6.7.31 \
1
iin. Wset olate (
Section A-A
'Thc possible (
reduction in sreogth '.tsritrg to tbe connection
rigure 6.19.1 Example6.19.1. between rhe two anglcs was
discusscd in Scc.6.8 and is oovercd is LRFDEA.
(
(
(
C
{' d
( MEMBERSiTpAnr tl: pt-ATES
6/COMPRESS|ON fr OF IJ-MBERS
6.19/ DESIGN BYLOCALBUCKLING 381
AS A,FFECTED
( I:_l
',1
- - l
( which g*e$
,l
-:l
( )\,\f0 : 1.11rfi83T
: 1.014
< 1.5 I
a
( Forx,{0 < 1.5; ,l
,l
( t
4,: (o.ossc^'.)gF [6.s.2] ,t
'I
(
4, : (0.65go.ttqt.trl';10.g34)50 : 27.1ksi =' i l
( I
Q , F , , : 0 . 8 5 ( 2 7 . 1 :) 2 3 . 1k s i
(
e , P n : + , F n A s : 2 3 . 1 ( 1 1 . 5: ) 2 6 5k i p s *
( : l i l
P u : 1 . 2 P o+ l . 6 P L : 1 . 2 ( 0 . 3 P+) t . 6 ( 0 . 7 P ): 1 . 4 8 p
( Figure6.19.2 Example6.19.2.
Q r P n :P r : 1 . 4 8 P
. (
P : 265/1.48 : 179kips (maximumserviceload capacity) E "NUIt{ERICAL VALUES" TABLE 3-50,
( (c) Selectsection.From LRFD
E E}LTMPLE 6.19,2 :
estimateQ,I-,,= 19.3(60/50) 23 ksi-
( Design a double angle compressionmember for use as a spreaderstrut for
( hoisting large loads, as shown in Fig. 6.19.2.The lifted toia ii 60 tons, of R e q u i rAerd= = 1 6 .s3qi n .
which 55 tons is live load includingimpact.The remainderis dead load. Use h #:
( - 6Oksi and Load and ResistanceFactor Design.
4 Try L8x8Xi, r*,,, : 2.49in.. I s : \9.2sq in.. KL/r : 96.4-Thisis a larger
( areathan seemingll;needed: however,the next lighterangle(A:15.5 sq.in.)
SOLUTION =
( (a) Computefactoredload {. At 4 to 1 slopeof cable the compressive r,,.illnot be adequate.The estirnated9.{, obtainedby increasingthe F, 59
ksi valuein theiatio of the;ield stresses is for
probably'high KL/r over 100.
( Ioad in the strut is 120 tons (240 kips).
r t 7 g \ / 7 6 i 6
( : 376
Pu:r.r(fr +1.6(fr)t*oy : : 12.8J
, l,^,: : ^n.rj\
)t*ol kips [r: ; o; E: 7ffi-
(
(b) Estimatethe slenderness : 0.E97
(
ratio. AssumeK:
6.19.2b,use text AppendixTable A,1to estimater,
1.0 and referringto Fig. e: :1.340 - o.oa447(12.8)'60
( '
rx = 0'29h
t r . : 1 . 4 0 ; X , t f T: 1 . 3 2 < 1 . 5
( rY= 0'24b Thus the short column streogtbformula. Eq. 6.8.2,controls.Evaluating.
( If 8-in. legsare used, r, = 0.29(8): 2.32 in. F" , :2 5. 9 ksi: +F", : 22'0 ksi
( . 2) : 423 kips > {
,Q,P n= Q "F, , As: 22- 0( 19 oK
KL 1 .0 (2 0 )1 2
Estimate-=--:--:104
( r 2 .3 IJse 2-L8x8Xf horvever.the-
. Note that the strengthis excessive;
(
( 'This load does
not agree witb that given in the LRFD Manual "COLUMNS" tables f,or e,pn. E EXAMPLE 6.19.3
Selectthe thinnest 12x12 structural tube to carry an axial compressionof 60
Those tabular loads are for a particular number of bols attaching tbe two angles togetber
( (LRFD-E/) and also include flexura!-torsional buckling io accordance with LRFD-Appendix E.
The ma:rimum O.P" including flexural-tonional buckling is 260 kips; about 2% lower rhan kips dead load and 260 kips live load. The effectivelength KL is 18 ft and the
( ccmputcd above. For hot-rolled sections,the authors do nor beleve il necessaryto include'this member is part of a braced svstem'Use {' : 65 ksi and Load and Resistance
effect. When very thin sections,such as cold-formed light-gage sections, are uscd flexura!-torsibnal Factor Design' Note that rvhile ushg F, : 65 ksi illustratesprocedure'Grade
C buckling nrusr be evaluated. 50 is the maximum for structural tubes under ASTM A500.
t ' ( '
r>"
3Bz MEMBERS
6/COMPRESSTON lN PAFTT
ll: PLATES
C
6.19/ OEStcNOFMEMBERS
AS AFFECTED
By LOCALBUCKLTNG
(
- (
SOLUTION unstiffenedelements Q,:l.A; thus Q : Qo.Try f- 0.g5(53.6)- 45.6 ksi as
(a) Compute.factoredload P". obtained from the first estimateof KL/r.'- (
Pu : 1.2(60)+ 1.6(260)- 488 kips (
jb,: 326
- : 1 1 . |0 - $a.g
--:l:37.7
1
(b) obtain estimare of required area use text Appendix Table Al ro t ,lqs.6
L-'- (u.o|,tg 1 (
estimate radius of gyration, (
Thus local buckling will control the section efficienry for all four sides of the
r = 0 .4 h= 0 .a (1 2 ): 4 .8 i n . (
tube. The effectiveareais
Using Eq. 6.E.2for {, with first trial g - 1,
KL : u.6_4+_+)r
Acf,: ( ,
i
StructuralEngineering,10, 9 (September1983),?A86'2096; Disc. by T- H. Lin,
ZiaPta"taq,'and B. G. Johnston,110,8 (August 1984),1930-1933.
:Ei
Thus Qo < 1.0. The stress/ that acts on the stiffened elementis "A Sun'ey of Progress,l944-5L," Bulletin No. 1, Column
( f.{, u-here 6.7. Bruce G. Joh4ston.
{, includesQ, that is, Eq.6.8.2.A first trial may be madeassumin! b: e,, ;:, ResearchCouncil, January 1952.
( th at is , Q " : 1. 0. .;: 6.8: TbeodoreV. Galambos,ed.Guideto StabilityDesignCriteria ior lv{etal Stnrctures,
,?.:i 4th ed. New York: Johir Wiley & Sons,1988.
( i : l
: 37.5 : 0.6e
. ^,,/O:0.?01/6e?8-
:1?
--r*:i 6.9. Friedricb Bleicb. BucklingStrengthof Metal Structures.New York: lv{cGraw-Hill
( +: # a;I Book Compuy, Inc., 1952.
F (
;1'l
-.: "I
t - ' I
q " i
F
a'>' (
3g6 6/CC|ioRESION MEMBERS
rN PAFT il: pl_ATES
SELECTEDREFERENCES387 (
(-
6.10. Bruce G, Johnston. ..lu6kting Bebavior Above the Tangent Modulus
Load,,, 5.30.Suresh C. Shrivastava-"Elasds luskling of a Colurnn Uoder Varying Axial
Journal af rhe Engineering Mechania Diuision, ASCE, 87, EM6 (December 196l). (
;1 Force," EngineeringJournal, AISC, 18,'l lFirst Quaner 1980), 19-21.
7g-gg.
6.1t ' A- W. Huber and L. S. Beedle." Residual Stressand the CompressiveStreogrb
6.31.Balbir S. Sandhu. "Effective Length of Colurnns wi& Intersrediate Axial Load," ( .
of .., EngineeringJournal, AISC,9, 3 (October 1972),154-156.
Steel," 9VetdingJowna!, December 1954, 5g9s_614s.
6.12. C. H. Yang. L. S. Beedle,and B. G. Johnctou. ..Residual Stressand tbe yield =_
:.4 6.32.John C. Ermopoulos. "Buckfing of Tapered Bars Under Stepped Alial Loads," (
.-. Journal ol StrucruralEngineering,ASCE, ll2, 6 (Juae 1986), 134f.-L354.
strength of Steel gsamq," welding Journa!, April 1952, 205s-229s. 4.,.. (
6-13. N. R- Nagaraja Rao, F. R Btuar, and L. Tall. "Residual Strcssesio Welded 6.33.D. R. Sherman. TentatiaeCriteria for StrzrctwatApplicatiotts ol Steel Tubing and
Shapes," l*'eldingJounal,Iuly 1964,295s-306s.
Prpe.Washington,D.C.: American lron and Steel Institute, 1976. (
. *,: 6.34.Julian Snyder and Seng-Lip Lee. "Buckling of Elastic-Plastic Tubular Columns,"
6.14' Donald R Sherman. "Residual Stress Measurement in Tubular Members,,. sf:
iF. -
( ,
Journal of the stntctural Diuision,AscE 95, sr4 (April 1969), 63s-.6/l7.
_*,. Jountal of the Structural Diuision,ASCE 94, STI (January 1968), 153-173.
6-15. Donald R Sbermao. "Residual Stresscsaad Tubular Compression Memb€rs,,' *,, 6.35.Seng-Lip Lee and Julial Snyder. 'Stability of Straio-Hardening Tubular
* (
Columns," Journal of thc Structural Diokion, ASCE 94, ST3 (March 1968),
Journat o{ the stnrcturar Ditision, AscE yt, sr3 (March tl7t1, g9l_904.
6.16. Lynn S- Bcedle and Lamben TalL "Basic Column Strength,"
a:l 683-707. (
Journal of the , + - 6.36.Wai F. Chen and David A. Ross. "Tests of Fabricated Tub.ular Columns."
strucrura! Diaision, AscE 86, sr7 (July 1960), 139-123. Also 2nraruo|rio^. ..: ( . ,
ASCE, tTt (L962),part II, l3g_179. Journal of the StrucruralDiuision,ASCE lO3, ST3 (March 1977),6f9-634.
6'17' Ching K. Yu aod Lambert Talt. "significance and Application of n 6.37.David A. Ross, Wai Fab Chen, and Lambcrt Tall. "Fabricated Tubular Steel (
Stub Column Columns," Jouraal ol the Structwal Diuision, ASCE" 106, ST1 (January 1980),
Test Resulrs," JoutrTal of the Stnrctwal Diuision,4Ste, yl, ST7 (July
l97l). '€- 265-282. (
1841-1861.
.:f \
\
.' - A ? e Theodore V. Galambos. "Strengtb of Round Steel Columns," tournal of the
6.18. Bruce G. Johnston...Inelastic Buckliag Gradient," Journal of the v..JY|
Engineeing -aa
.' SrrucruralDiuision,ASCE"91, STI (February 1965),121-140. (
Mechanie Dicision,ASCE 90, EM6 @ecembu 1964), 3l_47.
6.19. Richard H- Batterman and Bruce g. J6hnst6n. "Behavior : 6 . 3 9 .Charles Libove. "Sparsely Connected BuiIt'-Up Colunns," Journol ol Stntctural (
and Maximum Strength + Engineering. ASCE llt,3 (Marcb 1985),ffi-627.
of Metal coluons," Journat of the Stntctwsl Diuision, AscE, 93,
1967),205-230.
srz (Atril
.. 6.40. Abohassan Astaneh-Asl, Subbash C. Goel, and Robert D. Hanson. "Cyclic (
6.20. Bruce G- Johnston, ed. strzctural subility Researchcouncil, Out-of-Plane Buckling of Double-Angle Bracing," Journal of Structwal Engineer-
cuide to stabilut i n g , A S C E ,l l l , 5 ( M a y 1 9 8 5 )1, 1 3 5 - 1 1 5 3 . (
Design Crircria for Metal Stntctures,3rd ed, New York: Jonn Witey a
S.*. fr... . 6 . 4 1 .Cynthia l. Za}.o and Geerhard Haaijer. "Effect of Connector Spacingon Double
t976. (
5'21' Reidar Bjorbor;de. "Effect of End Restraint on Column Angle CompressiveStrength," Moteriab and Member Behaaior, Proceedingsof
Strength-practical
Applications." EngrneeringJournal,AISC,22, I (First StructuresCongress'87,Orlando, FL, Augrrst 17-20,1987, pp. 199-212. (
6'22. Reidar Bjorbovde- "The Safety of Stcel Colu-ns," iournal
euarter 19g-4),l_13. 6 .42 John B. Kennedy and Madugula K. S. Murty. "guskling of Steel.Angleand Tee
"y ti" Stntuurai Struts," Jaurnal ol the Sttzctural Dioision, ASCE 98, STll (November 1972), (
Diuision, ASCE tOd, ST3 (Marcb lg7g), 63_477.
6.23. Reidar Bjorbovde. 'Colnmns: From Theory to practice,,' 2507-2522 (
AISC, 26, I (Firsr euarter lggg), zl-3/..
EngineeringJounal. 6.43 John B. Kennedy and Madugula IC S. Murty. "luskling of Angles: State of the
$.1{. [ann H. ry| 'hopoced Art," Journal of the Structwal Diubion, ASCE, 16, ST9 (September 1982), (
Steel-Cotpo Strength Criteria," Jownal of rhe
structural Dteyly' 1967-1980. Disc., Joumal ol Strucnrul Engircering, ASCE, 109, 8 (August 1983).
sr4 (April 19El), ug-676. Disc. by Bruce G. John-ston. /
l(D: 2075-2029.
l€, sr4 (April 1982),956-95?; by Zu-yan shen and Le-wu Lu, l(8,
1982),1680-1681;by author, 108,SnZ (Decemberl9g2), 2gi3_2g55.
sn 1lut.' 44 Scott T. Woolcock and Sritawat Kitipornchai. "Design of Single Angle Web
6.4.
6.25. J. Michael Rotter. "Multiple Struts in Trusses,"Journol of Stntctwal Engineering, ASCE, ll2, 6 (June l9E6).
Colurnn fuwss by Modifying Factors,,, fourzail o.f
the structwar Dicision,AscE l(8, sr7 (July rtg2), 1665-1669. 1327-r345. (
6'16' JacqueRondal and ReoE Maquoi. "single Equation for 45. Adel A. El-Tayem and SubhashC. Goel. "Effetive Length Factor for Design of
6..45
SSRC Column.Stren-.,r X-bracing Systems," Engineering Journal, AISC, U, 4 (Fint Quarter 1986), (
curvss," Journol of the strucwal Diaision, AscE 16, srl (January
lgly;. 4L-45.
2$-25A.
6'27 E' I{' Lui *d y- F--Chen. 'Simplified 46. Subhasb C. Goel and Adel A El-Tayeo- -Cyclic Load Behavior of Angle
Approach to the Analysis and Design of
columns nirb lrperfectious,- Engineeringlownal,Alsc, zz, i X-Bracing," Journal of Structural Engineering, ASC$ ll2, ll (November 1986), (
lsecond euarrer 2528-2539.
le84).99_t1?.
6ls' John P' Andersoa and James H. Woodsard. "Calculation 6 . 4 7 .Guo Chueomei. "Elastoplastic Buckling of Single Angle Columns.- fourna! of \
of Effective Lengdis Stnrturol Engineering, ASCE 110,6 (Junc 1984), 139f-f395.
and Effective SlendernessRatios of Stepped Colunos," (
AISC,9, 3 (Ocrobcr ln2),lj?_166.
EngineeringJourn;!. 6.48. F-rling A. Smith- "Buckliag of Four Equal-Leg Angle Cruciform Columns,"
6.29- carlo A. cas.iglionl_*stcpped columns: Jouraal of StntcturalEngineering,ASCE, lUr,2 (February 1983).439-450. (
A sinprified Design Method," Eng-
neeringJownal, AISC, ?A, I (First 6.49. LeWu Lu. "Effective Length of Columns in.Gable Franes," EngineeringJwr-
auancr 19g6);l_g. nof, AISC,2, I (January1965),6-7.
(
(
(
(
':!
( - t
i
(
6:5o. Kamal Hassan-"on thc Determination of Buckl;-a3Lcngth :l
' t
"FlengeLocalBucklingin Wirlc-Fla:rgc
( of Frame Cotumns,,, I 6.1i. \Ia;<.*:llG. Lar'. Shapcs."Jo:trnc!o,fthc
(
Publications, International Association for Bddge and Structural
2&II, 1968,91-iOl (in German).
Eng,incering, :J
'l 6.?3. John F. lvfcDcrmott.
ASCE.91,5T6 (Deccnrbcr
S:ruc;uralDit'isiort.
"Locel Pla.stic
1965).95-116.
Bucklingc'i A514Stccll"lcmbcrs,"Jr,it,''rr.;,
6.51. Theodore v. Galambos. "lnfluence of partial Base Fixity
on Freme stability,,, the SrrucruralDit'ision,ASCE,95.ST9 (Septcmber 19i.9).133r 1S5i'
( Journal of the structurar Diuision,ASCE, g6, sr5 (lr{ay 1960),g5-iOg.
' iI "Thc Strcngthol Th:;
6'52' German Gurfinkel and Arthur R. Robinson. "Buckling 6.73. Theodorevon Karmirn.E. E. Sechlcr.and L. H. Donnell.
( of Elastically Restrained (19i2). 53.
Columns," Journal of the Stntctural Diukion. ASCE" 9t, STO(December
1965),
i
a
Plates in Compression." ASME.
Transacriorrs. 3{. AP\{-54-5
"strength of Thin ComprcssionFlangcs."Transactiots'ASCE. ll2
i59-183. { 6.i4, G. \\'inter.
( I
6.53. Harold s*'itzky and ping chun w-g. ..Desigl and I 00917).527-576.
Analysis of Fra"nes for :
! "strength Prcdictionsof Piatcs
( srabiliry," Jottrnal of the structural biuirion,- ASCE, gs,'sig 6.7-<.Roberi lr{. Korol and ArchibaldN. Shcrbourne.
i^rril 1969),
695-713. i
I in Uruadal Compression,"Jountal of the StructuralDicision,ASCE, 98, ST9
( 6'54. Thomas C. Kavanagb. "Effective I
(Septeinber1972), 1965-1986.
Length of Framed Columns,,, Transactions, !
I
"Post-Buckling of Axially
ASCE, 127 (1962),Parr II, 81-i01. 6.76. Arcb.ibald N. Sherbourne.andRobert lvI. Korol.
I
( It
6-55. Joseph A. Yura. "The Effective Length of Cciur::rs in Unbraced I CompressedPlates,"Journalof the StructuralDitision,ASCE, 98, ST10(October
Fra:res,,, ,
(.' EngineeringJournal, 19 ,tTt.2223-2234.
rysc, 8, 2 (April 1971), i7-42; Disc., 9, 3 (octob er L972), iI "Post-Buckling of Geometrically
167-168. ' l
6.77. Ralpb G. Dawson and Alastair C. Walker.
( 6'56. Peter F. Adams. Discussionof "The Effective Length of Columns :
in Unbraced
r l Imperfect Plates," Journal of the Structural Dit,ision.ASCE, 98, ST1 (January
-. I
Frar'es," by Josepb A. yur4 EngineeringJournat, AISC, 9, I (January I i 9 7 2 ) .7 5 - 9 4 .
( rgTz), I "EffectiveWidth of Thin Platesin Compression,"Jourtul
40_41. I 5.78. Geor3eAbdel-Sayed.
( 6.57. Bruce G, Johnston. Discussion of "The Effective Length
6f fetrrmns in Uo- of the SrructuralDiaision,ASCE, 95, ST10(October1969),2183-2203.
braced Frames," by JosepbA. Yura, EngineeringJourna!, AISC,9, "Longitudinal Stiffcnersfor CompressionN{embcrs,"Jounnl
( 1 (January 6.79. Maunce L. Sharp.
t97Z),46. of the Structura!Dicision,ASCE. 92, ST5 (October1966)'i87-2li'
6.58. Robert O. Disque. "Inelastic K-factor f6s eelrrmn Desig,o,,, "Unstiffened Comprcs-
( EngineeringJournal, 6-80. v- Kalyanaraman,TeomanPckoz,Itd Georgewinter'
AISC, 10, 2 (Secondeuarter 1973),33_35. AscE, 103, sT9 (Scptcmber
sion Elemen15,"Jounnl ol the StructuralDiuision,
( 6.59. C. V. Smith,Jr...On InelasticColumn S,'s!ting,,, EngineeingJournal,AISC,
13, 19'17 1833-1848.
).
3 (Third Quarter 1976),96-gg; Disc., 14, 1(Ftst till1,4,1_4g. "Improvcd G-Factor lrlethod for
(- e.rarter 5.81. Russe:l Q. Bridge and Donald J. Frascr.
6.60. CharlesA. Matz. Discussionof ,.On InelasticCo:uir Buckling,,,b-v
Ir., Eng,;neering
C. V. Smith, Evaluating Effective Lengths of Columns," Journcl cl Structural Engineering.
( Jountal, AISC, 14, 1 (First eurter Lg77), 47:4g.
6'61. Frank W. Stockwell,Jr. "Gitder StiffnessDisriburioa for 1 1 3 .5 ( J u n e1 9 8 7 )1, 3 4 1 - 1 3 5 6 .
Unbraced Co!umns,,. "Dcsign Rulesof Built-Up \{cmbers in Load and
( EngineeringJournal, AIsc, 13, 3 (Third 6.82. Lian Duan and Wai-FabChen.
euaner 1976),g2-g5. ... Factor Design,"Journalof Structural Engineering,ll4,ll (Novcmbcr
6.62. cyrus omid'varan. "Discrete Analysis of Latticed colurnn s,,, Resisia.ace
( Jourvat of the 19831.25u-2554.
StructuralDiuision, ASCE,94, STI (January 196g), i19_132.
6'63. Fuag J. Lin, Ernst C. Glauser, and Bruce G. Johaston. "Behavior 6.83. A|SC . Specilicationfor AllowableStressDesi-en
of Single-Angle Cliicago:
lLfenibers.
( of Laced and
American Instituteof Steel Construction,1989.
Battened Structurai Members," Journal of the Srruuural Diuisibn,ASCA
%. ST?
( (July i970), L377-t40I.
6.64. Bruce G' Johnston-"Spaced Steel Columns," Journal of the
Structural Diuision,
( ASCE, 97, ST5 (May t9T1),1465-1479.
( 6.6s.lmer w. Blodgett. Design of lltetded sructures. clevelanc, ohio: James F.
Lincola Arc Weldiag Foundation. 1966. PROBLEMS
( 6'66' S. Timoshenko and S. Woinowsky-Krieger. Tneory of plates
and Shells,2nded.
t -
New York: McGraw-Hill Book Compan,y,Inc.. tq5l All problems are to be done accordingto the AISC Load and Resistance
@p.79_g2).
( 6'67. StephenP. Timoshenko and JamesM. Gere. Theory.i1-nastic Factor Design or AllorvableStrcssDesign,as indicatedby the i;rstructor-All
itobiliry,2nd ed.
( New York: McGraw-Hill Book compily, Inc., 196r (pp. 3r9-32g,
351-356).
given loads are serv'iceloads unlessotherwiseindicated.For each problem'
6'68' Kurt H. Gerstle- Basic StructuralDesign. Ne* York: McGraw-Hill
Bcok Com- draw the potential buckled shapeon a figure shorvingthe column and its
( pey, Inc., 1967(pp. 88-90). resrrainrsfor both x and y principaldirections.A final checkof strength(for
6.69. George Gerard aad Herbert Becker. Handbook of Structural LRFD) or stress(for ASD) must be shownin all designproblems.
( Stability, Part
I-Buckling of Flat plates, Tech- Note 3g71, XarionA Advisory
Committee for
. Aeronautics, Wa5hington,D.C., July 1957. the lightestW scctionto
by the instructor.select'fhe
( 6.1. For ihe caseassigned
6.70. Geerh-6 fiaerjer and Bruno Thiirlirna,.,r,...On Inelastic Buckling indicated. mernberis part of a
in Steel," load
carl,' an axial compression as
( Transactions, ASCE, t25 (1960),309_344.
bracedframe.Assumethe memberas pinnedat the top and bottoln.
(
PROBLEIiS (
390 MEMBERS
6./COMPRESSION lN PAFf ll: P|-{TES 511
( t
1* 6.6. Select the most economicalW section to carry an axial comprcssion load
PD PL ::: of'50 kips dead load and 100 kips live load. The member has (Kl), :
Dead Live Member (KL\, : 18 ft and is part of a braced system.Assume that relative costs
load load length Steel of various steelsare as follows: A36, 1.0; A572 Grade 50, 1.14; A572
Case (kips) (kips) (ft) grade Grade 60, 1.20.
6.7. Redesign the column of Prob. 6.6 assuming additionat weak direcrion
t
I 2A 80 22 A36
)) support at mid-height.
2 20 80 A57?Grade 50
3 20 EO t4 A36 ' 6.8. Select the lightest W section to carry an axial compression load of 6O
4 2A 80 t4 A572Grade 50 kips dead load and 250 kips live load. The member is part of.a braced
5 @ 40 22 A36 frame and is assumedto be pinned at the top and bottom of is 3O ft
6 60 40 l4 A36 length, and in addition has lateral support in the weak direction at 14 ft
1
2A 80 t4 A572Grade 60 from the bottom. Use (a) ,4,36steel; (b) 4,= 50 ksi; (c) f." : 65 ksi-
I 20 80 l4 A572Grade 65 6.9. Select rhe lightest W section to carry an axial compression of 90 kips
dead load and 320 kips live load. The memberis part of a braced frame.
The idealized suppon conditions are that tbe member is hinged in both
6.2. Selectthe lightestW sectionto carry a compressiveload of 200 kips dead '\\ principal directions at the top of a 30 ft height; supported in the weak
load and 625 kips live load. The effectivelength KL is 25 ft. Use A36 or .'.- direction at 14 and 22 ft from the bottom; atrd fixed in both directions at
^572 Crade 50, whicheveris more economical,if the Grade 50 costsT% : 50 ksi; (c) : 60 ksi.
. the bottom. Use (a) A36 steel; (b) 4 4.
more per pound
6.10. Selectthe lightest W sectionfor the column shown in the accompanying
6.3. Compute the maximum sen'iceaxial compressionload permitted on the figure. The loading is 30 kips dead load and 120 kips gravity live load.
built-up cross-sectionof the accompanyingfigure. The load is 30%dead The member is built into a wall so that it may be considered as
load and 7a% five load. The steel used is A5T2 Grade 50, and the continuouslybracedin the weak direction. Note:Not all of the available
effectivelengthsare(KL)r: 14 ft and (KL),: 42 ft. W sectionsare included in the AISC Manual Column Load Tables. Use
(a) ,{36 steel; (b) F' : 50 ksi; (c) f.' = 60 ksi.
I r lA
"l
8 -
-;::-
ti "l
it^
l i J r" ' r" ^
I
ll4
tl I
I I
Conrider hinged with
t t
r*pect to strong axis
bending
- .\ lo
Prob.6.3
6.4. For the data of Prob. 6.1, considerthe memberto be fixed at the bottom
and hinged at the top and part of a bracedsystem.Selecttbe lighrestW
'l "l
section for the caseassigned. P rob.6.10
6.5. Selectthe lightest W section to serveas an axially loaded column 28 fr
long. in a braced framg with additional lateral support in rhe weak 6.11. Redesignthe column of hob.6.2 assumingthere is no residual stresscr
direction at mid-height.The load to be carried is 65 kips dead load and accidental escentricity such that tbe column buckling strength may be
150 kips live load. Assume&e top and bottom of the column are hinged. representedby Euler's equation, Eq. 6.e8, using KL f,ar L.It designiag
(a) Use ,{36 and indicate first and seond choices. using LRFD philosophy,use S" : 0.85 and tbe load factor combinadcns
(b) use A572 Grade 60, indicaring first and second in LRFD'A4.I. lf using ASD philosophy, usc the dcoominator c;f
choices.
(
ET
t
i
ASD-Formula (E2-l) as the Facrorof Safety.Use : 50 ksi and take
{. and use the factoredload cornbinationin LRFD-A+.1. If ASD philoso-
,( note that {, cannot exceed
k'
r {.
6.12. Use the tangentmodulusrheoryto computethe column strengthrcla-
tionship (averageunit stress4, on gto.i area versus slendernessratio
phy is used,use the denominatorof ASD-Formula(E2-1) as the F:t.1cr
ard
of Safety.Use {,: 50 ksi. (c) Solveusing the AISC Specificatiertr
comparewith tangentmodulustheory result.
I KL/r). Draw the diagramto scaleand obtain any
4, valuesby scaling 6.1a.Follow the same requirementsas for Prob. 6.13 to constructa column
{ from your diagram.The steelhas : 50 ksi but thJ stress-srraincurve
strength curve. This time the residual stress distribution is linearly
I {.
r
II
for the material is as shown in the accompanyingfigure. Assume no varying as shorvn in the accompanyingfigure. For (b) and (c) use the
residual stress.Using your ^f, cun'e, selectthe lightest W secrionfor the
t
r loading and support conditionsof Prob. 6.2.
loading and supportconditionsof prob. 6.2.lf LRFD pbilosophyis used
"7*'
I
I
( use f. : 0.85 and userhe factoredroad combinationof LRFD-A4.l. If
''f_ffi,
r H
ir
t\
!
ASD philosophf is used,usedenominatorof ASD-Formula(82-i) as rhe
Factor of Safetv. [l- - - - fl
l L _ __ L _ _ _ _I l
t I
b/2
A
;s
\
)Comptess'on
Ir I
i( i-lx/
\{
r
I
Fv
2Fyt3
6 = 29,000ksi
E = 29.000ksi
t ] t J'f._l__H
l l l
I euo.
irress, o.4F,J--J-)-9.4P,
l/'
Fv /3 fi
Ii
r
I Prob. 6.14
r
I' P r ob. 6. 12
I
v'
I
6.15.RepeatProb.6.14,exceptfor (b) and (c) usingthe loadingand support
conditionsof Prob.6.13.
l),"
l. 6.13. using the tangent modulus theory: (a) construct a column strength
I
6.16. Design an interior column (use W shape)for a multistory rigid frame.
(4,: P,/Ar versusKL/r) for an H-shapeci
K .
section.Assumeweak axis
bending(KL/r), controlsand neglectthe effectof the rveb.Assumethe
No bracingis providedin rhe planeof the frame.In the planeperpendic'
ular to the frame,bracing is providedat top, bottom, and mid-hei-ehtof
lr idealized stress-strainrelationshipshorvnin the accompanyingfiguraii
columns and simple flexible beam-to-columnconnectionsare uscd.The
( to be used for each fiber of the cross-section,and the residuui rtt.rt'
axial compressive load is 400 kips deadload and 1100krps live load.and
distribution in the flangeis as shorvn. (b) Selectrhe lightest W sectionto
bending moinentsare neglected.Use A572 Grade 50 steel.
( carry a dead load of 100kips and a live load of 200 kips with an effective
length $L of 30 ft. Use your constructedcun'e as rhe relationship
( between -Q, and KL/r.If the LRFD philosophyis useduse : 0.g5
d
( t zs
I -,-Serne
12'-A designcolumn
( wi6x89 I z.Vi16 x 83 {5earn)
Tension
*\
Compression
( Neglect \ / Designth:s
\ / . 12'_O
fl nt I COlumn
( \ Ffi-_It
( Stress
|
| ;
lF===\__=l | | l
H l l I
I Il--40'-0 .c,-,
r
L oa'-o
l
.'
U
I
(
U--r I r_J b/4
Prob.6.16
( --l
t
t l t t l
i
I l- Fr,3'+Fri3
I
i
6.17. An axial compressionload consistingof 100 kips deadload and 400 kips
I
,I
( ResiOuats:ress
I
live load is to be carriedb1'a column having an effectivelength KL : 28
.4
I
t
( Prob.6.13 !
I ft. Use either A,36or A5?2 Grade 50 steel,whicheveris more economi-
I
( I
I
+:]. I
(
.(
cat. if rhe A5?2 steetcosts9![ more 0., Ooundof fabricated*ect thun
of'the truss the chord is braced by_adjoining web membersrhat frame in (
436. sarisfl' rhe widrh/rhicknesslimirs tr, of LRFD or AsD-85.1.
at 5-ft inten'als. Perpendicularto the plane of the truss, the chord is
{a) Design a rolled W section (
braced at l0 ft by a system of literal purlin supporrs. Use the mosr
{b) Design rhe lighresrwerdedl-strapedsecrionusing'rhreeplates.
(c) Design a wetded laced (single lacing) column-conritrint of ftrur economicalof A36 or A572 Grade 65 steelsif Grade 65 cosrs72% more (
angles. than A36.
(
(d) Design a welded box wirh solid plares. 6.26. Compute the serviceaxial compressiveload permitted on a l0x10x I
(e) Design a weldedbox having r$o perforatedplares. (
slructuraltube havingan effectivelength KL - 8 fr. The load is 60% live
_.
load. tJse (a) .436 steel; (b) 4 - 60 ksi; (c) : 100 ksi. (
6-18' Design as in Prob. 6.'17,exccpt the axial load is 190 kips ilead load and 4,
210 kips live load and KL - 32 ft. 6.27. Compute the serviceaxial compressiveload permirted on a l2x8xl I
structural tube having an effective length (RL)r: 7 ft for weak aris
6.19. Compute the rnaximumserviceload (25%dead load and 75%live load) (
bending,and (KL),: l0 frfor-srong axis bending The load is 359E
acceptablefor a structuraltee WT12x38 when used in a truss location
dead load and 65% live load. Use (a) 4,36 steel; (b) q, : 65 ksi; (c) ('
r*'hercit is braccdin the planeof the trussat 20-ft inten'ats
and bracerJ F, = 90 ksi'
irans'erse ro rhe plane of the trussat lo-fr intervals.Apply the pro'i- .
(
sionsof LRFD or ASD-Appendi.rB if necessary. 6.28. Redesignthe column of Prob. 6.1, selectinga structuraltube insteadof a
use r"i eio steer:(b)
= 50 ksi; (c) - 65 ksi. W section. {
4 4 'b.29.
6.20. Selecl the tightestdorlle angtecompressionmember ro carry t l0 Redesignthe columnof Prob. 6.6, selectinga structuraltube insteadof a ('
kips "''
dead load and 130 kips live load. The effecrive lengrh it = 20 fr. W section.
('
.Assumethe backsof the angleszueseparatedby a 6.30.Redesignthe columntrf Prob.6.7, selectinga st,ructural
|in. gussetplare. tube insteadof a
(
Indicate the orientationof the aoglelegs(i.e..shorro, iong iegsback-to- W section.
back)- If anglesare selectedfor uil rfrt-.riteels, indicate rhe economical
6.31. Compute the serviceaxial compressiveload permitted on the nonstan- (
choice if relativecosrsare A36 (1.0), = 50 (1.0?),and
4 {,,'r : 60 (1.10}. dard l-shapedsectionshown in the accompanyingfigure if rhe load is
Use (a) A36 steel; (b) (
4,- 50 ksi; (i) Fr: 60 ksi. 30% dead load and 70% live load. The effectivelengrh(KL),, : 12 fr
6.21- Designas in 6.20,exceprrhe membermusrcany 40 kips deadload and ( KL't'-: 6 ft. Use (a) A36 sreel; F) f., : 60 ksi; (c) f., : 100ksi. (,'
f1ob,
and 140 kips live load, and KL: 16 ft.
(
6'22. Designas in.Prob.6.20, exceptthe membermustcarn'30 kips deadload
and 50 kips live load, and KL = 12 fr. l . o (
a "
6.23. Design a top chord memberfor a roof truss ro carry 40 kips dead (
load.
E0 kips live load,-and 40 kips *ind load acting simultaneously. (
Assume " tz
this loading combination govemsthe design.fn. member is braced i
in (
the plane oj rh9 rruss by adjoining rveb membersconnectingin at
interr'als-The chordis bracedtransuerse
5-fr ar t Prob.6.31
to the ptaneof the trussat l6-fr (
iaren'als-)teglecrbendingdue ro roof loads. (N'ote:Referto LRFD_A4.I
or ASD-A52.) (
6.32. Repeat Prob. 6.31 except use the nonstandard tee section of rhe accom-
(a) Design a double anglemembermnnected to (
|-in. gusserplares. panying figure.
(b) Design a srructuralree. ! :_'
!5
I
('
6'24. Selectthe lighteststructural tee(\yD for useas a rop chord t:-
compression i = (
member to carry 35 kips dedil toad and 100 tips tive load. Neglecr
L - .
bending- The member has a 9-fi effectire length ior bucuing in eirher i-- (
t!:e .r-x or ).--r plane. Use (a) A36 steel; :---
fb) q = j0 ksi srcel: (c)
F, = 65 ksi steet. ! =
Ji-
l---
(
H.-
Chapter7 {. I
;i
,:.1
(
-f
. t+
Bearns:l-aterally$upported I
I
i
I
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Beams,includingopen-web joists,cbannels. shapes,along*'ith
and W (w'ide-flange)
tubularcolumns.(Photoby C. G. Salmon)
A beam is generallyconsideredto be any member subjectedprincipally to
transversegravity loading.The term trans!€rseloadingis takento includeend
rnoments.Thus beatnsin a structuremay also be referredto as girders(usually
has provided an interestinghistory of beam design accordingto various
the most important beams which are frequently at rvide spacing); joists
editionsof the AISC Specification.
(usually less important beams which are closely spaced,frequently rvith
truss-type webs); purlins (roof beams spanning betrveentrusses); stringers
(longitudinal bridge beamsspanning betrveenfloor beams); girls (horizontal..
rvall beamsservingprincipallyto resistbendingdue to wind on the sideof an SHAPES
7.2 SIMPLEBENDINGOF SYMMETRICAL
industrial building; frequently supporring corrugated siding); and linrels
(memberssupportinga wall over window or door openings).Other terms,such The most common designsituationsinvolve selectionof rolled n'ide-flange
as header,trirnmer,and rafter,are sometimesused,but beamidentificationbv shapesfrom the AISC tables,rvhichoften becomesroutine and may lead the
theseterms is not generallyapplied. designerinto overconfidence in treatmentof beams.It is rvell knorvn that the
A beam is a combinationof a tensionelementand a compression element. flexure formula ( f : IIc// ) is-applicableto ordinary situations.The siresses
The concepts of tension membersand compressionmembersare now com- on the common sectionsof Fig. ?.2.1may be computedby the simple flerure
bined in the treatmentas a beam. In ihis chapter,the compressionelement formula rvhen loads are acting in one of the principal directions.When an1'
(one flange) that is integrallybraced perpendicularr,o rrs plane through its and loadedthroughthe shearcenter
sectionrvith at leastone axisof syrTrmetr.v
attachmentto the stabletensionflange by meansof the rveb,is assumedatso is subjectedto'a bendingmoment in an arbitrary direction,the componenis
to be braced laterally in the direction perpendicularro the plane of the web. {
Thus overall buckling of the compression flange as a coiumn cannot occur _T
prior to its full participationto develop rhe moment strengthof the section. C,
While it is likely true that most beams used in practical situations are )
adequatelybracedlaterallyso that such stability need not be considered,the
--q I,
percentageof stable situations is probably not as high as assumed.The
S, . I,lc, S, = lrlc, S, = l,lc,
important trearmentof lateralstability is found in Chapier 9. GalamDos
[7.1]
Figure 7.2.1 Elastic sectionmodulus expressionsfor symmetricalsbapcs.
JYO I
\
-( 398 7 /9EAuS: LAT€RALLY
SUPPOffTED STABLEBEAMS
7.3/BEHAVIOROF I-ATERALLY 399
(
( M,. and M,,, in the principal directions,can be obtained and the stress l.- Plasticreeion-l
I
( computedas
F,
Ic,
( '1 =EM " S + M- " , (7.2.r)
g,
(
'*'hereS is the sectionmodultu,defined as the moment of inertia / divided by "
( rhe distance c from the centerof gavity to the extremefiber. The subscriptsx
(, t'
e .
Strain.c
( and I indicate the axis about which the moment of inertia is computed and diagam for most structuralsteels.
Figure7.3.2 51tg55-5g'ain
from which the distancec is measured(see Fig. 7.2.1).For memberswithout
( ar least one axis of symmetrythe readeris referred to sec. 7.10.
strength Mn is thereforereferredto as the plasticmomentM, andis computed
(
( Mo: Frl^y&4: FrZ (7.3.2)
7.3 BEHAVIOROF LATERALLYSTABLEBEAMS
( where Z : Il'dA may be called the plastic mudulus'
When beams have adequatelateral stability of the compressionflange, the
( only stability limit state that might limit moment strength'is local buckling in It will be observld that the ratio MJM, is a property of the cross-sec-
This ratio is
compressionof the flange and/or web plate elements'makingup the cross-sec- .3ional shape and is independent of tbi miterial properties.
(- referred to as the shoPefactor I'
tion.
( The stressdistribution on a typical wide-flangeshapesubjectedto increas- , Mo-- z (7.3.3)
ing bendingmomentis shownin Fig. 7.3.1.At bendingmomentin the service ', -M- : , .s
(
load range the sectionis elasticas in Fig. 7.3.1a,and the elasticcondition
(x-x) the shape
( exists until the stressat the extreme fiber reachesthe yield stress {,, (Fie. For wide-flange(W) shapesin flexure about the strong axis
aboui 1.09 to about 1.18 with the usual value-being about
7.3.1b).Once the straine reachese, (Fig.7.3.2),increasing'strain inducesno factor rangesiro*
( strength.Mo of' W
increase in stress.This elastic-plasticstress-strainbehavior is the accepted_ 1.12. One may conservadvelysay the plastic moment
idealization for structural steelshaving yield stressesof about {,. : 65 ksi 10% greater than the strength
( sectionsbent about their trtong axis is at least
(a48 MPa) and less. fiber just reachesthe yield stress$.
( {,. when rhe exrreme r .r .. -, t
When the yield stressis reachedat the extremefiber (Fig. ?.3.1b),the Design procedureshave long recognizedthat beamsdo exhibit the behav-
plastifica-
( nominal moment strength M" is referred to as the yield momentM, and is ior discussedabove. Extensivetesting has adequatelyverified that
computedas tion of the entire cross-sectiondoes occur [?'2] (assuming lateral-torsional
( 6'
Mn: Mr= SrF, (7.3.1) buckling as treated in Chapter 9 and local buckling as treatedin Chapter
( Part II, do not occur)- t
When the condition of Fig. 7.3.1dis reached,every fiber has a strain equal to
( or grearerthan c ,: Fr./'Er,i.e.,it is in the plasticrange.The nominal moment r EXAMPLE 73.7
d'
( Determine the shapefactor for a recrangularbeam of width D and depth
{I ( ,
7,2BEAMS:LATERALLY
SUPPORTED .l 7.4i L
.
'.tE (
.:l
I ' I
F , F
T-f-ll!_Eg g! re
li liltrY
t i - li lr Ey #
:r , M Yn t
n
u ii
i hi . '. ,i ,
J = u a ! , - tLt - - t
l--- , -] *w = factored service load
, 5 l r e s 5 , w -h e n ( b ) S t r e s s w h e n ( c ) ! . / s e c i i ; o n . : i m
(/.r\a c.-^--...r^-
t/t=M, M=Mo .-,rl,,l.Jo,"n ,i
ffi rtl (
1 s i i""'5t
\ P t a're hci n g e "-fltl
,, LJI!
(
i --.-.
( ,
I Factored i/ ii,,
momenl
Fronr Fig. 7.3.3b, ii w-12
-"^- (
8-
(a) ( b )f ' t o n
MPo : { t a n- - - - : z [ u " F , b y d y : o , u o ' I
1ut: to 4 t ?:^..-^ 1. a n r^-ri^ L ^L-.-:^-
beharior.
Figure 7.3.4 Plastic (
The shapefactor is then
t : # * 1.5 ,
I diagramafter a plastichingehas occurredrvill no longcr
e
rl r'
i the elasricbendingmomentdiagram.
rvhich illustrates that there iS a greater reservebeyond firsr As discussedby Yura.
f.ield in the i
bendingof a rectangular
section
thin in un l-rttup.J;;;i;" i."atg lu"r,'ii, ,t i adequate s'ith I
resis.tance
..?.''r'.r;i;;;;Jiiliil,"i;';i';:1fiiffil il i
, I
(chapter
;il;;i;1.r.1"s 6r.t":II)toach
weak axis ( y- y) is essentiallya rectangularsection(two recrangJes
-'-c-- separat;; the actuallimit statewill s
i
i sitrnflangelocal buckling.or u'cb localbuckling,thoughin the plasticrange.
('
Thus. prJ.,entionof failureby anv of theseinstabiiityInodesuntil adcquate
Once the plastic momentstrengthM, hasbeen reacheci.rhe sectioncan rotation d,, has occurred. reqr
t
offer no additional resistanceto-rotad5n, behaving as a liing. Uur^'rt-]iif., '.1 htcral *ppott.-on the s'
d;;';-^-pirit, iiigrli'i-^,",,.riii ratioof therveb.
on rheacpitrTtnickness
determinatebeam, suih as a simply supportedone, having on. plastichinge
------J
. I
I
-.-|
form will makethestructure
unstable;
onerealhingeat eachendandu prurfr.
hingein the midspanregionwill createan unsrablesituation.knorvnas a I 7.4 lATFIAllI-lgt
I
collapsentech'anistitIn general,any combinarion of three hing.r, ,..ui'o? LOAD AND RESISTA
.l
p l a s t i c , i n a s p a n r v i l t r e s u l t i n a c o l l a p s e m e c h a n i s m . : " | =
Referring to Fig. 7.3.4, one may note that the angle of rotation d ;='i The strength-requiremer
(: o:?:lt":ll_tt,t]11tic from load.M un_rit
the exiremefiberr.*rr.t ,., to LRFD'F2 r
according
F :.:ir.r
M,. then.becomespartially I
1, inelasticuntil the plastic moment Mn is
reached.Once the plastichingehas occurredand the M-0 cun'e has bec5me :I
II
horizontal, deflection of the beam (rotation of the plastified .tos-r*i"nj .,
I rvhere e,, : resistance(
increasesrvithout restraint.At the collapsecondition the elasticArfor*uiion
. I M :
M,: nominal m
nominalmoment strength
due to bending on the segmentsbetweenthe endsand midspanis negligible (
"iri',u : factoredsen'iceload moment(seeSec.1.9)
comparedto the ro{ation0, occurringat the plastichinge.Ti.rut.the Jnaivsis
" l /
may
rntltt
treat rthe
?rpol ha
collapse situation
^^tl^--o -ie..^el:- ^^
as
. ..
two rigid bodies haring an ungulo,
;
:;rt
I
,A-__-^r c,-^a:.
compact sections
disconrinuity
0, at rnidspan.
As will be showrilaterin sec.t0.2.ir i, ";i;l;;
statically determinatesituationsthat one can expect every point uton!
;l
e irr.
- - l::t:l l I The nominal - ' strengrh
"-----.,--' ,tr
' -n '--
ffactored
actorerl moment
m oment dia-gram
d irorern tto
n h beo n proportional
rnnarria-^t o^ .L^ ^r^-r:-
to the elastic momenraiaio* ' -r r ---
LRFD-Appcndix Fl ma
Redistribution
. vof
. the
! r . v rmoments
r r v r r r v r r l J 'occurs
LLur' during
u r r n g rloading be1'ond
D g Y o n o ttne
-l I
u oaqing JasUc
ne e lasttc *'l i ,, r
e in ttsttal staticallv indeterrrri^ara cirr.arl^-^. eL^. :^ ^r- r t. -''i Ivfn: M, \1.q.4
:*i.
(\ '*
s,{ I \ ./
( 't
lrv tw
,F, : 4 l I . i r -" : - : : i o . R l o r c
\ Zrr 2(0.425) J \ i{" I
( 36 10.8 3 1 .7 107
( 42 10.0 29.3 t n - \ 1 6 4 0 \
l r : jt * ' : 4 1 . 8.1 l r " : T :
98.8 1o7l oK
45 9.7 28.3 95.4 /
( 50 9.2 26.9 \ \' Vrr I
90.5
)) 8.8 25.6
( 60 8.4
86,3 Note that the value h,/t, used is that tabulatedin the LRFD Manual. If
24.5 _82.6
65 8'l r computedas (d -2k * r adius ot 0. 25) , / t , , h, / t n, : 41- 6. Use of t he LRFD
( 23.6 79.4 Manual valuesof the property h,/ t * is thereforerecommended.
( 'Plasric analysis is- Checkthe strength:Correct the factoredmoment lL'["to includethe bearn
resrricted by LRFD-AS and ASD-Fl.l ro steels baving rveight.
( 4 s 65 ksi (a50 MPa).
,r; : I .2(0.222)+ 1.6(0.8): 1.55kips/ft
(
and ResistanceFactor Design,and selectfor the follorving JI , : 76(1.55/l .52) - 77.3ft-kiPs
( e steels:
' ---' ----:
A36; AS72
Grade50; and A572Grade65.
Lf n : M o : Z,F, : 29.3(36)/tZ : 87.9 ft-kips
(
SOLUTION QnMn: 9r ( 87. 9): 0. 90( 37. 9): ?9. 1 f t 'kips ) M , oK
( (a) Compure rhe factoredload M".
UseW12x22, F,,: 36 ksi,
( B, : 1.2w, * 1.6rv.: 1.2(0.2)+ i.6(0.g) : l.S}kips/ft
(c) A572 Grade50 steel.
( Mu: wuL27g: 1.52(20)' /g:76 ft-kips (not includingbeamw'eiglrr)
( z': +:
Required,
."l^'--'-' : 2o'3
^t:11?l' in'3
(b) 436 stee!.Assume"compact section"sincethe vast
majority of ,oilej +ar,, 0'90(50)
( sectionssatisfy I s l, for both the flange and the web. The aesi,en "LOAD FACTOR DESIGN SELECTION TABLE
strength Selectfrom LRFD table
QtM'.is
( : )- ^, - r ' r - F
2," I
QtMn : euMp: e6ZrF,
( Try N{14x18: Z, : 24.9in.3
The designrequirementis
( - Check"compact section"limits tro (Table 1.1-2):
RequiredQtM,: Mu
b, 4.00
( : 7' 4 < 9 ' 2 OK
Required . . - t r n orn" : Zrt: 2(0270)
( z.: *: =t:ll=t].= 28.1in.3
QtF, 0.90(36)
h-
( tr*.b:i:60.3<90.5 OK
(
Check the strength:
(
M u : 76(1.54/7.52): 77.1ft-kips
(
(
t : r Mn: Mo: Z,Fr: 24.9(50)/tz : 104ft-kiPs
utL2
-3-
(
Figure7.4.1 Example7.4.1. QuM,: 9o(i04) : 0.90(104): 93.4 ft-kips > lIu OK
,.(
'7 .5/ LATERALLY BEA'{S-': ASO
SUFPORTED ( '
-*...' 406 7 /BEAMS: TATERALLY
SUPPORTED
( '
buckling would be the correct value of M,. Continuing the check' (
The section is significantty stronger than necessarybut is the lightest section
having the required M,. = 77.r ft'kips
Mu: 76(1.54/1.52) (
lse'Mtqxt8,- 4,.: 50'lsi.
M, = 92'5ft-kiP ( ,
(d) .4572Crade 65 steel.
:83-3 ft-kips) Mu
: 0.90(92.5) (
QoMo= 6o(92.5) OK
' z,' = !:
Required : ::!!.:!-: 15.6in.3
t- (
Qf, 0.90(65) UseWl2x74, Fn.: 65ksi.
{h:*)='
lw
. ;
In this case the controlling limit state is local buckling of the flange. When
_*,. (7.5.1)
tr, t l t tro, as above,the sectionis classifiedas "noncompact". {=
-*
Check the strength.The strengthis obtained by interpolation between Mo 7
*
tnd M, using Eq.7.a.4. Fint tfor the flange musr be obtained (from Tabli +
* where Mr: nominal moment strength
1.4.7)as 19.0,which exceedsbr/Zt, of 8.8 and the sectionis "noncompact": &.
!E t/Q: overload factors divided by undprstrengthfactor
* FS : \.67 : nominal safety factor in beam design
:G M : serviceload bending moment
TF
G
* "stress" forfnat, divide both sides by the section
3*r To obtain Eq. 7.5.1 in
modulus S; thus,
M n :M p -( M , - * ) ( H ) = r , [t.a.al =(a:#')
(r,=f) (7.5.2)
M.: e4.2- (s4.2- 6s.3)(**=*) : nr., rt-kips In order to compute and compare stresses,a value of the shape factcr f must
be chosen when in faet each rolled section has a different value. For strong
rrhichis 0.98Mo.If in additionthewebbad l, > tr r tro, rhenilf" wouldalso axis bending of l-sbapedsectionsa value of 1.10was seleted. Substituting F4.
haveto be computedfrom Eq. 7.4.4usingtr, \, and l,o valuesfor thc web, ?.5.3 with t - l.l0 into F5 on tbe right side of Eq. 7.5.2 and usiog FS * l-67
The lower of the strengthsrelating to flangelocat buikling and web local grves the allowable stressF6.
1
(
7/BEAMS: LATERALLY
SUPPORTED 7.5/ I-ATERALLYSUPtrOffTEDBEA,\IS- ASD
(
( l. For l-shuped sections
bendingaboutthe x_x axis: Partially compacl
AsD.Fl.2
(
ts4
r;: (FS : 1.10S,i": o'66F, (7.s.4)
( (*fr, Axis of
bending
( In order for sectionsto qualify as "compacl" the width/thickness ratios S-
for t,-* t
the flange and u'eb musr not exceedthe ;compact" limits of ASD-Table
(
(the tro valuesof Table 7.4.2).
B5.l LA
I H
( bt
2. For l-shaped sections
bendingaboutthey_y axis:
( Partially compacl
fa: 0.754, (7.5.5) ASD-F2.2
( M r; theref.ore,the designermay linearly inteqpolatebetweenthoselimits. Note -r.i. 1. The superimposedserviceload (1 ktp/ft) bending moment is
that the "noncompacr" limits of ASD-Tabre5.1 (seeTable 6.16.1)are some-
t
.F*i ' '-
( j'i .- M : w L 2 / g : 1. A ( Z q z / g : 5 0 f t - k i p s
what more conservative(i.e.,Iorver)rhan the 1,, limits of LRFD-Table B5.1, -.11.
i
''+ i
( though the purpose is the same.The allorvablestressrelationship is shown in _'i: i
F ig. 7. 5. 1. *i M 50(12)
( ':s.i
RequiredS, : -- :25in.'
O i
€i
( '.: i
-;
.i ( '
Check "compact" limits (trr) of ASD-TableB5.l: (
j :
'; (
! =:g :4.7 < lo.8 (Tabte
\ ' g v ' w "i.4.2\
' oK Consrant /
Ztt 2(0.425) :f'
(
-;-.
!:
;;;&-
Ma
l r Figure 7.6.1 Typical bending moment (
d 12.31 '?f L/24-.L/2 diagram for unifornrly loaded beam.
- : 47'3 < 107 (Table7 '4'2) oK
4*i I
om (
L :-::
3-
membermay be expressed
as (
Note that ASD usesoverall depth d whereasLRFD uses rhe unsupported
height h, of, the web even though the limit is the same. .4i.. WL3 (
Check the flexural stress: s
,:.:E-.
A,n*: F,
U
(7.6.1)
(
fi
:_
M : l.0ZZ(Z[2/8 : 5t.t ft-kips (includingbeamweight) where W : total seruiceload on the span ( ,
E_-
L : span length
M = E : modulusof elasticity(29,000ksi or 200,000MPa for steel) (
51.1(12) *
fu:T :)aiksi=tFu=2aksil sayOK / : momentof inertia
s, 25.4 - 3\ (
.:.r.
B1 : coefficientwhich dependsupon the degreeof fixity at supports,
the variation in moment of inertia along lhe span, and the (
UseWl2x22, 4 : 36ksi. I
,iI''
distribution of loading. (For a simply supported beam, B, :
5/384; other valuesare availablein the LRFD or ASD Manual (
:: section.''BEAM DIACRAMS AND FORMULAS.") (
-€;
For continuousbeams,the midspandeflectionin the commonsituationof (
7.6 DEFLECTION a uniform loading on a prismaticbeam with unequalend moments(seeFig.
7.6.1)may be expressed'as (
As beamsare used on long spans(i.e., as the ratio of the span length to the _- (
depth of the section becomeslarge) or shallower sections'of higi-strength J - ; . f . ^:. - y l M ,y-
-mtdspan o . l ' ( M " +M r ) l (7.6.2\
steelsare used,deflection restrictionsmay control the design 4gEI (
Excessivedeflection of a floor or roof system may cause damage Equation 7.6.2 will give satisfactoryresultswhen consideredto be the maxi-
to (
attachednonstructuralelementssuch as partitions, may impair the usefulness mum deflection for nearl-vall practical loadingsfor beams having uniform
of the structure by, for instance,distorting door jambs so that doors will
not momentof inertia.Equation7.6.2maybe verifiedby the useof a method such (
open and close, or may cause "bouncy" floon. These are all seruiceabilitl. as conjugatebeam. (
requirements, in many caseshaving no correlation with the strengti For uniformly loadedsimply supportedbeamd,Eq. ?.6.1becomes
of rbe
floor system. t'' (
An excellentappraisalof serviceabilityof structureshas been performed SwLa
A
-trrar : - (7.6.3) (
by ar: .{'scE Ad Hoc committee [7.43J.Galambosand Ellingwood 3g4EI
[7.4] have
discussedgeneralserviceabilitylimit s!3res,and Elling*.ooa nhich upon substitutionof M : wLz/8, f - Mc/1, and c : d/2, gives (
12.+1-hai pro
vided guidelinesfor steel structures.Excessivedeflection is also indicative i ^ t
r*
of i g (
possiblevibration and noise transmissionproblems.wright and walker ifr 70fL2
[?.61. A
-mar
- (7.6.4)
Ir{urray 17.7,7.81,and Ellingwood and Tallin ig 48Ed (
[7.5] have rreatedvibration of
floor svstemsand the relatedhuman response. .:t;
;;i*
.*+ Equation 7.6.4can be usedas a good approximationfor any simply supported (
On roofs a major deflection-relatedproblem is the ponding of warer; this
is specrficallykeated later in this section, F beamas long as the marimum stressoccursnear midspan.Refer to Table 7.6.1
for typical values. (
ti*
Numerous structuralanalysismethodsare availablefor computing L{5.
deflec-
tions on uniform and variable momcnt of inertia sectionsin {
staticaiy d.,.r-
ntinate and indeterminatestructures,Deflectionof stepped (
beamshas been r.€d. 'Scc Chu-Kir Wang and CharlesG. Salmos, ReinforcedConrrete Desiglt,4th cd. (Harper & Ron'.
treatedby Yamamoto[7.4t.tn gineral, the maximumdellection l*
in an elastic Publishers.Ncw.York. l9$5). p. 490.
t'-:
tF- (
C:
;&
; rJi
(
.#i
(
(
( *€
412 . 7 / BEAMS:LATEMLLv suppoRTED ?*
; t 7.6 /D9FLECTION 413
( FI
( TABLE 7.6.1 DEFLECTIONRELATIONSHIPS
ACCOFDINGTO EO. 7.6.4
3
ET
--t
-l Floor beanrsand girders.subjecito shockor vibratory loads.supporting
( L/d L/d
;l
{ largeopenareasfreeof partitionsor othersourcesof damping:
l*u, L/ d (f : 22 kst) (l: -rl
30 ksi)
( L
=20 (7.6.1)
( L/360 38i/! t7.6 12.9 Z
L/30A 4u/f 2T.L 15.5 Roof purlins.fully stressed.
exceptflat roofs:
( L/240 580/f 26.3 19.3
L/200 6e5/l 3 1 .6 23.2 L 1000
( - (7.6.8)
d {,ksi
(
Assunringthe senic-eload stress/ equalsthe ASD allorvablestress0.66f,
l
ASD-L3.l states,"Beamsand girderssupportingfloors for "compact sections".the ASD-Commentarysuggestions of coefficients800
and roofs shallbe
( proportioned rvith due regardio the deflectionprod-uced and 1000correspondto L/d valuesof 528/f and 660/f, respectivell'. Using
by designloads.',In
addition, live load deflectionu'hereplastered..iling, are these L/d valuesin Eq. 7.6.4 would give simply supportedbeam limits of
( supportedis limited
to L/360 about L/260 and L/270.
( For the L/360limitation . F,q.7.6.4.using E : 29,000ksi becomes On continuousspansit is. of course,the actual deflectionthat is of
importance,not the L/d ratio. For continuousbeamdeflection,a comparison
( L 48(29,000) 38i '7.6.2
--]--_-=- of Eqs. and 7.6.4shorvsthat Eq.7.6.4can also be usedfor continuous
d - (10)360/ (7.6.5)' beamsif the stress/ is computedusingthe equivalentbendingmomenl
( f
( t r { , : M , - 0 . 1 ( M ,+ M u ) (7.6.e)
where/ is in ksi.
( on the other hand LRFD-L3 containsthe more generalstatement,..De_ I EL{}IPLE 7.6.1
formations in structuralmembersand structuralsystemsdue Selectthe lightestW sectionto carry a uniform deadload of 0.5 kip/tt and a
( to senice loads
shal! not impair the seniceability of the structuie." Further, live load of 1.0 kip/tt on a simply supportedspanof 42 ft. Adequatelateral
LRFD-L sa_v-s
( Iimiting valuesto ensureseniceability"shall be chosenrvith supportis provided.The live load deflectionis limited to L//360. Use A572
due regard to the
rntendedfunction of the structure." Grade 50 and Load and Resistance Factor Design.
( When consideringdeflections, it shouldbe remembered that the deadload.
deflectionsusuallycan be accountedfor during construction
( by either camber- .,. SOLUTION
ing (negativebendrng)or thickeningthe slablr floor topping. (a) Computerhe factoredmoment Mu.Estimating lhe beam rveightat
It is only the
( deflectionthat occursdue to loadsappliedafter construction 7A b/ft:
is-completedthat
may crack ceilings,partitions,or walls.
( 11,, : 7.7*'o * 1.6tr,r.
Specification requiremenb for limiting deflecdonsare
meager because
( there is no singleor standardvaluefor the iolerabledeflection.
Th; acceptable 1.2(0.5 + 0.07 est) + 1.6(1.0) : 2.28 kips/f t
amount must of necessitydepend on the type and arrangement
( being supported.
of materials M, -- w,L2/8 : 2.28(42)'/8 : 504 ft-kips
( a guide only, ASD-commenrary L3.1 suggeststhe following (b) ComputerequiredplasticmodulusZ* to satisfystrengthrequirement.
.,^_1r limita-
tro n s : Assumingcdmpactsection,the designstrengthQuM^is
( Floor beamsand girders,fully stressed:
( et,trt,-- etMp: erZ,F,
L 800
-
( d .{,, ksi {7.6.6) t,: +:
Required :1X('?: 134
0.90(50)
in.3
?tF,
(
Selectfrom LRFD table"LOAD FACTOR DESIGN SELECTION TABLE":
(
L 2667 Try W24x55: Z,: \34in.a
( 'For SI.
for/ in MPa.
v:
' ( F
*
'f
\ &;
p'.. 414 7,r8€AMS I-ATERALI-Y
SUPPORTED (
7.6/DEFLECTTON 4 1 5
(
(c) Compute required moment of inertia I" to satisfy the deflecrionlimit. (
The senice load lnoment instead of tbe factored moment must k used since (
deflection is of coscsrn when the structure is being used,not *'hen failure is *-
imminent. Tha sen'ice live load monetrt is *-
.s' (
#
*. (
M = wL2/8 ,= l.o(42\'lg: z2l ft-kips
;.:-
di
:s-- (
SwLa 5ML2
o:lrFili #:
*c- (
4F,EI +-
rG (
5ML2 s(221)(42)'(rea) *
R e .c u i r e d f : - - : 1724 tn.a st
iit. (
48EA (42/360)
48(2e000) .r
;*-
(
Sclectfrom LRFD table *MOMENT OF INERTIA SELECTION TABLE':
-l;
(
Try W24x68: /, : 1830in.a Figure 7.6.2 Flat roof arraogeoent for ponding analysis.(From Ref. 7.10) (
ia-l
g.
\.
Note that the secrion required to control deflection is'larger than the section (
rcquired for sreng$r; i.e., deflection controls.
(d)- Check the W24x68 section: continuesuntil either (1) the succeedingdeflectionincrementsbecomesmaller i
and equilibrium is reached;or (2) succeedingdeflection incrementsare in-
(
wu: t . 2( 0 .5 + 0 .0 6 3 )+ 1 .6 (1 .0 ): 2 .2 8 ktps/ft creasing,the systembecomesunstable,and collapseoccurs.This retention of
water which results solely from the deflectionof flat roof frarning is what is \
M u: 503 f t-k i p s referred to as pondiag. From a serviceabilitystandpoint, this ponding of water
(
is a major reason for splitting of roof membranes,resulting in costly replace.
M n: Mr: Z ,F , - 1 7 7 (5 0/1
) 2 :7 3 8 ft-ki ps ment of both the membraneand the insulation.. (
To prevent ponding of water accumulatedon flat roofs. the 1963 AISC
Qo.Vn= 9r(738) - 0.90(?38): 60a ft-kips 7 Mu OK Specification required supporringmembersto sarisfy rhe limiration
(
L (
As expected. the strength considerablyexceedsthe required suength..Check 600
_ < _ (7.6.10)
deflection: d- (
fo
M(serr,ricelive load) : 221ft-kips (
where /u is the computed serviceload bendinr rooi in ksi. using Eq. ?.6.4,
sMLz 5(22r)(442n28 this would correspondroughly to a deflection limitation of L/249 on a simply (
^
A : .::- : 1.32in. < tl - L : l.4o i!.) oK supported span.
4SEr 48(2e000)1830 (
\ 360 Avoidance of ponding is much more complex than indicated by the above
limitation. Marino [7.101has provided an extensivetreatment that forms the (
Note that the live load defletion and the limit are quite close(within 6%) but
the strength condderably exceedsthe requiremelt (32% greater); that is,
deflection cantrols.
e
)i:.,
basis for the AISC provisionsof LRFD and ASD-K2. The flat roof is treated
as a two-way systemof secondarymembers(say,purlins) elasticallysupported
(
s
s by primary members (say, girders) which are rigidly supported by walls or (
Lise W24x68. f." .= 50 ksi.
E (
(
(
(
( 416 7/BEAMS: LATERALLY
suppoRTED
7.6/OEFLECT|OT{ 417
(
( 32L,Lf,
--
rvhere Cr: Given:
( l07Ip
32SL:
W24x84. Ip:2370in.4
( _.s
a - o
l07I, f o : 22.5ksi (totat senice load strcs.
( Lr: lengthof primarymember,ft
L" : length of secondarymember.ft 24H6, I , : 462(72)
/30 : 185in.a
*
(
S: spacingof secondarymember,ft
( .I, : moment of inertiaof primary member,in.a 7, : 30 ksi (serviceload stress)
( { : moment of inertiaof secondarymember,in.a
.fr: Assume that 60% of the total serviceload is acting at the onset of pondrng
moment of inertia of steeldeck supportedon secondarymem-
( Check the adequacyof the system.
bers,in.a per ft
I
I
418 7/BEAlrxS:LATEFALLY
SUPPORTED 7 7/SHEARONROLL€DBEAMS 419 (
I
(
-('
By accurately checking using LRFD or ASD commentary Fig. C-K2.2, Subtracting
F or U ,: 1 .2 2 a n d C p : AJ g (
Find allowable Q = 0.35 > 0.16 OK
dc,: fi a* (7.7.2)
(
Thus both mernberssatisfypondingprovisions.When the stressindex is above 'dMv (
LRFD or ASD-K2 will be grosslyconserva-
about 0.5, the simple expressions
dI: Q.7.3) (
tlve. i
c,: Iltae (
the familiarequation (
c,+dc,: I"(f +df)d.n , : r yIt ( 7 : 1 . 6(\
(
is obtained where Q is the first moment of area about the x-axis of the (!
f f+61
cross-sectionalarea between the e'xtremefiber at h (Fig. 7.7.1b) and the
particular location at y' at which the shearstressis to be determined. (
Under usual proceduresof steeldesign,the phearstressis computedas the /\
ayerage vafue over the gross area of the web neglecting the effect of any
fastenerholes; thus (
V V (
f": 0 '7'7\
T,: dr* /
(b)
Note that large holescut in a beam web to permit passageof pipes and ducts (
require special considerationand their effect rnay not be neglected. (
The following exampleillustrates that in an l-shaped beam most of the
shear is canied by the web. (
(
I EXAMPLE 7.7.I
Determine the elasticshearstressdistribution on a W24x94 beam subjectedto (
(c)
a service load shear force of 200 kips. Also computc the portion of the sbear (
Figure 7.7.1 Flexurat strcsses involvcd in dcrivatiou of shear stress equation. caried by the flange and tbat canied by the web. (See Fig.7.7.2).
(
(
(
(
{
7 / B€AMS:LATERALLY
SUPPORTED 7.7/SHEARONROLLEDBEAMS 121
(
(
(
0.875 V,of the sectionis basedon ouerailshearf ielding of the u'eb.Thus.
-e.6s-l
-rl
I
l/n: rrA* {?.-.Sr
(
w24 X 94 s l where r, : shearyield stressof the web steel
( l -27s.in.' 24.31
areaof the rveb: dt * f.orrolled beams
o.azs An :
II d: overalldepth for rolled beams
( _r
l*, : web thickness
( '
(a) (b) Shear siress According to the "energy of distortion" theory (see Sec.2.6), the shear
( Figure 7.7-2 Example 7.7.1. yield stress { equals the tension-compressionyield stress-{. divided b1' r'T
u'henshearsiressactsalone(pureshear).gi"i:rg fron Eq. 2.6.:.
(
rr: 0.58F, lt r
( SOLUTION
(a) Stressat junctionof flangeandrveb. Thus, it is logical for LRFD-FZ.Z to use z" : 0.6.(. F4uation7.?-8i:ren
( becomes
Z: 200kips Vn: 0.6FrA- l , . . v l
(
Q : 9.06s(0.875)(12.1s5
- 0.43?s): 92.9in.3 Equation 7.7.9implies that h/t, ratios do not exceed
(:
( r :
2oo(e2.e)
= 13.4ksi (rveb), u : 0.76ksi (flange)
h r c -
_ : lg71/ =_ t /...IU)
2700(0J6 t* fr-
I/
(
(b) Stressat neutralaxis. where k : buckling coefficientfor plate element subjectto sheara!o;:e:to
( be taken as 5.0 for beamswithout transversestiffeners
Q : 92.9+ (12.155- 0.375)2(0.515)(0.s)
: 92.9+ 32.8: 125.7in.3
Frn: yield stressof the web
(
200(72s.7) of Eq. 7.7.10appearsin Chapter11 (Sec.11.8)on ri.:te
( ': : 1 8 ' 1k s i The development
tToo(oslt girders. Flowever,typical of plates as developedin Chaptcr 6 the iiu;ri:;:g
( strengthdependson a slenderness ratio; in this caseh/t* as shorvni;: Fi3.
. (c) Shear carried by flangesand rveb. Using an approximatelinear
variation, 7.7.3.From that figureone may note that marimum shearstrengthis a';ail:':le
(
when h/t* doesnot exceed69.7 (for 4,36 steel).The h/t* hmits belo*' r'.hj:h
( z(flanges)= 2(+X0.76)(0.875)(e.065)
: 6 kips Eq. 7.7.9 is appligable for roiled beams s;ithout stiffeners are give:r in
Table 7.7.1.
( Iz(web): 200- 6 - 194kips
( In this ase,97% of the shearis carriedby the web. TABLE 7.7.1 |'4AXIMUMlt / l* LIMITS!'/HEN STIFFE}{ERSARE NOT USED
(BASEDON LRFD-F2.2AND ASD-F4}
(d) Averageshearstress/, on web.
( ,y Fv h/t-" h/t*t
v 200
rf u. . - - : tr60ksi (ksi) (MPa) LRFD-F2.2 ASD'F4
(
dtn 24.31(0.515)
( which is 11.6%belorv the maximumvalue. 36 ' 248 69.7 63.3
42 290 64.5 58.6
( 56.6
45 310 62.3
( Nominal Shear Strength { in Rolled Beams 50 345 59.1 )5. t
60 414 54.0 49.1
( As shown by Example7.7.7,theweb is the elementthat primarily carries the 47.t
65 M8 51. 9
shear in l-sbaped sections.This is true also for the web (or webs) of "singly or 100 689 41. 8 38.0 For rolled seciions
( doubly symmetrical beams ... subjectto shearin the plane of symmetry, and
-for
(. channelssubject to shearin the web." (LRFD-F2.) *Equation 7.7.I0
, As long as the web is stable,that is, instability resulting from shear srress
'h/r*limit : laOT (Sec. 11.8) for derivation.
( or a combination of shear and bending stresscannot occur, the shear strength u,fl tsl ; see Chap. 11
!"r
)
7 / BEAMS:LATERALLY
SUPPOHTED (
7.7/ SHFj.RON ROLLEDBSAME 428
(
3 1 2
No Ir >'l<'
&=ro, (
E
o
Etifi€ners
used ll.8.sl
ii 10 (
e It y /Q the nominal total factor of safety is taken as the traditional ASD
5 8 Elasticbuckling (
z in shear value of 1.67, Ro is Vn f,or shear,and the nght hand side is.the total $ervice
load shear 4 then Eq. 1.8.8becomes
,n I.
-u ', (7.7,13)
1.61
\
.-Dividing both sidesby the web area A., after noting that Yn= A.6F.A*,
41rd
100 200 (
reversingthe sidesof the equation glves
h
w€b srenderness,
L
(
(7.7,14)
Figure 7.7.3 Noninal shear stress V,/A,
w i t hout transverse stiffeners.
vs web slenderness h/t* tor A36 steel beams {r,:;)=(e- #:0364,)
Traditional allowable stressdesign has used two-thirds of the yield stressas (
the allowable value (2/3 of 0.6{r); thus, the allowable shearstress{, is taken
as 0.40{.. (
The reader may note that the LRFD h/t- limits for use of maximurn (
shear strength are somewhathigher than the ASD limits for use of ma,timurn
Load and ReslstaneeFactorDeslgntor ShearIn RottedBeams i", allowable stress.This results from 6n approximation in k used for LRFD;
(
philosophically there is no difference.Rolled beamswill generallysatisfythe
The shearstretgthrequirement
to LRFD-F2maybe srated
in load andresisuncefactordesignaccord.ing lt:,: lower limit.
(
(
li ! EXAMPLE 7.7.2
(\
eVn 2 Vu (7.7.11) t;
Selectthe lightest W sectionof A36 steelto carry a live load of 19 Hps,/fr and
t; dead load of 1 ktp/tt (in addition to the weight of the beam). The sirnply \
*'here 0 : 0.90 l: supported span is 5 ft. Lateral bracing is adequate for lateral stability. Use
/" : nominal strength in shear ls Load and ResistanceFactor Design.
: A.6Fy-A, (i.e., Eq. 7.7.9)for beamswithout transversestiffeners
and not exc€edingi/l- tirnil5 given in Table 7.7.1.
V,: taetoredserviceload shear(seeSec. 1.9)
i;
lf.
SOLWION
Since the loading is heavy and the span is short, the designer should
(
&
l,s F, (7.7.12) (
loadsttrc bcatrlweightwill havelittle effct.
With thesebeatysuperimposed (
(
{
(
L
(
. 7.8/CONCENTRATED
LOADSAppLrEDTO ROLLED
BEAMS 425
(
( (b) select a section for flexure.Assume"compact section,,;
then.
( erMn _ Qt,Mp: euZrF,
( The designre4uirementis that
etMn: M,; thus,
T- i \-c't;cr
( rtfu N + 5&--l
100(12) , -i L seclicrr
R e q u i re dZ r: :-: -- : 37.0i n.3 lV + 2.5k , ' w l i
( Q$, o.eo(36) i l i
f ,--i \-r
( TryW12x26fTomLRFD..LOAD
FAcToRDESIGNSELECTION T-
TABLE,,
as the lightest beam having Z,> 37.0in.3.
( B I /V; bearinglengh
(c) Check shear. rk =. distancef rom outer faceof flangeto web
F TO ROLLEDBEAMS
LOADSAPPLIED
7.8/ CONCENTRATED 427
7 / BEAMSI-ATERALLY
SUPPORTED
T.
:l
,
a-'
(
2. For end reactiotts, Load bnd ReslstanceFactor Deslgn- Web Crlppllng
loadsa newSpecification i
R,: ( 2 . 5 k+ N ) F y * , t * (7.8.3) To control the stabilityof the web at'concentrated
provision has been uiA.A in LRFD-Kl.4 which is basedon the work of (
The
iloberts t7.231. nominal reaction based
strength on this stabilitycriterion
n,here k : distancefrom outer facr-of flange to web toe of fiilet (
is:
N : length of bearing
F,* : specifiedminimum yield stressof the web t. For interiorloads,
The
l*, :
strength
web thickness
reduction factor 0 for local web yielding is 1.0;
:- .
this reflects the
traditional lower total safety factor used to control local web yielding than
t
L
.'(#)(;)"1
R ": t 3 5 1 3 l 1
tm
V t
( 7. 8. 8)
(.
.,(;)(;)"1
2. For end reactions'
#h=(;:1) ( 7 . 8 . )5
:
r EXANIPLE 7.8.I
Determine the sizeof bearingplate required for an end reactionof 10
kips
(
F (
*
r
I
( €
:l
beam.Thefactoredmoment:ld is
cantilever
( il
( p(n/z' t < ) 2 r i t . 4 7 ( 3- t . E ; s ) 2 ; r -
Mu: _ 3.rl .\. (ai
( 2 2
For a rectangularsection,the bendingstrengthrequirementis
(
Figure7.8.2 Example7.8.1. (trt
( QT,I,> M U
{
-
where f : 0.90 and M,: Mo ZFr. For a rectangularsect,ionof u'idth A'
(
(
Try a 3-in' bearia{ Plate-As a prrcdcal marter,3 in. should
minrlnlm bearing length unlesscrearances
be consideredas
requirea lesserrength.
Before checkiag Eq- 7.9.g(web crippring),investigate
rheiequirement for
:l and thicknessr (seeExample7.3.1),
Z: Nt2/4 (.)
( bearing on the concrere.The nominatuian"i'srrengt; p, To satisfyEq. (b) above,eZF,,: 3.32N; thus,
of .onrrrt. i, given
( by LRFD-J9 as i
0. 90Nt 2F. .
Pp - 0.85f!Ar :3.32N
( 4
where A, is the area of steelconcentricallybearing and for F, : 36 ksi, the required thicknessbecomes
( on a concretesupport.The
requirement is thlt.+P, ) Ro (i.e.. rhe iactorediearing
road). The srrengrh
( reduction factor g for bearingis 0.60.Thus, solving for
area A, gives
the required bearing : rffi
Required, - 0.64
- in. user : i ir.
( y 0.e0(36)
**utt=tl "' RJo 4/0'60 U sebeari ngpl a t e,
i x 5 x 0'- 6, , . E
( Required A,'t :- --Tfl -: -: = 28'8sqin'
(
0s5/J oF
solving for the bearing plate thicknessin general,equating 6Mn to trIu,
For a 3-in. bearinglength,the widrh B (seeFig. 2.g.2)would
( havero be 9.6 in.
since the beam flarge width is on-lys.77 in., a-width'g Ntz p(.n/z - *)'t'i
smalrerthan 9.6 in. is , 4 - f -
(' desirable- A 4-i!. rengthiequires a width of 7.2 in. Try a ptate_r ' 4 -
' 2
in. x 7.5 in. (1, : !:"*g
30 sq in.).
( Now check Eq. 7.8.9(web crippling)on the W10x26:
K e q u t r e dI :
i z p ( B / z- 0 2 (7.8.10)
( i' t,! .:
Of ..
( R , , : 6 8 ( 0 .'-'
2 6 0 *)' . 't
3 . . ^ kiPs
..
L' 1033 lt n* / lV tr*
( 7.9 HOLES IN BEAMS
the design strengrheR,, : 0.?5(54.g): 4l.l kips. Since
TT this is lessthan
( the factored load : 44 kips, the bearing tengttr'tr
{" ,nur, be increased.A
5-in. bearing length /f gives 0R,,: 44.2-kips-rvhich Flange Holes
( exceedsR, and is
acceptable.
For tension rnembers the effect of fastener holes has been discussed in
( Use bearingplate. fy'- 5 in.x B = 6 in.
Chapter 3, wh"ereholesare deductedand net sectionis used.For compression
( 1"; O"t. ess.The uniform (assumed)bearing members, since the fastenersoccupy most of the space in the hole, the
prgssureunder factored load is fastenersare assumedin designto completelyfill the holes and a deduction for
( holes is not made.
( Uniform bearingpressure When the nominal strength Mn reache.s the plastic moment Mo, certunly
'p : *: 1.47ksi
5(6) tension flange holes reduce that strength; however, there qiit bi a shift in
( neutral axis associatedwith a loss of strength at one flange. an effect that
' The critical sec.rionfor bending is taken
at the toe of the flange,to-web somewhatcounteractsthe effect of holes.Traditional designhas neglectedthe
( fillet, a distance & from the mid-thicknessof trr. *.u,
and the beam-frangeis
assumednot to panicipate-The bendingmomentis effect of holes when holes do not representa significatrl proportion of rhe
( treatedas that acting on a flange area.When the nominal moment strengrh M, is iimited to less LhanM,
, (
P THEORY
7.10/ GEI\ERALFLEXURAL 431 (
430 7.' SEAMS:LATERALLY
SUPPOffiED
(
14:0, (7.10.1)
Frrr A36 steel. Eq. 7.9.2allowsuseof an effectiveflange area3496higher than l^odA-o (
the computcd net area; however,for A572 Grade 50 the effecriveflange area
EMt : o, * (7.10.2) (
can be taken only 8% higherthan the computednet area.Logicallythe effect
of holes should dependon the likelihood of the teosilefracture through such
Y'=In'o (
holes being rhe conrrollingLimitstate.
LMr: a' Mr: I^to* (7:10.3)
(
Other specificationsfollow the more consen'ativeproceduresthat have
been used for many years.The American Associationof State Highrvay and (
Transportation officials (AASHTO) tl.3l and the American Railway Engr-
n!-erinsAssociation(AREA) [1.4] use the net section(holesdeductedfrom
8, (
Planeof
hoth flanges)for computingtensionflange suess,and use gtosssection(no (
M, = Mcast
holes from either flange)for computingcompressionstress. M, = MsinY:.
Examples of procedure for considering fastener holes appear in the
(
Chapter 13 sectionon beam and girder splices. (
(
Web Holes
(
The AISC Specifications [1.5,1.151permit neglectof fastenerholeslocatedin
the r"'eb. largely for the same rs$ons fastenerholes in the flange may be ('
neglected.Lerge holescut into beam webs are entirely anothermatter. These (
SccrionA-4
holes require special analysis and usually wi[ have to be reinforced by
attaching ertra plate material,often including stilfeners,around the sidesof (
the hole. Treatment of this is outside the scope of this text; however,the
rr'adermsv refer to the work of Bower [i.24,7.2s,7.26,and 7.291,Frost and Figure 7.10.1 Prismatic beam under pure bcnding.
{
(
t
i
L-'
t' 432 7/BEAMS:LATERALLYSUPPORTED
:'
7.r 0 / GENERALFLEXURALTHEORY
i(
k ',J IA r d A : 0 ( ? _ 1 0 . 1) 1
Bendingin the yz plane Only
If bendingoccursin theyz prane,the
stresso is thenproportionarto y. d; which meansy must be a centroidalaxis. Also,
,
o:ktY (7.10.4) il|, - nrl^r, d,A: kzl,, i7.i0.12)
UsingEqs.7.10.1through
7.10.3
gives
Mr: *rln, dA : k2l, (7.10.13)
krIydA:o (7.10.s)
. f
and
,, ,r,
t a n Y= : (7.i0.14)
M,: 4 : Mv Ir'
fny,dA krr, (7.10.6)
In the iase where/,,,':0, tany:0, i.e., the loading and bendi::3both
Mr: Orlo*rdA: krI,, occur in the xz plane.
(7.10.7)
From the first of the above expression Bending in Neitherxz Noryz Planes
s, Ie! dA :0, meaning x must be a
centroidal axis. The srressruy ih.n
ue coffitrd *' This is the realisiic casewhen consideringunsymmetricalsectionsin ilerure.
Since it is assumedall stresses are within the elastic limit. the total strass o is
M'! Mrl
o: --_ or the sum of the stresses due to bendingin eachof the xs and ;'z ptanes.Thus
'Tr 1,,
(?.10.8)
o:kr]'*krx ( 7 . 1 0 . 1) 5
(
4U 7 / BEAl.lS: LATERALLY SUPPORTED 7.10 / GENERAL FLEXURAL IHEORY 43s
(
and From Fig. ?.10.1.SectionA-A, it is seenthat at any point on the neutral axis.
(
tan d - - x/r'. Dividing both numerator and denominator of the right side of {.
Mr.: k rl , + k z l ,, (7.10.16)
Eq. 7.10.21by .'1l,.gives
Mr: krl,, + kzly (7.10.17) M',
- r' x Y (t
Solving Eql 7.10.16and 7.10.17for &, and k, and substituringinro Eq. Mr''
7 .1 0 . 15giv es tan!:T (7.ro.72\ (
^ l
.I . x -
. (7.10.18) Mr.r, (
(,
which is the generalflexureequation.Tbe assumpdonsinherent in Eq. Z.l0.lg Substitutionof 4.7.10.20 into Eq. 7.10.22gives
(
are (a) a straight beam: (b) constantcross-secdon;(c)-x- and y-'*.r.r. I
I' zm'l
InctlnaUon of the Neutral Arts ta nd : : : 0. 573 I
; ; t anY m t anS5o
\\'hen the loads acting on a flexural member passtluough the
centroid of the (
cross-section a : 29. 8o( 29"50') I
but are inclinedwith respectto either of the principal axes,the (
stressesmay be determinedby usingEq. 7.10.19or Eq. z.to.tq. Horvever,nore
should be made that the neutrat axis is not nec€ssarilyperpendicular
to the
plane of loading.As shownfrom Eqs.7.10.9and 7.10.i4 and
Fig. 7.10.1, a = 29"5Cf plirne of
1 . ,
lording
M- (
t a n.y : - : (7.10.20)
tr{, \ {
Sincethe stressalong the neutral axis is equal to zero, o may
x
_l_ (
be set equal l
& (
I
w-
(
(
(
(
436 7/,BEAMS: LATERALLvsuppoRTED .s
"J
iaI
7.ro / GENERALFLEXURALTHEORY 437
E EXAMPLE7.T0.2 +t
(
computethe maximumflexural .g Stressat point C:
suessin a 6 x 4 x angrewith -=l
( verticallydownwardwhenr.*i* |. therongreg .?i
' ,3g lt
roaaec;;i bi vup/fton a simpry - l,ee)- ( -6.08x-0.e87)]
7s[6.27(
portedspanof l0 fi sup_ - f {
Geerie. z.rO.il.
( -comp-. ,r, u"ru. assumingrheangreis JC
1,, : [01:3-oo
- 1.ee)
( -0-e87
+ 0.25) :, :t '
( + 3.5(2.2s- -
0.e87x 1.9e
+ 0.25)J
0.50 ','!#
M, = !00 in.'kiPs . - 33 84 rn..krps M, = 66. 16 in..krps
: [ ( - 4 . 4 7 ) + ( _ 7 . 6 9 ) J 0 . 5 0 :_ 6 . 0 8 i n . a
(
I I neutral
I Loading
I direction
( M,: c[-== I Try=-oe6ex
*(0.5X10)2= 6.25ft_kips: 75 in._kips r-T?i
-<-f +I
: l+y- I t-F-
( M.r: 0
lll M' = r ol 7o- 4( - 6 o e l Ltl
fJ r u ,= o
( Stressat point l: AB t = -349rn..krps
Al,
( YlI,l' 1,,.t) 6.2s(12)16.27
r, A-- - - d : 7 _ : ( + 4.aD_ (_ 6.08)
( _ 0.e87)J (a) Bcnding in vertical plane (b) Bending in horizonral (c) Gcnerat
( - 1o.oa;2
17.4(6.27)
plane bending
Figure 7.10.5 Solution by superpositionof bending in the vertical and horizonral
( 7s(1e.i4) planes.
: : 75(0.265)
: + 19.9ksi (tension)
( =i-
Sincethe real loadinghasonly M,, M, must be removedby applicarionof
( Stress
at point B: an equal and oppositemoment,further cbnsideringthat bendingoccursonh'
( 75[6.27
( + 4.01)_ (_ 6.08) in the xz plane. This means, according to Eq. 7.10.14, the iimultaneous
( _ 0.487)J applicationof M,: MrI,r/f, (seeFig. Z.l0.5b).
fs:
( 72.1 Bendingin vtirtical.plinei
: 75(0.308)= +23.1ksi (rension)
(
M^, : 7 s . o #
f : 113.4in.-kips
( \ 66.76I
( ii3'4(4'01)
f ^t t, : Jf a
at. : = 2 6 . 1k s i ( t e n s i o n )
( 9.? kipltt tin.L beamr,rn) =_i ' '-. -
n-4
{
Total stressesin generalbending: Nominal Strength I
f^: *26.1-6.2: + 1 9 . 9 k s i (tension) The nominal strengthof a sectionsubject to biaxial bending is not readily
determined.Such strengthwill certainly depend on the proportions of the
f s: * 2 6 . 1- 3 . 1 : + 2 3 . 0k s i (tension) sectionand the relativemagnitudesof the apptied moments M, and M,.. The
- 1 3 . 0 - 6 . 2 = - 1 9 . 2 k s i (eompressionl useoi an interactionequationsuchas used for beam-columnsis not believed
fc : adequatelyconservativefor caseswhere there is no axial compressionor
"rhich asreer'riththe values,19.9,23.r,and r9.2 ksi,respecdvely. rension.The AISC ASD Specificationhas traditionally limited the combined
ascomputed stressaccordingto Eq.7.11.1to a maximumof 0.60f,. This effectivelyimplies
h1' thc generalformula.
The generalequation for stressat any point is seenro be that the nominal strengthof the section under combined M, and M,. is
reached*'hen the extremefiber stressreachesthe yield stress d. Thus, the
1 1 3 .4 -v 3 9 .6 x entirecross-sectionwill be elastic;no credit is then given to any ability of the
i:fi- 6.n cross-secrionto undergoplasticdeformation.Certainly this approachis con-
sen'ative.
u lrcretf { : 0. the neutralaxis is y - - 0.969x. Follo*ing the aboveapproach,the elastic stressequation,Eq. 7.11.1.
'fhis
superimpositionmethod permrts the designerto visualizervhat is could be usedu,ith nominalmaximumstrengthmomenls, Mn, and Mn,.,and
taking place. [f attachedconstructionconstrainsan undymmetricalsectionto a maximum srress{.. Thus, the nominal strength could be assumedto be
bcnd in the vertical plane, the restrainingmoment'capacitycan be computed ''.
reachedu'hen
h y us ingE q. 7. 10. 9 . Mn' Mrt
r ( 7 . 1 1. 2 )
1c1.{ngle restrainedto bend in the verticalplane: - ' - f .
''
St Sr
Mr M,
(t:-+-- For selecringstandardrolled shapesone finds that for a given depth of
( 7 . 1 .I l )
sr S' secrionthe ratio .S*/S, is relativelyc,onstant.A typical range of such values
appearsin Table 7.11.1.The lightest sections in any depth will be thc
nherc s, : I,/(d/21 and s,: Ir/(b/2) arethe sectionmodurusvarues. narro\\estones and thus havethe higher valuesof S,/Sr.
(
( 7 / BEAMS:LATERALLY
SUPPORTED 7.11 / BIAXIALBENDINGOF SYMMETRICALSECTTONS 441
(
( TABLE 7.11.1 TYPTCALS,/ STVALUES
in Chapter 12 on beam-columns.It is ahvaysconsen'ativeto take C,,, and C,,,,
( Shape Deprh d(in.) cqual to 1.0, rvhich is [o assume the bending moment is constant alons t]rc
S,/SY
( span.
M 6,9 5-7 3, For bt/d < 0.3.
( M 10,l2 8-11
\ffi,| .\8"",J='
M 1 4 ,1 6 1l-12 ( c ^ , l t ! " , \ t o . I c ^ , . l t l u r \ t o_
( Light W and M 4-8
(7.11.7)
3
( w 8 ,1 0 3-4
w 12 3-6
w 14(up to 84tb/tt) where0,r: 0.90 for Eqs.7.11.5through7.71-7-
? 4-8
w 14(over84lb/tt) 2t-3 The above equationsapply to braced frame (see Section 6.9) beams.
( w 1 6 ,1 9 , 2 1 5-9 laterallysupportedor not. The first equation,Eq. 7.11.5,appliesto sections
( w 24,27
w
6-10 having relativelywide flangesas comparedto overalldepth; therefore.lateral
30,33,36 7-t2
(. S , supportis not of concern.Inelasticbehavioris presumedcapablecf occurring;
6 -8
b 1 0 -i 8
d
thui, M,.. and Mn,. are to be taken as the plastic moment strengths.This
( 0.75d "compact" for local buckling.
C uptoT impliesthat the sectionsare
t.5d
( C 8-'10 Fci Eqs.7.77.6and 7.11.?,trlo, and I[n,. are to be determinedthe same
1.25d
C 1 2 , 1 5" d as the nominal strengthfor any uniaxiallyloadedbeam: the maximum values
(, are the plastic momentsfor all qualifyinglaterallybracedcompactsections.
(
An alrernatemerhodis suggested by Gayrordand Gaylord[7.a\(p. 16g), Allowable Stress Design
( for usewith l-shapedsectionr1w, M, and s[nr.
quuntityE/q, is computed D i vi di ngthe fa ct orof saf et yl/ Q : 1. 67 f r om bot h sidesof Eq. i. 11. 3 gives
( approximately using the beam propertiesneglectinj
e Ge ,"eb irr.'rt. This gives, the relaiionshipbet*,eenthe serviceload combinedstressf , and the alloivable
using br: flangervidth and d: depth.
( stressFo,
('
(
* :
I,tb/z)
E U/z)ry-w:
_ zqt?/\2\t/z) _ 3d
u, (7.1T,5)
\
(":t.?)
= : ffi: o.6oF,
\4 I
l F . , \ (7.11.8)
-:::
-
BEFERENCES
SELECTED
442 TIBEAMS. LATERALLY
SUPPORT€D (
l
;!
fl coefficientof 3.5 insteadof 3. I; Rcpors on PracticeNo. 41, New York. 1971. ''Th'
7.3. Joseph A. Yura, Tbeodore V. Galambos,and Mayasandra K. Ravindra
E I re.
t .
Bending Resistanceof Steel Beans," Journal ol the Structural Diuision, ASCI:
N;
fl
a
RequiredS, : 24 + 10(3.Sd/bt) t: 104,ST9 (September1978),1355-1370.
"serviceability Lirc'it Stetes:
f, For WlO sections.d/b, is eitherI or 1.25. t; ?.4. Tbeodore V. Galambos and Bruce Ellingwood.
;
I
l :
Deflection," Jowaal o! Structural EngineerinS,ASCE ll2, I (Jaouary 1986)'
H
n RequiredS, = 24 * 35 : 59 in.3 l_r 67-U.
"structural Serviceability: Floor Vibra'
g li 7.5. Brucc Ellingwood and Andrew Tdlin.
s'hich rvould also have requireda check of two sections.The more general ASCE, ll0, 2 (February 1984)' 4Of - 418'
Engineering, I
( . \
7'8' Thomas M' Murray.''Acceptability
( Criterion for occupaarlodueed Floor vibra- with Web Holes," Journalol the StrucrwalDiuision,ASCE 97, ST11 (Novembcr
1ions," EngineeringJournaf, AIsc; lg, 2 (second euarter 19gl), 62-70. 1971),210'l-2728.Disc.,99, 5T6 (June1973),1312-1315.
( 7'9' Y' EugeneYamamoto. "Deflections "Tests on Beamst'itli Rcinfqrccd Wcb
of SteppedBeLs and Girders, Engineering
Jaurnal, AISC, 22, 2 (Second 7.30. petei B. Cooper and Robert R. Snell.
euarrer 19g5); 57_62. Openines." iournal o{ tlit Structura!.Dit:ision,ASCE. 98, ST3 (N{arch 1972).
( 7'10' Frank J. Myi]or
-'-pondins oi Tn,o-wayJ Roof Systems,,,
AISC, 3, 3 (July 1966), J EngineeringJcurnar, 6ir-63:
( 93_100. "stressesin Beams *ith Circuiar
7'11. Lewis B. Burgeil. "Fast 7.31. Peter \\'. Chan and Richard G. Rcdwood.
check for ponding,,, Engineering
o. Journar,AISC, 10, 1 of the Structural Diuisioti. ASCE, l0O' STI
(First Quarrer 1973),26_2g. Eccentric Web Holes," Journal
( (January'1974), 23L-248.
7.12- John L. Ruddy- "psading
of ConcreteDeck Floors,,,EngineeringJournar,Alsc, "Design Aidcs for Beamswith Circular
( 23, 3 (Third euarter 19g6),107_115. 7.32. Richard G. Reawoodand PeterW. Cban.
7.13. James chinn- "Failure__of Eccentric Web Holes," Jountal of the Structural Diuision, ASCE, 100, ST2
( simply-Supported Flat Roofs by ponding of Rain,,,
EngineeringJounnl, AISC, Z, i (February 1974),2974A3.
6p;t1lOS;, 3g_41. "strength of Beams
7.14. A. E. Salama and M. L. lv{oody.1.Ao"lyri, ?.33. Tsong-ltliin Wang. Robert R. Snell. and Peter B. Cooper.
( of Beams and plates for ponding ASCE. lOt.
Dit:ision,
Loads," Journal of the Stuctural Dicision, ASCE, with EccentricRe-inforcedHoles," Journal of the Srruuural
93, ST1 (February Lg67), ST9 (September 1975),1783-1800-
( 109-126. "Plastic Design of Web Opeaings in Stccl
?'15' D' A. sawyer. "Ponding'6f ?.34. Mafl/in A. Larson and Kirit N. Shah.
( Rainwater on Flexibre Roof Systems,,,Journaro! the Diuision, ASCE 102, ST5 (\Iai' 1976)'
Beans." Journal of the Structural
Strucrural Diuision, ASCE, 93, STl. (February Lg67), LZZ_L47.
7'i6' D' A' Sawyer."Roof'Structure Roof-Drainaie r031-1041.
( Int#ction," Jourval of the Struc- Robert R. Sneil, and Harry D. Knostman.
"Fallure Tesls on
tural Diuision, ASCE" g{, ST1 (J-anuart196gj, 175_i9g. - Petei B. Cooper,
7.35.
( 7.17- James chinn, Abdurwahab H. Mansouri,,ana Beamsnith dcccntric Web Holes," Journa!of the StructuralDit'ision, ASCE' 103.
starey F. Adams. ..ponding of ST9 (September1977)r, 1731-1738.
Liquids on Flat Roofs," Journal of the Struaura! "Tests of Thin-
( Diuision,ASCE,g5, ST5 (May 7.36. Richard G. Redwood, Hernan Baranda,and Michael J. Dall'.
1969),797_907. Dit'isiort.
Webbed Beams *'ith Unreinforced Holes," Journal of the Snuctural
( 7'18' R' Richard Avent and \Yilliao G. stewan. "Rainwater ponding
Roof Systems,"Journat of rhe structurar Diuision,
oo Beam-Girder ASCE, lM, ST3 (March 1978)' 5'17-595.
AscE, ror] "'- "Critical Loads for Webs with
( 1975),l9l3-L927
srg iseptember
\v-r 7.3?. Richard G. Redwood and Minoru Uenoya.
_ Holes," Journal of the Structural Diuision,ASCE, 105, ST10 (October i979).
7'19' R' Richard Avcnt. "Deflection and_ponding
( of Steel Joists,,,Journar o! thg
Structural Diuisiott, ASCE, 102, ST7 (July lgZE), 1399_1410
i zasl-zool.
"Elastic Deformation of Beams with Web Openings."
7.70- r- Lyse and H_Jj_Godfrey. ,'Investigaiioo 7.38. Briac K. Daughcrty.
( of'web Buckling in steel Beams,,, Jounzalof the itructural Diuision,ASCE 106, ST1 (january 1980)' 301--312'
Transactionr,ASCF" 100 (1935), 675_106. "Design of
( 7-2L. J. D. Graham, A. N. Sherbourne,R* N. Khabbaz,
,.-._. 7.39. Rangachari Narayanan and Norire Gara-Verni Der-Avanessian,
and c. D. Jensen, vrerded,'. - Slender Webs Having Rectangular Holes," Jourual of Structural Engineering,
Interior Beam'to'column connectiorts. New York:
( American Institute oi iiJ ASCE, lll, 4 (APril 1985),777-787.
Construction, Inc., 1959.
.;:. B. G. Johnston and G- G. Kubo. '.!9b_crippling ?.40. R. G. Redrvood.-"Tablesfor Plastic Design of Beamswith Rectangular Holes."
( at seat Angre supports,',Frirz EngineeringJournal, AISC, 9, I (Jaouary1972),7-19'
Laborarory,Report No. r92A2, Lehigb univJrsit!, "Design Exannplefor Beams with
'l'23' Bethtehem,pa-, r94r. 7.41. Richard L. Kussman and Peter B. Cooper.
( T"M' Roberts. "slender Plate Girders Subjectei,o 2 (SecondQuartcr i976)' 48-56'
eag. Loading,,,proceedings web Openings,"EngineeringJournal' AISC' 13'
of the lwtitution of ciuir Engineers,part2,-September
( 'i 19gr,71. 7.42. E. H. Gayloid, Jr., and C. N. Gaylord. Design ol SteetStructures'Nes'York:
John E' Bower. "Elastic StressesAround Holis il Wide-Flange
cf the structurar Diuision,ASCE, 92, sr2(April iloc;, g5-10r.
Bearns,,, Journal lv{cGraw-Hill Book Company,Inc., 1957,Cbap' 5'
( "Fxperimental 7.43. Ad Hoc Committee on ServiceabiliryResearcb,Committee on Researchof the
7'2it John E' Bower. Stressesin-wide-Flange Beams with Holes,', "structural Serviceability:A Critical Appraisal and Research
( Strucrural Division.
Journalof thestructurar
Diuision,AscE
92,sr5 ro.tou?,inue,iilrsu. Needs."-Jountal of Stuctural Engineering,ASCE ll2, 12 (December 1986)'
7.26. John E. Bower.."urtimate Strengtb of Beams
( nitb RectangurarHoles,,,Journar 2646-2664.
of the structurar Diuision, ASCE" 94, 5T6 (June 196g), "Sen'iceability Guidelinesfor Steel Structures," Engineering
r3r5-r332. ?.44. Bruce Ellingwood.
( 7'27' Ronald w' Frost and Robert E. Leffler. "Farigue
Tesa of Beamswith Rectangu- Jaurnal,AISC, 26, I (1st Quarter1989)'1-8.
Iar web Hores," Journa! of the structurar D"iuision,
AscE, 97, srz february
( 1971),509_527.
7.28. lames A. Mandel, Paul J. Brennan, Benjamin
( "Stress A. Wasil, and CharlesM. Antoni. PROBLEMS
Distribution in Castellated Be"--s," Journal
of the -"
structural
--r*ru' v-
Diuision,
( ASCE, m, Sn (July f 97l). Lg47_L967.
7-]9. Jotn E. Bower, Chairman, subcommittee All problems are to be done accordingto the AISC Load and Resistance
(
on Beams with web opeaingsbf &e
Task Committee on Frexurar Members. ..sugg.rt.c Factor Design or AllowableStressDesign.as indicatedb1"the instructor.All
Design Guides for Beams given loads are serviceloads unlessothenviseindicated. For all problems
(
\
446 7/8EAMS: LATERALLY
SUPPORTED
C
PROBLEMS 447
( i
- (
assume adequate lateral suppart of thg compressionflange such that lateral 80% live load. For the case (or cases) assigned by the instructor.
stability does not control. Assume all standard sections are equally readily determinethe maximum service'loadW that can be permitted to be (
availablein the indicatedgradeof steel(eventhoughacruallyrhey are not). A carried. (
figure showing span and loading is required,and a final checkof strength(for
LRFD) or stress(for ASD) is required. (
wD wr.
7.1. For the case(or cases)assignedby the insrructor.selectthe lightestW Flange Web (
Span
section to carry a uniformly distributed dead load w5 in addition to the plates plare length Steel (
beam weight. and a uniformly distributed live load w2 as indlcated.The Case (in.) (in.) (ft) grade
member is simply supponedand deflection is not of ion..rn. (
I l/2 x t2 3/8 x 24 28 A36 (
2 t/2 x t4 3/8 x 30 28 A572Grade50
wD wL 3 3/4 x 12 3/8 x 24 28 ( t
A607Grade70
Dead Live Span 4 3i4 x t8 l/2 x 30 28 A572Grade65 (
load load length Steel
Case (kip/tt) (ktp/tt) (fr) grade (
7.3. Repeat Prob. 7.1 (cases1 to 4 as assigned)additionally assumingthe live
load deflection may not exceed L/360 (not "n Alsc SpeJification (
I 0.2 0.8 3s A36
') -- - . requirernent).
4.2 0.8 35 A57ZGrade 50 (
J
t
0.2 0.8 ' 3 5 A572Grade65 7.4. Repeat Prob. 7.1 (cases5 to 8 as assigned)irdditionally assumingthe live
4 load deflection may not exceed L/3oo (not an Alsc SpeJificarion (
0.2 0.8 35 A5l4 Crade100
5 0.2 0.E 55 A 36 requirement). ( l
6 0.2 0.8 55 A572Grade 50 7.5. For the case(or cases)assignedby the instructor, select the lightesr W
7 (
4.2 0.8 55 A572Grade65 sectionto carr)'a uniformly distributeddead load w, in additiJn to the
8 0.2 0.8 55 .4514Grade100 beam weight.and a uniformly distributedlive load i, u, indicated.The (
9 0.4 1.6 30 A 36 memberis simplv supportedand deflectionis not of ioncern.
l0 0.4 1.6 (
30 A572Grade65
il 0.8 3.2 30 A36 (
t2 0.8 3.2 30 A57?Grade65 vr'D wL
l3 0.4 1.4 Dead Live Span (
60 A36
t4 0.4 1.4 60 A572Grade 50 load load leleth Steei (
l5 0.4 1.4 60 A572Grade65 (kiplft) (lrop/tt) (fr) grade
(
I 2.0 18.0 436 (
7-2. A simply supported welded l-section beam carriesa concentratedload 2 2.0 18.0 A572Grade.50
W at midspan(seeaccompasyingfigure).The load is 20%dead load and 2.0 18.0 ( ,
J
4572Gradet:0
4 2.0 18.0 A5l4 Gradei00 (
) 8.0 12.0 A36
6 8.0 12.0 A572Grade50 (
tlx rz 7 8.0 12.0 A572Grade65 ( t
t$x zo f-29._o_l
7.6. A w24x94
(
+T on a 6-ft span (seeaccompanyingfigure) underpins a
column that brings 80 kips dead load and iOO tipi liie load to iis top ( '
flange at a location 2.5 ft from rhe left suppor; The column bearing
plate is 12 in. measured along the beanr, "nd- thr bearing plates at the
( )
Prob. 7.2. Case I (tor oth€r case3see tabt€)
end supporrs arc each 8 in. Invesrigate this beam of .{36 steel for (a) ( '
(
,,)
C
( 448 7/BEAMS LATEMLLY SUPPORTED PROBLEMS 449
(
(
(c) Repeat(b) but usemethoddescribedin ExampleT-10.2(b).
( (d) If your instructorspecificallyassignsand discussesthis parr. tocare
principalarcs.transformthe momentinto compcnents.l/j and .1/,1
(
about the principalaxes.computemomenisof ineriia /.1and 1.1u itir
( respectto theseaxes.and use-/: M;/Si + Mi/Si.
(e) Stateconclusions.
(
(
( za, zl, zt.r
( lx'34.4 in-'
Prob. 7.6 Iy = 12'9 in.t
(
( *t7-o--J
z
(
I
Iv
flexure' (b) shear.and (c) satisfactorytransmission
of the reactionsand
( concenrratedload (i:e.. local web yielding and rveb crippling).Specify
( changes(if any) requiredro sarisfyttre'ntsc Specification.
P r o b .7 . 1 0
( 7-7. A W16x77 sectionof A36'steelis to serveon a l0-ft simply supported
span. The wall bearinglength is 10 in. what maximum itorly moving
(
concentratedserviceload (25%deadload; 75Volive load) may be carried? -T
( 2.42"
7'8' Determinethe sizebearingplate requiredfor an end reactionof 11 kips
( - 1 "
dead load and 44 kips li'e load on a wl4x53 beamof A572Grade 60 a
I
steel.The beam restson a 4-in.-thickconcrete*'all (fi:3500 I
( psi).. 4.58"
Specifythicknessin multiplesof I in. and the lengthand widrh to rvhole
- \\
( inches.
( 7'9' (LRFD only) For a W12x87 of ,{36 steel,calculatethe designshear Prob.7.11
( strength Qv_n,and the bearing lengrh N required u.hen the deiign end
reactionQR,equalsthedesignshearstrength.
( c a* r r . s . r - l
7 .10 t hr ough7. 1 3
(
For the section shown in the accompanyingfigure, assumeuniform
( loading in the plane of rhe web (yz plane)roi a iimply supportedspan w t 6x 5 0
of 12 ft and neglectany torsionaleffects.Assumetheserviceload aciing
(
is 20Vodead load and 80% live load, and that the limit starefor LRFD
P r o b .7 . 1 2
( occursrvhenthe maximumstressreachesthe yield stress at one point.
L
For ASD this meansrhe allowablestressis O.OO4.. {.'
( (a) Determine the maximum uniform serviceload assumingbending
B
7.14.
-rhe
giren S x 6 x I angle is positionedwith irs long leg pointing
do*'ns'ard and used as a simplv supportedbeam of l2-ft span.The
uniform de",.lload is 0.1 kiplft (includingangleweight)and gravitylive
ChapterI (
Determrnelateral
bendrngmoment
capacrtyrequired.
I I- = 44.3 in'
'
anole ,
lr=21'7no
I",T DrJoertresl
= -18.33 in.'
I - | 1,,
I
I rry - 0 .i angie.L8
^
-
l
2
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Prob 7 '14
In structural design,torsionalmoment may on occasion be a significant force
for rvhich provision must be made. The most efficient shape for carrying a
7 .1 5.S elc c t he lr c hte s W
t 8 s e c ti o no f 4 3 6 s te e lto useas a purl i n on a roof torque is a hollow circular shaft; extensive treatment of torsion and torsion
-.krped30' to the horizontal.The spanis 2l ft. the load is uniform0.13 combined with bending and axial force is to be found in most texts on
kipz'ft de:d load plus the purlin u'eightand 0.24 kip/tt snow load. mechanicsof materials[8.1].
I-ateralstahilin'is assuredb1'attachmentof the roofingto rhecompres- Frequently torsion is a secondary,though not nec€ssarilya minor effect
.ion flang.. .{\iume the load acts throughthe beamcentroid.thereare that must be consideredin combination with other types of behavior.The
no sas rt-tl:. :nd bia.rialbcndinentustbe assumed. Any torsionaleffect shapesthat make good columnsand beams,,i.e., those that have their material
c.in bc rc-r:rcdbv the roofingand thereforeit can be neglected. distributed as far from their centroidsas practicable, are not equally efficient
7 .1 6.S elec t he iigh re s w
r s e c ti o nro c a rrymo me n ts,M,:145 ft-ki ps(15% in resisting torsion. lt is found that thin-wall circular and box sectionsare
dead load and 85%live load) and the lateralmoment'-M/resistedby one stronger torsionally than sectionswith the same area arranged as channel,I,
flange is -:{-tft-kips (20% dead load and 80% live load). To selectthe tee, angle,or zeeshapes.
heamassuitc.1l, = i.ll, anCthat torsionis neglected. Use A572Grade When a simple circular solid shaft is tuisted, the shearingstressat any
:0 steelanciassumelateralstabilitl'doesnot govern. point on a transversecross-sectionvaries directly as the distance from the
center of the shaft. Thus, during twisting the cross-sectionwhich is initialll,
7 .1 7.S elec t he iiehre s W
t s e c ri o nro c a rry L 4 ,:2 7 5 ft-ki ps(30%deadl oad planar remainsa planeand rotatesonly about the axis of the shaft.
and 70Q lire load) and lateralmoment ,\y',resistedby one flangeis 100 In 1853 the French engineerAdh€mar Jean Barrd de Saint-Venanrpre-
ft-kips (10? dead load and 80c[ live load).To selectthe beamassume sented to the French Academyof Sciencesthe classical torsion theory that
.1f, = 2.1/.. L'se A572 Crade 50 steeland assumelateralstabilitydoes
forms the basis for present-dayanalysis.' Saint-Venant showed that when a
n()t COnlrOi.
noncircular bar is tnisted, a transverse scction that was planar prior to
7.18. Repeat Piob.7.17 but selecta combination wide flange section and
ch3nnel as found in the LRFD lv{anual[l.l7l under "CON{BINATION
SECTIO\S." 'For a summ-ar-v of Saint-Vcoant'ssort, sce Isaac Todbuntr "nd Kart Pcarson A Hbtory o! thc
Theory of Elauicitlt and S the Srrngth ol Muerials, Vol. lL lEgl (rcprintcd by Dover hrblica-
tions, Inc., Nes York 1960.pp. 17-51).
451
(
(
452 8/TORS|ON
8.2/puRE TORSTON
OF HOMOGENEOUS
SECTTONS 453
(
(
twisting does lol remain plane after twisting. The original cross-section
h
plane
( surface becomes a warped surface.In toriion problems it is necessary
to
recognize the out-of-plane, or warping effect, in addition to the
( rotation, or
pure twisting, effect.t
( - In this chapter primary emphasisis given to the rzucgnition of torsionon
the usual structural members,such aJ l-shaped, chan-nel,angle,
( -approximated and zee
sections; how the torsional stressesmay be and horv such
( members may be selectedto resisttorsional effecis.
Also included is a brief treatmentof torsional stiffnessand the computa-
( tion of torsional stresseson closed thin-wall sections as well as (b)
torsional I
( b uc k line. a,
I
( I ?
8.2 PURETORSTON
OF HOMOGENEOUS
SECTIONS v
(
( A review of shear stressunder pure torsion and of torsional
stiffnessseemsa '
desirable beginning prior to consideringstructuraishapes (a)
( in locationsrvhere
the rvarping of the cross-sectionis restrained.
Figure8.2.1 Torsionof a prismatic
shaft.
( Consider a torsional moment ?'acting on a solid shaft
of homogeneous
material and uniform cross-section, as shonn in Fig. g.z.r. Assumeno out-of-
( plane warping, or at teast that out-of-planr *urpiig
has negligible effecr on Thus as shown in Fig. 8.2.1b,the elementaltorque is
( the angle of twist g- This assumption-will ue neariy
correct so long as the
cross-sectionis small compared to the length of rhe dT: rudA: rycdA: r'(de/dz)Cdr| (8.2.4)
shaft and also thar no
( significant reentrant cornersexist. It is furiher assumedthat The total resistingmomentfor equilibrium is
no distortion of
the cross-section
( _occursduring twisting. The rate of rwist (trvist per unit
length) may therefore be expressedas
(
( 0 : rateof twist :
dQ
-.-'.
f:
l^,,#o*
(8.2.1). and sincedQ/dz and G'are constantsat any section,
dt
(
(
which can be thought of as torsionalcurvature(rate of
it is tbe relative rotation of the cross-sections
changeof angle).Since r-#ofur'dA:ot# (8.2.s)
at z and z * dz that causes
( slrain, the magnitude of displacementat a given point is proportional rvhereJ : Inr2 dA.Equation 8.2.5may be thoughtof as analogousto flexure,
ro the
distance.r from the center of twist. The strat *gl. y, or unit i.e., bending moment M equalsrigidity E/ times curvature, dzy/d22. Herc
shearsrain, at
( any element r from the centeris torsional moment I equalstorsional rigidity GJ times torsionalcurvature(rate
( of changeof angle).
ydz: rde Shear.stress
may then be computedusing Eqs. 8.2.2and 8.2.3,
( .t:r(d+/dz):rg
(8.2.2) d6
( o ='{G: ,;G (8.2.6)
using the shearmodulusG, Hooke'slaw gr'es the unit shearstressu as
( and
u:.tG (8.2.3) .': d + T
( - : -
dz GJ
( which gives
tTtfoughout
chapters 8 and 9. the symbol e is used for rhe angle of twist,
( and ,nouio not be
confused sith the resistance factor o used for Load and Resistarce Tr
factor g in these chapters is used subscripted;6u ro ind:care
Factor Desigp. The resisrance (8.2.7)
( beadins,. -.* J
-t;
t ( '-#.
l - -
T h u s a s l o n g a s t h e a s s u m p t i t ; n so f this developnrcnt rcasonabll' apply. and the torsionel constant ,I ma-"-be erpresscd as
(
torsional shear stressis proportional to the radial distance frrrm the center of (
1 -'l;.,bt1 (8 . 2 . 1 3 )
tu ist.
u'here the values of A-, and /t' ma-r-be found in Table 8.2.1. (
Circular Sections (
T A B L E8 . 2 . 1 V A i U E SO Fk . A N Dk , F O RE O SI 2 l 2 A N DA 2 1 3
For the spccific case of the circular section of diameter /. no rrarping of the (
:cctions ()ccur\ (i.r,'.n . o a s s u m p t i o ni s r e q u i r e d ) a n d 7 : p o l a r m o m e n t o f hit 1.0 1.1 1.5 2.0 7.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 T-
(
i n c r t i a : T r t a . , / 3 ? .T h u s . f o r m a x i m u m s h e a rs t r e s sa t r : t / 2 . kr 4.sl .t 5? 4.0'7 3.88 3.75 3.55 3.44 3.(X)
c.rl
l6T (
fr, o.l4l 0.166 0.196 0.229 A.2490.263 0.281 0.291 0.333
'm&r (8 . 2 . 8 )
, f ,I ?
(
Rectangular Sections l-shaped, Channel, and Tee Sections.
(
I'hc anall'sisa' applied to rectanglesbecomescomplex since the shearstressis As w'ill be obsen'edfrom a studl'of Table 8.2.1 the valuesof kr and k.
affcctcd bv rrarping. though essentiall-r'the
angle of twist is unaffected. become nearly'constantfor largeratios h/t. Thus the torsionalconstantsfor (
As an "rpproximation. consider the element of Fig. tf.2.2 subjected to sections composed of thin rectanglesmay be computed as the sum of the (
s h e a r .i n u h i c h ..valuesfor the individualcomponents. Suchan approachwill give an approxi-
d+ mation rvhich neglectsthe contributionin the fillet region u'herethe cornpo- (
'l: I-- (82.e) nents are joined. For most common structuralshapesthis approximatirrn
a: (
causeslittle error. thus
For a thin rectangle. end effects.the shearstressma\ beexpressed
neglecting
y = f {ar3 {8.2.14)
(
a-\
dO where b is the long dimensionand I the thin dimensionof the rectangular (
u : lG : tG_:_ (8.2.r0)
elements.
d: (
r ) r u s i n g F - q .S . 1 . 5 . More accurateexpressions for variousstructuralshapeshave been dc'r'el-
'lt oped bv Llse and Johnston[8.41.Changand Johnston[8.5J.Kubo. Johnstott, (
t t
fl
8.4 / SHEARCENTER
r
( . + :
(
(
",:ffi(-/,.,r'+/'x) [ 7 . i o1 s ]
arc soLL|Tl().\' (
ln other sords. the torsional moment is ( Vrx,,- l'.-t,,) r'r'henthe loads
plancs passing rhrough the centroid but is zero if thc loads are in It is 111hc noterJrhat many practicalcasescan he sr'rlvcdn'ithout usingthe (
applie<i in
prriing rhrough rhe shear center. i.e.. the point s'ltosc coordinatcs generalformulas.Eqs. 8.4.3and 8.4.4.Sincethe shearccnter locationis a
piin., be takenthrougha ( ,
are .r().li|. ircrblem in cquilihrium.momentsmav most convenientlv
point that climinatesthe greatest number of Thus.
forces' letting /. : 0 and
li is ob.crred rhai rhe location of shear ccnter is independcnt of the equilibriumequa-
( '
raking momentsahout point I of Fig. 8.4.1a.change. the
rnagnitudc t)r t\pc of loading. but is dependent onlv tln the cros:-sectional
tion. Eq. tt-r
l{.4.2,. (
configuratittn.
ftl tlc.rermine rhc shear center location. first let one of the shears hc z-ero. {a} (
l'rQ: Vth:
say l, : 0: then from F,q.8.4-2, ["(rt)t,a.,
(
u'hcre according to Eq. 8.3.5.
(8.4.3) \
- ! r : - | fv ". rt Ot t ) r d s -vt -,ut'
-' ,' -: Itr ," (b)
j:J""ut: (
where lccording to Eq. t1.3.6. L
is performed
thelengrhs atongrrhichintegration (
l" secrions.
F.r rhescrhin-u'all
tt' ' :- I r - . f ' v t d sl./'*r,r,
-
is nreasurcdat mid-thickness. (.
7il, L"'J,,.''"" ] : - hl? where t : li. $lUes
Suhstituting Eq.(b) into Eq. (a). and using .!'
(
Alternatelv.letting v, : o givesfrom Eq' 8'a'2'
l r n
.r,,: li l(ttlrtls {rt.4.4)
t,Q:
I:+elr,/'s'r''
(c) (
,
I
J()
(
V , I, h : 7 n l. t.l::n:
: t''t : (
u'hereaccordingto Eq. ti.3-5. ,, l, -t/,
(
''=ffi[r'/r'a'-
1.,/'.rr*l Thus thc :hear center lot-ationaltlng the -t'aris is
(
r E K d] I P LE 8. { .1
,r=ry
41,
(d) (
l-ocatethe shcarcenterfor the channelsectionof Fig.8'4'l' (
mc:.rsurcdin the ptrsitive.r directionto the left of the channelseb'
For the shearcenterCoordinate measuredalt-,flgthe.r'-aris.apply I'. anrl (
V. :
tet I , 0. ancl because of symmet \ V, must act ct .l' : 0 for equilibrium'T'r ( ,
2
t-l let l; be applied at the distance.t,,helos' the r-axis and take
.-. demonsrrate.
\ 'i:o' moments:.rboutpoint l. Sarisffing equilibrium. I
R eactrve
\
--1
forces
i h (
t:[; - 'b) : )r.ji { r')
y=z Io,;, ( ,
z
il
-v'{t-??"
rI: '
-vrln
znil{
t.-
f t(' - , 3'2)
tu :
2s.87\2 '-"1
I
I
_'lz -+ ,/
,Shear
cenler
(
Qhnrr
centet
i
I
I
t1
:l
Centroirl ,
I
Substitutionof rr inro Eq.(e) gives -+> --JiL-.,
( 7u
I
T=Ph T=Pe
( -v*lt' T=Pli+qi
n'\t - ' o \) : r o
lh
- 3.zslnot (a) (b) (c)
( J ot n " ' [ t I Figure B 5.1 Common torsional loadings.
( -V,h i
A
r lr
s-\l + v,h
( , : J t ^ 8lis\ 3e- 3.2- ll
) ,l Torsion nra,vbe categorizedinto tn'o 11n.rr pure torsion.or as it is often
/10
( called,Sainl-Venant'storsion,and rvarpingtorsion.Pure torsionassumesthat
Thus it is shorvn that yo is zero. The shearcenter mav aiso be located as planeprior to applicationof torsionremainsa planeand onl.v
a cross-sectional
( follorvs. First compute, by integratingover each stress disrribution of Fig. elenrentrotation occursduring torsion.A circular shaft subjectedto torsionis
( 8.4.1,the shearforcesactingin eachof the componentelerilenrsof the section. a situationrvherepure torsion existsas the only t1pe. Warping torsion is the
Then the shearcenteris locatedsuch that V, or V, counteractail of the shear out-of-planeeffect that arisesrvhenthe fla.lgesare laterallydisplacedduring
( trvisting.analogousto bendingfrom lareraliyapplied loads.
forces acting on the componentsto produ.. .quilibrium. In solving for the
shear center location, the solution may be made as illusrrared, and then 1. Puretorsion(Saint-Venant'storsiort).Just as flexuralcun'ature(change
(
checkedby verifying rhar the forcesare in equilibrium. in slopeper unit length)can be expressed as lI/EI: d2y/d22,i.e.,moment
( I divided by flexural rigidity equals flexural curvature. in puie torsion the
torsionalmoment M divided by the torsionalrigidity GJ equaisthe torsional
(
8.5 TORSIONALSTRESSESIN I.SHAPEDSTEEL SECTIONS curvature(changein angle of trvist O per unit length). Recallingpreviously
(' derived Eq. 8.2.5 for f, rvhichnorv becomesihe component M, due to pure
The strucl,uralengineermust recognizea torsionsituationa::d be able to appl_V. torsion.
(
approximatedesign methodsand perform a stressanalysis nhen necessary. d6
( even though only occasionallywill torsion be severeenoug} ro control the J f", : G J ,:
d (8 . s .)1
design of a 'section.Rolled steel sectionsunder uniform and nonuniform
( ivhere ll,: pure torsionalrnoment(Saint-Venanttorsion;
torsion have'been studied analytically and experimeriuily b-r*many inves-
( tigators. G: she ar m odulusof elasr icir i': E/ 12( 1+ p) 1. in r er m s of t he
The developmentin this sectionis similar to that of Timoshenko tension-compression modulus of elasticity E and Poisson's
( [8.11], ratio p
Lyse and Johnston[8.4],Kubo, Johnsron,and Eney [9.6],Goldberg
[g.i2J.and
( Chu and Johnson [8.13].Discussionsof someof rhe pracdcal u.pi.6, along "/ = torsionalconstant(seeSec.8.2)
with solutions for variousloading and support cases.are gir-enby Hotchkiss In accordincervith Eq. 8.2.7.stressdue to t/, is proportionalto the distance
(
[8.9]and Johnston[8.1aJ;charrsfor designare availablein ibe han-dbookfrom from the centerof trvist.
( AISC [8.8Jand in the paperby Johnston[8.14];and desiga rablesusing the
B 2. lVarpingtorsion.A beamsubjectedto torsion M,.as in Fig.8.5.2.rvill
modified flexure analogymethod developedby the authors :ue presentedin have its compression flangebent in one directionlateralll'u'hile its tension
( Sec-8.6. Lin [8.15.8.16]has givenadditionaland expandedg ,-uiu. tables. flangeis bent in the other.Wheneverthe cross-section is such that it rvould
( Application of load in a planeother than the one rhrougb the shearcenter rvarp(becomea nonplanarsection)if not restrained.rhe restrainedsystemhas
(see Fig. 8.5.1) rvill cause the member to trvist unlers .*re*al restraints sl.resses
induced.The torsionalsituationof Fig. 8.5.2illustratesa beamthat is
( prevent such trvisting.The torsionai stressdue to trvisting consistqof both preventedfrom t*'isting at eachend but the rcp flangedeflecrslaterallyby an
( shearand flexural stresses.Thesestresses must be superimfosed on the shear amount ur. This latcralflangebendingcausesflexuralriormalstresses (tcnsion
and flexural stressesthat existin the absenceof torsitn. and compression) as u'ell as shearstresses
( acrossthe flangervidth.
' (
(
8,'TCRSION A 5 ,'TORSIONALSTRESSESIN I.SHAPEDSTEELSECTIONS
(
are (
directly.'pr()porrionalto the lateral deflection. Torsion houndan' conditions
--v analogous to latcral bcnding boundarv conditions' (
4{ D f f e r e n r i a r i n g t h r e e t i m e s u i t h r e s p e c tt o : i n E q . 8 . 5 . 2 g i v e s
'-11 -/ (
r
h , .
a ,
, l ,ltu, le rd''O
( 8 . 5 . )3 (
'
6:-qr,,;l'let
I
For onc flange thc curvature relationship is
(
ggclr6n A 4 dlu, - Ml
,
I i.r,sl,ng f)rEvetrte(l rl l" s ei(:
(8.s.4) (
Frgure 8.5 2 Torsion of an I'shaped section.
T: '\
of \
$.here,[/, is the lareralhendingmoment on one flange. /., is the moment
flange about the of the beam.and the minus sign arises
inerfia for one .r'-axis
'l'hus
trrrrioo nrar bc thought of as being composedof tu'o parts: (1) from positireL,cndingas shownin Fig. tt.5.2.Also. sinceF: d.ll/d:. (
rotation of elemcnts.the pure torsion part. and (2) translationproducing -Vl
dtu,
latcrulbcnding.thc uarpingpart. (8.5.6)
3. Diffvrentiul equationfor torsion on I- anclchannel-shuped sec'tions.Con- *T:1
siderthe deflectedpositionof a flangecenterline. as in Fig. 8.5.2,uhere a, is
rhc lareraldeflecrionof one of the flangesat a sectiona distance: from the Using Eqs.tt.5.3and 8.5.6gives
cnd of thc menrbcr:Q is the tlrist angleat the samesection.andL/,(Fig.8.5.3t t t,rr+ ft
is thc horizontalshearforcedevelopedin the flangeat that sectiondue to vt: - u,,Gl Ul
( 8 . 5 . )7
larcral bending.Ir is noted that an important assumptionis that the u'eb
remainsa planeduringrotation.so that the flangesdeflectlaterallvan equal Referringto Fig. S.5.3.the torsionalmoment componcnt l/". causing
amounr.Thus ir is assumedthe web is thick enoughcomparedto the flanges equalsthe flangeshearforce tinresthe moment
lateralbendingof the flanges.
so rhat it docsnot bcndduringtwistingas a resultof high torsionalresistance arm ir. This no
assumes shear to warpingis sontributedbv the s'eb.
resistance (
of rhc flangcs.Exceptfor thin-u'ebplategirders.it hasbeensho*n [8.6.8.17J
ft:rJg (
rhar assunringnO lateralbendingin the $'eb.i.e..no effecton the n'arping
l/*: V,h= -EIt ( 8 . 5 . )8
rorsit)oc()mponent. is suificientlYcorrectfor practicalpurposes. Sincerarell Z art (
arc thin-ueb plate girdersused u'ithout stiffeners.and certainll'not u'hen
,ltQ (
torsionalstressexists.suchcasesare not of practicalimportance. : _EC";T (8.5.e)
From eeometry. a:-
h n.hereC^: I,lt:12. ottenreferredto as the v'urpingrcrsionul('onsla,tt. (.
ui: Ql (8.s.1)
The toral torsionalmomentis composedof the sum of the rotationalpart.
.1/..and the l ateralb endingpar t . r U*. uhich
. f r om Eqs. 8- 5. 1lnd 8'5'9git e (
for smallvaluesof +. For understanding of torsionon I- and channel-shaped
do ,J3o (
Eq. 8.5.2is the singlemost importantrelationship.
secrions. The tu'istangleis
M , : M , * M ^ . =G J ; - E C . T T (8.5.10)
(
d: d:-
k (
164 B/roRSloN
-:
lNI-SHAPED
&slroRslorual srRESsEs SECTIONS
STEEL
( \
Lerting\2: GJ/EC. (r :\/a of Torsio-n
Anarysis of steerMembers[g.gD,
( and for thehomogeneous
solution
of Eq.9.5.11
tet g, : Ae^,,
( ,Jtg Torsionatty simPly st PPorted
,.dQ
( *t-^'E:o (s.5.12)
which upon substitutionof the homogeneous
solutiongives
( (a) Distributionoi
tolal tonional momenl'
( Ae^=(nf-Fm):0 (8.s.13) ,U: = .lfr +.1!..
which requires causingsheerln flenge
( n r ( m 2- t r ' ) : 0 ; .'.m:0, rn: *l
( Thus -'----l ,r:.rdQ -(b) Distributionoi Portion
of tonionsl nonent .lfr
( Q n : A f\' + Are -^' * A t (8.5.14) due to Sainr'Venant
tonion (Pure torsion)
which upon using the hyperbolicfunction identities and regrouping
( the
constantsmay be expressed
as
(
Qn: A sinhtr: + B coshtrz + C (8.5.15) M* = -Ee-d3? (c) Distribution of iNttion
dz' of torsion:i r.1oilcnl .lI*
( due lo $3rplng torsion
( 1 at midsPan:
tr:-: Figure 8.5.4 Case of Example -8.5.1'-Concentrated torsional moment
( g
tJrsionatly simply supported.(Adapted from Ref' 8'9)
(
The complete
, ( M,: f (z) The other constant C, may be combinedwith C of Eq' 8'5'15'
Let Qo: .ft(:), andsubstitute solut,ionfor this loading is therefore
i
intoEq.g.5.11,
grving
i ( T
(b)
( d t f, ( t ) , . ,d f, ( r ) e : A s i n h t r z * B c o s h t rCz +* m z
(s-i:16)
( - \ Thinking
wheretermson theleft-handsidemustbe pairedwith termson the right consider the boundary conditions for torsional simple suPport'
proportional t-o 'l), simple
( side
Rarely rvill /t(z) be requiredro contain higher than second-degreet.i*r. of the lateral bending of the flange (since f is
deflection at each end' or for
support conditions mean zero moment and
(
E EXAMPLE 8.5.I torsion,
( g:o at ;:0 and z:L
!9v9lol the expressionsfor the twist angle g, as well as the first, second,and
( third derivatives,for the caseof concenrratedtorsional moment applied
at d2o
midspan rvhenthe endsare torsionallysimply supported,using the diiierential -=:6":0 at z:0 and z:L
( equation. dz'
thus' usingzero
( In this.ur.'i1,r-Oifferentialequationis discontinuousat L/2;
SOLUTION ?t z:0
s l o p e o ft h e f l a n g ea t L / Z , i . . . , O ' : ' 0 ' a l o r ' g w i t h g : 0 a n d 0 " : 0
( Referringto Fig. 8.5.4.it is apparentthat il[, is constant and equal
to wili permit solution for the three constanl'sof Eq' (b)'
T/2. Thus let
( Fromg:0atz:0'
(c)
( Qr: C, * Czz (any polynomial) (u) O:B+C
Using Eq. 8.5.11gives
( U s i n gQ " : 0 a t z = 0 ,
( -*c,:-+(;)'
,,:* trz
+" : A* sinhtrz + Btr2cosh
(d)
( A = B
i, (
8 5 .'TORSIONAL STRESSESIN I.SF"APEDSTEEL SECTIONS 467
81TOtrSlC,\l
,,:Y J
[ 4 . :r.r ] s hich is distributedlinearlyacrossthe flangewidth as shou'nin Fig. 8.5.7.The
bending moment Ili. the lateral moment acting on one flange. m?)' ii-
and usingEq. 8.5.1gives h;, substi t ut ingEq. 8. 5. 2int o 8q. 8. 5. 4 and not ing t hat I , h: 72 1'
t' rbrai ned
do s'arping torsionalconstantC..
cr: Gtf ( 8 . 5. 1 7)
__ih\./t+ EC.d2g
ttt:etr\ll;,'= ( E . 5 . 2) 1
whosedistribution is shownin Fig. 8.5.5a. h d-t
The shear stress or that results from warping variesparabolicallvacross
the width of the rectangularflange as shorvn in Fig. 8.5.5band mav be
computedas
VrQr
t t a : - (8.s.18)
Ittt
(
w r 8x 7 l
(
w 1 8X 7 l
(
( I roration I ,o'4' .l
( Figure8.5.8 Data for Example8.5.2.
Figure8.5.7 \\'arping of cross-section.
(
Reca[ing from Eq. 8.5.11,
( The minus sign is droppedbincetensionoccurson one sidervhilecompression
occurson the other. GJ 3.391
( |- : :0.01668
(
The maximum stressoccursat x :.b/r2, which when usedwith Eq. g.5.21 E* 2.6(4685) S g
givesfor Eq. 8.5.20.
(
(
t,(:)#(+)
rn*: E -2fE ( 1+ P \ : 2 ' 6
= forP:6'3
E
( rbh d2a btl
fo*,:
4 f
(8.5.22) r -- ^t\-
.t t E
! Y .q
v ' -.' '8 . 2 . 1 4
( 3
In a sumtnary,three kinds of stresses arise in any l-shapedor channel : 3'3ein'a
( + (18.47- 1.620)(0.4e5)3j
: 1121t.035X0.810)3
sectiondue to torsionalloading:(a) shearstresses u, in rveband flangesdue to
( rotat.ionof the elementsof the cross-section (Saint-Venanttorsionalmorq-e!-t,. (1S.47
r,h2 (z.ois)3(0.8i0) - 0.810)2
M"); (b) shear stressesu,., in the flanges due to lateral bending 1*'arpin! .\ - b ' - :
. 1i 2
( torsionalmoment, M,.): and (c) normalstresses (tensionand compiessionj1o*
L I L
3.489
a.4L 1..927 3.343
( In accordancervith the derivation(seeFig. 9.5.a),?. is the applied toisional 5.477 5.567
0.5t 2.402
moment.
( T : 20(2) : 40 in.-kips
47O 8,/ TORSTON 8.s/TOFISTONAL
STRESSES
rN|-SHAPED SECTTONS 471
STEEL
(a) Puretorsion(Saint-Venant
torsion).UsingEq.8.5.17, * ti ctri s a maxi mu mat z - L/ 2and zer oat z: 0. Thus
u" - GI dQ/dz q( 2. 6) ( 7. 635X17. 660)
[ s. 4t 7 I
de T / coshAz \ / r * ( f l a n g e rs:a tL / 2 \=
ffilrrrJ-8.agksi
E- rcllr- *tbqzJ
(c) Ordinary flexure. Maximum normal stressis
T' *thl''\ 4' coshrz\
*r :
,. ' -
f., = f., -
2/ \ s.s67I 2(3.3e)
\' S156]. PL 20(24X12)
fr(at:= L/2): ;: = ll.34ksi
The shear stressu, is a maximum al z = 0 and zero at z : L/2: 6:
vQ 100 o
arz :o) : 3.e2*ffi: 2.40
4(web ksi o : -
It 11701 1l7t
TASLE8.5.1 SUMIUARY
F FOREXAMPLE
OFSTRESSES 8.5.2
occursat r - L/2 whllethe minirnumvalueis at e : 0, **
= Support Miclspan
40 I (?.635)217.660
\ * Typeof Stress (z: 0) (z -rL / 2)
arz = L/2')=
u.(flange : o.zzrsi $
t6mt t t-J
Normal stress:
Verticd bending /u 0 11.34
at z - 0) : O.rr3$ : 0.05ksi
u.(flange Torsional bending, /u, 0 8.49
19"83kti
For normal stressin flangesdue to warping,us€ F4. 8.5.22: Shear stress,web:
Ebh dza Saint-Vcnant lorsion, u, 2.& 0
f.
tbt
Vertical b€nding, u t.25 r.25
4 iltz
3.65ksi
d'O MI [ -sinh trz ] Shcarstress,fl-aage:
- : - l - l
-T-- -i
i
t /
i
(
a .
t :
(
TOBSIONANDPLANEBENDiNG
8.6/ANALOGYBETWEEN 473 t:
( 472 8/TOrctON t i
i.i
t
( l:.
F
F:
( | 1 7.6 6 0\ 1 6 .8 5 0 / 16.850
\ using thc flexuralanalogyrather than the differentialequationsolution.
Q : 7 . 6 3 5 ( 0 . 8 1 0, ) l (0.4es)t
( )- , _ ,|:rz.tsin.'
SOLUTION
( 72.18 The substitutesystemis as shown in Fig. 8.6.2a.The lateral bending
u(web at e : 0) : = 1.25ksi momentis then
( '(0j9,,
Mt: \(L/2): 1 . 1 3 ( 1 2:) 1 3 . 0f t ' k i P s
(
A summary of stressessho*'ing combinationsis givenin Table 8.5.1.
( acting on one flange.Trvicethe moment acting on lhe entire sectiongives
( 2(13'6Xi2)
f. : z l v l t - : 2 0 . 6k s i
( q 15.8
( 8.6 ANALOGYBETWEEN
TORSION
AND PLANEBENDING
For torsionalshearstress,since,t/- : T/2: 20 in.-kips,
( Becausethe differentialequationsolutionis time consuming,and really suited
onll' for anall'sis.design of a beam to include torsion is most conveniently M,t 20(0.8i0)
( r,: : 4 . 7 8k s i ( f l a n g e )
donc b1' making the analog.vbetweentorsionand ordinarybending. T: .,--
( Consider that the applied torsional momenr T of Fig. 8.6.1 can be
'
converted into a couple Po times ft. The force Po can then be treated as a / 0. 495\
( u,: 4'78[** : z'lz rsi (rveb)
lateral load acting on the flangeof a beam. J
( The substitutesystemwill have constantshearover one-halfthe span,a
diagram as given in Fig. 8.5.4a.The true distributionof lateral shearrvhich For lateralbendingflangeshearstress.
( contributesto lateral deflectionis only that part due to warping as shorvnin
( Fig. 8.5.4c.Thus the substitutesystemoverestimates the lateralshearforceand vrQf - 1'13(5'90)
-" =
,. : 0.27ksi
consequentlyoverestiioatesthe lateral bending moment M, which causes. Ilt (30.0)0.810
( normal stresses(tensionand compression).
( In most practical design situations when it is desirable to include the whereQ7 : (7.635/2)(g.810nt,.U$
lO>: 5.90in-3
effect of torsion. the compressivenormal stressdue to the warping component
( is the quantity of most importance. The shear stresscontributions are nor-
(' mall1.'not of significance.
T = 4U'k
(
( PH
( I
I
(
h
I
P,=I
I
I t_
( :.
PH
( r-r't- ?F
-. 1 ,l I
( ffiry I
' ) ,
rn
';_ (a) Flexure analogyshear (b) Warping torsion sheat
( , '.
. _;'i.:+ Figure 8.6.2 Cornparisonof lateral shear on flange due to warping torsion with that
( from simple lateral flexure analogy.
Figure 8.6.1 Analogy bets'een flexure and torsion. .f
'1,
r ( ,g
:!L' 2
"*Er
':fi:-----
r..:t-
ftF-''
E:. '' ANDPLANEBENDING
TORSTON
8 6 /ANALOGYBETWEEN 475
474 6,/ rORSlCi{
{ .
;
l
a;-
t :
The results of the two methods are compared as follows: Thus the modified flexure analogy gives j
Flexural Differential
Mth:r(+) ( 8. 6. 4) (
Type of Stress Aoalogy F4uation
( '
for the case-ofFig. 8.6.1.
|,iormal stressE ft, + fr.: 11.3 + 20.6 - 31.9 ksi 19.83ksi Tables 8.6.1 through 8.6.5 give "exact" values for B for severalcommon t
Web shearstress- a * o, - 1.25 + 2.92 : 4.17 ksi 3.65ksi loadingand restraintconditions.For other casesTable I of Ref. 8.9(whereM,
Flange shear strcss - c' * u, + o.. - A.27 + 4.78 + A.27 : 5.32 kti . 4.24ksi equals !v!,h above)or the curves of. TorsionAnalysis of SteelMenfiers [8.81 t
may be used.In Tables 8.6.3and 8.6.4, rr is the applied torsional loading per
unit length(sa:-.in.-kips/ft).
It is apparent that use of the flexure analogy without modification is a
vcn'corls€n'etiveapproach.In somesituationsit is so excessively conserv'ative
I EKAMPLE 8.6.2
as to be practicallvuseless. Furthermore,the most important designitem. the
Recomputethe stresses due to torsionon the beamof Example8.6.1,usingthe
latcral hending normai stressfu. is overestimated by the greatestamount. I
modified flexuralanalogymethodurilizing the F valuesfroni Table 8.6.1.
The relaticnship betweenthe flexural analogy and the true torsion prob- :
lcrn is best illustratedby referringto Fig. 8.5.4a.Note.that the full torsional \+.
+.
shear resultin! kom M, and M- is analogousto the lateral flexure problem. SOLUTION
Figure 8.5.4b shows the portion of the shear that goes into rotation of flexure analogygives
?
clements.*'hile Fig. 8.5.4cshows the portion contributing to lateral flange ' M{: 13'6ft-kiPs
bending If one could correctly assesshow the shear due to warping torsion
compareswith the lateral flexure situation. design for torsion could be greatly as previouslycomputed.
:i'a:
simpl i fied l*'ithout beinggrosslycons€rvative. .*. trL : 4.80 (as computedin Example8.5.2)
Figure 8-6.2b shows the accurate variation of V, for the problem of *i..
T From Table 8.6.1at a = 0.5, F = 0.41, i.e., use about 4l percentof the
Example8.5.1,computedaccordingto Eq. 8.5.7,whereupon a
- There are relatively few occasionsin actual practice where ihe torsional load
^ Mf : p x (areaunder flexureanalogysheardiagram) (8.6.3) can'ca.usesignificanr twisting and frequently these situations arisc during
construction. In most building construction the mem_bersare lateraily re-
u'herep is a reduction facror that dependson trt. strained by artaehmentsalgirg the length of the member and thmeforc they are
It is to be noted that if Eq. 8.62 is multiplied by i, and the concentrard not free to twist. Even though torsional loading.existg it may be self-limiting
moment I is thought of as a concentratedload, the analogousmoment Mi becausethe rotation cannot excccd the end slope of ,rhe uansversc attached
(sometimesreferred to as birnomentlequalsp times thc simple beammoment. members.
(
.€l
( .476 8/TORS|ON =l 8 7 /PRACTTCALSTTUATTONS
OF TORSTONAL
LOADTNG 477
(,, . - t
-. , l I
TABLE8.6.r p VALUESCONCENTRATED
( LOAD.TORSIONAL
SII'PLESUPPOFTT
TABLE 8.6.3 f VALUES UNlFORtvlLOAD TORSIOI{ALSilJi--LESUPPORT
(
Illh - fr1TohL)
( al::aL
ffi r t t r h :a ( | * )
(
(
II a:0.5
I values
a-0.3
ffi al::uI-
( t
B values
0.5 0.98 0.98
( , 1.0
0.98 0.99 0.99 trL a=0.5 | d:0.4 a:0.3 a-0.2 i d:0.1
0.9? 0.93 0.94 |
( 2.0 0.95 0.97 : _
0.76 0.77 0.80
3.0 0.84 0.91 0.5 0.9'l 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.98
0.60 0.62 0.65
( 4.0 0.72 0.83 1.0 0.91 0. 91 0.91 0.9i 0.92
0.48 0.50 0.54
5.0 ' 0.41 0.62 0.76 2.0 0.70 0.71 0.71 n't1 o.74
( t 0.39 0.45
6.0 0.54 4.70 3.0 0.51 0.51 0.52 0.54 0.57
0.33 0.34 0.39
8.0 0.47 0.65 4.0 0.37 0.37 0.38 0.41 a.M
( u._) 4.26 0.30 0.37 0.55
10.0 0.:0 0.21 4.24 0.31
s.d 0.27 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.34
( , 0.48 6.0 0.20 0.20 0.72 0.24 0.28
8.0 0 . 12 0.i2 0. 13 0. 16 0.19
( ,
10.0 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.11 0. 14
(
, TORSIONALLYFIXEDSUPPORTS
( i FiXEDSUPPORTS
TAELE 8.6.4 B VALUES.UNIFORMLOAD.TORSIOI'JA.LLY
F.* '::_
+j..-
C
\ gi:,
torsional momertron the girder. To attack such a problem cne must first
CL-2QO uah
(
dctermine rhe relationshipbetweenthe angle of twist + and the applied n'here .\lrun: the fired-endmomentfor beam ab at a
(
torsionalmoment 7n - +, : beamslopeat a
For erample. in Fig. 8.7.1 the loading systemcausesequa! tr.rrsicnai- gn : beamslopeat b (
momentsat the I points on membet AB. Assurningthe gircicr:orsitrnall)' J : relative<ieflection
betg'eena and b
(
After having establishedthe necessaryslope deflection equations for
(
moments.joint equ,ilibriumand shear conditiortsare necessary,after u'hiclr
T__
I
simultancousequationsmust be solved.One suchjoint equationis that ai (
I
I i oi nt a.
I
I (
T + ltfou:0
c
i., (
After soh'ingfor the slopes,then the torsionalmomentscan be found: for tlie
L . a torsionalnromentat a. (
7 : EgJ /28.8 (
I
(
I
I
In tlie Coldbergt8.121exampleusing membershaving propertiessimilar
B
to thosi of Fig. E.7.1,the -valueof T obtained was 1.55 in.-kips using an
(
3 Q 1 4 ' - 0= a 2 ' - O approximatemethcrdof satisfyingdeformationcompatibility.
i i ! g r r d e r s , ' J J 1 0X 4 5
all beams, Supposeone had takenthe simplebeamreactionfor memberab,0.517;: (
i = 2.18:n.a
6J = 105 ft2-kips
tv6 x 25 3.5 kips, und assumeuseof an AISC "FRANTED BEAM CONNECTION"
a = lr'\ = 51.3in. / = 53.'3in.' (
(see Fig. 13.2.1).If the eccentricityhad been taken to the bolt line on the
Figure8.7.1 Plan vicrv of floor framing. outstandingleg (2i irr.).the torsionalmornentwould have been far too great, (
(
(
C
- - -4;5;
-
( -iffit
480 8/TORSION - LATEMLLYSTABLE
LBILRFD FORTORSTON BEAMS 481
- i'*
F t.
( ':=-:
6 i + :
-.* i
i -Ti:
( "s]i
rvhile if the eccentricityhad been taken as one-halfthe wl0x45 (Fig. s.7.1) & l
#_-r
zero deflection and zero moment which @rrespond torsionally to S = 0 and
( $'eb thickness(0.350/?), the torsionalmoment rvould havebeen far too small. .-. d'e/dt': 0, It is noted that O : 0 only if the simpleconnectionextendsover
j=' ! '
( The proper torsional momentcan only be obtained(even approximately) --b . a significant portion of the beam depth.
by consideringdeformationcompatibility. Figure 8.?.2bshowsthe analogysituation of zero deflectionand zeroslope
( which correspondstorsionallyto Q : 0 and dE/d:: 0. Hotchkiss[8'9] states
:i
the ends of the beam must be boxed in (platesA. Fig. 8.7.2b)so as to assure
( Torsional End Restraint
de/d:: 0. Ojalvo [8.20,8.22]has discussedtorsionalrestraintand indicates
"boxing", that is,
( If a torsional situation is deemedto require analysis,the torsionat end that "boxing" is not sufficientto obtain dQ/dz: 0. When
r*straintmusr be evaluared.Under LRFD-A2.2 two welding stiffenerplatesbetrveenthe toes of flangesand extendingthem along
( basic typesof construc-
lion are permitted:Tlpe FR (fully restrained)rvhichis the traditional "rigid the beam for a length equal to the beam depth. is usedand the beam is then
"torsion-
( fraine" construction:and Tlpe PR (partiallyrestrained)which includes"sim. welded to a thick column flange the authorsbelieveit is essentially
ple" or "conl'entional" framing rvhere there is assumedto be negligible ally fixed". Furthermore.if the column has flexible flanges.colurnnstiffeners
(
flexural restraint at rhejoint, as well as "semi-rigid" framing where a defined (platesB, Fig. 8.7.2b)shouldbe provided.
( flexural restraintexiststhat is lessthan Type FR. In ASD-Ai.2 there are three The Ojalvo [8.20]suggestionof welding a length of channel,angle,or bent
tlpes of consrrucrionpermirted: Type 1 which is the same as Tlpe FR in plate betweenthe flangeson one side of the web seemsto be a more efficient
(
LRFD; T"vpe2 rvhich is "simple" or "conventional" framing; and rype 3 and economicalsolution.The ends of the membermust be weldedagainstthe
( sliich is "semi-rigid" framing.ASD Types 2 and 3 are included in LRFD insidesof tie flanges.and there must be u'eld vertically along the edgesthat
T1'pePR. bear against the web. Tests of several torsional restraints,including that
( The correlationof "simple" and "rigrd" framingwith torsionalrestraintis proposedby Ojalvo [8.20],have been reportedby Heins and Potocko[8.21].
( shonin in Fig. 8.7.2.Again. the lateral bending analogywill help in visualizing :.' r
l
Vacharajitriphanand Trahair [8.23Jalso discusstorsional restraintat l-section
the torsional restraintconditions.Figure 8.7.2ashorvsthe analogy situation of joints.
( The structural engineershould rememberthat in practical situationswhere
--'E .
( no specialdesignis made at the ends, the torsionalrestraintis neithersimple
(dz+/dzz : 0) nor fixed ( dQ/dz: 0) but is, however,usually such that the
( end twist is nearlyzero(Q: 0).
:;
(
=vB :
( 0=0 FACTORDESIGN
8.8 LOADAND RESISTANCE
(
d20-^ t FOR TORSION- LATERALLYSTABLEBEAMS
a-u
x
(
(a) AISC simple framing connection
Nomlnal Strength
t
( Mr=f',lr+M-;Mr=0
The nominal strengthof a section subject to torsion or torsion combinedwith
( flexure is not readily determined. Such strength wiil certainly depend on the
?
Ptates
I proportions of the section and the relative magnitudesof the forcesapplied.
(
The AISC ASD Specification (such as the 1978 Specification,Sec. 1.5.1.4.4)
t
Plares
A
; rI
( has traditiohatly limited the combined stress to a maximum of 0.60F".This
effectively implies that the nominal strength of the section under combined
( 5 bending and torsion is reachedwhen the extremefiber stressreachesthe yield
( 1a stress ^{u.Thus, the entire cross-sectionwill be elastic; no credit is then given
to any hUitiry of the cross-sectionto undergo plastic deformation. Certainly
( = EEEEEEEE
of,i,o=o this approach is conservative.
( (b) AISC rigid iraming connection (LRFD Type FR and ASD Type 1) with lry
LRFD-H2 uses rhe same lirnit state by requiring the combined stress
additional stifiening-plates.
-* computed for factored loads to not exceed QoFr.(Note that in this chapterthe
(- , Mr=M*:M,=O
*.€
s
strength reduction factor O, is given the sutiscript tc clearly distinguish it
( Figure8.7.2 Torsional restraintconditions.(Adaptcd from Fig. g of Ref. g.9.) * iI from the angle Q of trvist.) Thus, the elastic biaxial bending stressequation.
'f
t
( 'x
B B/LRFD FOR TORSION- L;.TERALLYSIABLE BEAMS 483 (
4E2 8/ rOaS;ON
( t
The designacceptabilitycriterionis (
Eq. 7.11.1,can be used after convertingthe torsional moment into a pair of
lareral bending momentsacting in oppositedirectionson eachflange. (
In the examplesthat follorv, the beamsare assumedto be stablesuch that % * ! u l " ' ' = 9ar'
s' T (
the lateral.rorsionalbucklinglimit statedoesnot control (seeChapter9).
in Sec.7.11 gives
and usingthe procedurediscussed (
E EXAMPLE 8.8.I
Selectthe lightest W sectionof A36 steelto carry 0.4 kips/ft dead load, in (
addition to the rveight of the beam, and live load of 1.5 kips/ft. The Requiredr.=
superimposedload is appliedeccentrically7 in. from the center'of.theweb on
#. #(i) (,
the simply supportedspanof 28 ft as shorvnin Fig. 8.8.1.Assumethe endsof 2e8(12) 2(7A.6,12 (
the beanrhave torsionalsimplesupport. :
nto6. ffi(3):266in'3 (
(
' ,I : !':- L, : :912s;r
t\t : ft-kips
s /r" E rr n U seW 14x132.
(
* ithout rcgardto the modificationfactorp.
Whcrehigh torsionalstrengthis required,the wide W14 sectionsare mgsl (
A s a f ir s t app ro x i m a ti o na,s s u m eh :1 4 i n - and B : 0.5(approxi meti on
'fablc suitable. For the sane x,eightper foot. deeper sections give a reduced strcss
from 3.6.3,ior trL = 3). Thus the modifiedflexureanalogygives (
from ordinary flexure but an increased stress from restraint of torsional
1976 i 1976t w arpi ng.The W 2lxl32 ( f , , : 29. 4 ksi) and t he W24x131 ( / , ": 30. 7 ksi) ( ,
Mr:B :o.tt
n 14 l:70-6ft-kiPs eive about the samemaximumnormal stressas the above selectedbeam.
(
(
( ;
(
._,_',.:l
( . .-:iiil
_,:f,l BEAMS 485
( SITORS|ON . ; TI STABLE
8 8/LRFD FORTORSION-LATERALLY
:€l
..rt
-o: I
( i - l
.,,:
( The differentialequationsolutiongivesfor the factorednormal stress/,,,, ..: ConsideringT,/h as the analogouslateral concentratedloads acting ar otrc
due to warping torsion 14.3ksi as comparedrvith 14.5 ksi computedabove. flange,the fixed-endmomentsare computed;thus
(
The maximumfactoredflangeshearstress/,,, is 16.6ksi. while that in the rveb
T"ab? Tuulb 15(l2) ( 2'l)
( .is 13.5 ksi. both computedfronr the differentialequrtion solution.Theseare . \ r , h ( a t e n:d s ) *
F
acceptableunder LRFD-H2, ? .*f-(24+12)
(
( f u" : 16. 6 k s i . [0 ,r, : O r(0 .6 F ,): 1 9 .+t< si ] oK : E0.0+ 40.0 : 120ft2-kips
I
(
and in the positivemomentzone(midspanregion),
\ B [.\A:\IPLE 8.8.2 T..L
(
)esigna beam havin-storsionalh'fixed endsto carry two concentratedloads u,h(^r'"il;ilrated
)
: + ? - 1 2 0 . 0 : 1 5 ( 1 2- ) 1 2 0 . 0
of jU kips (5 kips deadlosd and 15 kips live load) actingeccentricto the plane
( of the *'eb by 6 in. as shownin Fig. 8.8.2.Assumefor conservatismthat for : 60 ft2-kips
ordinary'flexurethe beamis simply supported.Use A36 steel.Use Load and
(
Resistance Factor Desien.
The abore momentsare computedrvithoutregardfor the B reductionfactor:
('
the flexureanalog.vgit'es|Ll,i valuesas shorvnin Fig. 8.8.2b.Thesevaluesare'
( more appropriate itran uring the expressionin Table 8.6.5 becausethat
I 16" expressionii for one concentratedload. The B valuesfrom Table 8-6.5are
( l=i_ reasonable.horvever.sincethe effectof one load on the torsionalstressat the
( = l i other load is small.
EstimatingaveragetrL at about3, and usingaL :0-3L in Table8'6'2for
(
(
(
t:
lFa-*--6----{
l'ro
^4rw I
l l
t
l J ( -
Section4-A
l,rou.-*'o.
end moments.the modified analogousfixed-endmomentsbecome
'r{,lt (ar ends) : 0.88(80)+ 0'84(40): 70 * 34 : 104 ft2-kips
(
which is knog.n to be consen'ativelyhigh (seeFig. 8.8.3)becausethe value 54
( SOLUTION includesthe effectsof both concentrated torsionalmoments.(1'orsionAnal.v"sis
(a) Computefactoredloadseccentricallyapplied. :0.3L has
( of SteelMentbers [8.8], Case 6, indicatesthat I applied ar z
W u : 1 . 2 ( 5 ) + 1 . 6 ( 1 5 ): 3 0 k i p s negligibleeffect at 0.7L).
(
( (b) Computefactoredmoment rly',,..Estimatingthe beam rveightas 0.15
( kips/ft, the momenl M,, is
, (
I
?
B 9 /ASD FOR TORSION_ LATERALLYSTABLE BEAMS 487 (
4ta 4,,TOFSION (
(
the factored stressf,,,
(c) sslect the member.Assumeh = 14 in.. rvhichmakes (
M! : 54(12)/14 : 46'3 ft-kiPs f,,,,:+:
ru't ?tj1-1) . (+04:32.4ksi)O K
: re.ok,i (
s,/2 87.3/2
n/,j_ y+i Thesetwo examplesillustratethat usingapproximateB values,alongwith
(
r v Y s r r v v "s.
Reouired , =- * + i
the flexure analogy for lateral bending due to warping torsion, gives suffi-
gtF, S, I
euF, \ (
ciently quick and accurateresults for ordinary design. Furthermore' the
389(12) l(46-3)(12) (
: ' - 0 . 9 0 ( 3 6 ) - \,!"' ). l, designercan better visualizewhat is happeningusing the flexure analog,v
0.90(36) rather than working with the hyperbolicfunctionsfor Q' (
The F modified flexureanalogyhas been expandedby Lin [8.151where
: I44 + 86 : 230 in.3 additional B tablesare provided.Johnston[8.14]has provided more detailed
(
a B estimate'This design aids to compute torsional functions other than the compressiveor (
A prel:minarvcheck of Table 8.6'5 gives abour 0'8 for
to 213 in.3 and indicatesa W14xi32' Try t.nJ. stressdue to restraintof rvarpingii.e., particularly the shear stress.
*-cuid reJuce the required S.l (
: in .r: Johnston also has severalexcellentdetaileddesignexamples.Salmon [8.24]
\i '1 .1 xi31: S . 209
and Lin tS.16lhave providedadditionalinsight in their discussionsof John- (
AL:36(12)/i3.2:5.90 ston's pa-per.Additional approximate formulas for design are provided by
'\ (
Johnston,Lin, and Galambos[8'25,pp. 330-331].
Usine Table 8'6'5,find F = 0j4 rvhichgives .--=,. For additionaltreatmentof combinedtorsionand flexure,particularlyon
(
rt,h 6o{i2) channeland zeesections,the readeris referredto the work of Lansing[8.26].
= 0.74 : 3 9 ' 1f t - k i p s For nonprismatic open section rnembers,Evick and Heins 18'271present (
.\/.(at ::0.3L): B'j: 14G: i03
solution techniquesand give somedesigninformation' (
2(39.1\12 Another topic, outsid. the scopeof this text, is the secondarylareral
S,: 14+. : 225in'3
Required
ffi(z'g) bending *o1n.nt that arisesfrom the torsionaldeflectionof the compression (
flange laterally. In the deflectedposition the.compressiveforce resulting from
\
l-nu: the nert heayiersectionis indicated;Lrsew14x145. ordiiary flexural moment, M., timesthe lateralflangedeflectiongivesrise to
Ft\r 3 :t'tr)r€accuratecheckof the fVtCXtiZ using TorsionAnaly5i5
o.iSteel the secondarylateral momentwhich in turn causesgreaterlateral deflection. (
. ! , : ' c i ; , n[ . sR . SCl .a s c6 f o r i L : 5 . 9 0a t : : 0 - 3 L ' Discussionof this topic appearselseu'here [8.28,8.14]and is similar to the (
secondary bending *o*.nt that occursin bearn-columns.a subjecttreatedin
4, : c . 3 7 ( 1)5
'r' /t rrt.t-- 1 R e f . 8 . i8 : 33.9ftr-kips Chapter12. (
\co:fi / r ( r / 7 3 . 2) 1 2 r (
h{f : 33'9(12)/13'63: 25'8 it-i:rPs STRESS
8.9 ALLOWABLE DESIGNFORTORSION- (
LATERALLYSTABLEBEAMS
389{11), 25.8(1i) : (
_ t i , : . {k. s r
ri u" 74.5/2 (1978ASD, Scc.1.5.1.4-6i''i
requirement
2a9 The rraditionalASD strength-related (
is bY
represented Eq. 7.11-8,
rrt;utribe
Si n c e- i- - doesnot exc e e dQ o F r:0 ' 9 0 (3 6 ):3 2 ' 4 k si ' the w 14x132 (
acceptableby the more exact check-
Also. the stressunder factoredmomentat the supPortsmust be checked'
, - s i n e f . r r " ' l cS . 6 . 2f.i n c l; 3 , = 0 . 6 8a n d B . = 0 . 6 1 f o r , \ L : 5 - 8 7 ( \ \ ' 1 4 X 1 4 5 )
(':t. f ) = ( * : h : o 6 0 r " ) rrrr.sl (
(
: : n d c i - : 0 . 3 L .T h e n The torsion is convertedinto equivalent,{{, by using the flexure analogi as
discussedin Sec.8.6. The procedureis the'sameas illustratedfor LRFD in (
' \ l, lt : 0' 6s (8 0 ) + 0 ' 6 1 (4 0 ): 5 4 ' + + 2 4 ' 4: 78' 8 ft2-ki ps Sec.8.8 exceptin ASD the serviceloads are used insteadof factored loadsto (
compute the stress ,fn. ft. 1989 ASD Specification [1.5] does not state
t r t t : ?8.8 (1 2 )/1 3 .6 :9 6 9 .1ft-k i p s explicitly how to designfor biaxial bending without axralload: presumablythe (
foimulas for combinedbendingand axial force(ASD-H.2) could be used'
Thus thr'factorcd moment lvl, aboutthe;'-axis resistedby one flangcSives (
(
(
(
{ -'*'.-,''
488 8/TORSION 8.10 /TORSION lN CLO3=D THIN-WALLSECTIONS 489
(
(
(
s EXAMPLE 8.9.1
Invcstigate the Wl4x132 selectedin Example 8.8.1 for the loading and
+
lo. =C
conditionsof Fig. 8.8.1.Use AllowableStressDesign. t '
( 7:
+
(
beanrs'eight. r _ t
ds
(
(h) Consider the lorsion effect. The uniformly distributedserviceload + (bt
(a)
rsionalnromentm is
( Figure 8.'t0.1 Shear flow in a clos'edthin-n'all sectioa-
n t : 1 . 9 ( 7 ) : 1 3 . 3i n . - k i p s / f t
(
. .rnsiderm/h as the uniformlydistributedlateralload actingon one flangeof
( :ltc tream.Then using the B modified flexure analogy,the lateral bending Referringto Fig. 8.10.1a.the incrementof torsional moment contributed
;nonrentl/, acting on one flangeis bv each elementis
(
ln t - 1 1 3 .3 dT : rtp ds (8.i0.1)
Mt: Be L 2 = 0 .3 1 t (2 8 )' : 2 9 .6ft-ki ps
n 13J3 Integrating gives the full torsionalmoment. u';::ch is in effect the same as
( Eq. 8.2.5,
(c) Check tbe stress.The designaiceptability criterion is
( T : rt-fs, * (s.10.2)
|V- ILi',
( fr: TJr + T+ < 0.604,
Jr/ z
areaof the triangularsegmentin Fig.
t--
Since o. : 0, the shearfiow rt cannot vary along the wali; i.e., rt is constant.
: ( Figure 8.10.2 Forcesoo a cut thin-wall section.
)
i
t
a
-
s.*...: ('
':::.' 8.10 / TORSIONlN CLOSEDTHIN-WALLSECTIONS
490 I ,' TOPSIC'S{ i :::'
."-.: ( ,
=-
(
penmeter ls
'f : t/G
; (
(8.10.5)
('
The inrernalstrain energy'for an1'elementallength ds alohg the perimeteris
(8.10.6) ( ,
CIV : \rty ds
l t l \ r
(
: -l-l-ds (s.to.r) tr lr
(
2 \ 2 AI G (a) (b)
The t'*'istingmoment I about point 0 can now be replacedby a couple, Figure 8.10.3 Shearflow in multicell thin-wall section.
(
T/r.The externalu'ork done by the couple is ( ,
liT', T0
d!"t': : (8.10.8) Second,deformationcompatibilityis obtainedrvhen ( t
Zl; l" T
(
Equatinginternaland externalu'orkper unit lengthgives
T A 'T
-: frds (8.10.e)
0- b
2A$
(
fre ,, Jf 'ar7, 0:
f:^ (
g
' ' 2A$ (
-:J' : (8.10.10)
zAG zAG
(
sincerl is a constant- Finally, moment equilibriumrequires
In order ro obrain more useful forms of the equations,recallfrom Sec.8.2 T : 2 A r r r t r+ 2 A = r 2 t*2 " ' +2Afinrn (8.10.1s) (
th a t
I
T: GJ? [ 8 . 2 . ]5 The developmentof the equationsfor torsionstiffnessand strmsin closed
"membraneanal-
thin-wall sectionsmay be alternativelydevelopedusingthe (
grves
andusingEq.E.l0.10
ogy" developedby Prandtl[8.]-8.3] (
,, f atTt The principal aim in this text is to developthe basic expressionsrnd
illustrate the high degreeof torsionalstiffnessthat closedsectionsexhibit as (
T : GJ (8.10.11)
zIG, compared to open ones. The following two examplesare intended for this (
and eliminatingT betweenEqs-8.10.4and 8.10.11gives,when solvingfor the purpose.
torsionalconsiant J. (
r EXAMPLE 8.IO.I
(
4A2
(8.10.12) Compare the torsionalresistingmoment I and the torsionalconstant J for
area.The
the sictions of Fig. 8.10.4all havingaboutthe samecross-sectional (
f,*/, maximum shearstressr is 14 ksi.
(
Multicell Sections
SOLUTION (
(a) Circular thin-rvallsection.UsingEq. 8.10.4,
the shearstresses
In crrrrrputing in multicell sectionsunder torsion.equilibrium (
-r : 2rtA: 2(14)(0.s1["1r01' : el-6ft-kips
* 7q1
must he sarisiied:rhus the shearflow into a junction (such as the one shorvn (
shirdcdin Fig. 8.10.3a)must equal the flow out; the angleof twist 0 must be
must be
identicalfor eachceil: the sum of the individual torsionalresistance-s 4A2 a(25r.): , (
J: =
equel to the applicd 1s15isnalmoment. T d:393in.. (
In Fig. L10.3 the force equilibrium at joints is satisfiedby J *t' ' ( ;
T,tt: rrtt - rrl2 (s.10.13) w here!.ds/t:2tr(5 ') / 0. 5: 20n. * :' : t i''r "
("
\ .
!
.
(
C
*.t I
( . * l
J.{
492 8/TORS!ON B.1O/TORSIONrNCLOSEDTHI.r-WALLSECTTONS 493
.i.'I
*i
a ' l
- l
\ + t
r i-^-l rtz'-l .. - t
.'.. i
/Ai FJ
- l I * i l
( I l(- !
i
1t 0i" l
- t
(
\\ 7J-'; t.=l]I
12X6sl;'ucturat I
ll r
-lf-z-----i
( \7 I
(
lo" diam.pipe
, = 1 6 . 1s qi n .
o = rutto|l.. Lifl
channel llJaris in. rhick
j = 16.0 sc in. ]
(
FrEure 8.10.4 Sections for Exanple 8.10.1.
(
(
(b) Rectangularbox section.
(
T : 2rtA : 2(ra)(0.5)(72)*: 8+.0ft-kips
(
( r : :o' : ,!!-'.'=f=r':
288in.a Figure8.r0.5 Sectionfor Example8.10.2.
Q6/as) '
( ! a'n
l'
(c) Channelsection.'Sinceforthis open section,
Also, the net shearstressin the interior rvallsis r, - rr.
(
From the compatibilityof deformation,Eqs. 8-10.14give:
r-Tt
( J For cell @,
,(
I
the maximum shearstresswill be in the flange.Also, ds: 3(20)r, + 20(\ - rs) : 2G0(400,1
l,
1:l!bti ._-:
'
( For cell @, ,
J = t[ro1o.s;'+ 2(5.5X1)'l: 4.08
in.a '[rds
( - ",)J :2G0(4oo)
: 4l2o("s
J '
( J' '::'_'
- r-
' :',fl(,1;4] :4.8rt-kips
tt (r)(121 The abovetwo equationsare then solved for r, and rr:
(
-
( The circular section is best for torsional capacity, the rectangularbox is i 80r , - 20r r : 800G 9
next; theseclosed sectionshave the torsional constant J equai to 96 and 7l - 80rr + 80r, :
(
.3
800G0
times that of the channel, respectively.The resistingmornentsare 19 and 18,
' ':
( respectively,times that of the channel. . 60"5: r6oocg
:
( E EXAMPLE 8.10.2 rs: 26'67G0
( Computethe torsionalmomentcapacityand the torsionalconstantfor the rr: 76'67G 0
'
multicellgirder cross-section
of Fig. 8.10.5if the maximumshearstressr
( cannotexceed14 ksi. equal 16.67Gg,whitethe interior watl strcssis
The exteriorwall shearstresses
( (26.67 --76.67)G0. For rmo : 14 ksi,
SOLUTION
( ' From symmetry. :-
'
G o- L : 0.84
( rl: tZ: T3: 74 16.67
I
:l
. t I -<
:f
t .
g , TCeS:ili BUCKLING
8.12 /TORSIONAL 495
r 194
(
( ;
U si ngE q. 8. I $. 15.
g-\ (
r: IlArt frcentroio
\l I and strear (
)c6i (0.5)+ 2(400)(26.6't)c0(0.s)
: 4[{400x16.6't centef
: 26.700Gd : 37,404G0 (
+ i0.700GA
i : 762Aft-kips
: 3?.400(0.84) ll\j
lll
(
_i[_,, (
Thc torsionalconstantJ is
T dz (
: 37,400in.a
J
l -
_
GO -T
I
t r6=v (
The dcsignoi closedsecrionsfor bending a-ndtorsionis outsidethe scope
I
II ll",/ (, ,
of ihis rexr.and the readeris referredto the rvorkof Feltonand Dobbs[8.31].
, llA-o, ( ,
ShermertS.-l2lhas shorvnapplicationsof the closedthin-rvalltube conceptof ll lr
torsicnapplicd to trussedstructuresand structurescontainingplatesand truss
fr)iflS. lI'L-J
lii
t
8 . 1 1 T O R S I O NI N S E C T I O N SV / I T H O P E N I
I
1,,? :2GA,0 (8.11.2) Fig. 8.12.1, whose shear center and centroid coincide. Recalling the Euler
equation,
d?v
EI ,, *Py:g
az-
16.2.31
8 . 1 2 T O R S I O N A LB U C K L ! N G
Siii;e the diffcrential equadon for torsion was developedearlier in this which differentiatedtwice becomes
cl:iprcr. ind buckling of arially loaded columnshas previouslybeen treated,
rorsionrl b,ucklingmay now be treated.The strengthof most centrallyloaded dav dzv
cr-'l!.n:ns at the tangent-modulusEuler load with a reducedeffi-
is r,--ached l,' u,*r - -PAi (8.12.1)
ciencl if k-rcalhuckling occurs before overall column buckling occurs,as
f.
(
(
( 8 12,/TOBSIONALBUCKLING
497
( 4s[i 8/TORSTON
( ce'ilcr'
- polar moment of inertia abotttthe shear
( $ince EI da.y,/tlzais the loading. the Euler column can be thoughtof as a in which [,.r7rdr I-. the 8'12'6alone determincs
ivith the-shearcenter'Eq'
beamlaterally loadedwith the fictitiousloading - P(dzy/&l;. Thuswith the
" t
I
When rhe centroidcoif,cides
( ti rebuckl i ngcorl di t icn'
I
:re4ionput in the slightlybuckledposition(i.e.,rotatedthe angleQ at distance . .I 1 ^ A\ . , . . . r - ^
; frorn the end) the compressiveforce ortdr on the elementdr d: is statically Itrvi l l befound ( t er t Appenc] ixTableA2) t har t her r , ar pin*': l_i'9''at
3t a: ) ] : c"''
( rectangularelenrentsintersectlng
. l
( , l
commonPoini.
written as
- - l
( . l
equelsthe load times the moment arm r: thus t
rvhere
( I
o'Io- GJ
r dzb I -' -
( dntl: - @ . t d r ) -' A dz (s.12.2) ,-" I
I
f Ec.
dz-
(
(
The total torsional moment for the slicedz of the column is for rvhichthe generalsolutionis
(8.i2.8)
Q: At sinPz * lr cos Pz * A3z * Aa
( Dt=: .o,# dzlnztdr (s.12.3)
( C onsi deri ngt hepin. endcolum n, r vit hr ot at ion. about 'p'. ] , : l: . ^1jl. u. n
( Equation 8.12.3 representsthe contribution to the torsional moment !L't. end,butwithrvarpingnotrestrictedattheends,givesinamannersimilarto
6' that
[ributarv to the element&: ;; E;i;t column derivationin Chapter
( Az: A3: Ao:0
dM-: m"dz (s.12.4)
(
( The differential equationfor torsion on I-shapedsections,Eq. 8.5.10.is and since.l, cannot alsobe zero'
:
, s i nP L 0 , PL: nr
( d6 d3a
M,: GJ - EC"E [8.5.10J is
a, at rvhichtorsionalbuckling occurs
( The elasticbuc(ling stresso: critical
( which when differentiatedoncebecomes n2 _ orlr- GJ
L2 EC*.
( dM. dze do+
: Ot - EC*E (8.12.5)
( i ar, GJ ( 8'12'9)
o: critical :
* =- : F",
( lP
Referring to Fig. 8.5.2, positive M, at the section z gives a ciockrvise
( rotation; whereasin Fig. 8.12.1 at the section z there is counterclockrvise and
rotation. Thus the Eq. 8.72.4relationshiprequiresa minus sign for use in sectionswhose shear center
( which is accuratefor doubly symmetrical The s;*mbol F", is used
secrions.
Eq. 8.12.5.The differential equation for torsional buckling is then centroid coincide.ru.t, u, I-'an-dz;;; strut'
io LRFD-App'nOi* Ef' For the-c:l*on single-angle
( insteadof o, criticar 8'12'9 will
dTor^ dze do+ to shear center is small' Eq'
( o.4
-t | rzt dr : GJ-; - EC*-
" dza since the distancg from cen;;id stress'Expres-
dzt Jt dz' the torsionalbuckling
provide u ,.oronuble approximationJoi
constant C" "ia conslant J for various
( sions for the rvarping }:.toltion
Table A2'
tftup.t are to be found in text Appendix probable
(' not lose t;gh, of the fact that the most
r ( ,r-#-(- -o,fn,to,\#:o ( 8 . i2 . 6 )
The reader should
buckling mode is still that occurrTrig
ot the taiigent-modulus Euler load
(,
E.l2 /TORSIONAL BUCKLING 499
493 B / TORSICN ( ;
t7-L
r G
(
(8.12.12)
Gzfr
r -
Thus the problem involves
because of lateral bending about the x- or _'v--axis. where- I et
(
three critical values of axial load; bending about either principal axis and
(
nvisting about the lcngitudinal axis. On rvide-flange sections. torsional buck- { ,2tc. \ t
ling ma-vbe important {ln sectionswith extra wide flanges and short lengths
E
r e: - l--+ + G Jl - (8.12.13)
[6.61.pp.225-2s0J.
\(r,r)' I I, (
In thc generalcaservherethe shear center does not coincide with the /.+/., (
_ iri+tbt\ (8.12.14)
cenrroid,the buckling failureis actuallya combinationof torsion and flexure. H : l - l - - - = t - l : -
\ r; J ro (
For rhis case.the threedifferentialequations,(1) buckling by lateralbending
about the x-axis; (l) bucklingby lateral bending about the j'-axis; and (3) f -
rP - Ar;:1,+lr+A(t'+#) (8.12.1s) (
tu'isringabout the shearcenter,are interdependent.Thus three simultaneous modulusof elasticity,ksi
E - tension-compression \
differentialequationsrnustbe solvedto get the buckline loads. The develop-
G : shearmodulusof elasticity,ksi
mcnr and solutionof theseequationsis outsidethe scopecf this te.rtand is
c*.: torsional*'arping constant,in.6
rrcicquately 16.9:6.61,pp. 225-2501.
treatedelservhere
torsion constant,in.a
f -
equivalcntradiusof gvrationr, is below rr or r!..The alternativeu.ouldbe to i - polar moment of inertia, Eq. 8.12.15,in.a (
tp -
ctrnlputethc elastictcrsionalbucklingstressfrom Eq-'8.12.9 [identical to
K,,, K - - effective length factors in the y-direction, and for torsional (
LRFD Formuia(A-E3-5)landcomparethe resultrvith that obtainedusingthe
buckling (z-axis)
largerof K.L,/r.,ot K,.L,/r, in lhe column formulasoi Chapter6. LRFD- \,,
xo' )b : coordinatesof shearcenterrvith respectto centroidof section.
Appendix E3 indicatesto do the latter.N'lanytirnes,hog'ever.it rvill be useful
in. (
to usethe equivalentraCiusof g-vration procedure.SettingEq. 8.12.9equalto
r,, : radius of gyrationtvith respectto the uxis of syrnmetry
Eu !er ' sc quat ion, (
io : polar radiusof gyrationrvith respectto shearcenter
:r?E EC*rt GJ
_-----=:_-'-- [ ,
I Liru)' I ^L' Ie
3 EXATUPLE8.I2.I (
For the secrionssiven in Fig. 8.12.2.determincunder rvhat conditions,if any,
torsional or flerural-torsionalbuckling is likely to occur under arial compres-
(
i c" GJL:
sion loading.Assumerhe memberspinnedat the endsof the unbracedlengths.
- -.i-
f-:
c t
Il , |
. n
trl--
u . n "
(
l r r
(
s'hich for steelrvith .e7'G= 2.6 gives I (
Shear
ic., JL? (
r-r = . [ ' , +0.0J- (3.12.10)
t' IP \
|
C.G. and
shear (
cen!er
for doubly symmetric-alsections.It has been demonstrat.d that onll' for short
lengths rvill r' be lorver than r, and r-" for W shapes [6-9]. Shear (
center
Singly syntmetric sectionsma1.'buckle in a combinaiicn fie.u:rai-tcisi.rlli (
rnode. *'hich rvill depend on the Euler column buckling stress {,. fc'r axis of wa x 3: wT8\?85 r-exex]
A = 8 . 3 8s q r n .
svmrrc-lr').and the torsional buckling stressF", (Eq. 8.12-9).LRFD-Appendix
A=9.13r'-. A = ?.75 sq in. (
lr = ?,i 1;:"t /' = 48.7 in.€ l, = l, = €.6 in.'
E3 givc'sthc elastic buckling stress d for the combined mode as r, = 2.C2 in. / Y- 2 l ' 6 i n ' a r, =.ry = 2.50 in. (
r' o ?'41 in' rr = l'59in.
,':#(,_ t;
I
I
,l i i l -
4F*rF"rH
(F,, * F,,)t
i
I
I
I
(8.12.11) (a)
( does r, exceed rr; only for a very short column is torsional buckling.^11-.. '- i : aS.3
ksi
: 0),- '. I
possibiiity, and even when rs approachesits minimum value (when I, '' :I
( rvhichis rr(min) : 1.90in., il iionly 6% lessthan r.". ..,..i
- "'-! gyradonfor
The result using this sectionis iypical of standard W and S shapesand formula, an equivalentradius r, of
( '': fuuating F. io Euler,s to conpare wi's r' and rr'
indicatestorsional buckiing may Properlybe neglectedfor them- flexural-torsionalbucklingcanbe obtainid
( (b) WT8x28.5. The cintroid and sheut center do not coincide,but the :=
- ::, rzE r,.r29.000
useEq.8.12.11:
sectionhasoneaxisof symmetry; 45.3:@f
( I
: 1.066in.3
@
( J : l[tz.rz)t0.715)3
+ 7.50(0-30)'i ;
t:
+ rc: l'51 i!'
( is
Using the formula from text Appendix Table A2, 1j
I
-rE is less than r" : 1'60 in' aad flexural-torsional buckling
t In this case wirh double an'gle
( i' situutioo rn'*l oceui
r | ( z . r z o ) 3 ( o . z r s. -)-3 . . , . - ^ ^ . " -: l criticar for ordinary lengths.The t;; will havez'
rtt' 8'12'2c)
( C,.: (7.50)3(0.430)31
+ /\ 'J t.85in.6 , compression *rtu.,,-in equal l";;i;it:13^T
" J-l-o L 4 of gyration
- eJ with respectto that axis
as its axis of symmetry, and the radius ' n
( i . i'tz'tz'
- 1-99in'6. q musr be used f"r';';'F4
gives,I : 1.10in.3and f
The LRFD Manualt1.171
( ..{
- - / v : 48J + 21-6
- - v + Ay]
: 91'2in'a
+ 8.38(1-58)2 U nsymmerr icsect ionsincom pr essiol*: To'ecortbe nplicat edandt heirls
strut
- . r + Ir.
Ip: I, . - : single-angle
( - 'p
€* treatment is outside the scopeof t*"
it*t. Particutarly,
t. $ it tt-io-t this reason that cauuon
( t: controued by flexural-torsi,onalu.r.ttlag; sectionis
For usein Eq. 8.12.11,comPutethe criricalstresses.Q.uand d- from'Eqs' [1'?] and the special
u ( con".rning ii, ur?;;;;ffit;atL;arual
8.12.12and 8.12.13using for an effectivelength Kt (foi .l''-and z-axes)the i.
4
EI
.5O3 (
3 ;CFS:CIJ SFLECTEDRETCJNET'TCES
(
i
(
(
5O4 8/roRstoN PROBLEMS 505
(
(
( 8.32.Carl L. Shermerll":tt"-tr Strengtbiia s,iro.ss of SteelStructures,"
Engineer- actual sloping flangesfor determiningshearcenter on standardrolled
ingJournal,AISC, 17,2 (SecoudQuarterl9g0), 33_37. channels.
( 8.33.Kuan8'Han Chu and A:ratoleLonginow. "Torsion in Sectionswith Openand
ClosedParts,"Journalof the StructuralDiuisiort, ASCE, 93, 5T6 (Dccember
( 1967),213_227. ^-1 1
s.34.AISC'Specilicationfor Allowable Stress Designof Single-AngleMembers.Chicago, I l-L
( ---1
IL: American Institute of SteelConstruction,19g9.
( 8.35.
Tsutomu Usami and Tbeodore V. Galambos. "Ecc€ntrically Loaded SingleAngle t,=|tf*it
Colurnns," Publications, Iaternational Association for iiridge aoO itructrriA l-Assume
( Engineering,3l-II (i971), 153-184.
(cons1.)
(
(
( PROBLEMS L,=.',J Pr ob. 8. 2
( Ali designproblems are to be done according to the AISC Load and Resis- 8.3. Repeat the requirementsof Prob. 8.1 for the chaanel n'ith unequal
( tance Factor Designor Allowable StiessDesign,as indicatedby tbe instructor. flanecsas shown.
All given loads are sen'iceloads unlessofherwiseindicated. For all problems
( assume adequote lateral ilpport of the compression
flange such thit lateral
( stability does not control. Assume all standard sections are equally readily
available in the indicated grade of steel (even though actually they are not).
( A figure showing span and loading is reguired
T- t --l
'r = l4
-', 2!'
l6
( +€X
8.1. For the channel shown in the accompanyingfigure, separate ly applyv* t, = 17.25in.a
( Td
V, thro-ughthe centroid of the section. For each rh.ut corpuie -d /r = 3'9.l in'l
draw to scalethe shearflow rt distribution along each of the elenrentsof l,v = +3'25 in'e
('
the cross-secrion.on the two separatediagramilone f.or v. and one fol
_.
( Vr) of shear florv distribution compute the total shear force io-;ui5-t 4 " J
-
elementof the cross-secdon in tenns of the applied shear v,or v,.using \ Dimensionsrefer
( to centerlines
thesecomputed shearforces calculate the two coordinatei of 6e shear of elerr,ents Prob.8.3
( center.
( 8.4. Repeat the requirementsof Prob. 8.1 for the angle section of the
accompanyingfigure.
(
( r r."_l
(
lcr
I
( l, = 192.7 in: ll
(
/,. =
'19.14
in.'
i = 1.087 in. L]
Standardangle
( r-sxoxI prob.8.4
Prob.8.1
(
( 8.2. Repeat the requirements of Prob. 8.1 for the channsl rvitb sloiing 9.5. Repeatthe requirementsof Prob. 8.1 for the zeesectionof the accomPa'
flanges.Comment on the effect of using averagethickness instead ofthe nying figure.
(
(
I
,t- I
8,,'TOfiSION :I:t'l
_it*
PROBLEMS 507
j!
(
Neglecr (
Z*c:ion beam dead
wetght P = 30 kips ( ,
/, = i$. 19 ;n.c
i" = 9.C5 in.r
(
( ,
i , !vt4 x 90
(
p ro b .8 .5 (
(
8.6. Locate the shearcenterfor the combined w and Prob.8.8
channercrane girder (
section'Is theresignificanterror in assumingthe shear 8.9. Develop the torsion differential equation solution for the cantilever
centerlies at the
centroid?use a'eragethicknessand constan-tdepth for beam rvith an eccentricconcentratedload at its end, and compute (
the channer.
.
constantsand stresses as givenin items (b) through(e) of prob. g.g. Is ( '
c12x207
there any relationshipbetweenthis problemand piob. g.g?,
(
(
Neglect l5 kips
vt27 x 94 beam weight (
(
P r o b .8 . 6 i ,r-r, I
(
F ixed
8.7. An lllcl8x58 is ro be usedon a 24-ft-simplysupported (
span to carry.a
tc-itglload of 0.8 kips/ft, with rhe toaa apilied in the plane Prob.8.9
of the web. (
Supposethe flansesare to have attachmlntsso that
rhe channelrviil
bend 'erticallv about the x-ads- \\'hat lateral 8.10. Develop the torsion differential equation solution for the uniformll, (
momeilr capacitr..4/,
slrouldthe attachrnents be capableof resisiing? loadedbeam with loadingappliedeccenrricall-v to the web. Considerthe
what perceni.,r irlco., (
this represent? ends torsionally simpll' supported..Compute consrantsand stressesas
given in items (b) through(e) of prob. g.g. (
8'8' (a) Develop the torsiondifferentialequation
solution ior the W section
having torsionalll'fixed ends and an eccenrricall-v w = 1.5 kips/ft (not inct. beam weightf (
applied .on..n- a
It' r
*\
otheruiseinstructed. (
=. /t"ttt""t'
(d) Compute the ma-timumshear stressin
the *'c1,..ir:llurling Sai't- t
Yenant torsionalshearand fiexurat shear. (
at the sanc irrcations Prob. 8.10
indicatedin (c).
(e) computc the flrnge shear force r,, due (
to warping resrraintat the 8.11. RepeatProb. 8.10,consideringthe endstorsionallyflxed.
-qtntclocationsindicatedin (c). (
(i) compute rhe maximum shear skess 8.12. RepearProb. 8.
8.8, *tth the load applied in the plane of the y-axis of a
in the flange.incrucrin*e saint- (
\ienant torsion, warping shear, and vertical * channel,Cl5X50.
flexure flange shear,at
rhe samelocationsindiCatedin (c). 8.13. For the case(orcases)assignedby the insrructor,selectthe lightest (
(g) Give a rabularsummaryof all stressqs. wl4
€ secrion, using the B ,modified'flexure analogy approach. (
io curry u
(
*
\
(
(
8/TORS|ON
FROBLEMS
(
(
concentratedload W at midspan.in addition to the weightof the beam.
( 8.1S.For the case(or cases)listedin Prob. 8.14and assignedb1'the instructor,
The ends of the simply supportedspan are assumedto have torsional
select the lightest W section, using the B modified flexure analogv
sinrple support. Check the stressesin the section selectedusing the
( "exact" approach,to carry uniform loading w, in addition to the rveightci the
solution for assumedconditionsas developedin Exampl. s.s.z.
beam. The ends of the span are simpl.ysttpportedfor both flexure and
( "exact" solutionis available(solutionto Prob.S.11).check
F v e torsion.If the
( wD lv, Steel stressesusing that solution.
Eccentricitr
( Dead Live Span yield of 8.16. For the case(or cases)listedin Prob. 8.14and assignedby the instructor,
load load length stress loading comparethe solution using A36 and A572Grade 50 steels.Assumethe
( Case (kips) (kips) (ft) (ksi) (in.) Grade 50 costs7% morc per pound than A36. Indicate the economical
( solution to the problem. Assume ends simply supported for flexure but
1 5 20 20 36 2 fixed for torsion.
( 2 5 20 20 36 3 8.17. Given the 40-ft simply supported span carry'ing two symmetricallrr"
( 3 20 20 36 4 placedconcentratedloads, 20% deadload and 80% live load, as shonn in
4 5 20 24 36 )
( the accompanyingfigure. If the loads are eccentric to the rveb by 5 in.,
5 5 2A 24 36 J
and the member is torsionally simply supported,seiect the lightest W14
6 5 20 24 36 4
( 7 sectionsuitable using the B modified flexure analogy nethod.
1 22 24 50 2
')'l
( 8 7 t-
1 A
/-, 50 J l4r
'r^
9 7 11
L1 Lq 50 4
( 10 10 i5 26 50 2
( 11 l0 15 26 50 a
J
12 10 15 26 50 ,
.i
\rJl4 section
( 13 10 15 26 50 )
( l4 10 15 26 50 6
15 10 15 26 50 .|
I
(
P rob.8.17
( 8'14- For the case(or cases)assignedby the instructor, selectthe lightestW
section,using the B modified flexuie analory approach,to .urry-uniform
( loading ru, in addition ro the weight of the beam. The endsof the span 8.18. The 30-ft simply supported(for M,) span is to can;v t\r'o symmetrically
( are assumedto be fixed for both flexure and torsion.If "exact" solution placed concentratedloads of 8 kips dead load and 14 kips iive load
was obtainedin Prob. 8.11,checkmadmum stressusing that solution. located10 ft from the supports.The loads are 6-in. eccentricto the web,
( and fully fixity is assumedfor torsional restraint.Selectthe lightestW
( Fy sectionusing the B modified flexure analogy method.
wD wL Steel Eccentricity
( Dead Live Span yield of 22k 22k
Ioad Ioad length siress loading
(
Case (kips/ft) (kips/ft) ( fr) (ksi) (in.)
(
( 0.5 1.5 28 36
0.5 1.5 28 36
( 0.5 1.5 28 36
0.5 1.5 28 36
(
0.35 1.4 26 50 Prob.8.18
( 0.35 1.4 26 50
0.35 1.4 26 50 8.19. Estimate,using the rnodified flexure analogydesign procedureused for
( 0.35 W shapesand crane girders.the uniformly distributed load capaciiy,T}@rc
L.4 26 50
( dead load and 80% live load. for a C15x50 of 436 steel.The endsof the
II -
r 510 B / TORSICI{ PROBLEMS 511 (
(
I
'
beam are rcstrainedagainstroarion (9 : 0), but the ends are free to a*ial compressiveforce of 10 kips and a horizontal force of 3 kips on (
rvarp.Chcck stressesusing the differential equation solution. each wheel applied at 4l in. above the top of the compressionflange.
(
!
Assume torsional simple suppoft'at the ends of the beam. Select the
lightest W14 section of A36 steel using the B modified flexure analogy (
approach. Note: All loads excep{weight of the crane runway girder are
rz. k ips/ft live loads. (
8.22. Compare the torsional constantsJ for each of the following sections.If (
the maximum shear stressis 14 ksi, compute the torsional moment (
c15x 50 capacity of each section.Can this be done for the W30x99? Explain.
(
==T-
I
;- 0.8cr
I
Prob.8.19
:' (
.. il: (
8.20. A simply supportedbeamis to carry'0.2krp/tt deadload and 0.6 k'tp/ft
live load on a span of 24 ft. A cbannelsection is to b6 used,and sinceit
is not laterally restrained,torsion is to be consideredin the design.
JL
w30x 99
(
(
Assumethe memberis torsionallysimply supported.After computing ' (a' (b) (c)
the torsionalmoment,use the g:oerally acceptedapproximateflexure (
Prob.8.22
to makea selectionof a channeisettion from the AISC il{anual.
anaiog,"- (
Investigaterhe stresson the selectedsection using the exact solution
basedon the statedloadingand supportcondition.Use ,4,36steel. 8.23. If the maximum shearstressis limited to 14 ksi. computethe torsional (
moment capacityfor the sectiongiven.What is the percentage changein
capacity if the interior walls are omitted (assuminglocal buckling does (
LoaCrngir"rthe plane not control)? (
I
r . . '= C . 8 k i p ' f r { i n c l u d e s b e a m r . , , e r j h : } I c? lne u/e?
re I (
*
.\ *
/r//l
'v-24' l (,
Exterior walls
(
r=Jin r
- (
TI
Intericr wal!s
{r'rithout inpacrl
8.25. Estimate the buckling load, assumingzero residual stressand elastic (
Prob.8.21
buckling so that Euler'sequationapplies,on the following sectionsfor a
(
(
(
(
;-- :
:T
( 5|?
s
s/ToRStoN '
rS:
r*.
;F;
( ' -rq=
ChapterI
1
( pig*Jld,lengtH+ l 0 f,r;.Anwb4t,leqgth
wouId rorsional buckling be likely
( to eontro!.?
(a);IrfCl0x6.5.
(
f!* L4xaxi
€s.wT?xrs.:
(
(
(QZee seeriondidumn Lateral-Torsional
( Bucklingof Beams
(
( q..=-l.6lln,
'? ='l.83in ,
( *="osa;lo,'
t't -'106,1in,f
( a
(
9.1 RATIONALANALOGYTO PURECOLUMNS
(
Emphasisin this chapteris on the lateralstability considerations associated
( rvith bending about the strong axis of the section.In beams,as in arialll'
( loaded columns,it is not possibleto achieveperfectloading,i.e., beamsare
never perfectly straight, not perfectly homogeneous, and are usually not
( loaded in exactly the plane that is assumedfor designand analysis.
( Consider the compressionzone of the laterally unsupportedbeam of Fig.
9.1:1.With the loading in the plane of the web, accordingto ordinary beam
( theory.points A {nd B are equallystressed.Imperfectionsin the beam and
accidentaleccentricityin loading actuallyresultin differentstresses at A and
(
B. Furthermore,residual stressesas discussedin Chapter 6 contribute to
( unequalstresses acrossthe flangervidthat any distancefrom the neutrala\is.
In a qualitative way one may look upon the ccmpressionflangeof a beam
(
as a column, rvith all the considerationstreatedin Chapter 6. The rectangular
( flange as a column would ordinarily buckle in its weak direction, by bending
about an a{is such as 1-l of Fig. f.i.lb, but the web providescontinuous
(
support to preventsuch buckling. At higher compressiveloads the rectangular
( flangervill tend to buckle by bendingabout axis 2-2 of Fig. 9.1.1b.It is tiris
suddenbuckling of the flangeaboutits strongaxisin a lateraldirectionthat is
(
commonly referred to as lateral buckling.The analogybetweenthe compres-
( sion flange of a beam and a column is intended to presentonly the general
behavior for lateral buckling.
(
In order to evaluatethis behaviormore precisely,one naustreal\zethat the
I compressionflange is not onl-v-bracedin its weak direction by its attachment
. -' "a! via the web to the stabletensionflange.but the web alsoprovidescontinuous
( -ti
| , l qle
( ;t
-
> 9 2 ,/ LAIIFAL SUPPORT 6.t6 a
514 9 i LATERAL.TORSIONALBUCKLII'JGOF BEAI"JS
( i
Concrete slab (
/
t ;
r\
/\
(a)
,/
\
+:il: EtFr-+
I L:4 ll:l I
(
r
lt ll I
JL- (
I
.'-::
: Rotation capacity -- Fl,
I
( \ \ I I
I
I
I \ \ t
I
( I I t I
I
t
I
I
I
( I , ,
t
t
I
I
I I I I I
I I I I
( I
I
( (a) Unbraced (b) Braced
( Frgure9.2.2 Latcral buckling oi a roof or floor system.
(
( However, it is better to assumeno lateral supportin doubrfulsituations.
( Alternatively, it may be possiblein some c:rsesto evaluateit as an elastic
restraint.such an anal;-ticalapproachis discussedin Sec.9.i3. o j^",
( Lateral support considerationsmust not be ignored;probablymost fail- Detlection
( ures in steel structuresare the result of inadequatebracing agiinst lateral Figure 9.3.1 Beam behavior. (From Yura, Galambos, and Ravindra [9.1a])
instability of sornetype. The engineeris also,remindedto.ontid.r carefully
( the constructionstagervhenall of the restraintswhich may eyentuallyact are
( not yet in place. in Fig. 9'3.1:
of behaviorare reptesented
Threecategories
( t. Plasticmomentstrenglhlv[, achievedand large deformationcapabil-
9.3 STRENGTH
OF I-SHAPED ity. Deformationability may be expressed as rotationcapacitl'or as the
( BEAMSUNDER '
UNIFORTVI
MOMENT ability to undergoflangestrain,as shownin Fig. 9.3.2.
(, 2. Inelasticbehaviorrvheremomentstrengthis affectedb-vresidualstress
( In the development of design equarions,the case of constant (unifor$)_-. and either does not reach Mo becauseof inadequatestiffnessof the
moment along a laterallyunbracedlength is usuallyusedas the basiccasefor flange and/or rvebto permit idequatecompressive strain rvithoutlocal
( lateral-torsional buckling. Using the analogy of the compressionflange as a "' buckling, or inadequatelateral bracing to provide adequatemoment
column, the uniform momenl causesconstantcompression is inelasticbut
capacity.In this categorysomeor all of the cross-section
( in one flanle ouer
the entire unbraced length. When there is a moment gradient thereis inadequatedeformationcapability.
lvariaiion in
( moment).thecompressionforce in the flangevariesalong the unbracedlength, 3. Elasticbehaviorrvheremomentstrengthis controlled by elasticbuck-
resulting in a lorver averagecompressionforce for the unbracedlength. The ling; local flangebuckling.rvebbuckling,or lateral-torsional buckling.
(
lorver average compression force means less likelihood of lateral-torsional
Most rolled W shapeshave lorv enough slendernesstatios (b1/2tt for
( buckling.
flange and h,/t^,or d/t, for the web) such that they are categorizedas
Lateral-torsional buckling is a possible limit state that may control the
'vJ'
(
strength of a beam. The general behavior of a beam rnay be representedby
( Fig' 9.3-1from Yura, Galambos.and Ravindra
[9.14].As discussedin Chapter
6, Part II, local buckling of the plate elements(suchas the flangeor webJin
( compressionmay limit the strengthof a section.The.maximumstrengthof a
( beam rvill be its plasticmoment strengthM, u discussed in chapteri. M:lr,lo = -1 O
Whether or not the plastic moment streigth is reached,failure rvill be one
( of the follorving modes:
(
l . Local buckling of the flange in compression. 0, 0 0.,,
( - 3 , 2 .. Local bucklingof the web. R otat!on
. i
-
9.4/ ELASTTC
a
513 9/ LiTERAL-TORSiONALBUCKLINGOF BEAMS LATEML-TORSIONAI
dUCXLrr'rC 519
(,
(,
x' t'
BUCKLING
9.4 ELASTICLATERAL.TORSIONAL
[9.4],Salvadori[9.51.and Galambos[9.6].
as is sc.'nfrom Fie.9.4.1c,whereu is the displacementof the centroiCin th: .r * hich givesfor the torsionaldifferentialequation
Ci rec t ion.
du d6 d3o
The differentirrlequationfor torsionof l-shapedbeamsrvasdevelopedin - Ot - EC*E t
(1.+.+
Clrrpt.'rS as Eq. E.5.10,as follos's: eMo: O,
d+ ^ dte Two assumptionsare inherentin Eqs.9.4.1and 9.4.2,both of rvhichrelare
It{.,: Ot - EC* Is.s.ro]
a, ar, to the assumptionof small deformation.It is assumedthat properties/.*.and
r.n equal /.* and /.r, respectively;and also that .[, is large comparedto r,.. so
Frc-rmFig. 9.4.1 and the directioncosines,the torsional componentof .1/o that Eq. 9.4.1is not linked to Eqs.9.4.2and 9.4.4.Thus displacementu in the
rvltcn the beam is slightlybuckledis proportionalto the slopeof the beamin plane of bending does not affect the torsional function f.
e
(
I / LATERAL-TORSTONAL
BUCKLTNG
OF BEAMS 9.4/ELAST|CLATEML-TORSTONAL
BUCKLTNG 521
(
(
Differentiating Eq. 9.4.4 rvith respect ro z gives It is apparentfrom Eq. 9.4.11that rn rvill consistof tu'o real and trvo
(
cornplexroots because
d2u d26 d46
(' -
ZFitro: GJ77 EC*E
(e.4.5)
, ; B * o =t o
( Let
Fro m E q. 9. 4. 2,
(. d2u Moe tt2: c, + \'B + a2 (both real roots) ( 9 . 4 .2i t
( f:EI,
q2 : -a + lB + a2 (realpart of complexroots) (9.4.13)
( *'hich rvhensubstitutedinto Eq. 9.4.5gives f or nr , t he cxplcssicrf or . ', ! "r ol:l:i - . c. +. 9bc. l'ii'. '
U si ngtl i e fr:ur' ,' al u es
(-
d16 dzo M: (9.-i.r.i)
( tC,,E -GJZ? - (9.4.6)
,,"+:O '
The complexexponentialfunctions may be cxpresscdi:: ier;'!sof circullr
C u hich is the differentialequationfor the angleof twist. functions.
( To obtain a solution for Eq. 9.4.6,divide by EC,, and let
e'47 : cos q: - i sin qz
( e . . 1 .)1 5
( GJ TTT
2o: E* andP: (e.4.7\ e- i't' - cos g: - i sin qz
( fr, By using Eqs. 9.4.15and defining new constantsl, and A4 n'hich equal
( Equation 9.4.6 then becomes (At + lo) and (Aj - Aoi),respectivety.
one obtains
( d46 d2o Q : Ar en'* Az€- "' * At cosqz * Aosinq: ( 9. 4- 16)
(e.4.8)
( dl_zao;_FO:0 The constants,4, and Ao are determinedby the end supportconditions.
Let For the caseof torsionalsimplesupport.i-e.,beamendsma;-not t*'ist.but are
(
free to warp, the conditionsare
( Q: Ae^'
'--
s' dza
( dre 0:0. ?te:0 and z-L
: Atnze^' ,7i:0
E (e.4.e)
( For Q : 0 at : : 0. Eq. 9.4.16gives
doe ( e. 4 . r)7
( = Am4e^' 0,: Ar* Az* At
' 77
( Ford'e/dt':0at;:0,
Substitutionof Eq.9.a.9into Eq.9.4.8gives
( 0 : A { t z * A - , n 2- A f l ' (e.4.18)
( A e ^ ' ( m a - 2 a m 2 - F ): O (e.4.10) Multiplying Eq. 9.4.17by n'and subtractingEq. 9.a.18gives
Since e-' cannot be zero and A can be zero only if no buckling has occurred, ' "'
( 0 : Ar(q'+ n=). . 'At: 0
the bracket expressionof Eq. 9.4.70must be zero:
( Then, from Eq. 9.4.17.
m4-2am2-F:0
( At: - Az (e.4.1e1
rvhich gives for the solution
( Thus Eq. 9.4.16becomes
m2:"trfp+7 - (e.4.20)
( { : lr( e" e-n') * Aosinqz
. i .
-
ix
| ;+r
I
$,:
li, -(
A t : : L, + : 0: th e re fo refro
, m E q . 9 .4 .2 1 ,
l*'
t :
/'
t
Factoring n / L from insidethe root sign gives
0 : 2 A r s i n h n l , * A o s i ng l (e.4.22) t i':
| :r.
(,
| :.. ir
Also, at : : L. d22lrl:2 : 0. which gives I :
i'l
cr
-
(e.4.32\ I
l .=,''
-
0 : 2 1 , n 2s i n hn L - A o Q 2s i n q L (e.4.23) |
l : ' Equation 9.4.32is the elasticlateral-torsional
bucklingsrrengthfot-an l-shaped {
M u l t i p l f i n g Eq. 9.4.22by ,j'and addingto Eq. 9.4.23gives [*: section under the action of constantmomentin the plane of the web over the
I :. laterally unbracedlength L.To adjustfor momentgradient,F4.9.4.32may be
' li
2 A r ( n ?+ q 2 ) s i n nh L : 0 (s.4.24) multiplied by a facror Cn.Thus, in general
l.!,
S i n c e ( r 2 + q2,; cannot be zero, and sinh nL can be zero only' if n:0, l'.
tltcrcfore ,1, must be zero: t[ ::. ,V-- : C,-
6
: l
( I
including provision for moment gradient. as
I
I
*28 + 22A0M/MP
( Lb 36CO
Mn:TW (e.s.2) - : (9.5,7)'
rv {r, ksi
(
SinceM*, must reach
{/r, su_bstitute
ILI.: Z,F, f.orMn. Also, C*: I,.hz/1,
( and replaceL'by Lu f.ortheiateraiy'unbraddlength.Sot.ingEq. , 1
I where Mt: smallermoment at the ends of the laterally unbracedsegment
5:.A.r', *-l
9.5.4then givesthe maximumslenderness ratio, . l (taken positive when moments causereuersecurvature)
( : _ I
I
( Lb tm
( T : t l, + \ z ) (e.5.3) 'For SI units, n'ith
f. in MPa,
Lb
r]
13i
Yr"
{9.5.5'i
( - rirhich would apply for uniform bend.ingmomenr. An upper limit to 24,800 + l',?rfi!rtt/Mp
Eq. 9.5.3 Lb
may be obtained if one assumesno residual stressand perfect elastic-plasric (9.5.;)
( r,
, (
(
FACTOR
9.6/ LOADANDRESTSTANCE DESIGN
526 9 / LATEtrAL.TCRS:ONALEUCKLING CF BEAI"IS
( i
"COMPACT" (
9.6 LOAD AND RESISTANCEFACTORDESIGN- I-SHAPED
TABLS 9.6,1 SLENDERNESSMTIO LIM|TS tre FOR I-SHAPEDBEAMS TO
ACHTEVEPLASTTCMOMENT STRENGTHMe (LRFD-85.1F (
B E A M S S U B J E C T E DT O S T R O N G . A X I SB E N D I N G
Flange Web Lateral- (
Yietd Local Local Torsional
This sectionconsidersthe full rangeof strengthfrom laterailystablebeamsto Buckling Buckling Buckling (
Siress
bucklingcausesconsiderable
siruationswhere lateral-torsional strengthreduc-
b, 65 hc 640 Lb 300
tion. Loading in the planeof the r'.'ebis assumed. 'v
-=: _.:: _.-f-- (
The strengthrequirement accordingto LRFD-F2 may be stated (ksi) 2\ iF, t* ,lF, rv ,lF,
(
Q o trl ,2 Mu (e.6.1)
36 10.8 107 50.0 (
rvhere fr, : strengthreductionfactor for flexure : 0.90 47 10.0 98.8 46.3
(
M , , : nom ina lmo me n ts tre n g th 45 9.7 95.4 4.7
50 9.2 90.5 42.4
il(,: factoredserviceload moment(seeSec.1-9) ( t
)) 8. 8 86.3 40.5 -
Figure 9.6.1 showsthe effcct of laterally unbracedlength Lo on the 60 8.4 82.6 38.7 (
laterat-torsionalbucklingstrength.Of course.local buckling may result in 65' 8.1 79.4 37.2
(
lower momcnt strengthlt, if the plate element(flange'orweb; rvidth/thick- :.'
nessratiosare too high. "Loading in tbe plane of tbe web; lvlo: FrZ, (
'-' jThe
I useof plastic moment strengtb Mo is restrictedby LRFD-AS anciASD-Fl.l to (
Ca se 1: P las t ic M om e n t i s R e a c h e d(M n = M o ) Atong W i th Large I
I steelshaving 4, s 65 ksi.
Plastic Rotation Capacity(F > 3 in Fig. 9.3.2) l -
I (
"compAct"to preventlocal buckling; that is. tr for the
The secrionmust be I
the laterally unbraced length Lo does not exceed Loa, whete from Eq. 9.5.7, (
in II
flange(b,/2rr) and for the w'eb( h,/t.,) must not exceedtr, ul discussed
and lateralbracing must be provided suchthat I 3600+ 2200Mr/Mo- (
Sec.6.1?-(values in Table 9.6.1) I Lpa (e.6.2)
{., ksi (
In this category, plastic analysis involving redistribution of moments as (
discussedin Chapter10 may be used.
//
L R F D F o r m u i a ( F 1 - 1 ) ,E q 9 6 2 (
'- L R F D F o r r " n u i a1 F 1 - 4 ) .E q . 9 . 6 3
z
(
Case 2. Li.. = ltl . but plasirc Case 2: Plastlc Moment ls Reached (Mn= llt ) But With Relatlvely
analys!snci used
Little Rotation Capacity (R < 3 ln Flg. 9.3:21' (
"compact" to prevent lOcal buckling; that is, tr for the
The sectionmust be (
flange (br,/ztf) and for the web (h,/t-) must not exceedtro as discussedin
) Sec,6.17 and lateral bracing must be provided such that tr (i.e., L6/rr) does
(
not exceedtro. The threeslenderness limits for various yield stressesare giVe:r (
in Table 9.6.1.This latter limit \o, from F4. 9.5.5,meanslu may not exccei
Lo when C6: 1.0, (
C a s e s3 o r 4 , i C a s e5 . 300 (
rneiasilc ----j>r--> elaslic
behavaor
L R F D F o r m u l a( F 1 - 1 3 ) Lr: (e.5:3)
Ec.9.6.11 F1 ( ,
(
"Compact" Sectlons May
Case 3: Lateral-TorslonalBuckllng of
Occur in the Inelastlc Range(l|fo > MnZ Mrl
(
0 l,- L, i,
( ,
This moment strength Mn is approximated as a linear relationship between
La:eta:iy unbracecl lenglh LD
points t (l'Ip at Lr) and 2 (M, at L,) on Fig. 9.6.1.I-ocal buckling must be ( i
"compact" sectionsas affectedby lateral-tor- 'compact", that is therv
Figure 9.6.1 Nominal strength,1{, of precluded. Since n-earlyall of the rolled sections are
sional buckling. (
(
\
.:
\
I / LATERAL-TORSTONAL
BUCKLTNG
OF BEAMS DESTGN 529
FACTOR
9.6/ LOADANDRESTSTANCE
(
(
have =
( .1, |o as-discussedin Sec.6.16, the nominal strength Mn is a linear
function of the lateral-torsional
bucklingstrength.Thus,
Noncompact
(
(
M , : r o l * r - ( M o -M , ) ( :-r -? \ 1 tt, (e.6.4)
r \ r., ",)ls
( u'here .ld is the moment strength available for serviceloads rvhen compact I
extreme seclion
( fiber reachesthe yield stress (including the residual stress),and mav
{, be limits: :
expressed seeTable I
( s6.t
M,: (4,- 4)q. (e.6.5) --l i
(
( uhere 4, : minimum specifiedyield stress
{ : compressiveresidualstressin flanee o
( : l0 ksi for rolled shapes;16.5ksi for weldedshapes
E
cg
'-
( {. : elasticsectionmodulus: I,/(d/Z) E
(r, - 4) (e.6.6)
( flange local buckling, rveb local buckling, and lateral-torsionalbuckling.
( rvhere
( ling; X : b1/2t, when considering flange local buckling; and )t: h,/t, rvhcn
'
G a
(
Note that X, and X, are not really physical propertiesbut rather provide a i I - r"\ (e.6.e)
shortenedway of writing Eq. 9.6.6.Th.y t.pr.rcni combirrationsof t,'orr-r..-
( tional properties; x1 and x, aregiven in the LRFD Manual
t1.171.
( For the limit stateof lateral-torsionalbuckling, the linear relationshipof
case 4: General Limit state ll/here Nominat Moment strength M,, Eq. 9.6.9is used; however,the result is increasedby multipll''ingb)' C, rvhen
( Occurs in the InelasUcRange (Mo> Mn>_Mr) there is moment gradient. Of course. the maximum |l'1, is Mo rcgardlessof
horv steep is the moment gradient. The expressionaccording to LRFD-
( This condidon is relativelyuncommon for rolled shapes.when Lo <
Lb < L, Appendix F1 is identical to Eq. 9.6.4,except expressedin the form of the
for lateral-torsionar-buckring, or tro . onang.'
( et: b1/2rj) < l, ro, tocal ratios 1,.
or )ro < (l_: < tr, ?or web lolal ducHing. the strerigrtrwiil
( Pl.Hl,*, !r/,r\
be in this category. LRFD has used the symbor tr to representthe general
stability slendernessratio; )t : Lu/r, whentonsidering lateral-torsional
Mr:'rl*, - (Mn- !'{,,(*'}] = r, (e6.10)
( buck-
(
-.-
\a
530 9/ LATEPAI_-TORSTCNAL
BUCKLTNGOF BEA.|"4S s 7 /ALLOWABLESTRESS
DESIGN 531 ( i
- (
where follorvsfrom LRFD-F4: (
(
c , , : 1 .+
7 i5o s#{ . ) . , t ( # ) ' = , . , (e.6.11) - l ' I, , : ll{rr: C6 C*t, + EI,GJ
I* [9.4.331 (
ft>rcasesof moment gradient,rvherer1l, is the smallerand M, the largerend
niomcn! in the unbracedsegment.The ratio Mt/Mz is negativewhen the Using the pseudo-propertiesXr and (
- momentscause single curvature; that is, the most severeloading caservith becomes (
:
.constantbendingmomentgivesC6 1.0.
'to Accordingto LRFD-F3, CDis also
X?X" (
be takenas 1.0 for cantileversand for "memberswherethe momeniwithin 1+ -a (e.6.12)
a significantportion of the unbracedsegmentis greaterthan or equal to the z(tu7rr)" (
largerof the segmentend moments."
Note that M., cannot lcgically be greater than cuM, and therefore has ( t
that upper lirnit accordingto LRFD-F4. (
case 5: General Limit state where Nominal Moment strength /td,,
!' . - >
(93 2)*
1 3 0.8 W shape (d/ar)r,,, tsi (
60 19.9 i6.r l?< 1 for a given
65 r9.0 1 5 .2 120.3 yield (
90 15.8 12..1 102.2 stress.
100 14.9 l l.6 97.0 'For Sl urits. *:tb dirncnsions io mm and 20abt (
4, in MPa, "''
| 3 -----! (9l7.rt
t't4 (
*Equation9.6.6. r' , ,' X , , F 139,000
-I r - ,l,t l + - F,)' -c
t - - (9.7.:) (
(q - q) y'+ 1i &({' (dnr) r,
(
(
C
(
9 / LATEnAU-r6nSrOr.reL
BUCKLING
OFBEAMS 9.7/ ALLOWABLE DESIGN
STRESS
(
(
:
where t, : flangethicknest,b.{] flangervidth, 1,.: web thickness.and i.r.
TAELE 9.7.1 ASD LATERALBRACINGREOUIREMENTS "COMPACT
FOR
( S E C T I O N "S A S D . F 1 . 1 .
rvebdepth.$ r-,.7tr=0.5.and if the rvebareais about20%of the arcl oi'ihc
( Bolh LimitsMay Not b e a m( A . , : 0 . 2 1 ) ' E q ' 9 ' ? ' 3b e c o m e s
Be Exceeded
( Lc i;
.
J : - : l 2 b , t , +d * t * . - 0 . 7 5 d " r * ]
,y ld\ Fv
( (ksi) ; "(;) (MPa) J '
( A :2bttt+ d,.tn
36 12.7 556 250
( 42 tL.7 476 290 A": d,t*
45 11.3 444 310
( 50 10.7 400 350 0 . 7 5 . { ,=. 0 . 7 5 ( 0 . 2 A:10 . i 5 - ' 1
55 10.2 364 380
( 60 9.8 JJJ 410 Then
( 65' 9.4 308 450 ,2
J = +le - o.7sAl
= o.zsAti (e.?.1)
( 'I-shapedseclionsloadedin the prane
of the webmay be assumed
to
( developi/" only wben{ doesnor exceed 65 ksi (450Mpa). For other'variables,
( C, . : 1, . h2/ 4
Equation 9.7.1,s'hich is essentiallyEq. 9.5.5 used in LRFD if r, is
( approximatedas A.25br.considers'lateral E E
stabilityprimarily as column strength
of the compressionflange.Hoivever,since the lateral rtubility of many rolled G : shearmoduht s :
( {1 f p) L6
sectionsis governedby rhe torsionalstrength,Eq.9.7.2 is neededfor ihem.
( A summaryof the "compactsection"lateralsupportrequirementsin ASD Ir : Ar;
( is givenin Table 9.7.1.
S.:2Ari/d
(
C a s e 2: f illo> M n> (M y = F A)
( r, = 0.11d (seetext AppendixTableA1)
Beamsin this categoryare thosecapableof achievingyield strain e '.-
Fr/E,
( .r:
at the extreme fiber prior to lateral-tcrsional buckling, but M, canntit be 4: o'gsd
reached.For Case2 situations,ASD does not permit an interpolJted strength
( rvhere p: Poisson'srario (0.3 for steel)
betrveen "9 iy'o.-lnsteadthe strengthis consideredtotbr- M, and the
( Yl
correspondingallorvablestressis 0.60{,. fv: radiusof gyrationrvith respectto the y-axis
In order to achievea strength!LI, - Mu without lateral-torsionalbuckling, fr: radius of g1'rationrvith respectto the x-axis
( 6 l - overalldepth of beam
the maximum laterally unbraced length Z, permitted is the length 1, that
( makes M", of Eq. 9.a.31equal to Mr. Equation 9.4.31 ** *niidered too h - distancebetrveencentroidsof flanges
(
complex for design use and the use of torsional properties in design was Substitutigninto Eq. 9.4.31and dividing by S, to obtain slressformat gives
deemedundesirable. -
( The developmenrof the ASD-FI.3 designequarions,ASD Formulas(F1-6 i "'r=( t ,tf 1a)I, rz5r,.1E/2.6)\0.28eti
\
- +' (e.7.5)
and F1-7) or (F1-8), requires some approximations and transformation of l c t
" (
I /'LATERAL-TORSICNALBUCKLINGOF BEAMS
9.7/ ALLOWABLE
STRESS
DEStcN
( ,
( i
Th en,s ubs t it ut ingI,: A rj a n d Ir:0 .9 5 d g i v e s tfre ein 1.67 basic factor of safety and taking E :29,000 ksi gives the (
allowable stress d in ksi, (
I rr(o.ts) r */oE n
4 ' :y I
I 4(0.41)3(t7r)'
I
) ' . { 2$.41)' ,/X(u7r,r,)
(e.7.7)
'r:ffiOri (e.7.12)* (
(
which is ASD Formula (F1-8).
(
F -_
it t4E \'t + t (_ l rc \'
, j t 2. Torsionally Weak Sections- For deep sectionshaving relatively thin (
'c' ' (e.7.8) flanges and rveb (such as plate girder sections),column strength of the
\i \{ttil, ) \u7,,t,1 compression flange predominatesand the second term of Eq. 9.7.8 may be (
neglected.Thus, (
Equarion 9.7.8 is essenriallylt{,,/s, (Eq. 9.4.31divided b}.s.) where
torsiottalfunctions have been replacedby more familiar properties.The first 14E ( ,
-t crr : - , (e.7.73)
term reprcscntscolurnn buckling strength and the second term represents (ur)t
torsionalstrength.The AISC AllowableStressDesignhas traditionallyuseda
tn'cr-formulaprocedurefor allorvablestress.Referringto.Fig. 9.7.1,Eq. 9.7.g Since only the compressionflange is the column, logically the radius of
may be visualizedas the resultantof two vectorsat,90" to eachother. If the glr?tion should be that of the compressionflange.and ssme portion of the
..'adjacent
resultlnt is not used,the next best approachrvouldbe to use the largerof the web. ASD-F1.3 introduces the symbol r, for this compression
"foition,
trvo legsof the right triangle. defined as "radius of gyration of a sectioniomprising the compres-
sion flangeplus one-thirdof the compression rvebarea,taken about an axis in
9.7'13,F., : 14Et(L/rr)2
the plane of the $'eb." For doubly symmetricall-shapedsections,r, may be
,r,o expressed
{-7--7t
l' -/\Eq. e.7B #tPi (e.7.14)
l/. -i
lT:
tpt+ It"(d.-ut)
Figure9.7.1 Lateral-rorsionalluckling
Eq !i9 F,.=T (Ld'r,t,)
stressas tbe resuitantof tivo vcctors. The valuesof r, are given in the ASD Manual along with other dimensions
and propertiesfor rolled shapes.As an approximationfor this developmenrof
t . Tc,r;lorittii.'.'Strong Sectiotts. For shallorv thick flangcd sections, tor- ASD formulas rr may be taken as \.2rr.
sional strength predomrnaresand the first term of Eq. 9.7.8 may be neglected. Replacing r., by 17/1.2 in Eq. 9.7.13would make thar equation ven-
Thus, closelythe sameas the Euler column equation,
r
3E n2E
F",: (e.7.e) 'trc r ( e " 7 . 1) s
fi//, (ur)'
Since r, = A.22bi. .!,, -- b1t,, and using l, instead of L for the laterallv This makesit more visiblethat Eq. 9.7.13is representativeof column strengrh
unbraccd leng'.h,'Eq. 9.?.9 becomes of the compressionflange.
Treatment of column strength as it relatesto beamsrequiresapplication
0.668 of the principles of column designas discussedin Chapter 6. Recall the use of
-Fcr : - (e.7.10)
Lbd/Af two design equations,one basedon inelasticbuckling strength representedin
ASD by the SSRC parabola(Eq. 6.7.1)for buckling srress.Q, above F,/2, and
fcr momentgradient,Eq. 9.7.10bccomes the other basedon the Euler elasticbuckling strengthfor buckling stressf
0.66tcb equal to or lessthan Fr/z.
-Fc.t : (e.7.11)
Lbd/Al
83.000c.
Equation9.4.33showsthat Cu is a direct mufriplieron ly'",.Next, dir,idingby 'For SI units;
4* -7p7i MPt i 2)
19.?.
\
( ':-
( 9/ LATERAL-TORSTONAL
BUCKLINGOF BEAMS 9.7 / ALLOTIIABLESTFIESSDESIGN
(
( Th,eSSRC parabolas'ith r : r, and the effectivelength factor K taken as For large LJrrrvhen elasticbucklingcontrols,Eq. 9.7.15rvouldlogically
1.0is be the basii for-design.Dividing Eq. 9.?.15by 1.67(the basicFS for beams)
( and inserting Cu for momentgradientgl'es
( F,,:rf'-
#(;)'] (e.7.16)
'f b
x:
---7--7-
17EC.
( e . i. l i )
( l.6i(Lo/rr)t
Uniike the axial compressionloading of Chapter 6 where the magnitude of
( cornpressionwas normally constantover the unbracedlength,the compression which gives closely the follow*t,
flai:ge of a beam rvill have its magnitude var;.ing as the bending moment ,rO,*Or^
( "arir's. Thus, for beams the term C, to account
for moment gradient is \:7;7ryksi (9.7.22).
ineludedin Eq. 9.7.76,
which is ASD Formula(F1'7).
( l- The use of 1.67herefor beamsrather than the 1.92usedfor long a-riallr
( Fn:?l'-'+-t;l
4 ir\'l
J (e.7.17) loaded columns is explainable(a) by realizing that torsional strength is
neglectedin Eq. 9.7.22,and (b) F4.9.7.13 is inherently conservativervhen
( whereC, is givenby Eq. 9.6.11. laGral-torsional buckling strength is primarily column strength, in that for
( To obtain the alloivablestress,the strengthequationis dividedby a factor sectionsconsisting of thin flangesand deep thin web r, = 0.38d rvould have
to gct the calculationinto the serviceload range.For small L/r, the strength been rlore correctthan the valueA.41dusedin the developmentof Eq. 9.7.13.
( shouldbe Mr: F,.2, rvhereasfor large L/rr the strengthwi[ be Mn: f;E. Thus lateral-torsionalfugkling controls the design rvhen the laterally
As discussedin Chapter 7 when Mo is achievable,the allowable value for unbracedlength lu exceedsLhe larger value of Lu definedby Eqs. 9.7-12or
(
elasticserviceload stressesis 0.56
4.
gv the samereasoning, basedon Eq.
d 9.7.2A equaling an allowable stress of 0.60{,.. When the larger value of F,'
( :.17 should be I of 4,, grriog from thele two equationsexceeds0.60F,,it-implies that M" can be reached
prior to lateral-torsionalbuckling.
( ( 3 ) {/ r \ ' l^
F , :l z G (e.7.18)
The maximum unbraced length Lu fot n'hich Fa: 0.60F, may be ob-
(
(
Lt - 4[ ; J ] 1 tained by setting Eqs.9.?.12and 9.7.20equal to 0-60{.. Thus
12,000c,
For S' : 29,000ksi and
5 in ksi, Eq. 9.2.18becomes ''-*:t 0.60^1 : #
Lbd/Ar
le.1.r2l
(
I z - F,(L/r)z l,
( Fr: r'16r11c,14 (e.7.le): - e 1
(
l; : l z _-..----=_.'
0.604,
F,(L6/rr)' l-
Ie.7.20]
Tlic ;,':efficientin the secondterm has been adjustedfrom l7Z0 to 1530(i.e., ] l; 1 5 3 0 ( 1 o i ) cJ ,- '
( insteadc:f f is usedon that term) to allow for the fact rhar as L/r, gets largei From the first,
the strength drops below M, and &e extra benefit of the shape factor 30.000cb
(
(
disappears.when rhe nominai strength Mnis less than M, the.Foshould be
0.604, rather than 0.66d,. Thus W.9.7.19 becomes
and from the second,
Lo:
vm (e.7.23)
(
( o:f;ffi1' (9.7.20).
t -
Lo: rr
102,000cb
(e.7.24)
(
rvhich is ASD Formula (Fl-6). The symbol Lo is used for laterally unbraced Tfitelarger value of L, from Eqs. 9.7.23 and9.7.71is the maximum unbraced
( length. length for " Case 2 besign situation: i.e., p'here the nominal strength IIn
achievable lies between M, and Mr-
(
(
( 'in SI
units. ":L;- r,(LJ,T.),lr. "ru
lt
1 0 . 5 5 0 ( i 0 , ) c|, ,
(e.7.20) 'In SI units. *:ffi*'nu ( e . 7 . )r :
, (
-6,r
538 9lLA;ERAI_-TORSIONAL
BUCKLTNG
OFBFA|/S
>*o r* (
9.7/ ALLOWABLE
STRESS
DEStcN
( ,
when ct : 1 (the conservativecase of constant *
bending moment). the to"a, n.r., (
larger value af L* from Eqs. 9.7.23 and 9.7.24is termed ''-
.t:.. sD FORMULAS
(Fl -6 AND 1_7)
t,, u-proferry pr the
section for any specifiedyield stress.(., (
fTdtddoc" 1530(1o3jc^
|"_
20,000 I v,, ---17-,
,y
forFo(F1_6) tr-o:oooa
U F v
(
( d/Ar)(.t, ksi)
I ..:- Eg.9.724 fromEq.9.t.ZO Eq.9.7.26 (
1. 7 5 2.3 1,0
cb
1. 7 5
(
(
Lu:tTl@ 36 53 70 80 1181 (
2070 2720 1 1 9 158 190*
V 4.'kti 42 49 65 74 867 L5L7 1995 1 1 0 146 t67 (
50 45 60 68 6t2 1070 1408 101 r34 153
The.ASDl\{anualgivesvalues 60 4t 54 62 425 74 ( ,
for Lu for F,:36 ksi and50 ksi. 65
977 92 122 r39
40 53 61 362
100
634 832 89 . 1 1 8 r 3 5 (
32 42 49 153 268 3s2 7L 94 t07
C a se 3 : M n. M, (
For this case,taieral-torsionalbuckling occurs before ,,.t)?r!' ratios
rorcompression
members L/r, :200 when
to 20e.
i4, "unbe reachedand r|ilfjY||f*' (
the allowablestressis lessthan 0.60{..
whenever the_laterallyunsupporiedlength exceeds (
the largerl, value of
Eq'9.7-23 and g-7.?4,the allowibl.-rrr.r, r, is th'i rarger Elastic behavioroccursfor srendernes^sratios
stress'arue of Eqs. greaterthan Eq. g.7.z6and Eq. (
9'7 '12 and 9'7 '2a for strengthcontrolledby inelasric 9'7.22controlsover Eq. g.l.zo.Tabre
lateral-torsionalbuckling, 9.7.2give's;:;rrupper and lower limits
or is the larger stressva-lueof Eqs.9.7.12and9.7.22
for strengthcontrolledbv and denominarorcoefficientsfor the (
secondterm i"n Eq.9.7.20[ASDFormura
elasticlateral-torsionalbuckling. (FI-6)l for variousvaluesof
The slenderness.
fl.. (
tatio Lo/r, at which the criteria for inelastic A summary of the ASD'allorvable
lateral-torsionalbucklingprJventiongive the same and elastic flexural stressvs laterally unbraced
allowablestressis obtained length lo relationshipsis given in Fig. g.JJ. (
by equatingEqs. 9-7.20and 9.7.22;rhus,
(
2F, l7o,oooc, (
- 71tu/rr)' Case 1. based on strength M^=
Mo
3 1530(10)c, aJ;f Case 2, based on strength Mn = M,
;.'Ni ft-n=ff
\ r q
o;
( (c) ljnbraced lengthslarger than L,. Use the larger value from Eq. 9.7.12'*-: t\ 0
q)
/(lor
Co= 1.g1 9 0 ;
C)
(
12,000c0
r D ( F l - 8' ) : - _ -
Ero
-9 ,"rrr-!r= +lN 60a
o
Lb(5.34)12 Lb
(
offi n 2s 30
lz - l. r,(Loyrr)t
( rb(F1-6): 1530dbt Laterallyunbracecltength,LD.teet
l; ,.lt,
( Allowable bend.ing stress for w14x30 section witb c, : 1' as computed
Figure g-7.3
( Iz 36(Lb/1.la)2waf
- r - - - - - - - - r J v
^. in Example 9.7.L.
( L3 1530(103Xl.0)J--
More Precise AnalYsis
( L2^ "a whichaccordingto the
an-alysis"
:24.0 - *i ASD-R.3 permitstheuseof moreprecise"may
( t; ASD Commentarymeans'the procedure be refinedto includeboth St'
Eq' 9'4'31in some
( According to Eq. 9.7.26, ASD Formulas (F1-6) and (F1-7) gve the same Venantand warpingtorsion."This wouldmeanthe useof
t ( h
(
542 9,/ LATERAL-TCRSICNALBUCKL|NG OF BEAf'J4S I 8/ EFFECTIVE
LATERALLY
UNS;]A;EOleruCrH
(
/
fashion.If this mcre preciseanalysisprocedureis desired,the useof Load and factor'1.6?to obtain the nominalstrengthMn.Theactual safetyfactor usedin
ResistanceFactor Designas describedin Sec.9.6 will be more practical. LRFD will be the overloadfactors y.as discussedin Sec.1.8 divided by the i
strength reduction factor $, for flexure.If the serviceloading M werc80%live
(
load and 20vadeadload, the combinedsaferyfactor in LRFD would be
Comparison ol ASD and LRFD Strength Relationships (
Mn : M,/Qr , : [ t . z( o. zM ) + 1. 6( 0. 5M ) lt o. go : 1. 69M
Load and ResistanceFactor Design recognizesthe moment strength of a (
which would be very closeto the l.6T usedin AsD. The rangewould be from
rolled l-shapedsectionin strong axis bending to a greaterextent than does
1.33 for lUAVodead load to 1.78 for 100%live load (an impossiblesituarion). (
Allowable StressDesign.This is particularlytrue when ASD Formqlas(F1-6
Additionally, the ASD method using O.66Fyas the maximum allowable
and F1-7; c r (Fi-8) are used,since each reflectsonly part of the available (
stress effectively recognizesa shape factor z*/-s, for an l-shaped section of
strength.The comparisonfor a W14x30 section,the samesectionwhoseASD
1.L. whereas except in a ferv cases the actual value exceeds1.1; for the
relationshipis shownin detail in Fig.9.7.3,is givenin Fig.9.7.4.The ASD (
w14x30 sectionz,/s*:1.13. In LRFD the actr_.' Mois usedas the upper
curve rvould be higher and much closer to the LRFD relationshipif the
limit of the strengthrelationship. (
permissionin ASD-FI.3 of using"a morepreciseanalysis"is followed.In that
casethe two cunes for elasticbuckling,that is, for lo greaterthan L,, would (.
bc iclentical.Howevcr,sinceusuallythe "more precise"cun'e is not used,Fig. 9.8 EFFECTIVE
LATERALLY
UNBRACED
LENGTH (
9.7.4showsthe practicalcomparison.
'",Design
The true design comparisoncould show a wider difference than the equations,such as those of LRFD and AsD-Fl, are based on the (
norninalstrengthusedin the two methodsmay indicate.The strengthassumed 'a-ssumPtion
of torsionalsimple support(seeFigs. 8.5.4and 8.7.2)at the ends (
in ASD is obtainedb-"*multiplyingthe serviceload capacityFrS, by the safet-v- of the unbraced segment.This means that for torsional behooioronly the
effective laterally unbracedlength KLo equalsthe actual laterally unbraced (
length Lu; that is, the effectivelength factor K : 1.0. (
1 2 Nearly any type of lateral brace or end connectionwill preventrotation
(that is, keep the angle g of twist equal to zero; see Fig. l.+.tc; about the (
longitudinal axis oi .L^ beam. However,.only rarely will there be much
l . l
'\s flanges (
1.0 restraint against rotation about a vertical axis as discussedin
regai d to Fi g. 8.5.7( i. e. ,w&r p ^ - : ^'. - r : . t ) ; t hus K: 1. 0 is r easonable
f or i
most cases.
(
,)a Formula (F1-3)
Nonuniform Moment
c7 A>TJ
Formula(F1-6) The moment gradient do€s not directly affect iaterally unbraced effective (
length; however, it does affect lateral-torsionalbuckling srrength and is
(
accountedfor by the factorCu when thereis linearly varying bendingmonent.
This is true for both LRFD and ASD procedures. (
When a beam has transverse loading(not just end moments)the strcngrii
in lateral-torsionalbucklingwtll dependupon *'hether rhe load is appliecl;:
AJIJ the top flange, the centroid,or the bottom flange.The weukestsituationwiii (
F o r r : l u l a( F 1 - 8 )
be u'hen the load is appliedat'the top fiange,and the strongestrvhenthe lnarj
(
is appiied ar rhe bottom flange.The ssRC Guirte[6.g, pp. 1sz-tez1 pror.idas
, : 1 7 q ' for adjustment to the moment gradient factor C, to ptouiO. for theseeffecrs- (
3 6 9 1 2 1 5 1 8 2 1 2 4 2 7 3 0
(
Continuous Beams
Laterallyunbracediength,Lo (leet) (
A continuousbeam has lateral end restraintmomentsdevelopas a result of
Figure 9.7.4 Comparison of nominal strengtb rlfn used by Load and Resistance Factor continuity over severalsparis.When the adjacent spans are shorter than the (
Dcsign (LRFD) *'ith tbat used by Allowable Srress Design (ASD). span being considered,or at least braced laterally at closer intervals; or tiie (
(
\
(
{ 544 9/LATERAL-ToRsIoNALBUCKLINGoF BEAMS I 9/€XAMPLES: ANDRESISTANCE
LOAD FACTOR
DESlGr.t 54S
(
( adjacentspans are less severelyloaded,some lateral moment restraint Clark and Hill [9.26]andthe SSRCGuide,3rded.t6.201
may reporredthrt ir is
( develop. conservativeto usethe full lengthas the effectivelaterallyunbracedlengthfor
Typically, however,such end restraintabout the y-y axis shourdnot lateral-torsional'bucklingof cantilevcrbearns.However.the consen'ativencss
be
( assumedpresent since alternate unbraced spans could buckle in opposite of using the actual lengthfor a cantileverdependsin large part on having
directions.For treatmentof lateral buckling on continuousbeams,the reader
( fixed torsionalrestraintat the supportedend, as rvell as having the loading
is referredro Salvadori[9.5,9.r9J,Harrmann applied at the shearcenteror at the bottom flange.Sincesuchporsionatfi-xiry
[9.20J,Trahairlg.zl,g;.nl.porvell
( gy t<]i1s1er [9.22]. Roeder and Assadi lg.24l, and Fukumoro, Itoh, anJ rarely exists,the authorsrecommendusingtiie actualcantilever\engthas rhe
'trc{rori '
( [9.251.The ssR c Guide [6.8, pp. 162-i651 presenrsa method for effectivelaterallyunbracedlength.
rultrating the strengthof a continuous
beam spanhavingintermediatepoints Furthermore. the nroment gradient expressioncr, Eq. 9.6.11, is nor
( of larcralsupport. applicable for a canlilever;thus Cu should be taken as uniry. Obviousll',
in continuousbeams,the point of inflection has often been treatedas a moment gradient has someeffect; hou'ever,a cantileverinherentlyhas mo-
(
bracedpoint when designequationsdid not provide for the effectof nroment ment that varies from marirnumat the support to zeroat i,hefree end. The use
( rrar.licnt.In current design using AsD [1.5Jor LRFD
[1.15J,the effect of of the actual length as the effectivelength alreadyrecognizesthe moment
t)lnellt gradient appez!.rsin all equations except in the requirements to gradient.
( 'tlblish the ability to qualifv as a "compact section".The requirements
of When a more detaileddesigntreatmentof lateral-torsionalbuckling of
( I-RFD-FI.3 rvhereLo is prescribedand ASD-FI.3 where l,. is cantileversis desired.the SSRC Guide.4th ed. [6.8, pp. 16s-169] pi-ovi,Jes
irescribeddo
not include the moment gradient. when applying thesepro'isions one may (from a recohmendationb1'Nethercot)effectivelength factorsK in ordcr to
( rvishto considerthe inflection point as a poisiLle bracedpoint. use Kl insteadof I in Eq.9.a32. Kitipornchai,Dux, and Richter[9.27]have
( The authors' presentopinion is that rvhenevermoment gradientis.explic- a recent excellentoverallreviewof the subject.Again in that method. Cr,: I
.tlr provided for in a design equation (no matter horv apiroximately), would be used.For nonuniformcantilevers, refer to the work of lr{assel.and
the
( inflcction point should not be considered a braced poi"i. However, rvhen McGuire [9.28].
( provision is not made for the effect of moment gradient, generally
the
inflectionmay be consideredas a bracedpoint. The combinationof torsional
( restraintprovided by the floor systernattachmentsand the continuity at the 9.9 EXAMPLES:
LOADANDRESTSTANCE
FACTORDEStcN
( support point of maximum neg3tivemoment rvill normally be adequateto
ju.stify.treating-theinflection point as if it were actuaily braced Severalexamplesof l-shapedbeamsare presentedto illustrarethe Load and
( for the'purpose."
of eualuatingwhetheror nat Lo exceedsL, in LRFD or-exceeds L" inl jO.-The -.- ResistanceFactor Design method to include the effect of lateral-torsional
important factor is the amount of torsional restraint provided by the floor ... buckling. other considerations, such as deflection,shear, and web tocal
(
systemat the inflectionpoint. yielding and cripplingrveretreatedand illustratedin Chapter7. For additional
( Regarding endorsementof this suggestion,LRFD-Fl.3 defines zo as practical trearmenrof LRFO beamdesignseeYura tg.ZgJ.
"distance
betweenpoints braced against iateral displacementof the compres-
(
sion flange,.or points braced to prevent twist or tl, cross-section.,o E EXAMPLE 9.9.I
rhe
( cxpression"braced to prevent twist" could include the inflection point. In A simply supportedbeamis loadedas shorvnin Fig. 9.9.1.The uniform load is
ASD-Fl.3 L. is r.he"larerally unsupportedlength". Thus, in ASD there is 15Vodeadload and 85%live load, and the concentrated load is 40%dead load
( seeminglyno endorsementfor using the inflection point as a bracedpoint. and 60% live load. The beam has transverselateral support at the ends and
( every 7'-6" along the span.Selectthe lightestw sectionof 4,36 steel,using
Cantilever Beams Load and ResistdnceFactorDesign.
(
( Unlike the flagpole column where the effective pinned-endlength is trvice the
actual length, the lateral-torsionalbuckling of a cantileverbeam is not even = lklft (superimposed)
( as
severeas the unbraced segmentunder uniform moment. If one considersthe
( analogy to a column as discussedin Sec. 9.1, such a result is logical. Since
the moment at the free end of the cantilever is zero, the compreision force
( in the flange decreasesfrom a maximum at one end to zeroai the free end; Lateralsupport of
con':pressionf lange
( thus, the loading is less severe than if the compressionforce *rr. ,onrtun-i_
over the entire leneth. Venical
suppon Figure9.9.'t Exar:ples9.9.1and 9.10.1.
(
t , (
tt> (
545 9/LATERAL-TORSIONALBUCKLINGOF BEAI/|S 9.9/EXAMPLES: LOADAND RESISTA|.jCE
FACTORDEStcN il7
( ,
(
SOLUTION (d) Check the section.The dead weight of the beam must be included;it
(a) Determine the factored moment ltI, at midspan and the required could have been estimatedat the beginningof the design. (
nominal strengthM,. Using LRFD-A4.l, Formuia (A4-2),
. (
M"(deadload) : 1.2(0.01+)(lO)' 78= 11 ft-kips
r r , ,: r . 2( 0 .1 5 )(1 .0+) 1 .6 (0 .8 5 )(1 .0:) 1.54ki ps/ft
Mu: 562 + 11 : 573 ft-kips (
w u : 1 . 2 ( 0 . 4 0 x 3 6 ) + 1 . 6 ( 0 . 6 0 x 3 6:) 5 1 . 8k i p s
/ ( ,
Mn: Mr: Z, Fr : 224( 36) / 12: 672 f r - kips
s1'8(30) (
L{, : + : s6zrt-kips , Lo:50r, : 5 g ( 1 9 5 ) / 1 2: 8 . 1 f t t ( L t : 7 . 5 ft) oK
;(r.s4x30)a
t
Sincethe LRFD requirementis The other requirements{seeTable 9.6.1) for "compact section" are satisfied.
(
Qtb{^ >_ Mu Ie.6.1] l euM,:0.90(672) : 605 f t - kips] > ( M , : s73f t - kips) oK
(
v;here0r, : 0.90. the strengthreductionfactor for flexure,the requirednomi- In this casethe strength provided is nearly 6% high; however,the W24x84 is
nal strengthis the lightest section satisfying the requirements.The flange and web of this (
a
section satisfy the "compact section" requirementsto prevent to.u1 6usklingi (
Requiredh{n: M,/*u: 562/0.90 : 625ft-kips that is, tr . tr, as given in Table 9.6.1.
(b) Estimatewhetheror not lateralsupportsare closeenoughto designthe . LrseW24x84. (
beam using plastic analysis(LRFD-Fl.1) or to use the full plastic momenr (
strength Mp (LRFD-Fl.3) *'ithout plastic analysis.To use either of these r EXAMPLE 9.9.2
prol'isionsthe sectionmust be "compact" for local buckling in accordance Selectthe lightest W sectionfor the simply supportedbeam of Fig. 9.9.2.The (
with LRFD-B5. Sincc the beam is simply supported, plastic analysis (as superimposedload is 0.2 V,tpltt dead load and 0.8 V,rp/tt live load. Lateral (
describedin Chapter10) doesnot apply. Assumethe beam will be tn Cose2, support is provided at the endsand at midspan.Assumedeflectionlimitations
where rln: lIo.The maximum laterallyunbracedlength lu is given by Eq. need not be considered.Use 436 steel and Load and ResistanceFactor (
9.6.3, Design.
(
300 300
Lo: :tl.: 50f'
" ' Ef": w = l.Ok/ft {superimposed}
\rd, ksi v36 '
(
If one assumesthat r, = A.224 (text Appendix Table A1), (
Lateral zuppon of
compression flange
L- 7.5(12) (
l\.linbr: : : 8.2 in. if.Lp: 7.5 ft Vertical
,(Ob f 9rpport
(
Assurningthe flangewidth is at least8.2 in. the strengthcan reachthe plastic
Bending moment (
moment .1fy'p.
(c) select from LRFD lr{anual. "LOAD FAcToR DESIGN SELEC- Figure9.9.2 Data for F-xamples
9.9.2,9.9.4,
9.10.2,
and9.10.4. (
TiON TABLE." This is an efficient procedure'*'hen the designeris certain
(
that the sectionis "compact" and that l, . Lo. The r:quiicd plasticmodulus
Z. i s SOLUTION (
(a) Determine the factored moment Mu at midspan and the required
Req u i re dI!n : R e q u i re dtrfr:6 2 5 ft-ki ps design strength QtMn. Estimate the beam weight about 90 lb/tt (
Using
LRFD-A4.l, Formula (Az1-2), (
Requiredt, ^ : l:!ui:-dJ/o
F r :62s!:2)
3 6 : 208in.3
lv, : 1-2(0.2+ 0.09) + 1.6(0.8)= 1.63kips/ft (
The lightesrsecrionthat has Z* z 208 in.3 is W24x84 having Z, : 224 in.i; Mn:1.63(5q2/8 : 509ft-kips (
i n a d d it ion4, 8. 2in .
RequiredQtMn: Mu: 509 ft-kips {
{.
I
t,
(
t
1 i
*. I LOAD
9.9/ EXAMPLES: DESIGN 549
FACTOR
ANDRESISTANCE
:- - _l
( 548 OF BEAMS
BUCKLING
9/LATERAL-TORSIONAL : i
( I
2cb : -'!=
1.75
:13.7rt t
(
,fr,|i
rltiil Factoredbending
Enter curveswith requiredEuL'l^: 460 ft-kips and Lr/Cu:13.7 fr; find I
R equi redZ, : L : 1 7 0i n . 3
includes4 kips deadload; the remainderis live load.Use A36 sreeland Load F, " {
and ResistanceFactor Design.
(
The lightestsectionthat has Z,) 1?0 in.r is from "LOAD FACTOR DE-
SOLUTION SIGN SELECTIONTABLE," W24x68 haring Z,: 177n.3 For this section. (
ta; Obtain the bendingmomeat enveloperesultingfrom factoredloads. L,: 22.4 ft, and with C, : 1.75,the sectionis likely acceptable. When L, is
fhe moment en,.'elopewill include trro loading cases:(1) dead-loadplus live close to L6, the bestway of selectingthe ligbtest section will be in the cun'cs. I
':rc t,il rire 52-ft span and no live load on cantilever;and (2) dead load plus "BEAM DESIGN MOMENTS."
To help understandthe strengthrelation- {
'.'c ,,Jr.r(i
on cantiieverand no live load on the 52-ft span. ships, eiamine Fig. 9.9.awhere the W24x63 and \Y24x76 designstrengths
tt" ,t: i .2 (6 ) + 1 .6 (2 0 ): 3 9 . 2ki ps QtM^ are shown. \
(c) SegmentB. This segmenthas a steepermoment gradientthan segment (
I V , t : 1 . 2 ( 4 ) + i . 6 ( 7 . 5 ): 1 6 . 8k i p s A, i.e., Cu > 7.?5;however,the laterallyunb:acedlength lu is longer.Using
Eq.9.6.11, I
For loading case1. the maximumfactoredmomentunder load I/, is
(
on cantilever: 1.2(4)21: l0l ft-kips
J\y',, c a :1 7 +
51osf**) . o.r(#)': r*
i. {
,r{u ar wt : 39.2{24)(25)/52 - 101(24/52) - 460 ft_kips
F This is less than the upper limit of 2.3. Even though the Co has increascd (
For loadingcase2. the maximumfactoredmomentat the cantileversupportis til_ above the 1.75 for segmentA, the laterally unbraced length of 28 ft is longc-r (
Mu :1 6 .8 (2 1 ) : 3 5 3ft-k i ps l; An entry to the LRFD "BEAM DESIGN MOMENTS" cun'es would use
(
F Lo/Co: 28/2.N: 14 ft. This is not much different from segmenrA. It is
The factored moment envelopeis shorvnin Fig. 9.9.3.
E possiblerhe W24x68 will be acceptable.
{
ti {
F (
(
(
552 I / T3TERAL-TOF€TONAL
BUCKL|NG
OF BEAMS 9.9/ EXAMPLES: FACTOR
LOADAllDRES|STANC€ DESIGN 553
( .'
(
'
sM, -- 54ry\ ta. l\r- Then, for the two possibts coa6slling segmeots:
( \. A36sreer
,/ l\r
SegrnentA, Ct - \.75, Lt : 24 tt, find n{- : 523ft-kips
(
W24x76 B,
S-egment Ct:2.N, Lc: 28 ft, find M"' -- 468ft-kips
( an
-e
-ts C D =1 ' 7 5
( c 400
Both values are below Mo:531 ft-kips; segmentB controls and it is clear
E W24x76 that grM", is less than l{4"of 460 ft-kips. Increasesection to W24x?6 and
( € Co; l'o check segrnentB.
For the w24x76 section, having s' - 1?6 in':' 4 : 1760 ksi' xz:
o)
(
E 3oo
w24x68 18,600x 10-6 in.43ip2,and ': 1.92in.,
( C Co:10
'= 738
70,090c0
( o Mn: Mo:
(
avv
h 4
t
:
*1
I
l buckling is the controlling limit state (as assumed).
(:. -{ i
UseW24x76.
( (d) Check rhe W24x68. From the LRFD Maqual, ,i
'.1
.. 1
(
t
'-Mu:1.60(50)2/8 :
_
Tlic nc.rt heaviersectionindicatedis the next solid line vertically uprvardon Q t M p: o'90( 650): 58sf t - kiPs
il:e cun'es.Wl6x67. From the table,"BEAMS" for 4, : 50 ksi, find
W2lx62, L, = 16.6ft, QoMp: 540 ft-krps which exceedsthe required QoM, of 500 ft-kips. Compute L, f,or 5 : 60 ksi
\. from Eq. 9.6.6 below using rr: 2.46 in., Xt : 2350 ksi, and Xz: 4690 x
Q N ,: 381ft-ki P s --- 10-6 in.olktps2for the w16>467,
rv16x67, L , : 2 3 . 8f t , 488 ft-ki P s (
? rMr: : 20.6 ft
I,
Q tfu I,: 351ft-ki P s
(
Since Lt-25 ft for this exampleexceedsL,, the elastic lateral-torsional
buckling strength M,, must be computed to make the check of this section.
Using Eq. 9.6.12with C, : 1.75along with the other valuesusedabove for L,, )
<U
)
to
l6
CHECKSFOREXAMPLE
OFSTRENGTH
TABLE9.9.1 SUMMARY 9.9.4
( t
( )
kip/tt including the beam weight. Use Load and ResisranceFactor Design. Thus, the se-ctionis not "compact" with regard to either the flange or the web.
The steelh* 4,: 65 ksi. Next, check whether the flange arrd/ot the web mnsl be classified as "slender" ( '
elements; that is, determine whether l, exceeds1,, (LRFD-85.1 and Table (
SOLUTION 9.6.2).For flange local buckling,
(a) Compute cross-sectionalproperties. ( ;
Area, A:28.1sqin.
( ^ : T : r 2 8 )< : : - - 1 < 1
,ifi. - 16.5
OK ( ;
^t ( ,
tlt
r.: -r2l(ru
5 5\3
- s \ l : *r 'n..
* ; . ;J trol- (zo)3(16
G)J For web local buckling, ( 1
(
s
I. 4003
: 294 in.3 (^: . ( ^ :, - 970 : 1203) OK
"x
d/2 13.625 ?:832) iF' \ )
( t
Thus, the slenderness ratios tr for both the flange and the web lie between
,,: rt|)trul't
o.6zs)
: 427 in.a
l, and tr,; the sectionis "noncompact" with regard to both the flange and the ( ,
-web, and two of the possiblecontrolling limit states for nominal strengthwill
(
' r : YtT
be-local buckling of the flange or the web in the inelastic range as shown in
: Fi 1.9.6.2. (
i {Tr:3.8ein. (c) Computethe plasticmomentstrengthMo and the moment strengthM,
( '
at the elasticlimit (seeFig. 9.6.2).
/ : : z.B7in.a
zl3 + 26(o.3tzs)'l ( ,
; [z1ro11o.e Mr: Z,Fr: 319(65)/12 - 1728ft-kips
(
I.,h2 427(26+ 0.62s\2 trf, : ( 4, - 4 ).!, : (65 - 16.5)294/tz: u8? ft-kips
C . : !
4 A
: 7 3 ,8 5 0i n .6 (
+
(d) Compute the nominal strength M, based on the lirnit state of local (
EGJA i bucklingof theflange. Using Eq. 9.6.9,. ( ,
.ri - r i : -'. t/ :1220ksi
J r Y 2e4U 2.6(2) ( ,
.vn=M
P e -\ ( M o . _' M
\ I ' .- ;I 1
o ,/ . r + ) [e.6.e]
r ( ,
-x,: :
r, GJ 427 29,000(2 .87)
4n 4Tkrpsz
4+( +)' : ol'tto ( =:?::::)=,,|: o.or, ( \
\ J \ J - (172s
- 1187)ts+1|
.\t,, r?28 '\ : rrroft-kips
1 s . 2- 8 . 1/ ( i
tb) Investigatethe local flange buckling and local *'eb buckling limit
states.Clieck ^ . Ar accordingto LRFD-B5.l; the limis are given in Table qel Compute the nominal strength rly'" based on the limit state of.loca! ( ,
9.6.1. For flange local buckling, bucklingof the weD.Using Eq. 9.6.9, (
[.
I '
!
|l -l b,/2 16/2 6 5 \ t . .
( ;
- : u s ) ' ( ^ ,: NC
t,:
l'a, Mn:1728- (1728
- n87)(#)
' \ 1 2 0 . 3- 7 9 . 4 : ,un
- - - - -ft-kips
---r-
rr 0.625 t'
\ E:*.',| t-.
t_-
1 ( t
t: (f) Examinethe lateral-torsional ( ,
For w'eblocalbuckling, t+-
t :
bucklinglirnit state.C-omputeL, using
Eq.9.6.3,
F '
F ( ;
L'- 26 : \ f 6 4 0 \ F.
f^:
r* 0,3125
83.2)' : :7e.4J NG
=-:i
E'
_
Lo:
300 300(3.8el12)
- --*G5-- '= l2'1 ft (t
\ f+ -:
l^, E L
F . Ft" ( r
tL
F:
E
g (
4
L
( ,
-+F.l
( '
560 g/LATERAL-ToRSIoNAL
BUCKLTNG
oF BEAMS 9.I O , EXAI"IPLESALLOIVABLESTi€SS DESIGN 561
( , :l
..,t
I
(,
Since Lt,: l5 ft exceedslo, the lateral-torsional buckling limit statemust be
( , r EXAMPLE9.IO.I
examined fur ther. using Eq. 9.6.6,rvith r, = 3.g9 in.. X, : 1220
.Co,*,plrll,
: 0-0584 in.a7krpsz, beamis loadedas shorvnin Fig. 9.9.1.The bcamhas
A sirnplvsupported
( \!i, xr 4: 16.5 ksi for a *,elded secrion.a;d 'F.r':- trtnsverselateralsupportat the endsand even''7'-6" alongihe span.Selectthe
65 ksi,
lightestW sectionof .436steel.usingAllou'ableStressDesign.
(
( ',:11=6
, '.rX,
- F,)' :29'2ft SOLUTION
(a) Estimate*'hether or not lateral supports are close enough to qualif;'
( "compact seciion." Eqs.9.7.1
Thus. the nominal strength M, basedon the limit state of lateral-torsional the bcam aS"compact" underASD-85.1.For
( Fuckling is linearly interpolatedbetween Mo and,M, accord,rng and 9.7.2.
ro Eq. 9.6.a
( using Co : 1-0 for the center15-ftlaterallyuibracedsegrnentof the 45-ft 76b, 20.000
span -
of this example, L. : max unbracedlength:- smaller r -:
J r r r g f r l r vof -onrl
""
td''AtlF,
( tr,
(b).CheckW24x84' S. : 196r1'3 (
SOLUTION "ALLOWABLE MOMENTS IN Using ASD Formula(F1-8)'Eq' 9'1'12'
(a) Use AsD lrlanual beam cun/es,
BEAN{S." These cura'esare plots of the allorvable moment FuS.,vs laterally 12,000c6_ 12'000(1.75)
: &v'- 'Lr < 0.60r, ma.rimum
-:20.Zksi ;
: 36 ksi *9 F" Fh
unbraced length lu for rolled W and lv{ shapesfor {, :i! Zrd/AJ @3-47
ksi. The allowable srressFu it the larger of the valuesobtained from ASD
(
Formulas(Fl-6 or F1-?) and (F1-8),Eqs. 9.7-20,9.7.22. and9'7'12.with the it is not expectedto govern' examine
Though from the ASD Manual curves ( t
value of.C^ taken as 1.0 for the curyes-
ASD-Formula(Fl-6), Eq' 9'7'20' (
Assumingthe beam weight about 90lb/ft, the midspanbendingmoment
L b - r""::'
< / rl \
is : 129-9; Ct : 135 (
rT 2.3r
.1/ : *(1.09)(50)2: 34r ft-kips (
Lr : Laterallyunbracedlength : 25 ft /| -Ll u \ :70 ( t
\l r- iJl ito"'c'
mit
ct: 1 . 7 5 ( n s o - F 1 . 3 ,F 4 . 9 . 6 . i 1 ) I
I
t
I
|
..
-r l f 1
(
An examination of ASD Formula (F1-6) will sh6*' that Co can be
ASD
t - .
tat | uPPcr
:157
(
combined$.ith Lo it Lb/fr replacesLuin that equation.Eq. 9.7.2A.1n l|
Ur / umir
Formul:r (Fl-8) Cocan-be combinedwith tu by replacinZLt,by Lu/Cu. Since (
the curvesare foi C":1, when C, is not 1'0 the cun'esmay be enteredas Since10 < 12g.9< 157,parabolicFormula
(F1-6)applies'
follorvs:
(
l z - F , ( L u / r r )lt- (
l. Usc Ln/Co if Formula (F1-8) controls Fb- tr: t53o(ro,;c,.|",
2. Use L/A if Formula (F1-6) controls .Fr. LJ (
Sincefor W and tr{ rolled shapestorsionalstrengthis usuallythe predomi- which for 4,36 steelbecomes (
nanr iacror. mosr suchbeamshave .F,controlledby ASD Formula(F1-8).it is (
(LuirJ (129.9)'
rcc()mnlcndcdthat the first entry to the cun'es be with Lu/Cu. As the values . n - -ffi :24'0 - : 1 5 . Sk s i
:rre re.rilfronr ihe cun'es.the usercan tell from the shapeof the cury'ewhether
Ft,: A24.0 Z'.^ (
ii is rireh5'perboiroi Formula(F1-8)or the parabolaof Formula(F1-6).and
(F1-8)and thereforedoesnot control' (
atljrrsttire entry appropnately. which is less than givenby Formula
for beam *'eight' is
For this exampie,in place of.Lu enter w-ith Bending ,tr.rr"unaer appliedload, corrected (
t-"
- ll.3 lr oi L : i8.9ft
M -- 33e( 12): 20-7
ksi> Fr,: 20'2ksi (
Ch f o': #
. ,Cu i (
E
2'5%overstress'
dependingon the formula suspectedas control.lingth: :ilonrble stress-in t,se W24x84. sincethereis only abou| (
uring the cun,es,the solid line abot:ethe intersectionof \t and L indicatesthe (
lightestsectionsatisfyingtheserequirements- r EXAMPLE 9.103
beamof Fig' 9'10'1' Lateralsupport is
Enteringrvith -1f :341ft-kips and Lu/Cu: 14.3ft- find Selectun ..onorni.al W sectionfor the (
load points' and at the end of
provided at the verticalsupports,concentrated
W27x84, il{ > 34t ft-kips (
thecantilever.UseA36steelandAllowableStressDesign.
(
W24x84, Might u'ork
SOLUTION
of the three lsterally unbraced (
Three casesmust be consideredsinceeach
Note that the W2?>lS4is controlled by the parabolic cun'e, Fo (F1-6)' and
lengthsisdifferentandissubjecttoadifferentm a x i m u m b e n d i n g m o m e t r t (. ,
reenreringthe cunes with Lu/{ca : 18.9 ft indicatesw27x84 to be inade- mornentgoverns'
Assume the segmentcontainingthe largest
quate. (
(
( ,
\
(
9/LATERAL-TORSTONAL
BUCKL|NG
oF BEAMS ALLOWAtsLE
9]0 / EXAMPLES: DESIGN
STRESS
' e
(
(
(a) SegmentC:
(
I ! : 2 1 1 . 5f t - k i p s . C t , : 1 . 1 5 . I-:27 fi
( Use the ASD lr,lanualcun'es.
"ALLO\\'ABLE it{OiUENTS IN BEAi\IS," a
( portion of which is shou.nin Fig. f.i0.2. As discussed previousll".the Cu factor
b-52'_O.. Vertical may be combined u'ith lo, as follou's:
( supports
L^ 21
( 224.5 tr-kips _: - - : 12 ft ;1 ro (F1-8) governs
c,, 1.75
(
Eendingmo:.nent
(due to superimposed
( Lb 21
ioads) : : 15.9fr if 4b (F1-6)governs
( iCo
,ll,_-75
2 4 1 . 5f r . k i p s
( Figure 9.10.1 Dara for Example 9.10.3
Try enteringcurvesrvith i/ : 24L.5ft-kips with Lu/Cu: 12.0ft, sclect
( W21x68, M : 257ft-kips, Lu: 12.4 ft
:
( SinceLr: L. (8.7fi) but Lu/Ct:72.0 ft doesnot exceedL,
21 ft exceeds
(.72.4ft),
( Fu: 0'60F,
L" = 9.5 ft F" = 36 ksi
( w2l x 73- - _ - - ? Note that in the cun'es the solid black dot (o; representsl. and the open
Co=1
( circle (O) representsLs,.Also, the valuesof.L, and L, for {. : 36 and 50 ksi
L" = 1O.2tt
are given in the ASD Manual.
( The additional moment due to a beam weight about 76 lb,tll should be
w21 x 6e w24 x 68
( paraboficcurve included at this stage.
showingFb(F1-6) At the (- M ) region,
( controls
( {M,\2
C o : 1 . 7+5t r r ( # ) . + o rM
l :2.ee
La:era!ly unbraced length, Lo
( Lb 28 L^ 28
: : i2'2ft; + : ---::18.5 f:
i L3 i Co '12'3
(
(
t (
ts a
I
9 / LATERAL-TORSIONAL
BUCKLTNG
OF BEAMS 9.1A/ EXAMPLES:
ALLOWABLE
STRESS
DESIGN 567 ( ,
(
Since Llcu < (L": 12.4fr), rhis srill looks arceptablefor M : 257 ft_kips. (Note that ^Fi: 0.604, may also be derermined from Lu/Cu: 12 ft < Lu:) (
(c) SegmentA: Co: 1.75
M 2s7(12) (
Lb 24 Lb 24 .ft: : 2A-4ksi < Ft: 22ksi OK
: 13.7ft; : 1 8 . 1f t ,5, 151
cb m ,'lCu ,tL.75 (
For SegmentB: (
Here Lu/C6 exceedsLu:12.4 ft for w21x68, meaning^Fuwill be lessthan
M : Zi|ft-kips sameasSegment
C (
0.60F,
M : 2 2 4 . 5 + 1 6 . 4: 2 4 l f t - k i p s LulCr : 12.2ft < l,; 4 = 22 ksi (
From the curves, the point defined by M : Z4I and Lu/Cu: 13.7 ft lies Stresscheck identical with SegmentC. (
above the hyperbolic curve for w21x6g, indicating that wztxeg is not UseW27x73. I ( ,
adequate.A reentry to the curvesshowsthe next solid line curye above
the I EXAMPLE 9.10.4 ( ,
w2lx68 is that for W24x68; however,that curve is a parabolicone
and for Investigateusing Allowable StressDesign the W16x67 sectionof i., : 60 ksi
that section (
steel that was selectedby Load and ResisranceFactor Design in Exainple9.9.4
M : 24|ft-kips ar Lb/,,fCb:, 18.1ft (seeFig. 9.9.2).The simply supportedspan of 50 ft has la,.eralsupport at rhe
.'.'gg4s (
and midspan.
The W24x68 is nor adequate (
for Segment
A.The nextsecrionis W2lx73 wirh
tlre hy'perboliccun'e governing. SOLUTION (
(a) Determinethe serviceload mom ent M at midspan.
M > 24I ft-kips at Lo/Cu: 13.7ft (
M : wLz/g : l.o(50)2/g : 3l2ft-kips (
(d) Check srresses
for W21xT3, S, = l5l in.3
For SegmentA: (b) Check compact sectionrequirementsfor Wl6x67. Examine 1", the (
rnaximum laterally unbracedlength foi which Ft: 0.66Fr. For ^{,.: 5b ksi,
12,000c, 12,000(1.75) (
4 ( F 1 - 8 ): : 21.1ksi the AsD N{anualgivesL,: 9.2 ft and it n-ill be lessthan that for F,.: 60 ksi.
Lbd/At 24(12)3.46 Thus, Lo - 25 ft is well aboveL.. To illustratethe L. compurationaccording (
ro A S D -Fl .1.
or for Lo/rr:24(12)/7.13: (
135.2< 157.Thus paraboricFormula (F1-6) is 20,000 20,000
_
to be used. L": qiFS: 11.6
6o(2.ao;t2,: rt
(
i
4 ( F 1 - 6 ): 2 4 . 0 - W
1 1:82
1C4D. 0 - g : l1:1r851 (.12 k- sI i
.75) (
76bl 76(10.23s)
Thusthelarger,Ft: 2l.l ksi, governs.
T
L c -
_ : : 8'4rt (
t1 6d[t
(
M 247(12\
f, - - -
Jt, ,," : 1 9 . 1 k s i< f , OK Thus Lr: 8.4 ft, since the snvller value governs. (
c
-,t
(c) Compute the allowablestressFr. Since for such a large Lo as 25 ft it is
likely that lateral-torsionalbucklingndl control the design,go directly to rtte (
For Segmcnt C:
ASD Foririulas(F1-6 or F1-T) and (F1-8) w{thour computi;g /-,, the maxi- (
12.000(1.75) mum laterally unbraced iength at v'hicb 4: 0.60{ when Ca - 1.0. For
4(FI-8) : = 24.7ksi> 0.604 :'
4
: 5Oksi; L,, : 13.9ft; thereforefor
4. : 60 ksi, Lj < 13.9 fr.
(
J{12)3.46 i
t .
I
l i (
- f 2)(12)
Ir . - Lb
4 : 0.604,,==22ksi governs
t-:109
rT (
l .
$
li (
r1'
t "
(
(
--t
f ;.:l-.
. : I
OFl€nAPEDSaCTIONS 569
i
- ."J1 BENDING
9.11/WEAK-AXIS
( oF BEAMS !
568 BUcKLING
9r'LATERAL-ToRSIoNAL
(
( For rveblocal buckling,
From Table9.?.2with Ct: l-75,
(
54 < 109 < 122 .'..Fu(F1-6) aPPlies' . (^,: s 2 6 io K
(
[z F,(Lulrr)t Il't-"
-
l ^ : * : f f i : 3 6 3 ) H:
Fb (Fl-6) - l1' - --1---_-::- The allorvable
.'compactsection" requirements-
(
L- - - 3 0 ( 1 0 ' ) c u) J Thus, the sectionsatisfiesall
( stress F, is
F a : 0 ' 6 6 f , : 3 9 ' 6k s i
, r2
t!'=7'
(,
( : 4o.o- for d.) : 6oksi
425Cb
I
The stress/o u'ascomPuledin Exrnple
(c) Final check and evalua',ion.
(tog)2 9.10.4.
( - 4 o -. o 2 4 k. 5s i : ksi)
ffir: f r,:29.2 ksi ' ( Fu 39'6
(
12,000(1-75) better as this beam' Deeper
( . : 12.'0o0cD
: gd:2e'2ksi The stressis very lorv; lighter sectionswill sen'e
(Ft-8)
.F6 sectionsrvill likely f. pr.i.rred to bettercontrol deflecrion' E
(
ffi
( The lerger value, Ft,: 29'2ksi, controls'
(d) Final checkand evaluation' 9.11WEAK-AXISBENDINGoF|-SHAPEDSECTIoNS
(
M - *(t.p67x5o)' :333 ft-kips The treatmentthus far in this chapterhas dealt
rvirh larera!-torsional buckling
( in a direction perpendicular to the plane of
M -3t3 3 (1 2 ) where instability might occur
NG in the rveaker direciion)'
( /r:
: :34.2ksi > Fr:29-2ksi srrong-axisbenOinf?iftu, is. the.buckling occurs
,, is bent about isl'eak axisl.l'-axis). tha.tis, bending
When an l-shaped-b** the nsutral
( to the planeof the rveb, making the .t'-axis
W16X77 rvould be in a planeperpendicular
The Wi6x67 is nor satisfactory.The next larger section, longer of conceT' Tht beam s'ill tcnd to
(' and the serviceload stress instabilityis no
axis,lateral-torsional
required.The allowablestress.Q- becomes33'2 ksi since that is the principal a'xis
e--' deflect only in rhe direcrionof the loaiing on
( l, it:O.f f.ti. Sincelateral instability $'ill not occur
orientationoffering least.resistance. the onlr
about thek weak axis'
( I EXAMPLE 9.T0.5 doubly symmerri;it,i-rt op.d sectionsbent
and -found to be that mighipi.u.n, them from achieving the plasticmoment conciition
If the W16x6? in 4 = 60 ksi steel that rvas investigated factor
( p-ortion (unstiffenedelemcnt)<rf
inadequatein Examdie 9.10.awere to be lateraliy braced every 5 ft' rvould it rvould be local bucklingof the compression
( be satisfactory?Use Allowable StressDesign' the flanges.
(
SOLUTION \,
at Load and Resistance Factor Design
( (a) Compari'i towith the t. limits of ASD-FI.1. With lateral support "There is nO limit on Lh"'for an;- beam hent
of the membei may reach M "!1 According.to-LRFD-F1.l,
( close intervals ir is iitety that the strength o
rvill not be a compressionclcmcnl
the allorvablestresswiil be Fa: 0'66FnIn Exampie9'10'4'
l. was computed about its mirror axis." In addition, the web
Thus' the limit statesft)r
( to be 8.4 ft, which exceedstie laterally unbraced length Lo
of-5.ft; thus' tlte when the loading is in a planeparallelto the flanges' of the plastic
(lidevelopment
sectionis
'.compact" with regard to lateral-torsionalbuckling limit state' I-shapedsectiorisin."eak u*i, U.ijing are the flange'locai
( "compact" limits of ASD-8.5.1 relating to bickling' In order that
(b) check l,ocalbuckling. Tht momenr strengthand (2) flangelocal '\e (LRFI)-BS as
must not exceed
( local buckling of the flange-and web otttlt also be satisfied' In the calculation bucklinglimit stateis avoided,the flangetr
below, the symbol tr is the actual slenderness ratio of the element and tro is given in Table 9.6:1).
( "campact" section.To prevent flange local buckling'
the ASD limit for a
( Allowable $tress DesiEn
?'5'
ete summarizitdin Scctron
( The allowablestressprovisicnsof AsD'F2
, (
BUCKLING OF 8EAN4S
I / LATERq',--TCRSTONAL I 12 / LATERALBUCKLTNGOtr MONOSYMMETRTC
SECTTONS 571 (
570 I
(.r
9.12* LATERALBUCKLINGOF CHANNELS,
ZEES, (
MONOSYMMETRIC I.SHAPED
SECTIONS,
AND TEES (
The basic developmentof lateral buckling strength-relatedcriteria has as- (
sumedthat loads are appliedverticallythroughthe shearcenter.Furthermore.
(;
the resistanceto lateral buckling consideredthat the shear forces which supporl
developedin the flangeswere equal and the center of twist r"'a.slocatedat Figure9.12.1 Etample9.12.1. ( ,
mid-height.
(
9.6.1.For the flange, (
Channels 1 b , 2 . 9 4 2 \ / 6 5 \ (
Unless loaded through the shearcenter,a channel is subjectedto combined l\ } ' : t t 0.501
\ V,., t
'-)
(,
bendingand torsion.Sincethe shearcenteris not in the planeof the web (see
For the web, ), must not exceedl,o as given in Table 9.6.1,as follows: (,
Fig. 8.5.1),usual loadingsthroughthe centroidor in the plane of the web give
rise to such combinedstress.For loadsin a plane parallel to the web, lateral I h. =f 9.75 \ / 640 \ (
buckling must be considered,even if the torsional fnoment may properly be l l : j : rn
-: : 3 4 . 6 .1l I o : - - - : - : 9 0 . I5 OK
neglected.The.SSRC Guide [6.20]states"if an otherwiselateraily unsup- \ tw 0.282 / \ iF, 1
ported channel has concentrated loads brought in b1' other membersthat Note that neither b1/tr nor h,/t* is given in the LRFD Manual as a property
frame into it, such loads can be consideredas being applied at the shear for channel sections.Thus, for h, the authors recommendusing the dimen-
center, prouided that tlrc span of the framing'mentber is measuredfront rhe sional property 7" to computethe ratio. The rvebsof channelsusuallyhavelou'
channelslpar centerand the framing connectionsare designedior the moment ratios h,/t* so that one might almost assumeA. Ao. This channel is a
and shearat the connection." "compact section" for the local buckling limit states.
For design purposes,Hill [9.32Jindicatesthat lateral-torsionalbuckling (b) Examine the lateral-torsionalbuckling limit state. Plastic moment
equationsfor symmetricall-shapedsectionsmay be appliedfor channels.Such strengthcan developwhen Lb < Lp, where.according to Eq. 9.6.3,
a procedureis statedto err on the unsafeside by about 6% tn extremecases.
Both ASD and LRFD adopt this approach.Equation9.4.33can be usedto
rcprescntthe elasticlateral-torsionalbucklingstrengthof a channelloaded L r : + , ,k:s1i 1 9 f { 4 : 2 . 8 r t
v4, /50
cssentiallyin the plane of its web. The torsion warping constant C* has a
tlificrent expressionthan doesan l-shapedsection;the expressionis avaiiable Mo : Z,Fr': 25'4(50)/12: 106ft-kiPs
in tc.tt Appendix Table A2. The torsion propertiesfor rolled channelsare M,: (F, - 4)E : (50- 10)21 .s/tz : 71.7ft-kips
availablein the 7th edition ASD lr{anual(1970)and in the LRFD Manual
r*r\r
i1.171;theyrvereomittedfrom the 8th editionof the ASD Manual (i980). L,: #r/t
t
+V
l-
* - 4' )/ t
(.F,-4)f I ' l &j (\ F
. ),' [( l . o . o ]
3 EXAI{PLE 9.12.1 where the propertiesX, and X, are nr)t iabulatedin the LRFD lr'lanuali'or
lctcrmine the nominal strengthMn f.ora channel,C72x20.7of steelhaving channelsections.Using X, accordingto I-q. 9.6.7,
It, : 50 ksi, used on a spanof 24 ft w'ithconcentratedloads at the one-third
noints as shorvnin Fig. 9.12.1.It is assumedthat the loads "ct at the shear G
t; '/(:q.ooo)'(o.lz)e.og
'
;cntcr of the channel. X' , :S - * ' - :l790ksi
2i.5 | 212.6)
(
Mn:r,l*,-(M,-M,)(Ti:)]=" [e.6.41 modulusS, referredto the compressionflange.
( Tee Sectiqns
- (106- it 7)(#=#)]
Mn: r.o[roo : tr 4 rt-kips E
( A T-sectionmay be thoughtof as a monosymmetric l-shapedsectionthat hls
one zerorvidth flange.Both ASD and LRFD Specificationsare vagueon hou'
(
a T-section beam is to be treated. Rolled structural tees will rarcll' havc
( Zees strengthcontrolledby the lateral-torsionalbucklinglimit slaie.Whenevcra tr.e
The zee-sectionlateral buckling strength is complicated b1 the fact that sectionis loadedin the planeof its web (nromentabout ihe -x-axis)and r. is
(
loading in the plane of the web causesunsynmetrical bending. resulting iess than r' there is no limit on lateralll' unbracedlength. LRFD-FI statcs.
" There i s no l i mit on Lb. . . f or any beam bent about ils m inor axis. " A
( becausea principal axis doesnot lie in that plane.The generalrreatmentof
buckling under biaxial bending is found in Sec.9.14. The effect of biaxial significantnumber of rolled teesare in this categor)'.
( When the tee hauingitsflange in contpressicn is bent ab.ut its nra.;ora.xrs.
bendingon zeesectionsrvasfound by Hill [9.32]to reducethe critical moment
( M* to 90-95 percent of the value given by Eq. 9.1.33. In addirion, rhe---' that is, bending in the plane of the siern and r, ) r,. p:esumabl\ L, for
torsion-bending constant C,, is different than for channels or l-shaped sec- 'r I-shapedmembers,LRFD Formula (F1-4), Eq. 9.6.3. is appiicablc.Thc
( maximum unbracedlength L, at rvhich inelasticlateral-torsionalbuckling
tions.
( For design purposes,in view of the fact that unbraced zsss Ne relatively occursis givenby LRFD Formula(F1-6).Eq. 9.6.6,rvhere:or the tec lraving
rare, AISC does not provide for them. The authorssuggestusing one-half the the flange in compressionthe section modulus 5,. is thai refcrrcd to thc
( compressionflange.
valuesobtained using M", ftom Eq. 9.4.33
( -1.
ETEXAMPLE 9.12.2
Monosymmetric l-Shapes Investigatethe moment strength of a structural tee section WT?xl9 both
( I-shaped sectionssymmetricalabout the y-axis, but uas1,'rrimetrical about the when usedwith its flangein compressionand rvith the flan3c in tension.Use
x-axis, are surnmarized in the S.sRc Guide [6.8] and b-v Ciark and Hill [9.26). Load and ResistanceDesignand A36 steel.Shorvhoir the strcngthis affected
( by lateral bracing.
The additional variable involved is ye, the distancefrom the centroid of the
( -eirdercross-sectionto the shearceoter(positiveif the shearcenter lies between
the centroid and compressionflange,otherwisenegative). SOLUTION
( The 4th edition of the SSRC Guide [6.8] pror{des coasiderable detaii Case1: F[ange in Contpression
regarding procedure for monosymmetric beams; largely from the work of (a) Plastic strength.The flange must satisfy that tr < i, to precludethe
(
Galambos[9.6J,Anderson and Trahair [9.33J,Kitipornchai asd Trahair [9.34], flange local buckling limit statefrorn reducingthe strength.
( and Nethercot [9.35]. More recently, Kitipornchai, wang, and Trahair [9.36],
I -b,l 6. i70 6s
wang and Kitipornchai 19.371, and Kitipornchai and wong-Chung [9.38Jhave lL: - - - - : - - - - - - - - : \6 .. 6l fii - : Z : l C r . r i ox
( 2( 0. 515) "
treatedthe subject. \ 2,r I \ \ ! F, I
(
, (
(
574 9/ LATEML-TORSICNAL BUCKLING OF BEAMS 912 / LATERALBUCKLINGOF MONOSYMI"iIETRIC
S=CTIONS 575
( ,
I
Since the stem (web) is primarily in tension, L for the rveb does not have to 1o; Inetastic lateral-torsionalbuckling limit state.When the extremefiber
in bending reachesthe yield stress{,,' the nominal momentstrengthis (
satisfyany limit. Thus,
Maximum L{n: Mr: Z'Fr: 7 '45(36)/12 : 2?"4ft-kips M, : (F, - F,) I,/(y, distanceto outer fiber of flange) ( ,
(b) Examine lateral-torsionalbuckling limitation on achieving plastic (
moment strength.There are two casesto consider: (1) When the radius of tr{,: F,I,/(d - y)
(
gyiation r.. is lessthan r., and the loadingis in the plane of the stem, the beam Because the section is monosymmetrichaving a shorter distance to the
will bend in this weakdirection and will have no tendencyto buckle laterally. compressionextremefiber than to the tensionextremefiber, the strengthma1' (
121When the axis of symmetryis the weak axis (i.e., r,> rr)-there is some be controlled by either extremefiber. The flangecontainsresidualstress;thus ( ;
possibilityof lateral-torsional buckling. L{, is used. At the tension fiber in the stem, there will be no significant
For this casewher€ /' ) r,,, it rviil be conservativeto treat the structural residual stress.Thus, (
tee flangein the samemanneras the l-shapedbeam flange. LRFD-F1.1 and
"singly symmetricl-shapedmembersrvith the com- M,: (36 - 10)(23.3)/L.54/r2 : 32.8ft-kips ( .
F1.2 are applicablefor
pression flange larger-than the tensionflange.. . loaded in the plane of the Mr: 36(23-3)/(7.05- 1.54)/12: 72j ft-kips (
web." A tce sectionwould be a limiting caseof an unsvmmetricall-shaped
It is clear that the stem reaches!, before the flange extremefiber reaches (
secrionhaving zero tensionflange.Sinceteesand doubl; anglesare specifi-
callv trcated by LRFD-Fl.5, one might conclude that thel'' are excludedfrom
({' - 4)' (
\ Calculatethe limit L, at which Mn: if,; the formulasin LRFD-F1.3are
LRFD-FI.1 and F1.3.However,in generalit seemslogical to include teeswith .-applicable for sections"...singly symmetricrvith the compressionflange
other monosymmetric sections.Followingthis latter approach,a structuraltee (
larger than cr equal to the tensionflange ... ." In the useof thoseformulas.
might be used in plasticanalysiswhen the maximum laterally unbracedlength (
the sectionmodulus S,. referredto the compression flangemust be usedfor S.
Lo doesnot exceedLro of.LRFD Formula(F1-1), Eq. 9.6.2.
in computing Xt and X, (usingEqs.9.6.7and 9.6.8).Thus, (
3600+ 2200M1/Mp
Lpa: I ls.o.zl ti |TGJA qrE foi98(5s8) (
Ir,ki Xt:;il 2 23.3/1.54U
r,r 42.6) (
For situations where plastic analysisis not to be used, the nominal
strengrhmay still reachthe plasticmomentstrengthMp rvhenthe flangelocal C i S-"2 5 . 5 4 | 2 3 . 3 / -7,. 5 4 \ 2 (
"Xz" : 4 + t + I : 4' i_3 1
. 3, - ' | | : 0 . 0 0 0 0i ni 9. . z r k i p[ ss.z6 . s ]
buckling limit stateis precludedand the maximum lateraliy unbracedlength I, \ GJ ! \ c ( 0 . 3 9 8 )/ (
L, doesnot exceedL, of,LRFD Formula(F1-4), Eq. 9.6.3,
r..X, (
300 r': t; + f l *Xz(Fr-r,)t Ie.6.6]
Lr:@r, [ e . 6 .]3 1p,:;11 (
, 1 . 5 5 1 3 9 3 5, t
Note is made that the shapefactor (ZJS,) for a structural tee is commonly L,: - 10):: 27.7
* r'1+ 0.0000i9(36 rt (
higher than the 1.5 for a rectangularsectionand is frequ:ntly as high as 2.0. G6:fri\'1
(
When this high shapefactoris encountered, and if Mp is fuily utiiized,thereis buckling.When l, exceedsl,' and tr c/oes,:,.,t
(d) Elastic larerai-torsional
likely to be yieldingat senice load. Using some phsti: sirlrl rs;':siified. exceed).,, LRFD-FI.5 givesFormula (F1-15)to predict ,\/., for laterei-1,-r- (
perhapseven the full ,rtfo;hon'ever,it shoulddependon t^:'l :lirpe lic:('r. sionalbuckling.For most structuralteesthe computedlf", s'ill far erceed :i.
For the Wfixl9. (or M, if it is less);thus, Mr will governthe nominrl strengthfor most cil:-'S i
',vhen Lo exceedsL,.Compute M* f.or severalt'aluc'sof. Lu for thr'givr'n (
r,
_2.04:1.3 structuraltec,
r!. 1.55 (
ConrlEI,GJ I t---------=r \
buckll:3 is a possiblelimit
Sincc the r,/r, ratio erceedsunitr',lateral-torsional t[",: * /i + B2l < t/" L R F D F o r n r u l (aF 1 - 1 5 )
[ r
stltc. Tl'nrs,Lra and Lo arc computed. L^ (
Lpa: 100r, : 12.9ft (f,ot Mr/Mo : 0) where
(
l, : 50r, - 6.5 ft B _ t23(;) LRFD Formula(F1-16) (
to use Loa> Lo.
It docs not seemreasonable
\
(
(' MGf.{OSyr,rMErRrcSECT|O|.JS
9.12lLATEMLEUCKLTNGOF
BUCKLTNG
9/LATERAL-TORSTONAL OF BEANTS 5n
(
(
The plus sign applies when the stem is in tension as for this case.Evaluating When the formulas for doubli symmetricl-shapedsectionsare applied to
( for the WT7x19. singly symmetric l-shaped sections having compressionflange largcr thrn
tensionflange,and exrcndedto include the stnrctural tee (having az:;ro u'idth
( 1.o"E,fB3(M9sffi 1^
M,,:t["*fiTrt] f,--=;r tcnsionflange),the resultis very consen'ative, followingpath ABCDE on Fig.
( 9.12.2.The value of L, should actuallybe about 79 ft. LRFD-F1.3 indicates
using the singly symmetric l-shape formulas to obtain L,; horvever,LRFD-
( Appendix F, Table F1.1 indicates obtaining L, by intersecting the .11..,
130'000 r r------=t
M.,: -;- + /1 + A''J equationfor tee sectionswith l}/,,. This later procedureis the more logical one
( lz6
[ B
for tee sections.Thus, the consen'ativerelationshipof applying M,, for singly
( symmetric l-shaped sectionsrvould follow path ABCDE on Fig. 9.12.2,
where
( however, using M,, specifically for. structural tees gives the most logical
relationshipfollowing path ABDE on Fig. 9.12.2.
B : * 2 . 3 1_ | ly/ rT3r
/ 7.05\ 93.7 / + for stemin rension
*.
( - : \
- rot stem in con:pression Wten the shapefactor of any monorymmetricl-shaped section or tee is
r , L t j 0.398 T [ / Iarger than about 1.5 for the larger flange in compressioncase, the conseruatiue
(
approach is to restrict the ma:vrnunr strength Mn to equal Mr: F.E, as
( The full nominal strength Mn vanationwith l, is shogn in Fig. g.12.?.Note indicatedby LRFD-FI . 5.
that when Lu exceedsI, of 27.7 ft the strengthis still governedby reaching Ce-ce2: Stem in Contpression
( the yield stress in tension at the outei end of the stem of the tee until l, (e) Plastic moment strenglh. When the stem is in compression.the
( reachesabout 79 f.t, after which Mo controlis.Thus, for this sectionhaving the indicationof LRFD-Table B5.1 is that tro has no applicabilityfor "stcms of
flange in compressionthe lateral-torsionalbuckling limit state nill not control tees".Sincethe referenc€to tee rvebsis for a uniform compressionsituation.
( in the practical range (L, well below 79 ft). referenceto l,o rvould be inappropriate, Horvever,when the tee web is in
( compressionbecauseit is on the compressionside of the neulral axis. the
situation is similar to an l-shapedsectionbent in its weak direction. If the
( stem of the tee satisfiestro for an unstiffenedflange,as follows,
=:
( M P = 2 2 '4'\ :,
A E
65
Compression Io:ffi
N
: l
(' ].: ,:
:5i
'-- t
7',
.it
(
\.' ; 18 Tension
"' ;l then it should be acceptableto use the maximum nominal strength ,\y'"cqual
:;l
( \ t.'.
g
:l
*t
to Mr. Again, caution shouldbe usedwhen the shapefactor exceedsabout 1,5
r6 ,\ ':I
as mentionedabove for the flange in compressioncase.From a practical point
{ '-:;
. a l
of view, structural tee webs will never satisfy the tr, limit. However.r tcc
0, 14 : \ Mv: 12'7''
\
M^. = LRFD - l
(
o "'ct
shaperveldedof two platesmight be made to satisfythe limit; in u'hich case
u,
12 Formula (Fl-15) ':i M, could equal Mo v*en the shapefactor is not too high.
( o
E . l For this example,
o €l
F
( *l
(
6
.E
o
::i I
+ l
:tt
+l
' ll o :a' 7.0s-
0.31
- L
\ i
1 )L1' /l z- l I -
65
: 10.8) NC
z L,: 27.7' - l
il \'"o i1
( usingdoubly il
L,= 78.8' : l Thus the web local buckling limit state precludesdeveloping the plastic
Lp: 6'5' symmeiriclormulas usingtee * l
, a a
(
' l{ ^ ' E
:tzt
3.
Lalerallyunbraced length LD (feet) .t 1 d 7 . 0 r r5z l \
Itr: - -"''l : ^.2] NC
( Figure 9.12.2 Nominal moment streDgth Mn vs laterally unbraced length .1, for i' 1
I l1
\"- t,. 0-31
( WT7x19 having fla::ge ia compression. -rl
.aF
.*, !
:.( 't
'-''
57E 9/ LATERAT*-T0R$oIIAL oF BEAMS
BUCKLING t$
tf
BRACINGDESIGN
9.13/ LATERAL (
_ (
Since ), > tr,', the efficiency of the stem in compressionis reduced because
local buckling may be expectedprior to the yield stress{ being reachedat
rhe extremefiber. Thus Q,'ts lessthan unity as discussedin Sections6.18and
ffi
t*
are given below:
itzt \ /tzo \
| + : 2l.Zl< ZZ-l< | .==: 29.31
\/+ I \i4, t lfr (f0 (ft-kips) (ft-kiPs) (ft) (ft-kips) (ft-kiPs) (
(
ld\-
--' l$
Itr
NA 22.4
(Max M, : Mo)
NA
(Max M"
11.8
:0,48.) (
- 0.00715t;
Q,: 1.e08 I rF-"
(
,|uq
: 0.93
: 1.908- 0.00715(22.7),/36
IE
l+
Lot
L,
L,
6.5
79
NA
L2.7
22.4
72;l
NA
68
I.lA
11.8
11.8
11.8
.11.5
(
70 r1.5
and
Then l{, which is controliedby the stemextremefiber in compression
cannot exceedM, genetally,may be calculated
M,: (Fr- F,)tJy < Q,FTIJG - y) ,
llli ",' 80'
90
100
12.s
11.1
10.0
12.5
11.1
10.0
80
90
100
10.2
9.2
8.4
. 10.2
9.2
8.4
(
(
The next step would be to compute 1,. Using the LRFD formulas fot M",
l'
t -
(
for a teesection,the valueof L, at which M., equalsM,of.11.8 ft-kips will be
L,. The alternative of using the formulas for a doubly symmetric section as
t:
I
t
I
9.13T LATERALBRACINGDESIGN I
contnue (
n'as done in part (c) of this example is not permitted when the compression i The questionsof what constitutesbracingand horv to design bracing
of practicing engineers. The subject is includ.ed in this
flange is smaller than the tensionflange- to be major concerns (.
bracing design is the
(g) Elastic lateral-torsionalbuckling. LRFD Formula (Fi-15) for tee chapter 6".uur. a majoi item oi .on..- in leteral
in beams' The develop- (
secrionsas usedin part (d) aboveis still valid when the stemis in compression. ,.r*uin, required to pr.u.ot lateral'torsionalbuckling
columns as weil
Horvever,the constant B must be taken negative( - ); thus, the buckling stress ment of this section,however'is applicableto the bracing of (
q'ill be lorver for the tee in this orientation. ttte concept oi braced and unbraced systems was briefly
as beams.In Sec.O.i
regard to the effective length factbr K. In the follorving discus- (
130,000 discussedin
structural system
r { n : T' [r'bu * /I+r l sion, the emphisis in on bracedsystems;that is, the overall (
to an adjoining system th1 is b:aced'
is braced by crossbracingor attac-hment
14' Bracing fOr (
The bracing require*.o; for framesare Ueatedin Chapter
l T . a s \r %.7 individual beams or columns may consist of cross bracing where the arjel
B:*t'[ be prorided at discrq{ (
L, stiffness of the bracing elements is utitized; it ma,v
",lVt*:- the member beii'{
locetions by fiexural iembers framing in transverseto (
of the bracing member are
Sctting ,11.,equal to M,: 11.8ft-kips, then solvingfor Lu givesL,, I braced, rvhereinboth adal and flexuraLstiffnesses (
L,: 6 8i t I.
l'
utilized; or such bracing may be
light gageroof deckingor wall
provided
panels'
continuously by materia! such as
(
li
-fhe Little is available"in specificationsbut point bracing has been ug-acd br
sion is
nominal strengthrelationshipfor the tee having its stem in compres-
not presented in graphical form; however, id remains constant at
accordingto M*.
g.F,E. (that is, 11.8fr-lcips)to 1,, then decreases
k
te
Zuk [9.a0],Winrer [9.4U, M*py [9.421,Pinius t9.431.Galambos [9.44t
[9.45i, Lay and Calu*Uos [9.46i, Taylor
and Qal'o [9-{?f Hartmann
Urdal
t9'4t}
\
(
The values needed to.obtain the relationshipsbetween Mn and Ln for
$
E Mutron and Trahair [9.49],*O iii.A*d and Segedin t9.501. In addition Yura
(
w, provided simplified practical tr€atment'
both flangein compressionand flangein tensionon the WT7X19 of 436 steel b t9.5U and Lutz anOfistrer t9.52lhave
F (
H (
(-
tl
(
(
I / LATERAL-TORSTONAL
BUCKLTNG
OF BEAMS 9.r3lLATEnat gRnCtruG
DESIGN 581
(
(
What follows is largely a combinationof the work of Winter [9.41],Galambos
( ,/
Ig.Ml, and Yura t9.5U. y'-p=xt
(
( Polnt Bracing for Elastic Columns and Beams
( Consider the axially loadedcolumn of Fig. 9.13.1awherethe top and bottom
of the menrber are assumedto be supported in such a way that no side
(
movement occurs at one end relative to the other. Such restraint rvould
( constitute a braced system.The bracing to create such restraint may be
ccnsideredas a spring at the top that is capabie of developinga horizontal
( rcactionequal to the springconstantft times the deflectionJ. When the brace
( has a large spring constant(that is, the brace is vcry stifl; the deflection A
couid be close to zero and yet the spring may provide a large enough K aeat L
( horizonral force to prevent any side motion (sides*'ay)at the top. This would Figure 9.13,2 Brace stiffness relative to concept of
"brace(i" (K - 1'0) and
..inbraced" (K > 1.0) system5fel s6lrrmn hinged at top and bottom.
( be the situation in Fig. 9.13.1b.The equilibrium requirementis sho*'n in Fig.
9.13.1c,wherein a sidesrvayis shown. If one imagines this as a slightly
( deflectedposition, then in order to haveeQuilibrium,it is requiredthat
the elastic P",. Thus the largest required stiffness k,0." is
( PL:QL:(kA)L (e.13.1) P^-
( kiar a: ( e . 1 3). 3
If (/cA)t is lessthan PA, sidesway occurs.If (k A)L is greaterthan PA, i
( no sideswayoccurs and the column would be consideredbraced. The ideal The conceptis shownby the plot of P vs kL in Fig. 9.13.2,rvhereinu'hen
brace, then, would be one that has just enough stiffness k to prevent k exceeds&,0-, P", it reachedand the column bucklesrvithout end transla'
(
movement (ar the top in this example);tbat is, tion (sider*uil in other words,it is a braced system.When k is less than
( kid""r,a sidcswaydeflectionwill occur such that P : kL; in other rvords'a
P
O:Z (e.13.2) so-calledunbracedsystem.The major treatment of unbraced s1'stemsis in
(
Chapter 14, devoted to rigid frames.
( ilext, extend the congeptto a two-storycolumn within a bracedsystem-as
fi.... **imum load fcr which bracingwouid be required is the elasticbuckling shown in Fig. 9.13.3.WhJn no displacementoccurs at mid-height,i.e., fuli
( load P"r, or the load causingyielding or inelastic buckling if that is lower than
(
(
r- f"' l"' la,
+
ffiffi
O=kJ
(
T_
( II
( I
L
( i L'
(
(
(
(
(
I
1_
I
lP
' (a)
l,
(b)
t"
(c)
t (
-
DESIGN
s 13/ LATERALBRACB{G 583
582 9/LATERAL-TORSICI.JAL
BUCKLTNG
OF BEAr"rS
/
bracing is provided, the column will buckie at a load nearly equal to Assunting the forces Q acting in opposite directions (Fig. 9.13.4b) glves I
t'
12EA
QL/3: (kA)t: P",A; :
k,0." (e.13.9)
-Pc r: -
(t/r)'
(e"13.4) + (
SinceQ:kA, Kid.ul:
T (
(&A)r
P"rA: (e.13.6) where B varies from 1 for one span to 4 for infinite equal spans.The variation
(,
is given in Fig. 9.13.5.
As in the one-storycolumn, if kid..r is the necessarystiffness to create a nodal
point (zero deflection)at mid-heightof the two-story columr, then I
, ZPo (
Kiara: (e.r3.7) A
T
For situations with more than two equal spans,the same procedure may - k,aetrL
, r r r 2 (
be used to obtain k,o"r,.Examinationof Fig. 9.13.4for three equal spans r*'ill
show that the spring forces Q can act either in the same or in opposite (
1
directions. Assuming they act in tbe same direction (Fig- 9.13.4a), using
imaginary hinges at one-third span points, and taking moment-cr*'henslightly (
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Figure 9.13.5 Variations of required
deflectedat the bracepoints,gives spring constant for column with number (
Numberof EqualSpans of equal unbracedsPen\.
(
QL : (/. A)L : P",A; k,0." - P n (e.13.8)
L
Thus Eqs. 9.13.3,9.73.7,9.13.9, and 9.13.10give the ideal brace stiffness (
to prevent translation at the points where the bracesact.
Y
l'- In addition to stiffness, a brace must provide adequatestrenglft. The
strength Q required of an ideal brace is (
otr
*il' Q : kra,aL (e.13.1u (
:i\
ll I
ll t , O but until bucltling occurs,A is zero (seeFig. 9.13.6);thereforetherewill be s'i'
il '-+u.5*- brace force in the ideal systemuntil buckling occurs. (
llr Compression membersin real structures are not perfectly straight, per-
(
ll"*.A3
llj
fectly alignedvertically,nor perfectlyloadcd as assumedin calculations;therl
is always an initial crookednesss.In other words, A is not zero even wher (
-----*
o ill
x
there is no compressiveload P acting. Reexaminethe single-storycolumn taf
Fig. 9.13.1assumingthereis an initial deflection Ao that exiss evenwhen P b (
.v zero. Then, as shown in Fig 9.13.7,equilibrium requires (
+ ( &A ) L : P ( A + , t o ) (9.13,r2)
lP., Figure 9.13.4 Colusrn braced to make (
three cqual spanr for P : P"r,
(
(
(
C
(
9/TATERAL-Tm|ONAL 8Ucl(LNG OF BEAMS
( 9.r3 / LATERAL
BRACTNG
DEStcN
(
( accidentaleccentricityof loaciing,Winter [9.411suggeststaking A0 from
7/750 to l/500 of the length.
(
( Load and Resistance Factor Design - Point Bracing
( To obtain design equationsuseful in LRFD, Winter [9.41] has suggcsted
A : Ao : L/50A. Substitutionof this in Eqs. (9.13.14)and (9.13.15)gives
(
designequations.
Figure 9.13.6 Brace force relative to
( colurtttt load fOr ideal system. l. For stiffness&,"q,r.
( &r.qd: Zkro"^ (9.13.16)
( P-I A"\
. k'*-o-a :- : l t + + l (e.13.13) 2. For noninal strength Q n,
( L\ a/
Since krarut: P"r/L, Eq. 9.13.13 then becomes Qn: k i a , a ( 2A o )
(
/ An\
Qn : kid".r(0.0041) (e.r3.17)
( k , . q d : t ' o - \ 1. T i (e.13.i4)
where kid."l = pPrr/L.
( which is the sriffness requirement for compressionmembers havinginitial
( crookedness10.
The strengtlr requirement is then Allowable Stress Design- Point Bracing
(
i A^\ For ASD a factor of safetyFS must be appliedso that the sen'iceload P may
( Q : k , , e a:Ak , o * t t* T l O be usedinsteadof P.r. If FS : 2, the strengthrequirementmay be expresscd
in term of serviceload P: however.the stiffnessrequired*ill be the sarnein
( Q:ki*.a(A+,fo) ( e .3
i .15) ASD as in LRFD.
( Normal toleranceson crookednessof compressionmembersrvould vary
l. Stiffnessrequirement,
from 1/5AA to 1fl000 of the length [9-41]. The AISC Code of Standard-.'
( (e.13.1s)
Practice* indicates acceptableout-of-plumbnessto be L/500. Considering ... ,.
A.^^.t
_
- 1r.
a^:A."1
(
2. Strengthreqilirentent,
(
, t " ,a I
( rT-t a:k:ry(o.oo4t) (9 . 1 3 . 1 e )
(
'"*o
Required
Ab,*.:
u's 21r2fF I |/L= ) ' ., (e.13.20)
\/'^J'- (
\ 8 b , " " ./ \ t " . - o ) ( 4 " * r / r ) '
(
If Eo*p: Eb,o..and Lor.." = l.oop. then Eq. 9.13.?0becomes
'"*n
R e q u i r e dA b r ^ n = 2 9 n ' , = (9.13.1i) Vertical beam *pPort
5. Venf;v that the requiredforce can be carried.by the brace.Using Eq. Figure9.13.8 Datafor F:anple9.13.1.
9.13.17,
R e q u i re dQ n : k ,o J " ,(0.004L
) regionof the beam)as
compression
Pu = r-,Ar/2: 36(24.s)/2= 450kips
: BP",
i(o.oo4r) The slenderness ratio lcomr/r, of.the compressionelementto be braced,
: 0.004B{, ( e1 3 . 2 r ) in this casethe beamslenderness ratio relatingto lateral-torsional
buckling,is
l.o*o: tu(t2)
The norrunal strength Q, of the brace. including considerationof :oa
buc k lings r r e n g thm
, u s te q u a lo r e rc e e drh eval uesi venbl ' E q.9.13.11. ty 2.07
t.
!--
;
590 9 / LATEFiL-TCRSTONAL
BUCKLTNG
OF BEAMS 9 13 y'LATERALBRACING'DESIGN 591
(
(
Using diaphragm action can greatly reducethe stiffnessrequirementfor ThE design recommendationsare:
( point bracing. ln this case,if diaphragmaction can be developed.rhe stiffness
l. For axial strength, the required cross-sectionalarea is
',( rcquirementis one-fourthas much'asrequiredwithout any diaphragmaction.
\letal dcck *'ith 2l'in. concretefill would provide many times thi required
( sirffnes:;.Even the diaphragmaction of the metal deck without the concrere Required
rb,.o:i-"'-tltil
- j ,1,'"T (e.13.23)
'
( slab is likely' to provide more than the 90 kips/ft required.Trearmentof f a" ,i"" lL 3 ( L,"/b)
diaphragm bracing is generallyoutside the scope of this text; horvever,a
( 2LLLR
number of relerences[9.53-9.64]on diaphragmaction are includedat the end where Lu":
of this chapter. Lr+ L*
( Lt = unbracedlength to lefr of bracedpoint
(b) Determineweld requiredto attachjoists ro top flangeof W14x34.The
( force required is, accordingto F;q.9.13.22, LR : unbracedlength to right of braced point
b: width of compressionflange
( RequiredQn:0.0048P- le.13.221 d,,: strain at strain harCening divided by yield strain, e,r/€t,
( (A value of 12 may be reasonable for steelsup to F" : 60 ksi
take B : 4 as for a seriesof point braces,
Consen'ative!,v
Ie.46].)
( a. : elasticmodulusdivided by strain hardeningmodulusof elastic-
R e q u i re dQn :0 .0 0 4 (4 )1 8 1 = 2 .9ki ps
( ity, Er/E*
( Using a ;-in. fillet rveldwith E70 electrodesand the SMAW process,the 2. The axial stiffnessrequirementis satisfiedwhen
nominal strengthR,. per inch is
( Lbro,
Rn,,: *(0.707)0.60(70)
: 5.57kips/in. L^t
(
( rvherelo : longerof the two adjacentunbracedlengths.
R e q u i r eLdn : :0.5 in.
( *: # In addition to the axial strengrh and .stiffnessrequirements,Lay and
Galambosindicated[9.461that u'hen only the compressionflange is braced
( L'sefr-in.*'eld.E7A,L: 0'-0i". there are additional flexural strengthand stiffnessrequirementsthat must be
(" satisfied.These flexural requirements(not given here) give overly large and
deep bracing members.Recent studies[9.48] indicate that flexural require-
( Bracing Requirernents for tnelastic Steel Beams ments are unnecessaryfor lateral bracing locations away from beam vertical
( When abilitl" to 4,ccommodate reactions.When the compressionflange is braced,point restraintgiving the
largeplasticstrain is desiredat bracingpoints,
such as *'hes plastic strength or plastic analysis is used in deslgn. the necessaryaxial strength and stiffness is sufficient. Lateral bracing at vertical
( supports undoubtedly does need some flexural strength and stiffness tc
nrocedurein lhe previoussectionmay no[ be adequate.Lay and Galambos
( preventa beam from tipping, but ordinary framing at such locationsgeneralll'
i9-451li:r'e de'.eicpecia set oi rules for designin caseswhcresuchhigh plastic
;t:ain {rci-1:l*: cap3slty)is rcqurredto be accommodated. providesadequateflexuralstrengthand stiffness.
(
In cii::t- l:3ctng requirements are basedon a rotrtion capaciryR copsis-
( rent u'ith tl:e be:ni unbracedlengthslenderness r EXAI{PLE 9.13.3
ratio givcnbl,.Eq. q.s.z.It has t
':.r lotrnCt:l'i'*'itnln the laterallyunbraced For the beamof E.x.rnrple9.13.1(Fig.9.13.8)determinethe brlce sizerequiret!
length"locll trucklinqcausesa
I
a
( if plastichingerotationis requiredat the bracingpoints.
.;:l.liiincnt ci the iraci capacityof the mcmbei and thcreforediiines the I
I
( :r-rrrtionclra;ii..' of the beam"Ig.46l. I
Tite de:-ri'e:icnof Lay and Galambos[9.46Jhasdeteslined the madnrum
t
I
SOLUTION
( iateral morn:ni that can developin the compressionflangc under a unifornt
I (a) Determinethe sectionrequiredfor axial strength.use Eq. 9.13.23,
( Irlu'rlrl€rlt.iI,: Mo, by using the strain distributions on the conroression
i: , o" - t
(
flange due to (a) compressiondue to M,: Mo and (b) the laterrl tending ?
i Required
rb,o".:I lf :t;/**0,
strains rvhen lccal bucklingoccurson the "compression"sirje. f-
\"-'1", 1\3/(L^,/b)
( I
(
t
I
, ( I
F
(
(
9 / LATEML-TORSTONAL
BUCKLTNG
OF BEAr"tS I I3lLATERAL BRAC|NGDESTGN 589 {
(
Check stiffness:
FP",- 3(450)
kia"rl : : 7'0 kiPs/in'
T 1,(D
AE 1.59(29,000) spaeIng
k".t : : : 503kips/in.
;-
& 7.s(12)
bracc
M.. 190(12) t{
:
- P":
# g.*i71 : 181kiPs Figure9.13.10 Diaphragmacrionof metal deck attachedro joisrs. {
( .
590 BUCKLI':G
9 / TATEFAL-TOFSIONAL CF BEA]JS 9.13/ LATERAL
BRACING'DESIGN 591
Using a fr-in. fillet rveldrvith 870 electrodesand the Str,IAWprocess.the 2. The a.ual stiffnessrequirementis satisfiedwhen
nominal strengthR,,- per inch is
(e.13.24)
Rn* = *(0.707)0.60(70): 5.5?kips/in.
l'
Tso5?[+]tm
'brlcc
R ," , : * (0 .i 0 2 )0 .6 0 (7 0 ) : 5.57ki ps/i n. (e.13.24)
A---.
' ,(
O.,
" -2'g
'- rr,hereLo: longerof the trvo adjacentunbracedlengths.
d L-
"R- 'e1-q"uv isr e&F : :- n0s' 5
' tn . (
R; t3 7 In addition to the arJal strengihand stiffnessrequirements,Lay and
Galambosindicated[9.45]lhat q'henonly the compression flangeis braced
! l : * i n . w e l d , E 7 AL, : 0'-0i,, E there are additionalfle.xuralstrengthand stiffnessrequiremenrs that must be I
satisfied.These flexural requirements(not given here) give overty large and
deep bracing members.Recentstudiest9.481indicaterhat flexural require-
Bracing Requiremenls for Inetastic steer Beams .: ments are unnecessar)' for lateral bracing locationsaway from beam vertical
l -
When ability ro acconrmodate largeplastic reactions.When the compressionflange is braced.point restraint giring the
-plasricstr:rin is desiredat bracingpoinrs. I
such as *'hen plasric strength or t . necessaryaxial strengthand stiffnessis sufficieni.Lateral bracing at vertical
anarysisis used t" a.*"gn, the t '
procedure in the pr*ious sectionrnay not I suDports undoubtedly does need some flexural srrengrh and stiffness to
be aiequate. Lay and Gatambos t-
i9'46] have developeci a set of rulesfoi cesignio .*ses wheresuchhigh ptastic ! i
I
Preventa beam fronr tipping.but ordinary framingat such locationsgenerally
st:rir (rcta:icn caprci:1,)iS requiredto b: ,-..o*oart.J. I
provides adequateflexuralstrengrhand stiffness.
I
t
ln efiect''orlcingrequirements are basedon a roraticncapacitvR consis- t- :
rent *'irh rlre beam.unbiacedlengthsrenderness ; E EXAI\TPLE 9.133
':i3:1 lound ratio givenb_vEq. g.>r It has I
I'
that u'ithtnrhe laterally ilocal l r For the beamof Ex:nple 9.13.1(Fig.9.13.8)deter-mine the bracesizerequire.!
length 6u.[rin! causesa t:
:u:raili^acntof the-ioad capacityof^unbraced the u:esrbei and thereforedefinesthe
,--
t:
if plastichinge roraiionis requiredat t,hebracingpoinrs.
f--
:o t:i on c ac ac ir l. ofth e b e a m" II
[9 .1 6 J .
The derivarionof Lay ano duambos t: SOL(JTION
. [9.46Jhas determinedthe ma{rnum t.
iateral momenl that can developin the .t*piession
fl"ng. under a unifornt t:
l=
(a) Determine rhe sec-rionrequired
1'oraxial srrerrgrlr.use Eq. 9.13.23,
moinent. i/.. : M, by using 1!g 5tsein diirribution, F
on the cocrpression t:
flange due to (a) iompressiondue ro lt{,,: itto
ia @) rhe later:l bendine
l*:.'
tt -;- Required: /o,,-I
ru,"o \f ti Aoo,
strai's when local buckling occurson the ..co*ir.irion,,
side. ts
t= ltrl i ;l m
l'
t':
t.
t;
l:
lI ' _
(
(,
592 s/LATERAL-TORSIONAL
BUCKLTNG
OFBEAMS 9.14IB|AXTALBENDTNG
OF DOUBLYSyMMETR:C
SECT|ONS
(
(
where&,, = may be raken 12 for {,: 36 ksi and can probably be controlledby'f ielding under combinedslressor by lateral-torsionalbuck-
-r,:/rrwhich T
( also be usedfor stee-ls to about ksi. Fof a,: E/8r1, use^Er:450 ling. Two common situationsare roof purlins and cranesupport girders.Ht'rt
&:00
ksi. giring c" : 29,000/450 : 64.Certainly,the useof suchvaluesis iccurare does the moment Jt1,,affect lateralstabilitlt When ,1/,.acts alone lateral-ttr;-
(..
enoug-h
for design tli:rrtteel, a,, : 12,a": 64. sional buckling is rtot a possiblelimit state. and most rolled shapessr..
( :"I*' developtheir plastic moment.When M, acts alone.lateral-torsionalbuckli::g
: -
( 74:Gtr o'2 may well be the controllinglimit state.
This subject of biaxial bending, including torsion, has been treated b1'
( Dohrenwend[9.65],Gaylord and Gaylord [9.66],Springfield[9.671,Pastorand
f --
2LLLR
- 2(1!)(16J(12)
: re2in. DeWolf [9.68J,and Razzaqand Galambos[9.69,9.70].Man-vothers,including
( Lav
LL+ LR 16+16 the SSRC Gttide [6.8, pp. 306-310; 6.20], have treated the subject in th:
( context of beam-columns,rvhichare discussedin Chapter 12.
t2\ A.^^^
lbo." : o.t[
Required o.oo7l_,0 From Eq. 9.432 for pure bending l/,. *ith respectto the strongaxis,
( i)ffi:
12 n2Elc.I, I
( :'0.007(24.s/2):0.09sqin. I't:: : --. |r ----.---
tu12 - EI.GJ I ( 9 . i 4 . 1I
L'I L' '
( J
Practically
anyrolledshapewill satisfythissmallrequirement.
( (b) Eraminetherequirement for axtalstffiess.UseEq.9.13.24,
assuming
consen'atively
the arealoruo providedequalsexactlythat required, M: -:1 .? :l
( :Uli * i-i i (9.r1.:
EI,GJ L2l- \Lfl j
1g"."< o.5zf",,-l l[ actua]
lu,"*
lr,
L^u
( L o r - r l " , l [ r e q u i r eAdo , * r J b where )t,: l/a : gGJ/EC*,.
When simultaneouslva moment
(
< 0.57(0.2)(1.0X1e2 /e.e6): 4.A6
Tl,.(#l=]
Lo,u" < 4.A6L^": 4.06(16): 65 > 7.5 ft for brace OK
M: Mi
a (9.1r.-r,
EI.,GJ EI.GJ
As in Example9.13.1,the slenderness
ratio recommendedlinrit of 200 for
( compressionmemberswill give a memberadequatefor bracing purposes.' - --:.
which is applicable to l-shapedsectionswith trvo a.xesof symmetry. Furth*i-
( Use C4x5.4. I ... more, it is applicablefor Sections with point symmetry(such as the zee).and rs
( approximatelyvalid-for channelswhen M, does not exceedA.25M, [9.66].
One conclusionregardinglateral bracing for beams and columns is that
Combinations of M, and M,, which satisfy Eq. 9.14.3 will plot as -1:i
( the requirernentsfor such bracing are easily met. It is more important to 4
'of =
+
ellipse,as shown in Fig. 9.14.1for a W14x74.
provide a brace somesize than to be overly concernedabout what the size
( The usual limit state acceptedfor biaxial bending is the achievement.':
shouldbe. : the yield stress fr,. at the extremefiber under combined stress.Thereforc.;:..
Enpirical procedureshave long been used in lieu of a rational investiga- =
( -=
.:t matter how stable a beam may be, the combination of rnomentsmust satisfr'
tion of the strengthand stiffnessrequirementsfor braces.A summaryof some
( =
3
* =4 (9.1.1.i;
(
the compressive strengthof the compressionelementbeing braced.This seems
I E E
( to be a conservativealternativeto an analvticalstudv. *-
Since the relationshipsshown in Fig. 9.14.1for W14x74 are typical. certri::
( * conclusionsmay be drawn. Considera laterally unbracedtength of 30 ft an.j
*
steel with Fn: 60 ksi. Ideally, the ultimate condition is defined by the lin.'s
( 9.14+BIAXIALBENDINGOF DOUBLYSYMMETRIC
SECTIONS =g AB (yielding contfols) and BC (buckling controls).
( The most important observationis that for ordinar-v laterally unhra--r.'i
When an l-shapedsectionis loaded in the plane of its major axis, thaf is, a lengths (say 25 ft or less)the line BC is nearly vertical: therefore sintultant:,u;
moment M, causes weak axis bending, in combination with strong. axis "*
( * application of M, does not appreciablyaffect tlze criticai moment M,.
bending M, from loading in the plane of its web, the strengthlimit statemay
*
(
+ Basedon the foregoingobservations, the designproceduresare as foll.-'rii:
' (
=
('
594 9 // LATERAL.TORSIONAL
BUCKLING
OF BEAMS 9.14 ,/ SIAXIALBENDINGOF DOUBLYSYMMETRICSECTIONS 595
(
"t'
In hddition, for the buckling limit state LRFD-H2 indicates the limit
would be 0.4, using the compressionmember g. : 0.85 and the d, column
w r 4x 7 4
formulas,Eqs. 6.7.7and 6.7.8,discussedin Chapter 6.
J = 3.88in.' This latter provisionseemsnot to apply to lateral-torsional bucklingunder
a - l/tr = 63.2in, biaxial bending without axial compression. (,
As an alternativetc the combinedstresslirnit state approach,LRFD-H3 (
3 4o0o
!
provides an alternative interaction relationship that was developedprimarily
for beam-columns.However,when the a:cialload P becomeszero, the rela-
€ tionship is suitable for biaxial bending, with or without torsion.
(
599
('
598 I / LATERAL-TORSIONALBUCKLING OF BEAMS FE;EAENCES
SELECTED
( ;
( Srructures." Journal of the structura! Diuision, ASCE, 105, sT? (July 1979)' 527-538.
' "Biaxiai Bending oi Bci.::lsu'ith or
1543-1556. 9.69. Zie ftrrz3q and Theodore V. Galambos'
( ASCE. 16. STii (Novcm-
Diuisiort.
9.5i. Josepb A. yura. Notes presentedat uoiversiry of wisconsin Extension Insti- witboutTorsion," of
Journal theStructural
"D..ign of Bracing," Septembel1?-18, 1970; December LL-LZ, 1974' ber 1979),2145-2162.
( irrr.. "Biaxial BcndingTesrsr{ith (\r $'ithout
\{:lrr'au}<ee.\\'isconsin 9.10. ZiaRazTagand Thcodore\'. Galambos.
( g.52. LeRcv A. Lutz and JamesM. Fisher."A Unified Approach for Stabiliry-Bracing I
Torsion," Jourtwl oi tlte Structural ASCE. 105.ST11 (Novcttltrcr1979)'
Dicision.
I
Requireme11rs," Engineering Jountal,Alsc, 22,4 (4th Quarteri985)' 163-167' 2163-28
15.
( P. Fisber,
"Behavior of Diaphragm'BracedColumns I
9.53. George Pincus and Gordon
I
( and bears," Journal of the Structural Diuision,ASCE, 92, ST2 (April 1966)' i
, i
323-350. I
Braced b1' Diaphrug.l" Journal of the Srructural Dicision, ASCE, 93. ST1 -.r
( I
PROBLEMS
(February'1967).295-318. I
!a
( g.55. La-.ry D. Lutrrell. "strength and Behavior of Light-Gage Stee]_Shear Di- I l{csistrlnce
aphragms," canell EngineeringResearch Bulletin No. 67-1, July 1967.
I
I All problemsare to be done accordingto the AISC Load and
( "Columns Braced as indicated by the instrtrctor' All
J.
9.56. T. V. S. R- Apparao, San'ruel Errer4 and Gordon P- Fisber' I Factor Design or AllorvableStressDesilr.
-are
- : l
othinvise indicated.Assumc l'rtcral sup-
( b-v Girts aoa'a Daphrago," Jottnal ol the Structutal Diuision,ASCE,95, ST5 .l given loads serviceloads unless
{}r{ay ,969),965-990-
I
t
port consistsof translationalrestraintbut not moment(rotation'il)rt:straint'
"Finite Element Analysis of Metal rcldill'
( 9.57. Artbur H. Nilson and Albert R. Ammar. unlessothenviseindicated.Assumeall standardsectionsare cqurllv A
(even actuailv thcr 'trc trot)'
( Deck Sbear Diapbragms," Jonrnal of the StructuralDiuisrcn, ASCE, 100, ST4 availablein the indicatedgradeof steel though
required, and after makirtg l dcsign
(April L974),i|l-726. figure shorvingspan and loading is
"Desig! of Diaphragm-Braced j/,. for L.ttl-l)) or
( 9.58. Darid A. Netbercot and Nicholas S. Trahair' selectiona final chcck of strength(+lu{,compared with
(October1975). '\'r'rtc:Live
(
I-Berms," Journal ol the Structural Diuision,ASCE, l0l' ST10 stress(/, comparedto allowablestressfo foi tSDl is required' (or
it causes nl:trirlrutt't
2045-2061.
"Diaphragm Braced Members and Dcsign load must always be applied (or not) such that
( 9.59. Amir Simaa" and Teoman B. Pekoz. minimum) effect.
(January
of Wall Studs," Journal ol the Structural Diuision, ASCE 102, ST1
( slrength
1976),77-92.
"Desigg of l-Shaped Beams 9.1. For the case(or cases)assignedby the instructor.plot dcsig'rt
9.60. Sanuel J. Errera and Tamirisa V. S. R. Apparao. bending sttessf6 (ksi) fl.rrASD vs
( QtMu(ft-kips) for LRFD or allo."atle
*itb Diaphragm Bracing," Journal al the Structural Diuision,ASCE, 102' ST4 laterallyunbracedlengthtb (ft). If ihe ASD problem has bccrt a'ssigncd'
( (April 1976),769-78I. of
"Calculation of Steel Diaphragm Behavior," Joumal of the show both ASD allorvablestressrelationships:(1) the cgntbinirtion
9.61. J. Michael Dar"ies. controls;and (2) Forr:trrla-(Fl-8;'
( Formulas(F1-6)and(F1-7),rvhicheyer
Structural Diuision,ASCE, 102, Sfi (July 1976),1411-1430' '\SD) rvith
"DesigD cf l-sbaped Colum:rs Shorvthe portions controlting( Qt,M, for LRFD or Fn for
( g.62. Samuel J. Errera and Tamirisa v. s. R. Apparao. parts with dashed lines' Frrr 3i1Yclse
solid lines and the noncontrclling
*itb Diaphraggr Bracing," Journal of the'Structwal Diuision,ASCE 102, ST9 both C, : 1'0 and 2'3'
( for
assigned,show relal'ionsh-ips
(September1976),1685-1701.
t-
(
*
s
IF
G" (,
+ PROBLEMS
I / LATERAL-TORSTONALBUCKLTNGOF BEAMS
i3 ( t
".
F
F (
F, n!
11'D t+,L (
Case Section (ksi) - Dead Live Span
L
: ,
a , ril9:a
(
604 9/LATERAL-ToRSIoNAL oF BEAMs
BU0KLTNG PROBLEMS 605
( .*P .
t :
( 'e
9.6. Selectthe lightest W sectionfor the conditionsshorvnin the accompany' 9.9. A beam is to serveas a floor beam on a simply supportedspan of 20 ft.
(
ing figure. Assume there is no deflection limitation. Use (a) A36 steel The live load consistsof a movableconcentratedload (no impact) of 50
( and (b) A572 Grade 60 steel. kips. Live load deflectionmay not exceedL/360. ,
(a) Select the lightest W section of A,36 steel rvhen continuous lateral
( - support is provided.
( (b) Repeat(a) if lateral support is provided only at the ends.
W - 15 k dead load
( 15 k live load 9.10.A W10x33 is to be usedas a simply supportedbeamon a span of 25 ft
w - 0.4 k/lt dead load
(including beam) with lateral support at the ends only. The beam is required to support a
( Laieral support = 1.1 k/ft live load plasteredceiling.If the deadload is 0.15txtp/tt (including beam weight),
( Vertical s':pport Prob. 9.6
what is the maximum uniform servicelive load permitted on the beam.
using A36 steel?What percentageincreasei:r live load can be gained if
'only
( 9.7. A floor beam. laterally supportedat the ends and supporting the beam is ,{572 Grade 60 steel?Comment.
ribration inducing heavymachinery,is subject to the loads shonn in the
( 9.11. Redesignfor loading CasesI and/or 2, as assigned,of Prob. 9.8 when
accompan.vingfigure. SeleCtthe lightestW sectionof A36 steel(consider
lateral support is providedonly at the ends and at midspan.In addition
( LRFD or ASD-A4.2). Compare the result when there is no deflection
to the L/360 traditional deflection limit for a plastered ceiling, the
lirnit with that rvhenL/d is limited to a mar.imumof 20 under full load,
( architectrequiresthe beam to be no deeperthan nominal W12.
a traditional limit to minimizeperceptiblevibration due to pedestrian
( 9.12. Investigatethe beam of the accompanyingfigure for bending and shear
::ittt"' 10k _Grav*y if the section is 4572 Grade 50 steel. External lateral support for the
( beam is provided only at the vertical supports and at the tip of the
( cantilever.If one additional lateral support were provided at the 12-kip
load, horv much lighter, if any, could the W14 sectionbe made?
(
( l. zs'-o" Prob.9.7
( MD ML
( Dead Live 9.13. Select the lightest W section for each of the situations shorvn in the
Load Load Span accompanyingfigure.The conc€ntratedload W is 5 kips dead load and
( Moment Moment Length Fy Deflection
15 kips live load. Assumelateral support is provided at the reactionsand
( Case (ft-kips) (ft-kips) (f0 (ksi) Limit
at the'concentratedloads.Use A36 steel.
( 1 49 98 28 36 L/360
( 2 49 98 28 60 L/360
J q 240 48 36 L/300 4
.E
( 4 0 240 48 65 L/3A0
i
( 5 s0 190 48 36 L/364
i
that
9.21. Selecrrhe lighresrW8 sectionto be usedin an inclinedpositionsuch ( i
figure' 30 degrees lvrth the plane of
g.14. Selectthe lightesttrVsectionfor the beem of the accompanying the plane of rhe u.eb makesan angle of
(
load points' and at
reactions' loading. The beam is to be of A572 Grade 50 steel, and it has lateral
Lateral supportis providedat concentrated
en<iof cantilever.use (a) A36 steeland (b) A572 GraCe 65 steel. ,upport only at the ends of the 2J-ft simple span. The uniform grarity (
toiJ is 0.3 kips/ft snowload and 0.1 kip/ft deadload, in additionto the
LV= 10 k dead load beam weight. ( ,
2C k live load
w - 3.0 k,/ft cteadload g.22. For rhe caseassignedby the instructor,designthe lightestw sectionto (
(nct rncludingbeam weight)
sen'e as a crane-supportgirder as shown in the accompanyingfigure' (
I
t Assumelaterai tuppott at the endsonly and that deflectionneednot be
resrricted.essumi bne-halfthe lateral force on the crane rail (seeLRFD
a
Lateral qJpports ( ,
Vertical crPPcrt or ASD-A4.? and A4.3 for cab-operatedcrane) acts at each runrvay
(
girder. Use A36 steel.
P r o b .9 . 1 4 (,'
f'ot LRID or allowable bending End truck for crane
9.15. Determine the nominal strength h{^ ( t
section and loading in Prob' 8'19 if
srressF, f.orASD for the chinnel (
at the ends. Neglecting torsion, horv much
lateral support existsonly
tuould be required? Use A36 steel' (
larger,if iily, section
of Prob' 8'20' assuming lateral Crane srpport girder
9.16. Select a channel for the conditions with chapter 8'
(
support at the endsonly. considertcrsionin accordance L r,...- c-c of learing
I
bracing required.Arru*. bracingis tj ft long, Truck
I
End-Truck
Preferablyselect'
the beam, and is attachedto th; compressionflanse.
I
I \\'heel
Crane Wheel (
II channels. Load Trolley Span SP:rcing
Capacitl'
(
9.20. Detcrminethe adequrcy, of a w2.1xS4(rvith rail, 20 lb/tL\ sen'ing as a W Rl Weight l.r*. l,r*t
is f:-tl.tt,tuttttt
cranesupportgirdcroiefO steel'The simplespan .20 ior Case (tons) @ps) ' (kips) (ft) (ft) (
goocl practice in accounting
E supporta[ rheinds only, Use accepted
the torsionll effccroi laierailoading.tlaxinrum
rncni:r.tscccurritrg near
1 15 18 A 40 9.5
(
H nridsPan are
i/. (live load plus impact): 90 ft-kips
2 20 2'l 6 36 8.0 (
ti
i*
,1/, (dead loaC)= 10 ft-kips
lrit = 10 ft-kips lassumedlive lerarlrcsistecib1 one
flange using top
a
J
4
30
2g
36
25
6
5
32
30
6.0
6.0
(
(
ii flangelateralloadingin accordance rvith LRFD or ASD-A4'3'
g (
(
I (
\
(
9 // LATERAL.TORSIONAL
BUCKLINGOF BEAMS
9.23. Redesign the crane support girder of Prob. 9.22, using a combination
channel and W section.
Chapter${}
9.24. Design the crane runway girder indicated on the accompanvingfigure.
The two cranes are each 30-ton capacity, rvith the end-truck wheel
spacing as given in the figure. The rails are ASCE 60 lb with clamps (see
AISC Manuai). T. ' dead load of each crane is 15 kips, equally dis-
Continuous
Beams
tributed to its four wheels.Each crane trolley weighs 3 kips. Use 4'36
steel and (a) select a single W section and O) select a combination W
section and channel,where the channel would have its s'eb flat against
the top flange of the W section.
i roiley
PLAN VIEW
10.1 INTRODUCTION
iL
i .a-
L
M, s: 643
collapse condition, the portion of the beam where the 1:-
value Wn lhatcauses-the l =
t.:
purposes the b-eam may be treated as two rigid / 1 \
cun'ature is large. For practlcal
iL: r[t - l,l :
l *
hinge, and
l _ -
t(t - : o.ttt.
U'y u ttiog" ar B, knorvn as a plastic *)
;;r,;(straight [nes) connected 0u'
having a concent'raiedangle change,or hinge rotation'
f.nitn of"a plastic hinge is dependent on the shape of the
The actual (b) For rectangularsection,
to as much as one-third of
cross-sectionand .in uury fiom about one-tenth
consider the relationship betrveen the bending bd2
the span. as ao .*u*pi.,
segnents AB and AB' tn Fig' 10'2'1: Z -4 : : 1 - 5
-o*.nt, and the beam
-t - - -
AB AB' L/2 L/2 - iL/z s bd'
-:- or (10.2.1)
Mp M'. Mp M) 6
Solving for j, 1 \
1 jL: r(t - - l :0.333L
M., l.sI
j:r- 1- (10.2.2)
4- E
of the span'as
Even though the distancejL may be as much as one-third
u'here { is the shapefactor as discussedin Sec'7'3' of a plastichinge at a point
shown in Exampt. tO.Z.f,the simpleassumption
by tests.Beedle [10.1]and Massonnet-.and Save
has beenamply demonstrated
of and
theoretical experimental verificationoi
tiO.Zt hau. .*t.nsive discussions are not includ:d
plastic analysisproceduresso individual researphreferences
here.
r EXAMPLE 10.2.2
the w21x62 beam of Fig'
, Determine the collapsemechanismload,w, for
10.2.2.AssumeF, = 36 ksi.
Figure 10.2.1 lt{oment-curvaturerelationshipsfor a plastic hinge'
.-.."-
1O.2/ PLASTIC STRENGTHOF A STATICALLYINDETERI'eNATE BEAf'l 613
612 I0/CONTINLpTJSBEAMS
r EXAMPm10.2.3
beam
Mp= 433 fi'kips
Determinethe collapsemechanismload lVn f'orthe fixed e.d W16x'30
oi Fig. Assume
70.2.3. F,, : 36 ksi.
M
Mf
Collapse
mechanism
Collapsemechanism
bending
M
i I
mornenl 0.82in. &lo i - -
lvlidgandeflectisn,A Collepse
mechanism
fr1,
t--
I
L0.?.2.r
Figure10.2.2ExamPle . Plastic hinges I
ltN
^t
Coltapse mechanrsm
t/
SOLUTIOY
t,: ty
,,,,o4liili.|\."
ql:il
bendrngmoment
v_________\
dra9ram
Using equilibrium. ?.lidspanCei rec':;cn,A
trfr=ry M." w L
-6-
M^
4M +@,2) 4(36)(144)
u , ^ : - fo : - f :id =72kips Elasticbending
moment diagram
-6-
J J L WL
-E-
Using the simplifiedprocedureof consideringthe behavioras ideally elastic-
plastii, the deflectionoccurring when Mo is reachedis based on the elastic Figure10.2.3 Examplei0.2.3.
equation);rvhichis strictly valid only until M" is reached.At a maximum-.
moment of.Mr' '..
SOLWION
wL3 MrL' FyILZ FrL'
^ Sincethe beariris staticallyindeterminate,three plastic hingesare required
(
.Ar: 4sEI:ffi:Wt:r;8, to form a mechanism.Using equilibrium,
( 36Qq2$44) 2 Mr ^ : W
: 0.82in. 4
(
12(10.sx29,000)
( ry {br
Mp- M,t+ iM,z- \Mo
( r-igure10.2.5 ,o*", 2 and 3 for Exasrple10.2.4. .tMr: +w, + i(8%)
( Mo= lWn
( .t
. l
i
.-:' i
( ryLt 2.3(20)'(i728) ,1 |
-+ I
Ar: = 0.71in. 3 !
,.+ I
..4 t
-
(
618 BEAMS
1o/ CONTINUOUS 10.2/ PLASTTCSTRENGTHOF A STATTCALLY
TNDETERMTNATE
BEAM 619
( :
- (
Mechanism J.' Positive moment plastic hinge at the load 2.5W, *ith r EXAMPLE 10.2.7
negative moment plastic hingesat the endsof the 30-ft span, t
Determine the plastic limit load lV, in'Example n.2.3 by the virtual rvork
Mo: M*- M' principle. Referring to Fig. 10.2.8, (
EXAMPLES 621
( _ _:-':r ' / PlSSncANALYSIS-LRFD
1O.g
620 BEAMS
10,,'CONTINUOUS .'3' '
(
'L*i
i ;
;
("
1.51t ?.5w"
analysis wai used in plasricdesignas discussedin Sec. 1'8' For additional
w verifica-
( .::: elementarymaterial on the philosophy.procedure,and experimental
-;- ; tion of plastic design,Refs. 10.3 through 10'10 are.suggested'
( "€ The factored ioad plastic analysis option within Load and Resistancs
recommended
( Factor Designis the moit rational apptot.n -a is the authors'
load elaslic anall'sis
procedure for continuousbeams.eit.*atively, factored
piastic analysis ale satisfied' The
( may be used even rvhen the conditions for
for designing continuous beams is illus-
( Allowable StressDesign alternative
Mechanism I trated is Sec.10.5.
{ / -""1i ' c When elasticanalysisis usedunder either LRFD or ASD, adjustments
to
be made under conditions
tt
the elastic analysisUenaingmoment diagram may
( to bring
specifiedby LRFO-A5.I or ASD-FI.1. Theseadjustmentsattempt
Mechanism2
.7,- = - . - }\ .:1 Design (ASD'N) result and the LRFD
( the result close to both the Plastic
it
( 60W4- LlMp
E
1l ll
weight of the beam,
) 1 . 6 ( 2 . 5 )= 4 ' 6 0k i p s / f t
1 4 : 1 . 2 ( 0 . 5+
( Mo: 6lVn *l
( :Fl 1- 2( 10)+ 1. 6( 30): 60 kips
(
(
The equilibrium and energy proceduresare equally appligab-le
where degiees of freedom in
braced frimes, the design
sidesway
procedureis to
must be
cause
considered.
the plastic
In
hinges
for Jrames
multistory
to form in
rl
?l
w, :
| 1 0.686\ ( i
:tf1 -
!',lechanism 2 8 ):al74L (
are shownin Fig. 10.3.2.
The resultsof this development (
A-'.:a! mechanism '\\
{
t
I Q 1 1 4 L = 1 2a
i L ? e : h a n i s m2 )
@ l M o
wn
(
(c) l-_Jiseo Llo= 445
Cd:apse
f f i r
rngchanism (
---^^a Ai^^.^a
r:l!arr=;rt !io9;6lil
(ft-k!ps) (
Ito = 445
(
l
#\ (c)
Equilibriumrequires
I{, M,
(
(
l
\\'lren a plastic hinge develops,rty'*(mar1: .\!p; ii:us Eq. (c) becomes Mo: M,z- :667 -
; ; (
w-Lz M; Mo iIi
i tuIr: 6.67/I.5 : 445 ft-kips (
Mn: _ * (d)
I
t
- iw^Lz ? *,L2 I .
t ( ,
I The largest it, requirementobtained from the possible mechanismsdeter-
t.
t (
i"
(
(
(
- LRFDEXAMPLES
ANALYSIS
10.3/ PLASTIC
( 10/coNTtNUOUSBEAMS
(
mines the controlling condition. Thus Mechanism 2 governs.A check by 2. I5 .ft atljacent Io interio, ,uOOo)r,
t
detcrmining the conrpletecollapsemechanismmoment diagram should be Mt:3E0 fr-kiPs; llo: 4 4 5f t - k i P s
( rnadeto insure that Mo is the ma:iimummomeit. If a locationis found rvhere
( the computed nominal moment exceeds M, the mechanismused is not 3600+ 2200(380/445)
L^, r r : 752r ,
corrcct.In this case,Fig. 10.3.1cshog'sMr: 4-15ft-kips is the maximum,so 36
( that lv{echanism2 is the colrect one.
The maximum positivemoment on the 30-ft spanusing Eq. (a) is L "b - 1 s ( 1 2 )
f Minimum r,,: :1.18in.
152 152
( 6) - o.4r4tv{p
n/ : +(12.4)(17.
20 ft adlacenl to interior suPPoil:
(
trlr : 445ft-kiPs; trIo: 445ft-kiPs
( = 558 - 0.4(445): 3E0it-kips < 445 OK
3600+ 2200(Ms/Ms)
( Lpa r,: 16\r,
(d) Selectsection:
(
t
-:v{^ 445(72\ L, 20(12)
( R e q u i re dZ - - =' : \linimuml,' = : : 1.49in.
F, 36 ;i -
(
"LOAD 4. 20 ft at right end: Sincethe maximumpositivemoment plastichingeis
( Try W24x62 rvith Z*: 753 in.3.as indicated by the LRFD lv{anual, the last one to form. Lra doesnot apply. Horveverrvhen Lo exceedtLr, either
FACTOR DESIGN SELECTION TABLE." for 2, Becauseof the relatively the strengthdecreases buckling limit state.
due to inelasticlateral-torsional
( long laterally'unbracedlengths,a secticnhal'ing larger r-ymay be required. gradient.
or the strengthstill may reach M, becauseof a favorablemo!^nent
( (e) Check lateral suppcrt. When plastic anaiysisis used,more rotation When Lra doesnot apply,the seciionmustsatisfyLRFD-FI.3. In this design.
capacity at the plastic hinges is reljed upon to develop the mechanism. the nromerrtgradientgivesCt,: 1.75.Assumethis segmentrli/i not controlat
( LRFD-Fl.l requiresthat -i-, not exceed Lpa given by Eq. 9.5.7 ILRFD this stageof the d'esign.
( Fo r m ula( F 1- i) 1,
Assumethe minimum ry requiredis 1.49in. for segment3; in which casc
( 3600 + 22:A(M1/MP) the w24x62(rr: 1.38in.) is not aecepLable adjacentto thc
for the segments
Lpa ry [9.s.7]
F.. interior suppori.increasesizeto W24x68 (t,,:1.87 in.).
( Investigatefurth-erfor the W24x68.
(' Horvever.in the.regionof the last hiage to form, and in regionsnot adjacentto Mr: Z, Fr : 177( 36) / 12: 531f t - kiPs
( a plastic hinge, Eq. 9.5.7does not apply'.
At unbraced segmentsadjacent to tbe last plastic hinge to form, the L r : J : o o.(ur ) / , 1 4 / t 2 : 7 . 8f r
C- laterally unbraced length Lo may not exceed Lp lf C6 is 1.0; however,when
(' the moment gradient is favorable(i.e.. Ca > 1), lIo may still be achievedeven M,: (r, - 4)s, : (36- 10)154/12: 334ft-kips
though Lb > Lr. Lo is given by Eq. 9.5.5 ILRFD Fcrnrula (F1-4)], '
( L , : E q .9 . 6 . 6: 2 2 3f t
3CS
a- f
L_
/
-- _ --
t{'' ksi
' t -.
Ie.5.s] bv inii;r"i':i
For lu : 20 ft ar.therightendof the40-ftspan.ltl^ iscontrollcd
"!'
lateral-torsional buckling since Lt < L,. The strength lies bct$cc,n ll--tnd
( ' [ ' r ' r i : r trl.'
when Cn: L0; horvev.r, in thiJcase u'ith C6: 1.75, LRFD-FI .1.
( For this problem, four segmentsmust be considered,as follorvs: (Fl-3) or Eq. 9.6.10, gives
(-' l. /5 ft at left end: Lra does not.applS'for segmentscontainingno plastic 1t,: tzs[s:r - 334)(ffi i1
- (s3l
( hinges.Since the maximummomeat of 380 ft-kips is lessthan M,lr'can be t
greater than lo. This segmeqtw'iil be cbecked last since it is not expectedto : 1. 75( 366): 641f t - kiPs
( control the design.
, (.,
t-
Service!oads
Wr=3 k dead toad
12 k live load
r
appropriatewhen elasticanalysisis used. However,when plastic analysisis W =7 k dead load
(.
uscd it seemsmore appropriate to use tbe Mn diagram involving the collapse 18 k live load
W^:1O k dead load (
mechanism,since only at the collapsemechanismdo the plastic hinge and M,
have meaning.In this case,after the beam weightis added,a recalculationof T czs'-.u-'.-
@ 40 k tive load
(
required M, for lr{echanism2 gives
l_ t-ateral
suppon (
,Y,L ( w./o \ L 2 0.068(1
.2/a.so)(4q2 f
It
lrt s?
- - :657 + : 685 ft-kips Mechanism'l
4 8 (,
I
I
(Pror"idedL!r:531 I Mechanism3 (
ft-kips) t (n.quyed Mo:457 ft-kips) OK
Variable,( lfo
{
lt is ciear that the beam*'eight has little effect. / U t t i - a t e m o m e n td i a g r a m ,l
(g) Check shear.At the interior end of the 40-ft span the factoredload i showtngcomponents
sh e a rtl is (
/
M5
V,: 33.35* : 44.5kips 1
ZO {
Collapsemechanism
momentdiagram (
V n: 0 . 6 F r A . : 0 . 6 ( 3 6 ) ( 2 3 . 7 3 ) 0 . 4 1: 5 2 1 3k i p s (ft-kiPs)
(
l. Q , Y ^: 0 .9 0 (2 1 3 :) 1 9 t k i p t] t 4 4 .5k i ps OK Mp=282 M p: 282 (
( (e) Selectbeam.
Using Sr : 0.90, the required nominal ultimate loads ll'n to be carried are
( 2 S 2i {? )
RequiredWnL: WrJil: 22'8/A30 : l5'3 kiPs t,:
Rcquired : 56.4in.l
( T
RequiredWn2: WzJQo : 37'2/A 90 : 41'3 kips
( TryW18x35har,ingZ,:66.5in.3Thisseclioniscolttpucrfor{':60ksi
Requi re dWn : WtJ Q r:7 6 ' 0 /O 9 0 : 84' 4ki ps
( for flangelocalbuckling.
As indicated in the problem statement,plastic anallsis is to be used' '="t'=l \ 65
(
E'aluate the possiblecollapsemechanisms;in this caselhere are three. as
I h,/2 6.0/2
: 7 . 8'1' : 8 ' \4 1 o *
shos'nin Fig. 10.3.3-
l\ r : rr 0.425 | t ) , r :; =
i \ir,
(
( ^r -
2s.3(10)1s For web local buckling.
ivt sl
25
( ' : : 5 3 . s. ) oK
(
41.3(20)s
ILI", : -- j- : 165ft-kiPs (^: [ ^ " :H : 8 2 - 6 i
/.)
(
84.4(1c)(20)
. (D Chec.klateralsupport.Although it is likelv the plastichingc at ll' is
: ,:, It'Krps that it rs
( M,3:
30 the last to form, the designermay not be sure.The authorssuggest
criterion of LRFD-Fi.1 to ali segments havins 't/n
( prudent to apply the lr,,
I: Assumemomentunder lV, lsadequals,L/o,
(b) Illechanism at either end. eliminatid! the need for knou'ingthe ,.qr.n.. of plastichingc
un-
(
Mr: M,r + iM,, - *M, formation. The 20-ft segment.being considerablylonger than the othcr
bracedsegments. n'ill undoubtecllyconrrol lateral-torsional buckling'
(
:735
* M o - 1 5 2+ 1 ( 1 6 5 ) 36oo+ 22oo(rtt/MP) ln - -r
( \- L^, r, [ 9 . ) ./ J
Mr: g(235): 168ft-kips r,
(
i"'itlt
(:, 2: Assumemomentunder lv, loadequalsMo,
(c) Mecltartisnt since the moment gradientin this segmentis one of reversecun'ature.
Mt/Mo:*1'
( Mo: \M,, + M,z - *M,
. Lpd:58oor,'/60:96,\
:716
( *Mr: i ( 1 5 2 )+ 1 6 5 20 ft' the rl requiredr"'ouldbe
which meanstot Lu:
( ' Mp: #Q16) = 720ft-kiPs Requiredrt.:20(77)/96"1 : 2'48 in'
(
3: Assurnemomentunder w, loadequalsMo,
(d) Mechanism None of the W shapes
( The W18x35 havingr" only 1.33in. is not acceptable'
Mr: M't- MP in the range35 to q\ tb/tti,ou. ,., anl' higher than 2-0.Sincea realisticdesign
( having a sec.tionrvith r, g.reaterinutt 2.48 in. cannot be achieved'additional
2Mr: 563; M o : 282 ft'kiPs (Controls)
bracing must be Provided. . ,.
( right end of
282ft-kips' the rcsultingmomentsunder If one additionallateralsupport is providedat 10 ft from the
If a sectionis selectedthat has Mo: resulting
( the structure,determinethe W shapethit rvill be satisfactory.For the
the W, and Wr loads are th;2$-ft segment, MJIIp:0; conscqucntly'
trvo 10 ft segments that replace
( Mt: M,r* iMrr- #Mo . Lpa: 36A0r,/60: 60r,
(
: 235'- *(282) : 122ft-kips < 282 0K
r" : 10i12)/60: 2'00 in'
Requirecl
(
- :
Mz: \Mt * M,z *h{o This $,ouldrequirewl6x6? or Wl8x?5. the samesectionsneeded
$'hen L6
( at the
bracingat 5-ft inten'alsin the 30-ft Then
span'
: 216 - *(/:82) : - 1o ft-kips < 782 oK was 20 ft. Assumelateral
(
, ( ,
-
10.3 / PLASTICANALYSIS_ LRFD EXAMPLES 631 (
630 l0lCCrrTilrUOUS BEAI',4S
P:astichinges
most critical location near the right support,
tv{/ lv{p : -147/282 : -0.5
Failuremechanism
. Lpa: 250Arr,/60: 47.7r;
Ct:7'75
!,1 : \M,, * M,z- *Mo,
: 50.7+ 168 - 0. 8( i68) : 8Af t kips < 168 OK
I t l o - 4 . 9\ l
- (320- 235)t
Mn 1.75[320 : 4seft-kips
,* _ un ,|] (b) Lateral support requirements.Exarnine the 10-ft laterally unbraced
-84/168 :
length bern'eenthe W, and W, loads,wherethe ratio Mr/I'lp:
Since computed ,!/" erceedsIv{r, Mn:,Vo. Since Lln:320 ft-kips erceeds - 0.5.U si ngE q. 9.5. 7,
i22 ft-kips unCer the I/, load the 10-ft segmentis satisfacrory.
3600- 2200(-0.5)
L'seW16x36.r, : 60ksi. r Lpa r, : 41.7r,.
60
For l, : 19 ft, the required ry is 120/41.7 = 2.88 in. rvhich cannot be
B EXA]\IPLE 1033
'beam achievedb1'any realisticdesign.Increasethe lateral support to be every 5 ft.
Redesign the of Example 70.3.2,using either cover plates or r\\'o
This will be necessaryin the 30-ft span also,as sho*'n in Example10.3.2.
butt-splicedtogether.IJseplasticanall'sisunCerLoad and
dificrent sec';io:rs
Assumingthe plastichinge(,+M) betu'eensegmentsB and C (seeFig.
l:ecior De:ign uncierLR-FD-FI.1.Use F, : 60 ksi.
Ilc,ristancc
10.3.4)is the lasthingeto form, 4.9.5.7 is nct requiredby LRFD-Fl.1 1ei':
satisfied for those segments.Hcwever, in order for the nominal mcment (
SOLUTI OA'
strength-\/, to reachMo, Lu may not exceedLo v'henCr,: 1.0. [n tl:.iscas': (
.{ssunrethat thc changeof sectionoccursnearthe inflectionpoint to the -126/168. {
sesmentC has the flaiter moment gradient,iraving IIJir{":
right of the csrt:al support,givingrise to differentplasticmoments.11or
and Thus, C,,: 1.13;this rvouldmean that Lo could exceed Loby a small amount (
.11,^=at thc trvo resrrained supports(seeFig. 10.3.4).
suchthat 1.13^ill,could still equal !t[0, eventhough ]fn might be lessthan ,V/r.
(a;)Consid:r first the 25-ft spansupportingtheW, andI4/,loads.Assume
to requireLu to not cxcecd Lo f.or this segment,
It rvill be conservative
tirc positivemonent under the IV, load reacheslv{4, (
300 300 t
,(
,,
( Cxlz |0ICONTINUOUS
BEAMS. - !
r0.3/ PLASTTC - LRFDEXAMPLES
ANALYS|S
(
( licicrring to text Appendix Table AL, r, = 0.224 rc A.ZSbr.Thus, Requrred nonrinal ultirnate loeds W*,,+
(
Minimum b, required= to : 6.zto ? in.
I H ;;; : 186 fi-kips
w12.26. trf" - 37.2160),/12
( rr'is requirementappliesfor segmentsB and C adjacentto the iast plastic
:i ::qr . ' t of or m .
( For segnrentsE and F, rotation capacity must be assuredby satisfying
( I :i F'D-FI.1: i.e., Lo may not exceedLoa. SegmentF has the flatter moment D e s r g nc o n d i l i o n ,
assumrng requrred Mp = aclual Jl?o
..i.r.iis'ntand controls; trlr/Mo: 0. Thus, (it-ktps)
t
Lpa: 360Arr./60: 60r-" Me -- 169
(
R e q u i re dry = 5 (7 2 )/6 A :1 .0 0 i n.
(
(c) Selectsectionfor the 2f-ft span.
( (b) Moment under nominal ultimate loads lV^
RequkedM- rvhen lr,f- = 186 tt-kips
168(12)
( Requir e dZ ,: -t' : : 33.6i n.3
-- [4' = 166
(
Requir e db t = 6 .2 1 o, " . Figure10.3.5 Comparison
of design
conditionand actualconditionfor 25-ftspanof
( Example10.3.3. :: .
Requiredr.,.: 1.55in-
(
( sing the LRFD Manual, "-.LOAD FACTOR DESIGN SELECTION The LRFD-Formula(F1-3)linearrelarionship
'-\BLE," applies:
find severalsectionsrhatsatisfy the required Z,:
(', o'1=
W12x26, Z, -- 37.2in.3 M n :r . l : f r s-o(\ 1 8-6r 3/e\ 1). i2, . -14 . 9l l
( W14x25, Z,: 4A.2in.3 L 11
(' W16X26, Z ,: 4 .2 i n .3 : 1. 13( 185)
: 210f t - kips, M o
i a
I
( hcse sectionsall have r" < 1.55 in., though W12x26 is close with f, : Since computed Mn exceedslv[,. M,: Mr. Thus, segmentsB and C are
I
5l in. .:J satisfactoryfor lateralbracing.
( Try Wl2x26, r,: 1.51in., and investigatesegmentC: I use w12x26, 4, : 60 ksi, for the 25-ft span. For the 30-ft span. rop and
( . roOO+ ZZOO(-t26/1,68) : Il bottom cover plateswill be added.An alternativewould be ro use.aheavier
Lpa -rr: 32.5rr: 4.1ft "I I
L,: E q . 9 . 6 . 6: 1 2 . 1 f t : tl
TI
Mpz: M,3 - \@* - Mpr) - Ma (long coverplates)
iince Lu is betweenL, and 1,', inelastic lateral-torsional buckling controls. rl if Mez is developedat the flred end.This u,ouldrequirecoverplatesto extend
*l
.---*
I
e-:*|l
L
1-
IO /CO,\TINUOUS
BEAMS 143 / PLASTICANALYSIS- LRiD EXA,i,4pLES I
i
% Z f r o m p l a t e s :; 4 , , , ( 1 0 0 ) : _ # o (
(loo) : 557c
no r A7' 3 . a o+ z A 7
Ao:i=W:ry:
Required ffi :z.esqin. neglectingthe web effect.The nominal tensileforce
f required to be deyel- (
assumingd = 12.5+ 0.5 (i-in. plates).If the plate width is somervhatless oped is
than the flange rvidth of w12x26, say 6 in., the area A, provided will be 0.552F, 0.55(75.4)60
adequate. tn= --T- : -'L-ET,,S : 196 kips
Check local bucklingon plate as a stiffenedelementu'eldedalong two
sides,accordingto LRFD-B5.l: Assumingno weld acrossthe end oi tt e coverplate and continuousfillet *'e!cl
along the sides,determinethe number of inches of rveld necessaryto develcrp
tb 6 \ / 1e0 1e0 \ the desiredforcein the plates.As treatedin Sec.5.14,the rtr.ngth per inch of
t t l' l ^ o : F : : : 2 4 ' 5 1 oK
17: 03: / \ ,lF, /00 | *-i' r'ret
werd erectrodes
is
Use platesl x 6, top and bottom. Thesewould probablybe rveldedcontinu-
;":'Jfi)ilr'ffi 1; ;;,',:*
ously along the sidesin the length direction.Discussionof g'eld sizesand Equating the designstrengthof.L* inchesof filler s'eld to the designren:ilc
other requirementsis containedin Chapter5. strengthprf, requiredto be developed,
(l; Determineplate length.Referringto Fig. 10.3.6shorvingthe collapse
t* (5 . 91) : Q oT, : 0. g0( 1g6): 176kips
condition for the 30-ft span,the distancel, is the theoreticallcngth required
for covcr plates;this distancemay easilybe scaledfrom tire diagram.For t6is 176/ 5. 91: 30 in. ( 2 t inesof 15 in. )
straight line momentdiagram,the distancel, is ersily computed, ! *:
The lengthof platesrequiredis
| 186+186\
L r. : - ::.- l ( t o + 2 0 ) : 0 . 3 4 ( 3 0:) 1 0 . 2f t
ll Length: Lr * 2(15in. on eachend) : 10.2 + 2.5 : ll-.j ft
\ lg6+3771'
Extension of the plates in each direction rnust develop the cover plate's use i x 6 plates,13 ft long, beginning s'4" from support as shorvn in
proportion of the strength required. The tension or compressionstiength Fig. 10.3.6.
('
' : E
--a
.l?F
( 1O//CONTINUOUS
BEAMS
-ri#.r r0.4 /Et AsTtcANALYSTS-LRFDEXAMPLE
. .-:
r ---b!
( si
' :.1:'
( In this example,the memberwas not spliced; howel'er, ver. butt splicing the Jt 1-_
'o'--t
member might be a more economicalchoice to the use cover plates.
e of cover plates. A n= \- 4'6k/n 60 kiPs
( | ; 4:
compromisesolution rvould be to use a section having ? Z, larger than the
( minimum for the 25-ft span, but not as large as would be required to omit A=15' B:15'I C=20' I o=zo
( piates entirely. The cover platescould then be thinner and shorter. Splicesare t t
discussed in Sec.10.5. 3o'-o I co'-o
( I
I
( 306 36r
10.4 ELASTIC ANALYSIS- LOAD AND RESISTANCE
(
(
FACTORDESIGN EXAMPLE
/. X:ii'*" +
Wirhin Load and ResistanceFactor Design, either plastic analysis under
( LRFD-Fl.l or elastic analysisunder LRFD-FI.2 may be the appropriate
( procedure.When sectionsar6 "compact" with respectto local buckling and
the laterally unbraced length l, does oot exceed Lra, plastic analysis is -.ra....\
€ is accounted forby Co. Thus, even rvhen l, exceedsLo. the Cn greater than
( Using LRFD Manual, "LOAD FACTOR DESIGN SELECTION TABI-8," t+
fr
1.0 rnay bring the availablestrengthto Mo anyway.
g
s9
( -n+
,:.li}
6
dfr-
( '*
*4*
3EA[4S
1o/ CONTINUOUS 1O.5/ ELASTICA|,JALYSIS
_ ASD EXAMPLES ( ,
638
( ' t
(e) Evaluar the availablestrength for the W24x68 near the interior in Chapter N of the 1989ASD Specification[1.5].AllorvableSrressDesign (
uses'adjuslmentsof the elasticmoment diagram to indirectly accountfor
. ing E q. 9. 6 .1 1fo r C , w rth Mr/M2 : + 3 6 7/4i 9: * A -19,
su p p or t Us
plastic behavior and redistribution.of moments. Such adjustmentscannot ( ,
reflect true behavior. Occasionally,for designsinvolving long laterally un-
c , , :t ? 5+ 1 o s#{\ . r t ( h ) ' : , , * * braced lengths *'here lateral-torsionalbuckling is the limit state insteadof
(
plastic moment strength,AllowableStressDesignbecomesa practicalalterna- (
M, : z,F, : l1i(36)/12 : 531ft-kiPs tive to elasticanalvsisunder Load and Resistance Factor Desisn.
'1 (
Lp: i n p a rt (d )]
. 8 h [c o m p u te d
I EX{\{PLE 10.5.1 (
M,: (r, - 4)s*: (36- 10)754/12:334ft-kips Redesignthe beam of Example10.3.1(Fig. 10.3.1)using AllowableStress (
L, : f:9.9 -6'6 : 22-4f.t f)esign. A'36 steel.
(
L. rnd 1,, inelasticlateral-torsionalbuckling controls.
Since L,, is bett+'een S OLLTION (t
The LRFD-FormulaiFl-3) linearrelationshipapplies The elasticbendingmomentdiagram(seeFig. 10.5.1)underserviceloads
must first be computedusinga methodof staticallyindeterminateanalysis. (
u n : : l i s i r- ( s 3-1 3 3 4z)L(.#L-+: \7l. 5 The four separateunbracedsegmentswith their Ci values and design
L \ Jl (
moments are shown in Fig. 10.5.1.If lateral bracingis sufficient to permit a
= 1 .3 (3 6 6 :) 8 4 3ft-k i p s, M o ' (
plastic moment to form at a given maximum moment locarion.an allorvable
Si n c ec om put ed, l/ , e rc e e d sMr, M n : M o . T h u s , segmentsB and C are sfess of 0.66{ is permitted.Further, at the negativemoment locationif
(
satisfactoryfor lateralbracing. i adequateroration capacity(plastic strain after h,l, has been reached)is
available,redistributionof momentsis accountedfol by a l0 percentreduc- ( l
: = (M ,: 4 79ft-ki ps) oK
l+ ouo: 0. 90 (5 3 1 \ 4 ' 7 8ft-k i p s l tion in maximum negativemornent,with the corresponding adjustmentof ( ,
positivemomentsto maintainequilibrium.
(D ChecksegmentD. As in segments.B and C, Lt is betweenLo and L,,
(
thus. iln is obtainedfor rhis inelasticbuckling caseby linear interpolation,
this time using Ct: I.75 w'ithLRFD-Formula(F1-3)' (
]{n : 1.75(366): 641ft-kipsu Mo (
Sincecomputedrt/"erceedsMr,Mn:L{r:531ft-kips.Thus'segmentDis ( ,
satisfactoryfor lateralbracing.
(g) Check segmentl. Ie this segment,the maximum moment occurs ( )
ben,;eenthe bracedpoints; thus, Cu is to be taken as 1.0. The linear interpo- ( l
latecivalueusing LRFD-Formula(F1-3) is
(
tr{ n :3 6 6 ft-k i p s. M ,
( )
i g o . r t ^ : { r . 9 C ( 3 6 6 ) : 3 2f t9- k i p s ], ( M " : 3 0 6f t - k i p s ) OK
Serviceload moments ( ,
\l,'hcn u.ringplasticrii:li.!. r,r'iththeselong laterallyunbracedlengths, the (ft.kips)
design*'as impossibi:. E (
(
1 0 . 5 E LA S T I C AN AL Y SIS _ AL L OW A BL E S TR E S S ( ,
DE S I G N E X A T J I PL E S C6 values
(
Designmoments (ft-kips)
beamshavingrelativelyclosespacingof lateral
The designof usualc(lntinuous 'tuornen! ralio
exceeCs+ 0.46; thus maximum C6 controls.
(
supports should be done using either (a) plastic analysisunder Load and
F i g u r e' 1 0 . 5 . 1E x a m p l e1 0 . 5 . 1 . ( )
ResistanceFactor Desisnor (b) plasticanalysiswithin PlasticDesigncovered i
l-
(
t
T:
(
,,
\
i6
10.5 / ELASTTCANALYSIS- ASD EXAMPLES 641
(
640 lolcoNTINUOUS BEAMS
(
(e) Shorvfinal checkfor segmentsB and C; W24x?6;
( in (-M) and using
(a) Determine required section assuming reduction
12. 000( 2. 3)
( 0.66{,. F r ( F i - -S' tl - - :29.4ksi>0.604'
o.e(316)12 20(12)(3.9i)
( RequiredS,:
- 142in.3
24 Fn : 0.60F, : 22 ksi
(
ass-ulungthe most favorable . 3i6(12) ^
( rr,!:rchis the minimum secdon modulus required r' : -16: : 21'5 ksi < 22 ksi oK
,onditions.The l.,;t;;braced length r, jt 15 ft for segmentB *hich is
( t" for any practicalchoiceof beam' \\' 24x76. F,:
L,.sc i6 k: i.
sufr.icientlylarge that itis likely to exceed
suitableapproachis to use the AsD
( fb) when.".r'1, .*ceeds l, the
..,q,llow;gl-E II,I0NrIENTSIN BEAMS-" For segmentc, A compari-s6n *iih Exarnple10.3.1n'hereLRFD usingplasticanalysis
i\{rnual cunes,
( 1as used shou'srhar riastic analysisobtainedthe iighter section,W24x68,
enterrvith
compared rvith \\'J,1xl6 for ASD. Example10.4.1,rl,hereLRFD s'as used
( Ivl : 316 ft'kips q'ith elastic anall'sis for the same beam. produced the W24x68 scction.
i
( I :0.000 20.000
:
- : i
I
-Lc : ------T--- : 5.3ft {controls)
242(12) ,,,1 (d'.4,)F" 5.28(60)12
( t - : 16.5ksi < 22ksi OK t
It-
176 I
-,' i
r ( : l
.;" I
". t
..' 1
v- 10,/CONTII{UCUS
BEAMS (
10.5/ ELASTTCANALYSIS-ASD EXAMPLES 643
( i
,,.,
(
{
644 10/coNTtNUOUSBEAMS 10.6/SPL|CES 645
(
(
10.6 SPLICES For service loads
( S e ef i g . 1 0 . 3 . 1
( While the design of connectionsis outside the scope of this chapter, the
location of and strength requirementsfor beam splices are appropriately
( 30'-0" .i
discussedhere. It is obvious that if a spliceis designedfor the moment and
( slrear capacity for the member spliced,full continuity is maintained and no
Coilapse mechanisr,
special precautionsare necessary. Somedesignersprefer to useshearsplicesat
( momenl diagram,
ptrints of contraflexureand thus introducea real hinge at a point of zero required ilt^
F U I I D L+ L L
( tnrrrn€nt.There are two reasonswhy this should be avoided: (1) the point of (ft-kips)
clhtraflexure under service load is not at the same location that it occurs Point of contraflexure
under factoredloads (i.e..at its mechanismcondition);(2) momentsobtained
( assuming continuity are invaiid if real hingesare inserted. Hart and Milek Nominal ultimate
( [10.11]have provided a good discussion of this problem. 531 > Me rnoments Li-
if shear splice
According to LRFD and,ASD-J7,connectionsmust be designedfor the is used
( moments, shears,and axial loads to which they are to be subjected.ASD-J7 DL + LL (span 1)
(ft-kips)
refers to serviceloads, while LRFD-J7 refersto factoredloads.
( \ l
If full continuity is assumedwhen determiningmoments,either under Shear splice(i.e.,= real hinge)
assumingthe maximumoccursat appicximately0.45Lr. 10.9. Bluce G. Johnston,C. H. Yang, and Lynn S. Beedle."An Evaiuationof Plastic t'
Analysis as Applied to Structural Design," Welding Journa! ResesrchSuppl.
( 4. 60/0 .9 0 )(0 .4 5 )C .SS l ( M a y 1 9 5 3 )1, - 1 6 . (
Ilr: n (30)--0.45]IB:445.ft-kips
10.10. Joint Committce of Welding ResearchCouncil and the American Societ;-of (
Civil Engineers.Contmentan'onPlastic Designin Steel,2nd ed., ASCE lr{anual
569 - 445 124 and Reportson PracticeNo.41, New York, 1971. (
t f
ttt
R
: ;-;: : 2i6 ft-kips 10.11. Willard H. Hart and William A. Milek. "Splicesin PlasticallvDesignedContin-
0. 45 0 .4 5 (
uous Structures."EngineeringJournal,AISC 2, 2 (April 1955).33-37.
In order to have this moment develop, a nominal moment strengih must be (
provided at the splice point:
(
( 20. 0 /0 .9 0 )3 0 I{ o PROBLEMS
Mz: ---a - - - 1 3 8: 2 9 f t - k i P s (
;:167
All problemsare to be done accordingto the AISC Load and Resistance ( ,
2i6 + 25 Factor Designor Allou'ableStressDesign,as indicated by .the instructor.
RequiredMn at splice: - 2 5 : i 26 ft-ki ps (
2 When thc LRFD problem is assigned,use p/asticanaly'sisif possibleunless
otherwiseindicated.All given loads are serviceloads unless otherwiseindi- (
If the splice in this LRFD plastic analysis probiern is designed for the .cated, and assumethe loads are ahvaysin the position shorvn even though
uniform live load rvouldrarelyexistthat rvay.Assumeall standardsectionsare (
shear as determined from Fig. 10.6.1a, plus the 126 ft-kip momenr. the
reduccd loading of span BC will not cause unanticipated overload in equallyreadilyavailablei;r the indicatedgradeof steel(even though actualll (
span ,1^8. thel' are not). A figureshowingspanand loadingis required.and after making
a design selectiona final check of strength (E!v{,,compared n'ith !rI, for (
Finally, it is noted that reducedlcad in span ,4.Bhas no detrimental effect a '
It
on span BC. LRFD) or stress(/o comparedto allorvable stressF, for ASD) is required. (
t
l
The authors prefer that continuitl' be maintained by the design of splices
for 100 percent of the momcnt capacitv of members spliced; horvever, reduced I
I
10.1. Determinethe marimumvaluefor the serv'iceload P of the beamin the (
capacities provi<iing more economical designs ma-v-be used as long as the II accompanl,ing figure.Assumeadequate.lateralsupport such rhat Ln < (
resulting desiens are checkedunder possible partial loadings. Other examples Ln for LRFD and Lo < L,. for ASD. The load P isTAGIdead load and
i
and a morc detailed procedureare given in Ref. 10.11. ! 80%live load. (
I
I
I
(
S E L E C T E DR E F E R E N C E S
i
I
3P 1.5P P (
I I t | , . w 1 6 x 2 6 , F " = 3 6 k. s i
i (
10.1. L;-'nnS. Becdle. PlasticDesignof S:eelFrames.New York: John wiley & Sons, I
'. co'-0" i
:o'+" s,Jrpo!.I
Verrrcar
(
Prob. 10.7
Serviceload
(
( 10.8.S el ecrrhe light estW scct ion f or a t hr ee- span( 50 f r - 65 f r - j( t f r t
( continuousbeamto carry a uniform dead load of 2 kips,,'itin adtlrlrori
Prob. 10.4 to the beam weight,and a uniform live ioac!of 1.5 kips,,'ft.in rhis
( problem, live load is to be treatedin its usual mannei: ihrl i-,. oi .
indefinite length and positionedto give ma.ximumeffects.Live loail
(
10.5. Select the lightest W sectionfor the two-span continuous beam of the deflection(maximum)may noi e.\ce€dL/360. Lareralsupportis pro-
( accompanyingfigure. Use 4: 5O ksi. The uniform load is 1, Y'tp/tt vided every 5 ft. 4. : 60 ksi. After doing rhc designu,irh lo = 5 fr.
dead load and 2 kips/ft live load. Lateral support is provided at the give an-alternatemore economicaldesignprcscrihingthc locarionof
(
vertical supportsand at 10-ft intervals.In the LRFD problem, specify lateralsupports.
( alternativelateral support if necessaryin order to use maximum plastic
10.9.R epeatPr ob. 10. 8usingst eelhaving F, : 50 ksi and spccif vlar cial
strengthin the design.
( bracing for an economicaldesign.insteadof using the 5-ft spacinr:r,f
P rob.10. 8.
(
3 kipVfi 10.10.Assumeone spliccis requiredfor the beam selectedfor Prcb. ir,r.3.
(
Specify its location and the shear and moment for rvhichit shouldbc
( dcsigned.Assumeany load or loadsmay be reducedto thcir Ccar}ioad
valuervhileother loadsremainat their maximumvalues.
(
t (
Fp 650' t0,zg3*t'*uous BEAf','is (
( i
an9leS
( ;a
Compressron flange
( !'Jeb 1:
( '',;'Ia
Higher-
strength
( flanges
't. (say.
Lor^rer.strength
{ sl ructural uJeb
tee)
(tbl Elevataonat end of
b I Etevation o span '.#
( I a l Crosssection
*
( Figure 11.1.1 Typical comPonentsof riveted plate girder.
3.
';.4
( ,|in
(a) Box girder (b) Hybrid girder (cl Delta girder
:s
,1'.:
Three ty?€s of plate girders whose design is outside the scope of this {
chapter are sho'*"n in Fig. 11.1.3: (a) the box girder. providing improved
torsional stiffness for long-span bridges; (b) the hybrid girder, providing
a
I Co= 1 ( d ) Lateral-tcrsrcnal
variablematerial strength in accordancewith stresses:and (c) the delta girder, (
I buckling lrt"nits:aie
providing improved lateral rigidity for long lengthsof lateral unsupport. I (for shapes "corilpaci" (
Prior to studying the theoreticaldevelopmentin this chapter the reader is { for flange ci'we5
I
:rdviscdto revie'wChapter 6, Part II, where tlie basic elasticstability of plates I
local bucklrng) (
is treated. I
' L o
A : 7 (
Since the design of riveted girders has been extensivelytr'iat& in older
texts[11.1,1fJ,! and suehgirdersare rarely usedat present,emphasisis placed (
on welded g!rd:rs. No example of bolted or riveted girder design is given; ('
however,high-suength bolted splices,commonly found in field connections,
are treatedin Chapter 13. (
(b) Flangelccal bucking
limit state (
BETWEENBEAMAND PLATEGIRDER
11.2 DIFFERENCE LRFD-App.85.3
(
A plare girder is actually a deep beam. The limit statestreated in Chapter 9 ( l
*'ith regard to beams are still applicable for plate girders. Figure 11.2.1,
(
reiatingto Load and Resistan€ Factor Desigp,shorvsthe nominal strength
.lf, r's the sleniernessratio tr for the basic flexure limit states,lateral-torsional (
buckling, flange local buckling, and web local buckling. The relationship for
(
lateral-torsionalbuckling in Fig. 11.2.7ais valid when a sectionis "compact"
(i.e.. tr s tro in LRFD-B5) with regard to the flange and web local buckling (
limit states.r'\ten the sectionis "noncompact" (i.e., l,o < l s tr,, in LRFD- (c) Web local buckling
B5). ure nominei strength ,11,must be determinedfor all tbreelimit statesin (
limit state
Fig. 1i.l.l; the loq'estvaluecontrols. (
\{ost rolled shapesare either "compact" or "noncompact"; this entire
procalure ivas ciiscussedand iilustrated in Chapters7 and 9. If the flange is (
"slenier" (I > 1,,; for
flangelocal buckling,the efficiencyis further reduced (
and Q < I must be used in accordaacewith LRFD or ASD-AppendLxts5.3.
The generalreatment of using Q < 1 for stiffened and unstiffenedelements . 640
r ='f
of a compressionmember rl'aspresentedin Chapter 6, Part II.
(
\\-irenthe *'eb is "sleader" (tr > 1,,1the flexuralmembermust be treated
Figure 11.2.1 Limit statesin flexure.
accordingto tlc plate girder provisionsin LRFD-Appendix G or ASD-G. i
When tr does aot exceed4,, the stresson the elementcan ieach '-hi' r''.'I,-i (
stress{ without elastic buckling occurring. 2. Buckling of the compressionflange in the vertical direction due d.,.
TLeseccncspts are applicablewhether LRFD or ASD is used.There are of the web to preventsuchbuckling.
inadequate.stiffness (
differercesin eheequationsused for lateral-torsionalbuckling,as discussedin 3. Buckling due to shear. (
Chapl* 9. The specificinclusionof residualstressis not donein ASD, and the
This chapter is largelydevoiedto treatmentof theseproblems.
s1'mbritr is not used to refer either to the actualslenderness ratio or its limit. (
Sincethe 1961AISC Specification. the designof plate girdersh:rsusedthe
Philc*.phicall-.* I" is the "compact" iimit in ASD-85. and tr. is the "noncom- (
samestrengthapproachdevelopedby Baslerand othersat LehighUniversitr..
pact" fmit in -{SD-85.
even though in ASD the strengthsare divided by factors of safet)'to get thc
Tlr flexural and shearstrengthsof a plate girder are largelyrclated to the (
serviceload limits, and are also divided by the elastic sectionmodulus S to
r.'eb.The "slend€/' web may causeseveralproblems:
obtain the allowablestresses. (
l. Buckling due to bending in the plane of the u'eb will reduce the The most distinguishingfeatureof a plate girder is the use of regulrrlr
efficiencl'of the web to carry its elasticshareof the bending moment. ( ,
spacedtransvetsestiffeners.Stiffenersincreasethe strengthof the u'eb tc''can\'
( r
( t
,C
It (
LlMlrSrATE
l l 3 /vERTtcAL FLANGEBUCKLING 657
( 11 / PLATE GIRDERS
(
Reftrring to Fig. 11.3.3. the deforination e, dx accumulatedovcr thc
( girdelr'eb in shear
shear.The elasticor inelasticbuckling strengthof a plate distance.jr is
will be significant
( does not representthe maximumstrengthin shear.-There h
( 1I . 3.i )
(slight deforrnation) has e, dx : d0,
post-bucklingsrrengthafter buckling .o-ut-of-plane
( transverse stiffenersare used- The girder $'iil
occuFredrvhenproierly designed 2e,
( -behavelike a truss'witirits web carr5'ingdiagonallythe tensionforcesand the d0: d, (11.3.2)
stiffeners carrying the compressionior..t. This trusslike behavior is
referred i
( t.\ i:s'l€nsion'field action. .\5 5llqrrvnin Fi-:- 11.3.4a- the ,'grtical component causir,g compression ts
o,A, cld...\fterdiridi:rg b-v the area tb. dx to obtain the compressivestressf,- as
(
rhoi.'n in liig. 11.3.-1b.one rnay substitute Eq- 1I-3'2 f'or d0'
,'1.3VERTICALFLANGEBUCffi 2orrlte,
: -, d0
-, : -orA (i I .3.3
)
rvill be based on the "t
( The maximum limit on the web slendernessh,/t*' t*dx t*ll
compressionflange
( stiffnessneededin the plane of the web to prevent the Retrrring again rc Eq. 6.'14.28,the elasticbuckling stressfor a plate.
'rorn that li.' the clear unsupported
buckling verticaUl:1nig.ti.:.tc1. Note
( is the depth ft of the web plate in a kn2E
,.i!n, of the-rvebin a rolled section.
$.cldedl-shapedsection. Furthermore, some.flexural stiffness is neededfrom 'cr Io.t+.:tt]
( preclude torsional buckling of 1 2 ( 1- r ? ) ( n 7 t 1 2
the rveb along the flange-to-rveb connection to
i
( the flange(Fig. 11.3.1b). rvhere i' = h, t : i-. and k :7 for the case of the Euler plate assuntcclfrcc
along cdgcs parallel io loadin3. and pinned top and bottom. Thus
(
\ a -
a-I-
( ,-T-ftat , r u
(11.3.1)
' c i
q lht 12(t * p')(h/r,)-
( t eI I
V
(
I
( I
/
Substitutionof or:
arAr Eq. 11.3.6gives
\-<
t ,
-- /-----r--- i o , A . d o
r-r h 19,500ri1
*/At ( ,
i l l i o _ : ( 1 1. - ?. !
L = web thickness
I
r l 1..
{FXF,TTTJ (
I
I ! l
!
-i !'- cx
h
i , a conservativeestimateof the maximum h/t,, to preventvertical buckling ( '
Basler[11.71suggests A*/At will rarelybe below0.5and that {: 16.5ks! :.
lLi ---r- )4
otA,
dn
are made,
realistic.If thesesubstitutions
13,800
(11-3.e
( ,
{ . ,
l n Frr(Fr,+ ( '
(b)
(
Figure.tr.a'a Effectof flangeforcecompoocntnormalto flangeplate. Equation 11.3.9has been developedwithout regard to placemento:
stiffeners.The efiect of stiffenerswould certainlybe to increasethe streng;- ( \
above the elasticbucklingstrengthbasedon 4, of Eq. 11.3.4.Tests repone.
Equaiingappliedstress,Eq. 11.3.3,to the criticalstress,-Eq.
11.3.4,gives by Frost and Schilling[11.8]on hybrid girdershaving A514 (Fr: 100 ks ,f
u 3
e
(
Final
t $ress
'For SI unirs, with
h
(l I .i 1.
(
ft in li{Pa,
!:t Residual (b) Average l*.
( ap< superimposed
(
stress h 5250
1 1 1 . 3i . ( r
Figure 11.3.5 Effect of residualstress.
tv ,lFrr
( i
( t
(
.1;*l
zt' *i.. i
( il /PLATE GIRDERS ,-:+
':.
-iF t
|
11 A l NOMINALMOIJENTSTF51.iG11.1_LRFD
I 661
i/'
;{ I
;
V TABLE 11.3..I MAX|}JUMN / I- LIMITATIONS
_ LRF}.APPENDIXGl AND ASD.Gl
H
$ S,. : sectionmodulusreiered to the compressi+;illanee
I
..'.' : I
t{
l *
Fy
n/l
f o rE q .1 1 . 3 . 1 0
h/t*
f o rE q .I i . 3 . ' l l Fy
r/!,
./., : f,roment of inertia *'iih respect to the r-er-:s
l B z
I H :-: 1. : distance from the CG of the section to the cc:npressicn L'_\l!.t:rlrc
i
i
i:'
F
(ksi) t c r a /h > 1 . 5 tora/ h< 1.5 (MPa)
' { fiber
I F :
36 322 ), ciistancefrom the CG of the section to rhe i:rsicn crtrenre fibcr
I t l
248 , . i
iir 42 282
JJJ
309 290
l a 1 " .j ' a also
I r,a 45 266 298 310
ri f l$ 50 {h 970,
LlJ 283 345
l a t
I ty'
!l 55 )')? 270 379
R p c : 1 - O . G I - r 5 .o , l is: i rr . 4 . 3 )
t*
I T
t : /
60 207 258 414 \ \r'c, .!
tr\ 65 192 248 448
r* 100 130 o,: A*/At. rvhereA, is compression flangeare=
Jtru 689
lIi(
l ..a
t q
&. : ru'icethe distancefrom the neutralaxis to rh: inside faceof the
II rt(
i5\
compressionflangelessthe fiilet or corner radius
i , " : A, heightof web piate for a svmmetricall-shapecplate g.rrder
iE( -
1 1 . 4 N O M I N A L M O M E N TS T R E N G T H
lr LOAD AND RESISTANCEFACTORDESIGN The factot Rpc, is to accountfor tie "bend-buckling"eiie;l cf th: "slen,jer"
i v
t E ' n'eb and its reducedability to carn its elasticshareof rhe Dendingmornenr.
iir The conceps relating to the nominal moment strengthMn havebeen pre- The developmenr is presentedin Section11.6.
The determinationof the "critical stress"4, to be us:d is obrained b1.
I }.\
t l i
i t./
sentedin Chaprers7 and 9, and reriewedin Sec.11.2.Compledty in deiign
I
t
i:\
i : arises using tl, and /., expressedby Eqs. 9.6.5 and 9.6.6,respectively,for dividing the nominal strengthM^ bt the sectionmodulus5,. For rhe ":.,lcndcr"
l ::
lir plate girders. For rolled beams,not only are the valuesoI M, and L, available web, the maximum 4, is F,r. the r-ieldstressin the flan_se.
t ; i
I *-, in the AISC \{anual but also all of the properties,including the torsion For the limit stateof lateral-torsional
buckling,LRFD-Aependi.r Gi givcs:
|*( properties, are readily available.For plate girdersail of the propertiesmust be l.For^.1,,,,
iir computed for each girder-Thus, while the beain provisionsof LRFD-FI are
=(^,:#j
i3\
l f logically acceprablefor plate girders, simplifiecl rules are given in LRFD- I T
l| ,f:\ r
Appendix Gl in order to avoid the useof torsion propertiesand the accoinpa- l r : : rlr lt ( 1 1. 4 . 1 \
nying complex expressionf,orL,. '.. \
(
Since plare girderswill usuallybe "slender"; that is, l, wilt exceedtr,, the tr : Frl flt.4.5)
maximum strength must be basedon reachingyield stressF, at the extreme
fiber. No inelastic behavioris coasideredpossiblefor designpurposes. 2.Fortro.l<I,,
rI tl \(
IE The nominal moment strength Mn of slender web plate girders is
lir 'i 300 i<(.
I F
controlled either by the limil 51s1sof fielding at the tension flange or lt I ^y : r -. - :- . i' r - -L(^ \' l =/ l r , : - - -r l t,i1.4.6' )
rt
lE( that of buckling at fte compressionflange, as foliorvs accordingto LRFD- '
\rt l'l
r . r/ \ .,r.,,,
=.,
l8\
tt aI , Appendix G1:
l'E
ti
tt
tr(
t l
(
-
For yielding of rhe tensionflange,
i tl ,:4 r& ,R p c (11.4.1)
3.Fortr>1.,
4r: Crfrrlt ;(Ft)l i 1 1. . 1 . 7
|
For the limit state of.flange local buckling, LRFD-Appendix Gl gives: 3;For^t^,, ( ,
l. Fortrsl",
gj , ( l
{^
=
+)={^,:#) (11.4.10)
( ^ : ztt
I {^':#)
11,200
(11.4.14) ( ,
(
-Fc r : (11.4.15)
(u.a.n) (
&'i
F"-: Fyf
2 .F o r t r r . ^ = ^ , ,
( :
l
="
f - ,rrl, ;{H)l (11.4.13)
,
For the lateral-torsionalbuckling limit state, these plate girder provisions
approximate the Mn vs Ls relatronshipused for rotled beams and shown in
Fig- 9.6.1. The plate girder yro.
&
: ytJs,.insread of Mn. Note that tro of
(
( :
,(
1""' Eq. 11.4.4to obtain Lo b identical to E+ 9.6.9; however,r, is used for piate
I '. girders whereas it for rolled beams. Equation 11.1.6 for tr, gving L,'
I P{ (,;
''{9|-plate girders avoids the more complicated Eq. 9.6.6 for rolled beams; aud
I
; also avoids the necessityof computing torsion properties for plate girders. The (
plate girder provisions also avoid compudng
(a ) Lateral-torsional 4 as E(F, - F,), instead ( ,
bucklinglimitslale (
"- . rM= n
i
E (
Fv = 50 ksi
(
x ( :
LRFD-F1.3 ! rooweb
Formula (F1-3) rfxzaftanges (
1nn 756
^o= T .
Ar - -=-
\ rvt ,,lty't I (
LRFD-App.G1
Formula
(A-G2-5)
(
e 4 0
--
(t' Ir
(b) Flangelocalbuckling \ 3 s
E" 3'5 ( :
limit stale tRFD-App.G2
3C Formula(A-G2-G) (
_
fcr
M -E-^
: t{"
vl
( ;
c5i 1 1. 2 0 0
-lF-
i
I I Lo = 22.1 tl
(
Formula(A€2-8) L . - 4 9 . 1t l L , = S S . 0n !
I
Formula(F1-6) Formula(A-G2-9)I (
0 4 I 12 16 8 21
(
28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68
)\: *,
. o
Ap= -F
J . 15O Laterafiy unbracett tength, to (feet] (
l' t, i' rt
Figura.l1'e'{ of platesrder provisionsof LRFD-AppendixG with bearn (
Figure11.4.1 Limit staresin flexurc for plate girden (LRFD-Appendix G1). provisionsof -C*ogpgft
LRFDFI.
(
(
(
1
*E!
(
( - f.) 0^55 for simplicity' The elastic (F1.8), Eq. 9.?.12,or the combinationof ASD-Formulas(F1-6) and (F1-7).
approximating the quantity (4 -T '*'eb
the Euler column Eqs. 9.7.20 and 9.7.221,is still applicable; hot'ever. generally the deep
( lateral-torsionalbuckling equadbn.Eq. 11.4-9,ii essentially (F1-6) and
fi*gt (i.e-, the flange plate and one-sixth plate girder has little torsional strength.Thus. ASD-Formulas
farmula recognizingthe-compression usuallv
( by using rr for the radius of gyration' (F1-?),which are basedon column strength of the compressionflange
of the adjacent r.f,1 ur u .oiu*tt
ruougtr for the lateral-torsionalbuclting limit state' the
plate girder controls.This is particularly true as the lateralll'unbracedlength Ln becomes
( and L, arc longer.
relarionshlpsin LRFD-Appendix G betwc€n moment streogth
( there is oo reason why thg beam The columnstrengthformulasof ASD, Formulas(F1'6) and (F1-7),usert
sirrtplifiediro* thosefor beamsin LRFD-FI, "slender" web plate
gr.ivisionscould not alsobe used for the plate girder. The as the radius of gyration, exactly as used in LRFD for the plate girder
( provisions lateral-torsionalbuckling limit state.
r.rtuld resrrict the maximum moment tttingth to {'S, if the be11 "compact" or
r plate is The flange local buckling limit state is consiCerednot to control rvhen
of i.RFD-F1 were used,ratherthan Mo when the web "noncompact" sectionsin
.,n;nconrpact" in.Fig' 77'a'2 bj/2t, does not exceed gs/,ttFt as given for
lthai is, *h.n tr < tr, foi the web).A comparison
provisions of LRFD-Appendix G rvith ASD-85. This is the sameas rhe LRFD-B5 limit I, f.or undorntlr contpressed
of ihe lateral-torsionalbuc[ing
( LRFD-FI for a thin rveb (! x 100) plate girder show good agreemenl' unstiffenedplates.The LRFD tr, limits for beam flangesare the lessrestric-
girder limit fq
( For the 7o^g, local iuckling itmit itotr, the plate it tive valuesgiven in Table 9.6.2.
The limit l' -fot plate
iCenticalto that u"sedfor rolled bJams(seeTable 9'6'1)'
beams'
( girders approximatesthe expressionsgiven in Table 9'6'2 for rolled 11.6 MOMENTSTRENGTH DUETO
REDUCTION
on elastic local buckling of the flange' Eq'
The reduction in strengthbased BEND.BUCKLINGOF THEWEB
( tolhat of LRFD-Appendix
-in F for rvelded girders' some-
11.4.i5.is identical
the
( what lorver than used for rolled beams Rppendix F or for obtaining Sincethe plate girder web usuallyhas a high h7t* ratio. buckling may occur
efficiency factor Q for unstiffenedcbmpressionelements. as a resultof bendingin the planeof the rveb(seeFig. 11.6.1).The slenderness
(
ratio tr, above which such buckling may occur is developedin ilhat follorvs.
( Furthermore,after this elasticbucklingoccursthereis post-bucklingstrength.
TASLEll.4.lSLENDERNESSRAT|oL|MITSIeANDI,FoRFLANGELocAL
BUCKLINGAND LATEML-TORSIONAL BUCKLING Llr'{lT
STATES When the ptate girder is proportionedto most efficientlycarry load, the web
(
UNDER LRF}.APPENDIXG2 FOR PLATE GIRDERS rvill buckle beforethe nominalmoment strengthof the girder is reached.
(
Flange LocalBuckling Lateral-TorsionalBuckling
Yield
( Stress t, I. tr,
Fvt 300 Lb 756
( br 65 -b,- € 150 Lb
_-.7:
(ksi) - e - '
rr rr
2\ ar VFvt fjFr,
( liFyr /Frt
> U ;
(
(
i - - " , hlt (
Figure 11.6.3 Buckling of platesunder bending in the plane
of the web. ( r
(
(
FY
_1r ' v
FY
J:t. c !
I
l
FI
l 1g r -lt-
t r t
( :
(
f:-
t '
FI Pi.ol"
f -
\ H
tl
Y I
.l
FT
E A A (
i
I
I
EJ
E
E
E
t
Futl plistic
(
l -
rnomenl
z6 e = 3 (
t -
I
Mn= Mo
l
239 ;-
l :
I
1g = 3!rrple sup3ort
i :
I
I
.3.6
I
i
,
Figure11.6.2Bucklingcoefficiensfor platesin pure bending.[From Hundbook
of t
h 2000
t F FY
r* ,F
Thus the critical stress(using E : 29.0AAksi) may be said to lie berween i
i
)
Mn
4
1t rl
a
tr EI Ior alh ) 1.5
627,000
j
H No bend.buckling forali ( 1.5
4, : -;;5 ksi for k : 23-9 (simplesupport at flanges) t-F V of the web
(h/r)' FI
t -
A
J-
EI Vertical
.rnd fl ange
Strain buckling
i039.000
4, : --? ksi for k : 39.6 (full fixity at flanges) l"
I
hardening
g__ Design region for
may
occur
(h/t)' I, 1 minimum weight girders
While each particular girder *ill have a different degree of flange re-
strainl, full,v rveldedflangeto web connectionswill surcly approachthe full Webslenderness
ratio,l,/r*
fixity case.It will be reasonablethglr to arbitrarily selecta t valuecloserto
Figure 1't.6'4 Nominal,ybment srrcng\ Mrof girdersas
39.6.sa,vS0 percentof the diffeieft to*-ard the higher value.One might say affectedbv srength of the
wcb plate resistingbending momenriJ the piane"oftd;.b-
th a t A36 sreel.
950,000
F_: ---- kSi (rr.o.r)
(h/ t)'
( %s0,.=gn
h fEamd. 970 i l I
( - \ 1 , - : (1 1 . 6 . 2 ) i l l
|/ 'Q,, ksi
tn i l l
Vr.' i l i
( reutralll
Neutral ^r^ h
x,s
axrs ,, fi,' i=320
( where t*. : web plate thickness.
LRFD-Appendix G2 usesthe coefficient970; bowever,ASD-G2 uses982. I
I
( JTrelatter is obtained by substituting F",/7.67 for the allowablebendingstress
i
I
I
k 2 +k ( ; . : - f
( shows the relationship betweennominal moment strength M, vs h/t*,. Ttus *) p 1024
figure assumesthe lateral-torsionalbuckling and local flange buckling limit
( statesdo not control. 2
When the post-bucklingstrengthof the girder is considered,the strengthis e, : i m ,- , 3 * -
| - t 2 l
(
raisedfrom line BC of Fig. 11.6.4to line BD. The actual position of line BD V t o u 1 6 0 V l: ;i
( varies wth A*/A1, the ratio of the web area to the compressionflange area. (b) Determine the effective moment of inertia.
(
(
E EXAMPLE II.6.I I , : A t ( k h ) ' * k h )+3 A t (-r k ) 2 1 , t . t2n - o^l'
Using h/t,:320, determinethe expressionfor IUJMy (point D of Fig. i,,( Y I
#t*--)']
(.
SOLUTION r u - A , h 2 [ ; - ' + f t 2+ ( 1 - k ) ' +
( -: (b)
With h/t*: 3?0,"bend-buckling" occursat a low level of flexural stress. \.
( Such buckling does not signify the maximum bending moment that can be
carried; however,under additional load the flexural stresson the compression :;; (c) Determinethe nominal moment strength Mn. Assuning the extreme
( side of the neutral axis becomesnonlinear. In order to retain the use of the
1-
, ( *c
::€
s
'rari,
!t
M,:,,1n,.
+l- (e) Reduced Nomlnal Strength M,, when h/t_> g7\/iFy (
(
: F,Ayh(t
' \ * lj tol By referenceto Fig. 11.6.4,it may be reasonablyassumedthat MJM, varies (
o/ linearly from point .B to D. Thus the reductionin MJM, per A*,j,e1'per hit
greater than that at point .B is ( '
The vertical orcinate of point D in Fig. 11.6.4is obtainedby dividing Eq.
/c) b y E q. ( h) : t'oq",:" (,
!--!n,: g : 0.00057(say0.0005)
320 - t62 158 (
.\{
n Thus the region from point B to D (Fig. 11.6.4)assuminglinear (
r4 (i ) !^/Y,,for
vanatton,ls
(
'.v'hich
is plottedin Fig. i1.6.7. Mn
' ( L( L- go \
1 ' o- o )oos (11.6.3) (
i: n ,\ , * / . : ]
(
SinceMr: 4E, Eq. 11.6.3may be written (
t-
^ t L - o.ooosL- T I
Mo:s,r,l1.o (
. +(
Ar\rt*, ,'
(11.6.4i
14. i
Equation 11.6.3assumesno influence of the lateral-torsionatbuckling an4 (
flange local buckling limit states.When the controlling limir state preventsthe
flange stressfrom reaching (
4, then that soatrslling ti*it state critical suess
{, should replace4, in Eq. U.6.4. In generalthen (
r.0 2.O 3.0
_ e7o
(
p = A-lA1 Mn:s,F*[tr-o.ooostt:
il (ll.6.s)
Figure 11.6.7 Reduction in nominal moment strength considering post-buckling
,tr/J (
strength at maximum i/r*. for A36 steel. : SrFoRpc (11.6.6) {
(
(
11 7 / NOU:}rAL }dOMENTSTRENGTH- HyBRtD GTRDERS 673
672 11/ PLATEGTRDERS
ally been treated as the former. The idea of using a reducedsection s'hcr
buckling has occurredto causethe stressdistributionto be differentfrom ths
elastic situation is the same concept used for the stiffenedplate elementii
Chapter6, Part il.
t
t
i
i 11.7 NOMINAL MOMENT STRENGTH- HYBRID GIRDERS
l l
Eq. 11.3.10
As discussedin the last sectia:i.a girder havinglarge h/t, ma)'have its s'cb
I
,7 14.000
- - 1 #
l-
,-Fr(F,
- 16-5) buckle due to flerural stress,therebyincreasingthe load-carr-'-ing requirement
of the compressionfla::ee.Tnjs ertra load-carryingrequirementfor the flan-ee
also may occur shen a hybrid girder is used.A hybrid girder is one in rvhich
the flanges are of a Hgher s'rreagthsteel than the web. The use of a hybrici
girder has particular econoiaic advantagesin composite construction, a-i
describedin Sec.16.9.
The specialbeharioral feature of the hybrid girder is the y'ieldingof the
lower strength '*'eb beiore th: niaximum flalge strengthhas been reached-
When the mome;rt stre:lgthof the hybrid girderis achieved,the web rvill have
v
.-
rt
participatedto a lesse:exteni ihan in a girder using only one gradeof steel.
5
r
a Frost and Schillirigil1.81.Schilling[1i.9], Carskaddan[11.10].and Toprac
and Natarajan [1i.1lJ bave studied the hybrid girder.The state-of-the-art and
designrecommendaticasfor hi'brid girdershavebeengiven in a Joint ASCE-
AASHO Joint Commitiee[11.12J.
There are tfro pri:cipal e;fecis of using a lorveryield stress*'cb than is
usedin the flange.The cnset cf lielding in the rvebwill occurprior to yielding
in the flanges. For era::iple. ";.'henthe web is 436 steel and the flangeshave
F,. : 100 ksi. t\e web ira;- iielC at about 40% of. the nominai strength ill"
based on yieldin-z of the fian3es.* This meansthat the web wili yield euenaI
serciceload.
The design of h-;:lrid g-iiders,accordingto Subcommittee1 of ASCE-
AASHO Joint Comrnirtee[11.i2]. shouldbe basedon the momentcausingthe
initiation of flange y:eiding. This may be accomplishedby either of tu'cr
procedures:
30
1. The nocrinai suengih 7!, may be computed by setting the extreme
ralio'h/L
slenderness fiber strain e-r, equal to F,r./E,- u'here & it the yield stressof the flange steel
(seeFig..l1.7.1b). At rhis slagr much of the lower yield strcssweb will have
limit
Figure11.6.8 Reducedcriticalstres Rp6f, to account-forthe bend-bucklng exceededitb yield strain €r.*: Fy*./E,, in rvhich casethe stressdistribution
stite whenh/t* > g70/\E ,3gs61ding to LRFD-Appeodix G2'
over the depth of the rction is nonlinear,as shownin Fig. 11.7.1c.
2. The nominal siiength 1{" may be computedas a homogeneouselastic
prwiously sectionentirely of the ilange steel.that is FytS,,reducedby multiplyingby a
where Rro is the reductionfactorbracketedterm in Eq. 11'6'5,and reductionfactor.
is grven in LRFD-Appendix G1
given as p}. 11.4.3.This reductionfactor Rro Both the AISC AJowable StressDesign(ASD-G2) and Load and Resis-
is shown grgtricaUy in Fig. 11.6'8 for LRFD'
ind ASD-G2. The relationship tance Factor Des:gn ilRFD-Appendix G2) nrethodsuse the latter approach.
either
In summary,when h/t* ixceeds970/{F*, one may view Eq. 11.6.6
S, multiptiea Uy a reduced stress F-Rpo'-or (2)
as (1) the full sectiontnoduirt
j,R* multiplied by the full stress ^f,' Philo'
as a reducedsection moCulus
sophicallyit should be considereO ttti latter; horvever,in ASD it has tradition-
11 B / NO|"4INAL STRENGTH- ELASTIOAND INELASTICBUCKLING
SH-trAR (
674 i17' PLAT€GiRD€RS
(
Thus, the moment strength M, of an hybrid girder may be expressedas rveb adjacent to the flangesrvill have strain exceedingthe yield sfi'ain €.,*,: (
for F,*,/E, in the rveb.Logically the slenderness limit to prevent buckling must
L,q. 11.4.2(or Eq. ii.6.6) multipiiedby a reductionfactor R" to account (
reaching the flange yield stressat the extreme tflrn U. Iov,erthan 910/r,E Dawe'and Kulak [11.14Jhave indicated that
ylclClng in rhe web prior to
fiber. becauseof the restrainingeffect of sturdy flangesthe web may be expectedto (
l { n : S ,&R p c R " (tt.;.t) undergoplasticstrainwithout buckling.u.n *h.n theh/t* tutio it 800/rlF*
(
Zahn t11.151has not ed t hat when Fil: 50 ksi ( f langes)and Fr n: 36 ksi
where (rveb)the samelimiting slenderness ratio is obtained, (
FactorDesign(LRFD-AppeodLr G2),
far lttad and Resistance
.(11.7.2) /soo \ /gzo \ (
+ 8x0.81- a)
R. : 1 - 0.1(1.3 l--:1331=l /=-:\371
I (
for Allowable StressDesign(ASD-G2) \iF'- I \,lh
12+B(3a-43)
(
(11.7.3) Thus, rather than havea separatelimit equationrelating to bend-buckling
R,:
12+2p of the rveb of a hybrid girder using Fr., AISC concluded it would be (
B: A./Ar, the ratio of the cross-sectional areaof the ri'ebto the cross- satisfactoryand simplerto usethe samelirnit equationfor both homogeneous ( r
sectionalarea of one flange and hybrid girders.The proper result would be obtainedby alwaysusing the
a - Frn/ Fr1, the ratio of the yield stressof the web steelto the yield stress limit equation,
flange yietd slressFr, in the h/t* slenderness
(
of the flange steel e70 (
/ft\
Rp<;: reduction lor web insrabilitywhen h/t*> about 97A/{fy (see Sec' l - t : -
11.6) \ ,* /o'"0;oi,',uu"
iT, (
Fn : critical compressionflangestressbased6n lowestvalue obtained from (
the lareral-torsional bucklingor the flangelocal buckling limit states. The specialfeaturesof hybrid girdersrelating to compositeconstruction
are containedin ChaPter16. (
The ASD reducrionfactor was recosrmendedby the ASCE-AASHO Joint
Committee [11.12]while rhe LRFD reduction factor was recommendedmore (
F A C T O R SR eI J S E DF O R L R F DA N D A S D
recentlyby Cooper,Galambos,and Ravindra[11.13].A comparisonof the trvo TABLE 11.7.1 REDUCTION
(.'
.*pr.tiions is given in Table 11.7.1.The LRFD expressionis slightly more t
c' :
a r
Jo /
t - a
au:
A
v.tz
1 A
c:36/ 100:0.36
conservative(lower) than the ASD equation. LRFD ASD LRFD ASD (
In applying the reductionfactor Rro to accountfor bend-bucklingof the P Eq 11.7.2 E q .1 1 . 7 . 3 E q . 1 1. 7 . 2 Eq 11.7.3
(
web, the'ieriua-tionof the rvebslendern.ttlimit of 970/i\. involved.theplate
yield stress{., which meaosthe web.On the other hand, examinationof Fig. 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 (
if .f.t shorvsih"t *h.n the flangereaches{t the strain on the portions of the 0.5 0.98 0.99 a.92 0.96
(
1.0 0.98 0.99 0.90 0.93
1.5 0.98 0.98 0.87 0.90 (
i^n
(, - .^;l-'.."_= 0.003a5 ?.4 0.97 0.97 0.85 0.88
: Y . - w e ir = 100ksi (
I
, l 'a :
l l F,./F.r1 (
JO
'-:29306
rP : A"/Al
(
:0.00124
(
11.8 NOMINALSHEARSTRENGTH_ ELASTICAND INELASTIC .(,
BUCKLING
(c) Strcss
Typical of I-shapedsections.the web carriesmost of the shear.Since the plate I
(b) Strain
girOerinherentlyhas a thin web (hJt*> 970/iFy), stability is of primary (
Figure 11.7.1 Hybrid sectiosshowingstrain and stress*'heo {y is reachedat extreme conce.rn.
fiber of section. (
(
(
\
(
F ' - '
(
SfiEAR STff€riGTH - ELASTICAND INELASTICBUCKLING
677
11.8/NoMINAL
\
676 ll /PLATEGIRDERS
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
r(
rf1
li
r
ll
, . : , F l e n r e n li n
H
( b ) P r i n c i P asl i r e s s
( c ) P r i n c i p a sl l r e s s
on pane!in Pi:'e
I
I
II
I
l. r
I
* d 4
(3)
'
alh < i
l
L----3---_-_
li'r -; ir
"'1
l
(
in which is LRFD-Formula (A-G3-l) as well as LRFD-Formula (F2-l) for
( The proportional timit is taken as 0.8r.r, higher than for compression beams.This rvasfirst discussedin Chapter7 (Sec.?.7).
11'8'11by rr
flangis, b"*us" the effect of residualstressis less'Dividing Eq' The h/t* relationshipthat dirtdes elastic and inelasticbuckling may be
( to obtain C, aod using Eq. 11.8.10gtves obtainedby ietiing C, equalto 0.8 in Eq. 1i.8.i0, grving
( 44.000ft
A T , ' ----_--;
(0.E) h t
( 1 1. 8 . 1 s )
( ,y F,,*(h/t-l' v
t -rt "
( ,.
187
( : - (11.8.12)- The LRFD relationshipbetrveenbuckling strengih in shearand rveb slender-
h/t- ,* nessratio h/t* is shorvnin Fig. 1i.8.3.
(
in Fig'
( which is given by' LRFD-Appendix G3 and is shown schemat'cally
the number
two'significant-figure
11.8.3.ASD-F4 uses 190 iniiead of 18?;
The 187 Shear Strength - Allowable Stress Deslgn
( seemsmore in keeping \oith the true accuracyof the reiationship'
arisesfrom using instead
4'1,000 of 45,000in Eq' 11'8'12' In accordancewith AilowableStressDesign philosophy presentedin Secs.1.8
(
and 1.9,and discussed for shearin Sec.7.7, the strengthrelaticnshipmay be
( Design dirided by the safetyfactor to put the equarionin the sen'iceload range,
Nomlnat Shear Strength- Load and ResistanceFactor
(' buckling
The nominal shearsrength Vnof,agirderbasedon inelasticor elastic (i1.8.re)
(' of the web maY be exPressed \ * : * ) , "
Vr: rrrA* (i1.8.13)
(
( or using Cr: ro/t*, where l/Q : overload factors divided by resistancefactor
Vn : C.t,A n (11.8.14) FS : 1.67 : nominal safetvfactor in beam desizn
( I/ : serviceload shear
(' Approximating ?., s 0.64, grves
To obtain Eq. 11.8.19in "stiess" format, diride both sidesby the rvcb
Y n : C , ( a . 6 F : ,A
)* (11.8.15)
( area l*.; thus,
for elastic
( which is LRFD-Formula (A-G3-3).In Eq. 11-8.15,C, is Eq' 11'8'10
( buckling when C < 0.8, and is Eq- t1'S'12 wben C, t 0'8'
would
-:
.!:n (r":*)=(c:#) ( 1 1. 8 . 2 0 )
EqJation tr.g.ts will apply also to rolled beams since rarely
( wishesto have an explicit expression for
transversestiffeners be used.-I] one where the allowablestress4, may be obtained from putting Eq. 11.8.14into
1 (i.e., the web yields in shear and no buckling
h/t* conesponding to C": ':_: E q. 11.8.20,
(
occrirs),eq. tf .S.f2 may be solved f'or h/t* when Co: \,
( C,trA* Cra,
h k t':
F
( 1 1. 8 . 2 )1
(
-=187 (11.8.16) 'rr,, 63[: 5,
tu) F'* ..::id
.]a:
- TNCLUDING (
C, > 0.6 using190 insteadof the LRFD 187, 1 1 . 9 . N O M I N A LS H E A RS T R E N G T H 1
Strainhardenrng,C, t t
(used in ASD only)
L ,singE q. 11. 8. 22 .
{,. 439 1.0
: 0.40F,, r-. 0.8 __J_\
2 . 8 9( h / t ) , , i F r * L ' f= . - . C Post-buckling
strength of girder
i
No (cross-hatched part)
buckling (
h 380 from high slrear
- : € ( 11 . 8. 2 6) * (
t tlFy,.
A/t
Web slenderness, I (
-l Figure11.9.1 Shcarcapacityavaitable,consideringpost-bucklingstrength.
of Table .l -1 for Allo*'able
Equation11.8.26givesthe madmum h/t * va.lues (
StressDesign.
(
'For Sl units, u'ith
{*. in }vtPa. (
t
3l |.000k
'/' '- -- - (i 1.5.:3)
n (.i:./t)!
-<,u0 t
\t\ (
(
'g :- (1i.s.:4) ,/
(n/t) fy* {
Stiffeners
,r l00O I
{r 1.s.26) Figure11.9.2 Tension-ficldaction.
'r iF
(
l'l- )
{
{
\l
(
:
i(
i ,-.
(
( Tension-Field Action: Optimum Direclion
( Considerthe tensilemembranestresso. rvhichdevclopsin the *'eb at thc angle
y,3S shou'nin Fig. ii.9.4. If such tensilestressescan developover the full
(
hcightof the wcb, then the total diagonaltensileforce?'rvouldbe
( (1i.e.3)
T:o,i*Acos7
{ the verticel component of n'hich is ihe shear force Iz, given by
( L/: T sily: o,l..hcosysiny ( 1 1. e . 1 )
(
( - ) .
(
t \4u
1o, I
( - f
I ;; Fi3ure 11.9.4 lvlcmbralc stressesin
i!
( -t te*ion-fie!d action.
i
0: f t c o s 2 y- a s i n ? y
o r h l ..Shear Strength from Tenslon-FleldActlon
l'., 'fi'Ylt Using the free body of Fig. 11.9.6,horizontalforce equilibrium requires
tanly:L: (11.e.e)
a/h AFf: (o,tnasin7)cos7
+
From the trigonometryof Eq. 11.9.9,
: o,!*sin2y (11.e.13)
L
sin27:+ (11.e.10)
It + ( a/h)' Rotational equilibrium,takenabout point O, requires
:;f'ffi)
also ''!^o
L F,: - : a (11.e.14)
1 - cos27 tz 2
sin2l : (11.e.11)
Solving Eq. 11.9.14for A{ and substitutingtto tO. 11.9.13gives
I .) 1-cos27
(a) At imminent buckling ( b ) A t u l t i m a t es h e a r Sn- Y: ---;
(
Figure11.9.7 Stateof sfess. gives
(
i
- a/h
(
to the principal stressesrcr; seconci,the angle 'l in Fig. 11.9.7brvill be P , : o tat*.
,+l \l |l 1- I 1 11 . 9 . 2) 1
( consen'itively taken as 45" eventhou-ehit rvill ahvaysbe lessthan that value. \ 4 / L f f i t
The generally acceptedrelationship for failure in plane stress is the
( "energy of distortion" theory (discussedin Sec.2.7) shown as the ellipse in SubstitutingEq. 11.9.19into Eq. i1.9.21gives
( Fig. 11.9.8,which may be written Fr*(7_C,.)ot*|,
',,_
r _ __:4:1 ( 1i . e . 2 1 )
( o l + o ! - 6 1 0 2 : F r? (11.9.17) 2
L iii+(a/h1?l
( where o, and oz ate principal stresses.Point ,,4representsihe caseof shear
alone and point B representstensionalone.The actual statesof stressin pl4tp rvhich is the force in the stiffenerwhen nominal shearstrengi:rl; is reachcd.
( girder webs fall on thl eilipsebetweenpoi:rts A and B, and a straight line is a.. including tension-fieldaclion.The yield stress4., ir that of the $'eb.
( reasonableapproximationof the segmentAB, More recent.work as discussedin the SSRC Guide [6.8j ha-sshown that
Eq. i1.9.32 may be simplifiedby using a/h : 1; in u'hich case.
( ot: F, + d2(6 - 1) (11.e.18)
( P , : 0 . 5 F r " ,-( 1C , ) a t , . -( t (11.e.23)
#)
( SloPe = t.@tt 01
tt"lo, ,G-t P,:0.154,"(1 - Cu)at* (1r.e.24)
( at = -o?
(pure sheat
4,,-
buckling occurs(trz"from Sec.11.8)and additionalstrengthil lhe post-buck-
( ling range (V,, from Eq. 11.9.16),their actual strength is ti:e sunr of both
componeots.SubstitutingEqs.11.9.2and 11.9.16into 11.9.1srves
(
( (ir) (h) vn: ht*ft,c.._=-f-l (1i.e.2s)
( L T N I+ ( o / h ) ' l
Figure11.9.8 of distortion failure criterion.
?.rgy
t /
rr
S.SRCGuide [6.8, P' 194]. shear V,, the stiffener aree A,, may be reducedby multiplying by (V"/QV,).
Also, the derivationassumeCthe stiffenerwas aligned with the centerof the
web: rvhenstiffenersare used only on one side or if angle stiffenersare used
(
Load and Reslstance Factor Deslgn
there is an eccentric effect and the stiffener area must be increased.In
When tension-field action is d,evelcpedby using appropriately spacedand addition, the area (18r- x t*) of the web tributary to the stiffener may be
by
sized transversestiffeners,the norninalstrengthin shearmay be expressed subtractedfrom the required 1,,. Thus, LRFD-Appendix G4 gives the re-
Eq. 1I.9.26. Factoring 16 from the denominator, and then approximating
quirementas
F,/,t5 as 0.6{, givcs
r-c, RequiredA,, : c.) t'i) (11.e.2e) (
{
+,
Vr: 0.6F.r*A*lC
1.15f1+ G/h)'
,nsz, ft(o,rrA*(r-h \
\ ) '.--*'here
D : factor to accountfor eccentricloading on stiffeners
nlrich is LRFD-Formula (A-G3-2) from Appendix G3. curves for Eq. I1-9-27 : 1 for stiffenersin pairs o^. each side of web
ere presentcdin Fig. 1i.9.9for {. : 50 ksi steel. : 1.8 for singleanglestiffeners
I
|
lor stiffenersare nor placed in pairs a greater cross-sectionalarea must be (
provided to account for eccentric loading. Referring to Fig. 11.9.10a,the
i =t symmetricalpair of stiffenersreachesits yield condition ivith the force P,,
(
L
Stiffer*rs ..:. l
( a_11-z
-J{L4J -r-_T -_- j --\-
( I w-u-w_-l
l[ - -;
,
( Ar, = 2wt lF,+or=,,, - t
0
(
t- L
0.s
(
(
.,,aih#-rr;' I
tul-
I
I
0.3
0.4
( l ' " - 'I ' I
lil--+__-_{ I
r oi r 0.5
( I a ) A x i a l l y l o a d e ds t i ff e n e r
0.6
(b) Eccentricallyloaded
Stiflener
t 4.7
( 1
I
-l
I ( t
( t - C , )a t* | . ( l
A , ,: 3 : !'
\,,-8, r
:/h-] t, r',. s . 3 4 )
l'-61
( l
ftf'-(+)'ll
from tension-fieldaction vrith only a small contributionfrom the portion of I
"benci-bucriing"ma)'
the r',eb arJjeccntto ihe flange.In stockierwebs no M': F . . A , h l 1+
, . t l
( r r . r:o; ; ( ,
occur, but high u'eb shearin combraa::oirv,'ithbendingmay causeyieldingoi \
( l
rhe *'cb adjacent to the flange; ag{! resuiting rn a rransferof part of the
The nominal strength M" equals M, rvhen the extreme fiber reaches the vieitl
r'.'eb'sshrre of the bending morir3r! to tne flange.The strength of girders ( - t
stress 4,, *d with the web fully participating, is, according to Eq. (g,.
subjcctto combinedbendingand sh:- is lhe subjectof the third major paper
';.. B gs ier E xampl e11.6.1, f'
[ 11. 19] .
Sincc ii:stability is precluded,n plas:ic analysismay bc used. \\'hcn ( i
\
il /PLATE GTRDERS 1 1 . 1 O/ S T R E N G T Hl N C O M B T N E D
B E N D I N GA N D S H E A R ov/
(
(
TABLE11.10.1 VALUES Ar Mi/M"tN ACCORDANCE The reductionequationthen becomes
( y,/fTH
EO.11.8.11 FORVn'
/Vn > 0.6
M; ,i 5
Y : o o s) r o
( For For - (11.10.i0)
Aw vn' 'n
,\: S
( P : ; * 0.8 = 1.0
vn V
(
0 1.0 1.0
M: Is r,^,\ i
J
\
\
(
0.5 0.964 0.923
-
Mn
+ _ t _ | -<
8\ l/,,/
II r.o + ;d( 0 . 6 ) : 1 . 3 7I 5 1 (tl.i0.11)
( 1.0 0.935 0.856
( 1.5 0.908 0.800
n'here II,: : nominal flexural strength in the presenceof shear
2.0 0.885 0.750
Vn': nomtnal shearstrength in the presenceof flexure
( Mn: maximum nominal flexural slrength
( Vn: maxlrnum nominal shearstrength
(
Load and Reslstance Factor Design
( 0.75 Accordingto the provisionsof LRFD-Appendix G5. u'henplate girdershear
B
( U.D
strength V, dependson inclusionof rcnsion-fieldactiott the rr'ebmust .sarisfl'the
( t4; i nteracti oncri ter ion,givenby Eqs. 11. 10. 8.i1. 10. 9.and 11. i0. 11.f or shear
M: combinedwith tensionfrom flexure.
04
( Recognizingthat in the design of a girder v,' and Ml are the requirecl
strengthsin combination,these primed terrx should be replaceclin Eqs.
( n a
-a?
( , _t3_
,}i
( ,
a
be satisfied.
u'hichmustahvays
E
1.0 fb
_ (0.825 -O.375f,/F,lFl
vu> +4.6v, (tt.to.tsa) u.ou^/ (
0.6AF,
.
M" < +]v{^ (11.10.1sb) 0.75 = 1 . 3 7 5- o . a z s 4
(
L{u> +0.75lvI" (11.10.16a) 0$0 F" (
vu < +vn (i1.10.16b)
( ,
Dividing the first by the secondfor eachof the pairs of Eqs.11J0.15and (
I 1 . 1 0 . 1 6g i v e s
,u
0.6 (
f,
,- 0 . 6 v n (11.10.17)
!tl, lr{^ F, (
Figure11.r0.3 ASD relationshipfor combinedshearand tension. (.,
,,
,0.islvt, ( 1 1. 1 0 . 1 8 )
Vu Vn
\.
gives which is ASD-G5, Formula (G5-1). Note that f, and
and puttingit with Eq- 11.10'17,
ln'erting Eq. 11.10.18, '. flexural and shear stresses .f, are rhe maximum (
in the web. The adjacent relatively stiff flange
0.6v, vu vn '-?revents stability from influencing the strength of the rveb (
- (11.i0.1e) under combined
It[^ M"- 0-'l5M^ stress.When nondimensionalized, Eq. 1lJA.22 may be usedin the form shou-n (
in Fig. 11.10.3(note comparisonrvith Fig. 11.10.2).
rrhich is in l-RFD-AppendixG5. \lhen the V:/il|,, ratio iswithin the rangc (
o f E c 1I.1 . 1 0 . 1 9E, q . 1 1 . 1 0 . 1m4 u s tb e s a t i s f i e d .
(
1 1 . 1 1 I N T E R M E D I A T ET R A N S V E R S ES T I F F E N E R S
Allowable Stress Design (
-fhe Plate girderswill usuallybe designedto haveintermediatestiffenersas shoq.n
samestrengthinteractionequation,Eq. 11.10.11, usedfor combinedshear in Fig. 11.1.2and the phoro on p.652. The two stability parametersfor rhe (
:rnd tension in LRFD has beeu used for many years in Allorvable Stress web are h/t, and a/h as discussed in Secs.11.8zrnd11-9.Bucklingresulting (
Dcsign. from shear can be avoided rvhen these stability parametersare kept lo',v
It lt; cqualsa serviceload moment !v{ dmes a factor for safet,'-FS. the enough;alternativell..the shearstresscan be kept below the critical buckiing (
nominal strength,l/n equals Fr-Sr,V: equatsthe serviceload shear/ timesFS. stressr.,. since rolled beamshave low h/t* nuos, buckling resulting fronr (
and the nominal shearstrengihr,, equalsfoA*, then Eq. 11.10.11becomes shearrvill not occur.When the spacinga of stiffeinersmakesi7t*.low enough.
and their size is adequateto allow them to act as compressionverticalsin a (
<1375 (11.10.20) trussas discussed in Sec.11.9,post-bucklingsrrengrh(tension-fieldaction) is (
i3+0625(H) availableand mav be utilized in desien.
(
Replacingrhe termsin Eq. 11.10.20 sith the serviceload bendingstressf o fot
Y{)5,, the maximum allowablestressin flexure for a plate girder 0.60{, for Requirements to Omit lntermediate Stiffeners _ LRFD (
F,iFS, the serviceload shearstres /o fot V/A*. and the allowableshear
Stiffenersneecinot be used when the flexural strengthof the section can i-.,c (
becomes
:tr€SS1',,for r",/FS, Eq. 11.10.20
achievedrvithout diagonalbuckling resultingfrom shear.Stiffenerswould noi (
fo &j < 1.375 / r r r n ^ r \ be required, according to LRFD-Appendix G3, and shown in Fig. 11.g.3,
+ 0.625f ( t i. Lu.l,l ,
when (
0.604 \4 /
a
; h k (
Solvingfor /,, gives -s187
I ln ,* Irr.a.ro] (
- t;)r,< It
f o < (ortr 0 375 0.604, (1r.10.22)
(
I when stiffencrsare not used,the buckringcoefficient/<,given by Eq. ll.g.g, is
(
I,
F (
(
(
( Y, s C,(o.6Ft)A* Irr.s.rs] Intermediatestiffene$ are not required under ASD-F4 *'hen both of the
following requirementsare satisfied:
( urrless h/t excecds 260. Intermediatestiffeners are required rvhen h/t*
cxceeds260. h
1. -<260 (11.i1.6)
( The expressionsior C, to be usedfor unstiffenedgirdersare Eqs. 11-8.12
for inelastic buckiing and 1i.8.10 for elasticbuckling*'ith k = 5, as fcllows:
( F.C..
2. f,=;'gso.4or, (1i.11.7)
4i8 h 523
( l. When -- -< - 1 p' (i.e.,inelasticbuckling)
t* wheref,: V/A*. The ratio Cu: rn/ry in Eq. 11.11.7is givenb,vEqs.11-8-23
( lF , * l F r*
and 11.8.24.When a/h becomeslarge, k approaches5.34. simplifying C. to
418
( ( 1 1 . 1.12 ) - become
C,,:
h 439 for C, > 0.8
C 3 w
,til, c,.: h _ (inelasticbuckling)
( 1 i . i 1. t t )
(
h 5V3 +-.'lF*
(
2. When - > (i.e.,elasticbuckling) . 240,000 for C,, < 0.8
( t* - ,F
\' )'* a
-t' = - (1i.11.e)
(h7t*)z Fr*. (elasticbuckling)
( 220,000
rv, -
a _ _
(11.11.3)-
(hyt*.)z Fr,* Placement Criteria Including Tension-FieldAction - LRFD
(
When the factored shear Z" exceedsglz,, *'ith I : 0.90 and Vn given by Eq.
( 11.11.5with /< : 5, stiffenersare required.When h/t,, exceeds260, stiffencrs
'For SI uniu, rrith {.*. ia MPa.
( are always required. The use of intermediatestiffeners reducesthe a/h ratio
l10O ,r faoO
l.When-;:3-3 -.
and increasesF;. Equation 11.11.5logically applies for situations rvirlr and
( ti4*
'ry
,tr- v'ithout intermediate stiffenerswhen the objective is to prevent buckling
( il00 resulting from shear.
C,'=T- (ll.ll.2)
Under LRFD-Appendix G3 both buckling strength and post-buckling
( strength are recognized.The post-buckling behavior. knorvn as tension-field
I'1"* action, is.similar to frussaction as shown in Figs. 11.9.2and 11.9.3.and the
(
,t 1400 total nominal strengthI/, is given by Eq. 17.9.27,
(' 2.When-).:'
,.
i i,. I l - q
( 5?8,000 vn= o.6Fr*a*lC,
+ Ii r .l.zz1
c,.
"
= -_---;- (il.11.3) i . 1 5 i r 1+ ( a / h ) 1
( (h/t*)'F,".
t 1
\
7A2 11/ PLATEGIRDERS 1 1. i 1/ TNTERMEDTATE
TRANSVERSESTTFFENERS 703
( t
( ,
(
. I
STIFFENERS 705
TMNSVERSE
1r.1r / INTTERTJEDTATE
..I4 11 /PLATE GIRDERS
18'3)Ii1.e.2eJ For both LRFD and ASD, note that ^E is the yield stressfor the rvebsteel
( Required4,,: DA*(l-c,) in ksi, ft is in inches, and fnu (for LRFD; or f,, (fot ASD) are kips/in' As
h
.€i: !
'(.tt 1--
( 'l"j'
'.::
( 2. Allowable StressDesign (ASD-G4)' ;. 'For SI units, with
{ in'lt{Pa, i io mm, ed !,, s klr/m'
Re4uired 4,, =
2 lt- s1,
f,,- hitl*,l ( l l . 1 1. 2 1 )
( 1,/1+ ( o/h)' ?,rn- :'::#
.:41
:4
i.( -id6
t'-,
/
,s
'/.e
1....;
t{;\
:ii
!I
1 1 1 2/ B E A . R : i I G
S ; . T F E N E RD E S I G N
(
706 11/ P|-ATEGIRDIRS
( ,
crippling, web buckling strengths,bearing stiffeners must be (
with the arearequirerne:lt, whenpanelsadjacentto the stiffenerare not loaded 'prorided. or sidesway
ro their full strengih.rhe shearflow used as the connectionrequirementmay Local web yielding and web crippling were discussedin Sec.7.8 (
be reducedin proporrion rhat the strengthrequiredis below that provided- since they are also of concernon rolled beams.Local *'eb yieiding (formerly
called web crippling) is providedfor in LRFD and ASD-Kl.3; web crippling ( ,
(formerly called web buckling) is in LRFD and ASD-K1.4. Sidesway*'eb (
Connectfon to Flanges buckling generallyis of concernonly on narrow flange plate girdersand is in
LRFD and ASD-Kl.5. Thesethreephenomenaall are related to the strengrh (
Interrncdiatcsriffenersare provided to assistthe web; to stiffen and create
of a thin web in the vicinity of concentratedloads.
nodel lines during buckling of the web and to accept compressionforces (
Beanng stiffeners,unlike intermediatestiffeners,should be close fitting at
directly frorn the rueb.At the compressionflange,Weldingof the
transr^rittecl
the bearing end, and when the concentratedload is compressionagainst the (
stiffener acrossthe flangeas shown in Fig. 11.11.1providesstability to the
flange the stiffener may either be connectedto, or bear again51,the flange
stiffencr and holds it perpendicularto the web; in addition, such welding (
transmitting the concentratedload. When the concentratedload is a tension
proridcs restraintagainsttorsionalbucklingof the compressionflange.
pull on the flange the stiffenermust be attachedto the flange being pulled. ( ,
Compression For plate girders the usual situation is compressionagein5l the flange. In
f lange general,compressionload transmittingbearingstiffenersshould extend"ap- (
proximately to the edgeof the flangeplates... " a@ordingto the 1978AISC (
Specification(ASD-I.10.5).Thereis no suchrequirementin current Specifica-
..tions but the authorsbelieveit to be good practice.
(
Intermitient'.';eld
s€grnenis Column Stability Criterion (
Bearing stiffeners transmittingcompressionloads are designedas columns (
6r- inaximum
Figure 11.11.1 Intcrmediate stiffencr under the provisionsof LRFD and ASD-KI.8. The column consisrsof the
I 'rr rrr'rr'r"w
connectionto flange. stiffenersplus a portion of the web tributaryto them,as deiined in LRFD and (
l i
ASD-KI.8, and shownin Fig. 11.12.1.
(
On thc tension flange. the effects of stressconcentrationincreasethe The effectivelength KL of the "column" is lessthan the depth ft of the
i.e.,weldingin no way helpsthe tension *'eb plate becauseof the restraintprovidedby the flanges.The effectivelengrh (
irrtigueor brittle fracrurepossibilities,
rienge.Sincethe t'ork of Baslert11.19]hasshou'nthat weldingof stiffenersto KL. accordingto LRFD and ASD-K1.8,is to be taken"equal to 0.751r". (
tlre tensionflangeis unnecessary for properfunctioningof stiffeners,LRFD-F3 The slenderness ratio is computed,
"short of the tensionflangeprovided
and ASD-G4 pennir stoppingstiffeners K L h \
bearingis not neededto transmita @ncentratedload or reaction."The weld - :0.75_ I ( 1 1 . 1 2 ). i (
"shall be terminatednot closer r r
bv n.hichthe stiffeneris attachedto the rveb
rhan 4 rimesthe web thicLqessnor more than 6 times the u'eb thicknessfrom (
tire ne:r toe of the rveb-tc-flengerveld." Eearingstiffene; (
For situations where the stiffener servesas the attachmentfor lateral crosssection
, n -(
P 11.13 LON GITUDI NAL WEB STI FFENERS
RequiredAr: Tra (11.12.s)
'.(
Longitudinalstiffeners,as shown in Fig. 11.13.1,can increasethe bendingand
( shear strengths of a plate girder. In general, they are not as effective as
E
!-ocal BucklingCrlterlon ;l-F
rransversestiffeners; however. they are frequently desired on highrva-'-bridge
( girders for estheticreasons.Studies of longitudinal stiffener effectiveness.as
Sincethe width w of the stiffenerplatesis governedby the plategirderflange
( relatedto stiffener size and location, have been made by Cooper[1i.20. 11.211
width (seeFig. 11.12.i),the minimumthickness to preveotlocalbucklingis ..s
and others at Lehigb University. Thesestudiesand others are sunlmarizedin
( w -j3 '[6.8,
(11.12.6) the SSRC Guide pp. 211-2231 and by Bleich [6.9, pp. a18-423]. The
Mint:
( 954Fy ,i{F
ASCE-AASHTO Task Committee 111.221provides a full reviewof the theory
:s and designof longitudinally stiffened plate girders.
:if
( as governedby tr < tr, for a uniformly stressedunstiffenedcompression isf The principal use of longitudhat stiffeners is in highrvaybridge design.
#
( elementaccordingto LRFD-B5 or to satisfythe "noncompact"limit of ,s where transversestiffeners are used on both sidesof a steel girder exc€pt on
F-*,
'.'3"'3-
(
.',liL
710 1r / PLsTf GtRDEfrS (:
/ pRopoR-fror.ttt:c
11.14 rHE sECTtcN 711
( i
i n E q. 11.11.16
(,,
gives
'lo.3*h (
Required I-.: (11.13.2) (
10.92
The AISC Specifications ( r
[1.5,1.15]give no informationregardinglongiru-
dinal stiffeners. For highway bridges,AASHTO-10.48.6.3gives the loiloi.rng (
expressionfor Load Factor Design:
I ( b ) Cross
. B
(c).Buckled (
seciion
{r1 S:de view
( f, < o'90F, ( i 1. 1 2 . e )
where f": P/A, "'
( P : serviceconcentratedload "
( A,: column area;i.e.,the shadedarea of Fig. 11.12.1rvhichincludes w here fr: P /Aog
the stiffener platesplus the tributary web area P : servibeconcentratedload
( Fo: allorvablecolumn stressaccordilg to ASD-E2 A pt,: contact area of stiffenerbearingagainstthe flange
( Thus, the requiredeffectivearea A, is
( P 11.13 LONGITUDINAL WEB STIFFENERS
Required /, (i1.12.s)
( Fo
Longitudinal-stiffeners. as shoun in Fig. 1i.13.1,can increasethe bcndingand
( shear strengrhsof a plate girder. In general,they are not as effective as
Local Buckling Crlterion rransversestiffeners:horvever.they are frequentlydesiredon highrval'bridge
( girders for estheticreasons.Studiesof longitudinalstifiener effectiveness. as
Sincethe width w of the stiffener plates is governedby the plate girder flange
( relatedto stiffenersizeand location,havebeenmadeby Cooper[1i'20, 11-21]
width (seeFig. 11.12.i), the minimum thicknessto prevent local buckling is
and othersat Lehigh University. Thesestudiesand othersare sufiImarizedin
( r h e S S R C G u i d e ' [ 6 . 8 , p p . 2 7 7 - 2 2 3a1n d b y B l e i c h[ 6 - 9 , p p ' a l 8 - 4 2 3 ] .T h e
Min r (11.12.6)
( es/iFy ASCE-AASHTO Task Cornmittee1LT.22l providesa full reviewof the thecry
and designof longitudinall;-stiffenedplate girders.
( as governed by tr < l, for a uniformly stressed unstiffened compression The principal use of lcngitudinal stiffenersis in highrvavbridge design.
( element according to LRFD-B5 or to satisfy the "noncompact" limit of *'here transversestiffe:ers aie used ua both sidesof a steelgirder except on
, (
710 l1 / PLATEGTRDERS 1 1. 1 4/ P R O P O R T ' O N | NTGH ES E C T T O N
\
711
( r
- (
Longitudinal stiffener
>t
\ 'l-.: (
fott*h
Required
' r' (11.13.2) (
Nodal 10.92
point
o'' - i L ,
-ll-,
.r_-l.L-r
The AISC Specifications [1.5,1.15]giveno informationregardinglongitu-
dinal stiffeners. For highway bridges,AASHTO-10.48.6.3givesthe folloning
(
(
i
82/f F, ksi
t 1.6. (
As discussedin Sec.11.6,the elasticbuckling strengthof the rvebplate in
In addition, the radiusof gyrationr of the stiffenercombineds'ith a cenrrall', (
bending(Fig. 11.6.1)may be written
located web strip not more than 18r- in r+'idthshall be at leasr
12Ek (
F", (11.13.1) a
-------:-
r2(1 - P,)Q/t)' Minr) ' 7 1 ' 1/ ! F
,u, /y,
(11.13.5) (
ksi
).,
If the plateis stiffenedby a longitudinalstiffener,as shos'nin Fig. 11.13.1,the (
value of k will be significantly greater than for the unstiffened case. The Note the AASHTO coefficientshavebeenconvertedfrom their stated values
(
stiffenerusedshouldbe stiff enoughso that when buckling occursa nodal line to accommodateusing in ksi as usedthroughoutrhis tert insteadof psi as
4,
will be formed along the line of the stiffener. in AASHTO. (
Under bending alone, the value of the buckling coefficient k .has been
found to be as high as 142.6 for the case where the flanges are assumed to (
nrovide full restraint to rotation at points A and B of. Fig. 11.13.1cand 1 1 . 1 4 P R O P O R T I O N I N GT H E S E C T I O N , (
'n: h/5. For the casewhere the flangesprovide no.moment restraint at A
:rnd ts (simply supported)the stiffener located at m: h/5 is also the The cross-section of a girdermustbe selected
suchthat it ad.equately
performs
rptlrnulnlocation.Suchstiffenerplacemeutin the compressionzonesen'esthe its functions and requiresminimum cost.The function requirementimar. b,:
',:rrDoseoi nraintainingthe fuil effectiveness of tbe web in resistingbending summarizedas:
.:ress,uiuch is realiy t-hestiffener'spriocipal function-
l. strength to carry bendingmoment(adequatesectionmodulus s,).
3or rvebssubjectedto shearal.oc:, the longitudinal stiffener should be
2. Vertical stiffnessto satisfl' any deflectionlimitations (adequui" *.t
locatedat mid-height.For combinedshearand bendingthe stiffenershouldbe
ment of inertia 1,).
located so that h/5 < m < h/2; becauseof its principal function, however,it
3. Lateral stiffnessto preventlateral-torsional buckling of compressicr
shouldpreferablybe closerto h/5.
flange(adequarelateralbracingor low Lo/r).
For designthere are two requirements:(1) a rnoment of inertia to insure
4. Strength to carr)' shear(adequatervebarea).
adequatestiffnessto create a nodal line along the stiffener, and (2) an area
5. Stiffnessto improve buckling or post-bucklingstrengrh of the ,*.eb
adequateto carry axial compressiooforce while acting integrally with the web.
(related to h/t and a/h ratios).
The design requirement for stiffness caa be expressedas a function of the
rigldity of the web, using the same approach as discussedfor transverse To satisfy these function requirementsat minimum cost, it *ill be as-
stiffeners.Substitutingthe web height A for the transversestiffener spacinga sumed in what follows that minimum cost is equivalentro minimum weight.
(
(
THESgcrloN
11.14/PROPORTIONING 713
(
712 11I PIATEGIRDERS
(
which if. A,,: th,and rhe squared terin is neglected' beconres
(
FlangeArea Formula ,, -
A*'
(11.14.6)
( 6
F o r s i m p l i c i t y i n d e s i g n i t i s c o n r . err.ra-lb,
n i e n t t owhich
r e p l aallorvs
c e . d r the a l s y s t etom o f F i g .
e r emoment
rig.
( 11:14.1auirh a .uirii,ii. sysrem, the flange
**, *: r,Jrces "tr*ttaof the couple acting at
( be replaced by , ;;p1. as axial load situations' If
the Next, solvingEq. 11-1a'2for l1 gives
th.n u.
centroids. The forces'"* the forces of the M
i, upproJrutety 1a + d)/7, Ai ( 1 1 . 1 4i. 7
( distance berweenflange forces Ar:
couPle are l ( n+ 7 ) , "-
(
(11.14.1)
( c = r: (*$72 rvhich,usingEq. 11.14-5and f^'g: f^u(h
+ d)/\d' gives
plate aret A t I M t d- l\ - - i Ar -* ll [ 2 h \ t
( theseforcesact is equalto the flange
ihe effectiveareaon rvhich of the web in resisting A' , : l . - - 7 1 {11.14.8)
the effectiveness 6J\ft+dl
( plus addirional area A', torepfesent LJ^un\.hJ
i
moment.
( stresson the totai effectiveareais slightl-vthe value of A''
The average Letting the squaredterm equal unity overestimates
( M 1- \ while letting d/h:1 undeiestimates the value.For preiiminarydesignpur-
F o rc e I (11.14.2) : -ft;dw\*T,) poses thesesimplificationsare justified to
give a simple expressionfor the
( -fu'r=Ar*
iequired areaof one flangePlate,
( T h e a r e a r { i m u s t b e t a k e n s u c h t h a t t h e bsystems:
endingmomentcarriedbythe M A.
At: (11.14.e)
real and substitute
( *"U ir'ift. ,utJ for both the fr 6
i hl thz (11.14.3)
( : /-*\
,ly'o"rrr-r,.* g lt f is taken as the avefagestresson the flange' the
AJ U In the useof Eq. 11.14.
checkinga section'of course'the
( d/lt termrvillbe *ltf' u.tounted for. When
: hr'\ryj't ( ry) (it.t+.a1 and the ma'rinium strength for
( Msubstituterl.rr.r" correct momenl of inertia must be obtained
LRFD or the stressfor ASD computed'
( gives
EquatingEqs-11'14'3and11'14'4 a
( h [th2\1 zd \lr 2 \ 't' ( 2o (11.14.5) Optimum Girder DePth
\'
( A i :; i ? ) \ f f i l i m l - -7 \ ; . d J ' - ' The variation in girder cross-sectionalarea is to
be examinedas a function cf
give minimum area' Extenced
(.' rveb depth to a.i.r*ine the depth which will
rrearment of this subject has been grven uv l-tt.99. t11.u' e-t-tt]::' Lin' and
"ScttiUio!
, - , (b-:-d\ Fleischer
( 'lve -'nrr
1 24 I Scalzi [11.23]and Blodgett [11.24]. [11'25], Azad [11'26J'
cf
'( t
f^r,
l.---1
t A ,
r--1
--t i M [i1.27i, and Ander*n uio cirong iri.ia:
nuJ" ptglied extended treatment
web of lo'*'er
girder having a
-tr-
l l
n lh + d'tl2 optimum propor,io*ng, including the irybrid
rT
I l \ r
I
t\
|
I
|
\'.,.._
\--1
\-l
t \
y'ield strengththan the flanges'
l \ l
I V-----i
l \ l
I H
Theaveragegrossa'eaA,ofthegirderfortheendrespanma;-be
I E
l r
{
I t i
tt i l
l I E n'*a
| \:
ti expressed
r I
f|
t
ii
l
ll
,
r B
\
,
Arm= 7-
l
Il
I,
i '
i ' .\
Ar: zc/t + Crht
(11'14'1ot
I '-1r
I
I E \
(v.
\ Il f=, r
I
| - r
t-1 l l \ size at regions ef lsrver
r\ t t l where Cr : factor to account for reducing flange
I H
I H A , l i \
'
' i i
L--IL
t
I
I
H
t--------{
H
L-- J u w E
T=c than maximum moment
web -.hicknessat regions oi
1
(b) Ftange'areasllstem Cz : factor to ac@unt for reducing
(a) Actual sYstem reduced shear
I
'|
formula development'
i ) Figure 11.14.1 Flange-area
{ ,
,.!
t 1 7'PI-AT€ GTRDERS
1 1. 1 4/ p R O p O A T i O N i N G
T H ES E C T I O N 715 (
?" 714
( :
Eq. 11-14:9into Eq. 11'14'10gives
Substit,uting weigh.tis 3.4 lblsq in./linear ft (0.00784kg/mmz/linear metre). ( ,
l I{ ftl\ tw (
A -R : ? C t ;l - - i + C h t (11.14.1i) 6.8h2
--;-:
' lbift:3.4As: 8 . 9 1 1r 2 a (11.14.19)'
,,1'h 6 I
P w l t P w
(
To find thc minimum averagegrossare3, using inch units for the variables.Stiffenerswill generallyincreasethis value ( '
'l':o (11.14.12)
by 5 to 10 percent. M and f arc defined for LRFD and ASD following Eq. ( ,
11.14.17.
- ' t
(b) Case 2. Mininum web thickness; t : const. Differentiating Eq- (
(a) case.,l. h/t' Assume Fn: constant
No depth,.rrri.,iollo*ot large 1 1 . 1 4 . 1 1A, A s / A h : 0 , g t v e s ('
becomes
: h/t; t : h/8.. Equation11'14'11 -zc&f
iu ft2\ ltz - T i l - - T *c{
c2t:o (tt.ta.zo) (
Ar: rrr\* - - r'O (11.14.13) ( '
6p_)
6c;t4-
n:
, [ (rr.ra.zr) (''
aAr
-v-
zCJrIf 4cth
l,
2Crh
----.1-: (11.14.14) UTW7J (
p*
- , ! -
6P,' a -- 1
ah f'h' \. If cl: \-1 rt
(
0 : - 6CJrtF-- 2crh37+ 6C2h3f (11.14.1s) h - (1r.r4.22)
(
from which
n:
'i-# (11.14.16)
The
where M and f aredefined for LRFD and ASD following Eq. 11.14.17.
weight per foot can be obtainedusing l, from Eq. 11.14.11,
(
(
U7@,-c) [-ut ( ,
-- / -r - 1 -- 1 r r lbTft:3.4As:4.53ht.:
7.85 (11.14.23).
and if oneneglectsthesectionreductionin regionsof lower stress,C, | I ( ,
bec om e s
Eq . 11. 14. 16
using inch units for the variables.M and f ate defined.as before, for LRFD (
o : .yt { rwr (i1.14.17) and ASD follo*'ing Eq. 11.14.17.. Again, an estimate for the wei*ehtof
stiffenersshould be addedto the equationvalue.
(
(c) Case3. Heary shearwhich governsweb area; An: constant : w€b (
area,ht. Equation 11.14.11 becomes t
q'here lv{ : MJq: factoredsen'iceload moment divided by 0:0.90 for (
LRFD, or
serviceload moment (unfactored) for ASD A,=zc,(# *) . czA* (11.14.14) I
t -
J _ averagesuesson flange using 4, as extreme fiber value when (.
nominal momenr suength is achieved according to LRFD- (
AppendixG2 for LRFD, or
averagestresson flaage using 4 as e.{trcmefiber allowable 'For SI units, the massper rnetreis (
valueaccordinqto ASD-G2 f.cr ASD
(
M2
UsingEq.i1.14.13withC,-C2:landsLrbstitutingforM/ff'romEq. kg/m:1.72 (11.r4.1e) (
1 1 . 1 4 . 1g7i v e s Ve
4h7 ltt 1rz 2ht (
A,:8"-*. (11.i4.18) Mt
B_:i kg1'm- 0.0181 (n.14.23) (
7
(
from s'hich the girder wcight per foot can be estimatedusing the fact that steel using mm units for tbc variables
(
( )
(
(
(
,N..TA TH= SECTION 717
IPROPORTIONING
t 716 l1lPtiTE GIRD€RS
(
from maximumdepth' Jr' The total flangevolumein the length t is
( from which it is apparent $41 minimum .d, results
Tb.is caseusuaily does not govern- , " .- vol:At(L-x)*Apx
( value of c1 may vary
If the same kind of steel is used throughout, the
( from 0.? to 0.9 when used with ttt. o,^r,i-uri positive
moment:0'85ro 0'90 is ,u(r - x) ? ( L _{ ) +rl i -.t\ -'t*
_ A,.
except on contlnuous
(
tt" uru"f range. The value of C2 is not as likely
with
to vary
maximum positive moment' i u\Tl_i'
structures where it might be 1.03 when used
Becauseof the complexity
( or 0.95 when use.dwith maximum n"i.ti"t moment' :n iLz-xL+xz\ _1g (11.14.27)
it migbt be sveli to mke
of evaluating C, *J C, for continuous structures' hI\ L J 6
( them as unitY-
For minimum volume,
(
d ( Vol) L
( _f:0: 2 x_ L ; ,:
,
Flange Plaie Changes ln Slze
( of flange plates in the region of low
It is usually eronomical to ieduce the size rvhich means
to trilp the designerto determine
( moment. While no specific rules can be made M A -
simplerelationshipsare
( when it is desirableio changeflangeplate.tit:, :.t 3n Ar, zhf 6 1
possible.if only ooe change in flange size ts clesreo' ( 1 1. 1 . i . 2)S
( (a) Case/. Linear va]iation io"torn.ol-two flange plate sizes'C.onsider t
trl M A . )
assuming both plates are full;* utilized for h f 6
the situation of fig. if .fq.2a" and
( be used for eachplate'
bending moment, iire flange-areaformula can (sec
(b) Case2. Parabolicvariationas for uniformly loadedsimple beam
( M A N
/ l
-
- (11.i 4.25) Fig. 11.14.2b).The total volumein the length I is
w- 6
lal
(
M i L l - Lzx + zLx? - x- l- \-
1 ,
. , 1. L
(( vol: r 2
M (x/ L) - A
6
*
(11.14.26)
tl- t- I 6
(' Att: ; , L
hf d (Vol) ., 4 y z
: ' u^ : ' T - -
.-- t
.._ ,i
( : - l
;Lxi . i ;)
: I
1 : l
a, J J
( *;:- I
and
=ii A,, 5
( ---t = - ( 1 1. 1 4 . :)e
;_:..I At 9
( Atr Af
*.:- t
t
(c) Case-i. Parabolicvariation as for uniformly loaded candlever(seeFig.
_-:
( r'-.-l It
I
,*fr)'
: l
-.;.- hf\ 6
( ;'t |I
.,i
" -*. :
--r
I
L
( M = maximum
rnoment
[.]
I
,:li i 1#-o:3xz-Lz; x : T
vJ
,*s I
( '+iFi '
and
.
q*' .
( (a) j* Art 1
3 _--=- (1r.1.1.30)
determining cbaogesin flange plate -:*'
.t:*. A t 3
, ( Figure 11.14.2 common moloent variations for
;a|j
size. .6
( :.F-
,'( ;e
+its
+€
Fi
\
( Sym.about (c) Estinute of Weight. The mirximum factored mornenrs duc ro rhc
E
superimposcd loads (that is, n'iihout girder weight; of Fig. ii.15.l ft'r rhc
( t positiveand negativemomentregionsare
+ lV, : +7640 f t - kiPs
a 25'-0"-i I - lt f , : - i0'E00 f t - kiPs
r0o'-0"--i
I I Sincethereis no depthlimitation.rhe depth basedon ma.rim::n hr/t, nray'he
Assumectgirder weight : 0.300k/tl
( desired.The LRFD-AppendixG1 cr ASD-G1 limits are obtal:ed.rcfcrringto
T a b l e1 1 . 3 . 1 ,
(
,7550
\lax h/t * : 322 (333'*'hena,'h < 1.5) A36 sieel
'7r1F,
( 8 / L L - sc anl -Dl
Max h/t*.: )43 (283r''hena/h < 1.5) A572G;ade50
-{ o :'----- \
'---.,
I
o
4 t , \ 3860 There*'ill be strengthreductionfrom the bend-bucklinglirnit s',ateivhcn /rrlr*
( > t
l + ::\\ exceeds970/E accordingto LRFD-AppendixG2. oi 160/,F, accorcling to
2
O J
\ ASD-G2. For this designthoselimits are
(
(
6 -
-2
0
i H h/r, > 162 A36 u'hen 4, : F,
(
9
o <
:
LL-span2 + DL eSaOI h/t*. > 137 A572Grade 50 u'hen F,, : F.
u -6 6 7 10
( tL
-8
For a rvei ghtest im at e,t r y P- : h/ t . : 300 and use Eq. 11. 14. 19.lt l :
LL-spans t RequiredMn: M,/eo:7640/A.90: 8490ft-kips,and .f : Rr,rI., = 34 ksi
( - tu
from Fi g. 11.6.8:
11260
( J ]
(Requiredltl,)-
',,lso*,-r
( JUV \ n l t T f t : 8 . 9'i Ii : 8.9ir -;----:- : 216lb /tt
t 1 ( R o,r4, )tF-
Y v. (34)"300
(" O)
zvv
9 100 r\ssumingthe girder rveightis 300 lb/tL givesthe maximum i:ciorcd positii'c
(
moment M u : 7900 ft-kips. Recomputingthe aboveformula gives
o ^@ 0
( G
3 -1oo WtTft = 280 ib/ft (from formula)
( >'
q) - AAA
lUV The negativemomentrvill requirea slightll'heaviersectioneien though thc
( o - 3C0 ratio of maximumpositiveto madmum negativemomentis appri;xinlrtclvthc
€ 'l'hc
(
LL
_ 400
sameas the ratio (i.e., 50/36) of the yield stresses
for the mei:;-ialsuscd.
u'eb of the Grade 50 regionof the girder must be thicker then ihe A36 rcgion.
( - 500
Allorviqg somethingextra (10% is a reasonableestimate)icr thc stiffcncrs
-600 u'ould give a-value slightly above 300 lb/fL. Use w: -i0U lh/ft as the
(
..4'
's.
estimatedgirder weight. The factored moment I{, and faciorcd shear Vu
continu-
{ Figure 11.15.2 Factored lnoment aad factored shearenvelopesfor tu'o'span envelopes are givenin Fig. 11.i5.2.
ous bea-mof illustrati'tts o(a$ple. (d) Determinell/eb Plate Si;es. For *,!/, rvith ,436 steeiassunrcCr: Cz
( A
: 1 and use Eq. 71.74.17.Evaluate the optimum value for /r using various
E
( s:l h7t* values,for example,using h/r*.:320 gives
'+--
( ..f
(RequiredIr{,)p* 31eoa/0.e0)(12)320
a?
ft- : 1 1 4i n .
( :'t 2(34)
( :f
l r &
;fi.
( '; tLS
-,
11.15/ PLATE
GTRDER
DES;GN _ LRFD
EXAMPLE 723
I
722 i ] ,,.PLATFGiRDENS
it iI t
t
/4\9 Actual I E s t i m axt :eLdu : " 9 4 :o,
1
4 *
I
l r
r r 7
- , ? h t "
', a,a
Iv t lrr
i.tn.) (ln./ (s qrn .) (ksi) I
a
!,.. Check l,o for the lateral-torsional
bucklingiimit state,
( 11.15/ PLATE
GIRDEB
DESIGN - LRFD
ExAr,lPLE 725
I I ,/ PLATEGIRDERS
(
(
buckl i ngl i mi t sta t e
The high slendernessratio h/t* tot the web will, however, reduce the
(
momentstrength.To obtain an estimatedreductionresultingfrom this bend-
bucklinglimit state.seeFig. 11.6.8(LRFD-Appendix G2). For h/t*:267, F.,:Cr\r['-
](Ftlj= r, Iit.+.;]
R ro 4 , = 4 8 k s i f 1.'i1 d-a'tat,\
L 0 ) l -i ; { -
F , , : 1 . 7 5' '( 5 I | : t.7i(16.2), 1,.,r
2 \ i 0 ? - 4 2 . 14 1
Using the flange-areaformula, Eq. 11.14.9,givesthe requirementfor one
flange as Thus, .Q- based on lateral-torsional buckiingis F,t : 50 ksi.
Compute -f, for the flange local buckiing (FLB) limit state (LRFD-
MJSt A n 1 1 , 2 6 0 ( 1 2 ) i 0 .-9 03 7 . 5
Al : -a1101)- : 2 5 ' 4 s qi n ' Appendi.xG2) *'hen trrr, t tro. This u'as satisfiedin rhis design rvhen tlic
R to'Qr/r f 6 flangeplaiesu'ereselected; othenvise lils limit stateinustbe treatedaccordin;
ro E qs.i i .4.i 0 i hr oughii. 4. 13.
Somepossiblechoices: Next, evaluaie tbe strengthreductionresultingfrom the benC-buckling
' l i mi t state' * henh / 't *> 970it , F, , .usineEqs.11. 4. 2and 11. 4. 3,
1| x 20' n , : 2 5 ' 0 s qi n ' , b1/2tr: 8'0 '
A,. 37.5
1l x 22, A t : 2 1 . 5 s qi n - , b1/2tr: 8.8 o':4:
n3:1'36
1| x 24, A 1 . : 2 7 . 0 s qi n . . bt/Ztr: 10-7 [n' 970\
R p c : 1 - o . o o o"5, f - =t [ 1 14 . 3 ]
bt/Ztr: 13-0
; E,|
1 x 26. At- 2 6 .as q i n .,
In evaluatingEq. 11.4.3,the f, is the lesservalue from the lateral-torsional
T r-y p l a t e s - 1 1 x 2 7 : A t : 2 7 . 5 s q i n . buckling (LTB; and the flangelocalbuckling(FLB) limjt states.In this design,
in this selection,the'width-to-thickness ratio )r: bt/2tt should be kept 4, : F, : 5A ksi. Thus,Eq. 1i.a.3is evaiuatedusinga, : 1.36,h,/t. : 26J,
: :
and .Q, 50 ksi. to obtain Rpc 0.912.
nearthetrovalue(9.2for5:soksifromTableli.4.l).Somestrength
reduction riay be tolerated fiom the flange local buckling limit state'.bgt The moment of inertia of the cross-section
must be evaluated.
preferably
' not. ^ '*
Checl .Q, for buckling
lateral-torsional (LTB) limit state (LRFD-Appen-' l : x22: /2)2 : 140.960
27.5(2)(10t.25
dix G2), Eqs. 11.4.4through11.4.9: x i0o' (0.3?5X100)3712 : 31,250
I:::ifroin.o
I _ 172,270_.
tT: : 5 . 7 3i n . s _
r,: : 3-?60
in.
'
::g
@1fi: 50+ 1:5
.-** Then. using Fq.1I.4.2, the nominalstrengthM^ can be evaluated,
300
\p: -F : .12.-l
ti'il /1? : 12,770ft'kips
i{n : 4,5-.Reo : 50(3360)(0-912)
,:;#
-#
F
b (
I
(
( 1I .15 ,/ PI-ATE GiA,DERDESIGNEXAMPLE- LRFD 729
728 11rrp4't= clRDERs
(
( Use Eqs. 11.9.27and 11.11.10{LRFD-Appendix G3) for this interior p:.rnel
( functionof h/t,, anda/h.In thiscase, (thereis an adjacentpanelin the oiher sp::.i):
RequiredO,.Iz" !, 369
( : : : 11.8ksi Requiredq Iz, v,. -<.lg h 100
An A* 31.25 : i4'5 l:si' : :267
4.. ;: ,,- ,* 0^375
(
Then enter TABLE 10-36with h/t*:320' look for 11'8 ksi' and determine
(
a/h.lnthis case, as
values high as 11.8ksi indicate only that a/h is lessthan Using LRFD " NUMERICAL l'.{LUES" TABLE 11-50,again find rhe
( 0.5. Thus, a detailedcalculationas abovervould be necessary' nraximuma/h is controlledb1'th: arbitraq.'limitlseealsoFig. 11.9.9).
assumption)
Pane!2: Assumethe shearenvelopeis linear (a conservative
( under the concentrated load' Thus' at a i 2'.':
over the 25 ft tc the bearingstiffener Max;:1r,, I : i
( 2.75 f.t from the suPPort, % 1l : 0 . 9 5
( 369 - 228
vu2: 369- (2.75) : 353kips This panel adjacentto the inte;:or support.on a continuousspanhas high
"
( shear and high bendingmonrenra: the sa:nelocation.Thus. LRFD-Appendix
in all-panels
( Equation 7I.g.27rvhichincludestension-fieldaction is applicable" G5 is likel;'to control stiffenerspacing.Ti-rus.Eq. 11.10.14must be investi-
the
except panel
exterior treated above' Use LRFD NUI\'IERI- gated.The designstrengthei,jl^ l,lascoinpuredin part (e) io be 11,490ft-kips
of this girder,
h/tw: 320 and 'rhus,
( CAL VRLUES" TABLE 11-36,enteringwrLh at the maxtnlumnegativemomeni ic:ca'ricn;
i =l#)': (#)':066<30 strengthis usedin the interacrion::imuia- Eq. i1.10.i4.In ASD, the srressori
( tlzev;eb is used in the moment-rel"ied tei-nrof the interactionequation,Eq.
11.10.21.
( a = 0.66(100): 66 in. (5.5 ft)
The flexure-shear strengthint-sction limitation can be satisfiedeitherby
is required at
( Since iateral support occursevery 25 ft and a bearing stiffener increasingthe momentstrengthii.e., reduing the percentutilization)cr h1
arranged to fit these
concentrated loads, the stiffenei spacing is usually increasingthe shearstrength.The p:acticai procedureat this stageof dcsigni.s
( remains' Four spaces
limitations. Consideringthe first stifienet al2''9",22'-3" to place the intermediatestiffenersat suffiiently closeinten'alsto malie the
will be less than 72'-3". Thus, five spaces must be percentutilization of the shearsireagth lc*' encugh to satisfythe interaction
( at the maximum of 5.i ft
used. It is preferableto use 3-in. multiples for stiffener spacrng' equation.
( 2 Solving Eq. i1.10.14 for the required VJ+.V, gives
Use stiffenlr spacesas follows stalt@
(
( still govems. h . o 6 2 i | , * i= , , , , I rr . i o . r a ]
( Us e5 s pac es @ 5 ' -0 " .
beiow the rI'
F* th. *gioll from 50 to 75 ft the maximum shearstressis still 1 . 3 7 5-
(
value in panel 2, so that a/h manmum still governs' n.quir.d QlM^
:2.2 - 1.6(0.98):0.63
( Use5spaces@5'-0".
Zone. W eb
fr 0. 615
( $'t)Ir*r*rdiateStiffeners-PlacementinNegatiueMoment
p l a t e : * x 1 0 0 ,l * : 3 7 . 5 s q i n . , 4 - 5 0 k s i ' The design strength6,Vn that musi -heprovided in this panel is
( Interior end:
* RequiredQ,Vn: V;0.63 : 549/0.63: 871kips
( 4 : 549 kiPs 'E
h ( >-'*
g.Fjr.
}
.- U
i*
"NUMERICAL VALUES" twth h/t-:267
VALUFS" TABLE 11-50wth h/t-:267 support the factored
support factoredmor
using LRFD
Using LRFD..NUMERICAL f€
l€
and
and tg
iE
lF .-:- : '-.-
Required
Required 871/375:23.2lcsi
Q"VJA*:871/37.5
Q"VJA*: :23.21,si f$
t+ ^ t *M , ;J;;; v''J
i€ QtM,
Q 11,490
1 1,490 /
Find
Find maximum
maximum Lt/
r-lrr|.l Ir,r.LrLLuLe]Jj a/ht. =
a/h -= 0.45
0.45
\t.al (estimated)
(estimated)
\wrruusrvs IE
Ie' r-a^+i^- reqt
1.1,p intgraction
iara:an+ina -^^..:-^-^-. __j,! t
j.* The
Thg interaction requirement will aiso control this panel. The maximum i'
t*
in order to obtain a more exactcomputation, Eq. ll.g.27 must be solved by VJE.V, is
VJE,V,
ig
trial. ln this case,evaluatethe strengthprovided w:hena/h : O-45, i€
5 s ig r.37s__:
v:,: Ql
k' \ :' -sJ*-- ' : 5 + -.":29-7 it rR\ !eYquu* iurre' 'd -
fuJh)r-'' (0.cs)2-L'' W^- 0.625
lB
AssurneC < 0.8 by referringto Fig. 11.9.9;then using Eq. 11.8.10for C,., The designstrengthQ I
i'i
(
44,000k 44,000(29.?) i: Required
' g,V,:
' u ' n VJ0.g1
'u/''-'
C
uu, , : . # : _0 A.,t<
.366 li
(267)250 "NUMEzucAL
thlt-)z Fr* l€^ .
Using LRFD vAI
Lr.- and a n o l
l*E
I l - c, Required q
V n : 0 . 6 F , * n * | C , + f \ f i | t L 7 . g r- 2n.rrr
L.L L ' 77' L |t t F . . . . - . - . . R e q u i r e d q
1 . 1 5 V 1+ \ a / h ) - I tFind
r i n r rmaximum
1 l: r n e y i r n , a/h , :0.95]
l1zaon67)2 (
la
l { o . , u u * 4 l : n , , * o , h ' h u s , t h e a r b i t r a r y u p p e r l i m i t , E q . l 1 .:0.e5(100)
l1.l0cc
\ 1.rs/1+ (0.4s)z I l; Maxa : e5ir
with the first stiffenerat
evn:0.90(977): 880kips> (Required
ev,:871 kips) oK l] dltl11..: to-thebearingstiffenerat theconcentrated
l:
i;i,x';".;fi;"_,'#HTlil:ffi#;J:1il::.J.
;'
loadwill require3 spaces
i,
momenrregionis ii ?''6".on the fr webpa
I
'vr'!\ sa -: v..',\rvv'/
Max 0.45(100) -: ''J
45ru'
in. thearor
i' TJ:i",:"::o-oijj,:*',j:41',*:tf:
The arrangement of intermed.iatestifflner
l,
Use3'-9". l: 11.15.6.
Pcnel2: Assumethe shearenvelopeis linear (a conservativeassumption) bcyi1\ of.Ftat
l; ,^__q),
dependent
ovei rhe 25 ft to the bearingstiffenei under the concenrratedload. Thus. at on the type
VrVl Lllv &J Lt lV lllv L/96LflLfb JllIMvr usvl uv wuwult4lw lvss. ^^le. sL '
h
11 .:,
l
i
(
732 u /PLATE GTRDERS r1.r5lPLATEG|RDERDESTGN
( EXArv{pLE_
LRFD 733
(
about 3500 ft-kips occursonly rvhenno live load is on span 1; thus. the shcar This stiffenerarea ratio requirementfrom the rabre
is the sanieas u:ing E.r
( will be low. The most criticsl casewill be the loading for maximum negative 1-1'92i (LRFD-AppendixG4)- The requirementmay
moment in combinationwith the high shearfrom the shearenvelope.For that i - retiucedin propcrri{\:.r
be
that the shearstrenglhis underutilized,
(
situation, the factoredforcesare
( vu/A*. 11.4
Mu = 1800ft-kips; I{, = 430 kips
( (scaledfrom Fig. 11.15.2) +,v^/A*:TAa:0.70
The stiffenerarea ;i,, requiredis
( Mu 1800
< 0.75 RequiredA ", : 0.049(0.70)l_
( Qr,M, 7870(from part f)
: 0. 049( 0. 70) 3i. 25
: 1. 07sq
( The combinedshearand flexureinteractionrelationshipdoesnot ccntrol. For in.
shear strength,use LRFD "NUMERICAL VALUES" T.A.ijLE 11-36 rvith This arearequirementassumesstiffenersare to be used pairs.
in Furthermore.
( local bucklingof this unsriffenedelemenl.mustbe precruded;
h / t * : 3 2 0a n d i.e.. ), s,\,.
( accordingto LRFD-B5.The width b and thickness r, as shou.nin Fig. i1.i5..1.
Required0,,4 v, 430 nrustsatisfv
_ _ : 13.gksi
( A*. An 37.25
(
(
Find a/h > 0.7; therefore. madmuin a/hbased on Eq. 11.ii.1C controlsas in
part (g). Maximum a/h : 0.66,giving it : 66 in. Thus, splicethe q'eb at 20 ft
=(^,
(^:i) : -:
e5
tr
\ 1t . v s !
e5
_ _ _ : __ .j { - i.i i
,Y,J ?U A
'"'"1
I
_ (
< 15.8 the thickness where (1'
This rvouid indicate 8-in. $ide plates, aod to satisfy b/t
would be about 0.5 in. These would be inordinately large and A,, would be 2.5 /'
2.5 \
about 8 sq in. Try pairs of plates * x 5, grving b/t :13.3 rvhich is less i: -z- -2:10.3
fu/hf Gsllooy (.
than 1,,'.
Check the momentof inertia {,, _ tw i 0. 3125( 10. 375) 3 (t
-'t
f : -
OK
tw3 0.3?5(10.372s)' rz .12
f : - : : 3 4.3i n.a
"t 12 12 Th. * x 5 plates are sadsfactoryfor useon the f-in. web of Grade 50 in the
negative moment zone.
Thus, the provided /,, exceedsthe required23j in-4 If the bft tmit-of 15'8 Use 2 PLs- * x 5 of A36 steelfor all intermediatestiffenersconnecredto rhe
can be acceptedut ik (r.e., l% high), plates * X .5 will be acceptable;the
momenr of inertia 1,, f.or those piates is 28.6 in.4 The authors
prefer the * -i n. w eb.
ru x 5 plates.
f. (k) Connectionof Intermediatestdfenersto web. For tbr
*-ir, ,{36 web,
Since the sriffenersfor tbe panel are about the minimum size basedon using Eq. i1.11.20,
local buckling provisions, the reduced area required for the more interior
panelson the *-in. web is of little consequence' t*
Lrseirus-#"x 5 for ail intermediatestiffenersattachedto the f6-in- web- fnu:0.045i
| ; [11.11.20J
Examine ttre ena panel adjacent to the interior support. Becauseof the Even though there is no specificforce requirementfor connectingintermediate
shear-flerureinteraction requirement the design shear strengthdtrl, require.d stiffeners ex€pt the tension-fieldforce { used for the A, requirement,thc I
rs: use of Eq.i1.11.20 as recorrmended (
by Baslertl1.3l seer$ appropriate.
RequiredQ,Vn:871 kips [from part (h)]
(
RequiredQ,VJA*: 871/37.5 : 23-2ksi f,,,:0.045(roo, : 6.ekips/in.
\m I
h /t' : 1 0 0 /0 ' 3 7 5: 2 6 7 made 2'-5" insteadof the 2'-9" permitted.Thus thefn, value could logically (.
be reducedin proportion that the shearis underutilized.Using Eq. 11.8.10for
ailz: 0'45 the
.\s in the calculationsto determinethe stiffener spacing,at"NUMERICAL C, < 0.8 *'ith a/h : 3A/n0: 0.30, h/t,:320, and k : 6A.6from Eq.
panel uses 100% oi the sbear strength. Entering LRFD 11.8.8gi ves
:0.5 (the
VALUES" TABLE i1-50 with the above values, find for a/h 44,000(60.6) r
smallestvalue in the table), c': : o12 \
o,i'4'A- = 13 ksi
1320re6)
v ^ : c u ( a . 6 F r _ ) l:_ 0 . ? 2 ( 0 . 6 X 3 6 ). (z3s1): 4 8 6 k i p s
, r . . / . : - *=. 0 . 0 4 (.
vu 369
: : o'84
The stiffener area ,4r, requirecii; QV, 0. 90( 4g6)
t
Requ i re dA ,,: 0 -M A-: 0 ' M(3 7 ' 5 ) : 1' 5 sq i n'
Requiredfnu:6.9(0.84) : 5.8 kips/in.
This arc-arequirementis for F, = 50 ksi stiJfenersusedin pairs. For A36 steel, N{in weld sizea : f; in. (LRFD_TableJ2.5)
: 2.1 sq in. The width/thicknesslimit tr, : 13-4 {
required .1., : 1.5(50,/36)
Deterrnine maximum effectiverveld size(LRFD-J}.4 using shear strensrh
ici f ;, : 5d'ksi. Since sriffnessis controlling rather than strength,use A36 i
stiffenersrvith tr, : 15.8.Tt:* * x 5 platesin pairs. on throat of fillet with E70 electrodes)(seealso text, Sec.5.14), Eq. 5.14.g;
I
Chcck required /,,, r t 5 8'l:
( i / 1 6')
: 707+f : 0. 707
ersaxet r0. : 0. 183in. (,
1,, >- jat): to.3(45)(o.lzs)3: 24'4 rn'a Fer<x 70
(
(
I
(
t.
,{
I
I
736 1r / PLATEGIRDERS
. I 1.1s/ PLATE
GTRDER
DESIGN _ LRFD
EXAMPLE 7g7
(
( .rr: 0.707 : t : a . i 0 7 5 8 ( 5 / 1 6 ): 0 . i i i 3 i n .
+fnxx
: \ 70
l. where the yield stressof the web is usedin fn,'.
io( the
At the interior support.the actualshearstrengthequalsapproximately- ior 870 electrodes.The shear ilow V,e/l,
i {
is
i Y requireclstrength; thus no reduction in f," is appropriate' 'r.
i l
( lr{in rveld sizea:
F t, 58(3/8)
rt in. Q :A r l : . ?) : 2 4 ( 7 . 1 2 5 ) ( 5 0 . 6: 5 )i 3 7 0 i n . 3
= A'707#
dmaxcrr : 0'707--*: : 0'183in' V,Q 36e(1370)
f''cx /u : 3'1kiPs/in'
T i64Poo
basedon the 436 stiffeners.Use *-in. filiet rveldrvith 870 electrodes,
Equating rhe strengthof two fillets to V,e/l, gives
R,,: 0.183(0.707x0.6)70 : 5.M kips/in.
the maximumpitch is
For 1]-in. segrnents,
Requiredc : 0.05in. < 0.193in.
1.5 (s .1 4)
Max pitch : : 2-9 in.
tt 2t Lse * in. rveld,870electrodes
(effectivesize: 0.183in.).The designstrength
?R,,*' for.offioth sidesof the rvebis
which meansnearly continuous*-in-*.;-
: plates
U,, l- irr. continuous weld, E7-0electrodes,for connecting X 5 QRu, : 0. 75( 2) ( 0. 707X0. 1S3) ( 0. 6)
: i0
8. 2 kips/ in.
(ero) to i in. web ({,. : 5o ksi)-
'.: 3'1
welding of the Ivlin ?, continu o u s r v e l d :
A nonge to ll/eb Connection-A36 steel reg,ion.The .13
*(tOO):3g%
flangis to the web must proviCe for the factored horizontal shearflotv V,Q/I'
-r.:1
:;-:.il
, 4-SJ
,{
738 11/ PISTE GIRDEfiS ;- 1 1. 1 5 / F L A T E G T R D E R
D E S : G NE X nr . , t p l E_ L R F D 739 ( t
a
t ( t
4
i
The maximum spacingof weld segments,accordingto LRFD-E4 is ** ( ,
{tztt Lzl$lra \ t
22" f,ange' (
" -s\ lIF-6=
SPacing : 6-6h-l = .12in- I
, ,136
g wactth
t
t
!
n
(
e
*
t
_ : .4kios,/in. i column stability criterion accordingto LRFD-KI.8, 3rd par. (Fig. 11.15.4for
I, 172,000 *
T
(
t
+: cross-section):
=).. ( ,
rvhere t'.'
i r = 0.25(20.375): 5.1 in.
f 1
5 r : X
,@
!
-i r.-tco
o . o
i
- : I : 5'7 ir'' > estimated5'l in' -'l-
: ^ i
1/ 20(1.?5)+ 9.375(0.37t
(t:co
6 b
,o 6,'' o)
^ 3
By inspection,column strengthis adequate. O
F
X r
IIJ
- X o
lO
Use4H-s-{ x 10 for R = 1098kips (n36 steel),as shown in Fig. 11.15.5. 9o:9 i. 9 i 9 o
-ior
( r 5 7 E;E
!( oH(9
't Vc ) =C Vl ,
C':'D C b<-
- 6 FrN s X - - : c ; ^
d: o<
:\
Stiffener o l g r ? F 9 8 . 9
plates 3 i 5fr3'r
. a C '
i( lCross section! -6iU:
;\ I
gEEE
r: r' Web,3/8"
(gtr.Y-
t\ a * 6 S
1 ==oY
ta
a l (J=(! (E
g Variable:
$
i should t
(
ia
match
Figure 11.15.5 Cross-section(frnal) of '
9rpporr
r
ri
L\
width bearing stiffener at iaterior support.
(D
Sz <l;
f
:)r 7.37 o/
It 6 . 4
:\ wetd-
Min %continuous : 25%
€ #(100) r o = 9
r
t
T. at Concentrated l-oads25ft from Supports.At these
..
^
o o l P ". '^- , - ?
t
tr
( o
g,
;
.J
(
Y (p) BearingStiffeners d
c i
, =
G .x
!r
locarions,checkwhetheror not the intermediatestiffeaers*ill be adequateto g
=
t
^
h
J O
i
;
o
.&
{
i' serveasbearingstiffeners.The factoredloadsWu ate o
6 & c
c
{
! o
-
r E 6 o =
I
+ 15(60): 114kips
wu: 1.2(15) : Ct\lcg
;
6 ' B
>
t r -,' l^F i @
o
o
a
)
= (9
( i c', tcg =
\ q o 6
€ E 5 g
d
( / *(5/16)(10.312s)' -
CV
- t.ot *t. o
I rolo.lzs)+ 2s(0.3125X0.3125)
I t l
( o,
LL
( KL
- : - - 30.7s(1oo)
3
( : r 2-27
(
741
a
Analysis
11.1. (This problem solutionis used for Probs.11.2 to 11.6-)A plate girder €
iuppoit"a as shorvnmusi carry a deadload of 2ktps/ft and live load of
8 ici-ps/ft, not including the girder weight. In addition, a concentrated
dead load of 100 kips must be carried at the end of the cantilever.
Compute and draw to scale for later use the moment and shear
envelopesfor this girder.
1 0 0k
(deadtoad)
_€
:**
.=! I
-,.iF
A s c r m e g i r d e rw e i g h t i s 3 9 0 l b / f t
' .r1;
;: I
I g)
prob. 11.1
-$ :)
o
.-:€. Gl
11.2. (Use results of Prob. 11.1.)For the givenplate girder designedfor the ,{€-
conditions of Prob. 11.1, compute and draw to scale the moment th
s
* o
capacity diagram, $Mn for LRFD (or allowable moment FuS' f9r _=rg
.'f
nSpt vs location alonf span. Neglect any reduction that might result
from combined sbear and moment interaction according to LRFD'Ap- .-s
pendix G5 or ASD-G5. Compare capacity w{th moment'€nvelope .
-
*1F-
-:1
rS
requirernentsfrom Prob. 11.1.
l{lEi
tr
-:*.
' '-:*t:
'e
'1_:
745
746 11/ PLATE
GIRDERS (
PROBLEMS 747
(
11.3. (Use resultsof Prob. 11.1.)For the glven plate girder,computeand * (c) Investigatethe adequacyof the size of intermediate (
draw to scale the shear capacity diagram, qVn fot LRFD (or allowable stiffeners.
(d) Investigate the adequacy pf the size (
of the bearing stiffener
shear FuA*.for ASD) vs location along span base/ on location of (2PLs- | x S) ar rhe support.
intermediate stiffeners. Neglect any consideration of combined shear. (e) Specify the flange-to-webconnecdon. (
and bending moment under LRFD-Appendix G5 or ASD-G5. Com- (0 specify the connection for intermediatestiffeners.
pare shearcapacity with shearenveloperequirementsfrom Prob. 11.1. (
(g) specify the connection for the support
bearing stiffener.
r 1.4. (Use resultsof Prob. 11.1.)Investigatecombinedshear.and moment
+ (
11'8' Using the given information concerningth: portion
strengr.hby checkinginteractionrelationshipat all critical locations. of the plate girder,
* determine how close stiffener .B must 6. to itiffener (
c I in order for the
11.5. (Use results of Prob. 11.1.) Compute and draw to scale the shear * design to be acceptable according to Load and Resistance (
Factor
capacity diagrarq, Q,Vnfor LRFD (or allowableshearFuAn for ASD) .l-
Design.
vs location along spil, for the girder bosedon theflange-to-*ebconnec- {E
(
tion. t-z$xzo
r r.6. (Use resultsof Prob. 11.1.)Checkthe adequacyof eachof the bearing -* (
stiffeners,including connectionto the web.
Given: Steel,F" = 50 ksj. (
*
E
',.t-$ xzo
11.7. Given the data for the 50-ft simply supportdd sp&, having lateral hlt = 243
support at the ends and at the concentratedloads located 18 ft from
. I = 157,40Oin.a (
: R"oF", = 48 ksi according
eachend; to LRFDAppendix G2 (
(a) Investigate the acceptability of the 84in. spacing for stiffener
panel 4. (',
t- z$xzo
(b) Investigatecombinedshearand bendingat its most critical location 12,800 tt-kips (
in the girder.
7000ft-kips Factored {
moment M,{.
(
E6ndingmornenl
Z ts -
stiffeners
Eearing
I
xe ( ,
0 8 k,/ft DL. 1.9 k/ft LL ozor (
Factored
3earingstiffeners Shear shear V, (
zts-ftxc zqs-]xe z1s-ftxa
P r o b .1 1 . 8 (
(
11'9' Using the giveninformationconcerningthe portion (
of the plate girdc;,
determine horv closestiffener ^Bmust i. to itiff.n.,
50'-0" simple span ,4 in order for rlre (
design to be arceptable accord.ingto Load
and Resistance Facror
rJeslgn. (
n--tx zo
11.10.Giv_enthe plate girder interior panel as ( ,
shown,of 436 material.
ftxzo (a) Disregardingcombined Uenaingand
Lateralsupporl shear, derermine the sh:ir
occurs al ends and l': 46'5csin '' strength r', (kips) of the given paner.what percent (
at concentratedroads- A36steel
of the capaci:y
representselastic buckling strength and what percent (
" tension-field comes from
n--f;xzo action"?
(b) (
Prob. 11.7
lf M.J+u^: 0.92 ar rhe extremefiber of rhe web, whar is the
. design shearstrength0rl" (kips)? ( i
( t
( t
(
C
\ 748 1I // PI-ATEGIRDEBS ,PROBLEMS
( 749
(
t-zlxza (b) lv{oment and shear en"elopes are to be
drarvn to scale.
( (c) For continuousgirders. use f,: j0 ksi in the negati'c
moilrc,ntzone and
A36 in the positive ittul:ellt zone. For staticallf
( t h e s t e e l s p r - ' c i f i e idn i l e p r r , b l c m .
ciercrminatc
---""'!Y o
girdcrs
rlu\ usc
Given: Sieel, F, = 50 ksi -,"i
( t-$xsz ( d ) consider- in. as the ni:nimun: rieb rhickness
I A
hlt - 245 available.
/ = 303,3O0 in.' (e) Fo]]ow the proportionineguidelines
( of chaprer 11. unless5.ouclcarrr
R ooFr,: 48 ksr accordtng indicatethat you are ccine othenr-ise
Determine
t c L R F D - A p p e n d i xG 2 for a specificsratedrerson.
( max. spacing (f) Use ,436steelfor stifieneisif possible.
(g) Specifyintermittent*'clding for conncctions
if any'rnaterial sa'ing rcsuirs.
( 2Q,1lrCIft-kiPs eventhou-*ha cost anal_r'sis
t- zlxza may later dictaie.onrinrous*.eldi'g.
( h ) Submit deslgnsketchto approximare
( 13,600 ft'kiPs Factored
scarecn g* x tl papersho*.ingari
rncment M
final decisicns.
( (i) Compute the total al'etage*eig.ht per foor
of rhe girder. ' 'r'Lrsv
includins all
( Bendingmoment stiffeners.
(j) For the twospan coniinuousgirder designs.
assumeone spliceis requii-ctJ i'
( eachspan . An) 'ext r a buit - w'er ded
f lJn_se spiice( t r i. c. , t angcs)shour dbc
Slope65k/tt' rrcatedas adding r0 rb./fr ro the a\.erageweight.(This
( 720 k *.i, .ppri*i,,^,rr"
the addedcostefiectof -suqhsplices.)rvlu sptil.,
Faclored in .*..rs of onc requii.c.cl
( shear Y per span shourd be consideredas adding
6 rb/ft ro rhe "r;rrg;;r;.;
weight.
(' Prob. 11.9
750 | | /
i nr a ?-
Y'.-J^.t =
^166rn^
\tlnLJC.nJ
t :
t.,
ii a,
t.
( r
Case
Load
(kiplft)
Load
(ktp/tt)
Length
(fr)
fv
/f
(kips)
a
(fr)
Laterai i
t ,
GornbinedBending
Support t.:
rt.
t-.
I
and Axial Load
1 1.25 2.25 140 60 35 Every35 ft lii
751
(
( , I
tr AND BENDING
EQUATIONFORAXTALCOIJPtrESSIOf{
12.2/ DTFFERENTTAL 753
( ' 12lCOMSINED LoAD
ANDAXIAL
BENDING
I
(-;
buckling are an ; rlrembcr to deflect ,v giving rise to a seccndrrr\ntontent P-v.Stating thc
( ' columns that are stablewith regar,Cto lateral-torsional givcs
nroment I{- at the location ; of Fig. 12.2.1.
( ' example of this category')
the strong axis: failure by
3. Axial compression'undbending about d: i'
/111r\
( ' lateral-torsionalbuckling' itl. : . 1 / , + P l . : EI \ L L ' - ' ' I
stiff sections;fail- ; :
EI 4-Z
Design proceduresgenerallyare in Ll d:-
a likely ro accoun, io. ru.t varied behavior.
( combinedstress;(2) semi-empirical
one of rhree ..,.iorl.t: (1) limitation on Fronr Eq. 12.2.1,
based on rvorking stress procedures. and (3) semi-
( interaction formulas, d :,tl
,tr.ngth' ti*itutions on combined d'), I'l . ,it l'
empirical interaction proceduresbasedoi
I
- .-,1 ---;- ,
t( stress ordinarily cannot provide a proper criterion unless instability is pre-
Interaction equations-99*t closer to
dzz
:
EI d:a a d:'
vented, or large safety factors ut. us.d.
ir describing the true beharior since they
account-for the stability situations Substitutionin Eq. 12.2.3gives
formulas for beam-columns
commonly .n.ouni.red. The AISC Specification 1 d2M . P 7 d2.Lt.
are of the interactiontype in both Load
and Resistance Factor Design and - E r d f * - tI _ 1- , 1t. \
E/\ EI J EI d: -
Allowable StressDesign'
or. simplifyingand lettingk2 : P/Er.
FOR
EOUATION
12.2 DIFFERENTIAL
ANDBENDING (12.2.1)
axfaucoruPnEsstoN
basic situation of case2' Sec' 12'1'
In order to understandthe behavior,the rvhichis of the sameform as the deflectiondifferentialcquation.F-q.1-.-.-.
pla'e of bending is assumed'
wiil be treated. Failure by instabilii' in the The homogeneous solutionfor Eq. 72.2.4is
wheie the lateral loading w(e) in
Consider the generalcaseof Fig. ti.Z.t,
Mr an{ M2, coostitute the primary trI': ,1 sin k; * B cosA;
combination with any end moments,
is a function of z. The pti*ury moment causesthe
bending moment i{ which .r. first discussedin Sec.6.2.To thismustbe addedthe particuiarsolutiontltat
riili satisfythe right-handsideof the differentialequation.Since M,: lttl.
,.ihere
tt
ttr2 /(a) is usuallya polynomiaiin z. the particularsolutionrvill be of the
\ ume form; thus the completesolutionmay be n'ritten
f--i'--
<-*P+ Z
I /1 -'' a < \
M.: A s i n k z* B c c sk z + f r ( : ) \ LL.L.J )
Sign convention
r'- '--- nhcre fr(z\: vaiue of M, satisffing F4. 12.2.4.When ;1/- is a continuolrs
r--
.*v
f.._
#:,
in which casea generalexpressionfor maximum M,can be establisbed;from
Mr^u:'fffi
The constants I and B are evaluatedby applyrngthe bouadary cond"itionsto
(12.2.rr) (
(
4. L2.2.5.The generalequation is (
Eq. 12.2.6,
Mr: .,{sin kz + B coskz {
Ak coskz : Bk sin kz
A and the conditions are (
€
tankz:E (r2.2.7) (
* ( 1 ) a tz : A , Mr: Mt
s
L'
At maximumM,, .E (
A B ...8 : Mr . (',
Si-kz::- CCSk3:: (12.2.8) *
5
,/A2+8"' ,lA2+82 * (2)atZ:L, Mr: Mz
E
(
and substitution of Eqs. 12.2.8into Eq. 12.2.5grves , Mz: ,{ sin kL + MrcoskL (
.,^\
trz 3z M2 - Mrcos kL
---F ;':. (
.'.4 -
: T -
. rr.:mat T !l\. t
vA"+82'{f;v ,d
sin kI, (
+
:tfffiz +fr(r) (17.2.e) j
{
3
rF so that \
It is noted that wheneverdfr(z)/e + 0, Eq. 12.2.i must'be solved for kz
I M" - M,coskL\
.d
,- (
and the result substitutedinto Eq. L2.2.5. M': * Mrcoskz (12.2.12)
I
t *A-Jsinkz
I t ,
Case 1 - Unequal End Moments Wlthout Transverse Loadlng : (
Referring to Fig. 72.2.2,the primary momeot M, may be expressed (
- trtrcoskLi?
*
t
M " ^ .V,l l :tM-, .
. r {M
i : t .r y z (r?-z.n) et
"ii
)**i \
?
I
(
Since
.: L - z(Mr/ Mr)ns /ct + (Ur/Ur)' {
o'!,,: .,7
:MZ (12.2.13)
2-
o :i:
sin2&l
(
,4.'
(
Case 2 - TransverseUnlformLoadlng
(
Referringto Fig. 72.2.3,the primarymomenrM, ma1'be expressedas
(
M - .\ (tz.z.t+t (
i'Q-
(
P (
_L.+@
Secondary rmrcnt,Py
. trTt (
2-t!^ns'erse
Figure 12-2.2 Case l-ead moments without tmnsverseloading. . J lffiili3;l"!.*" (
( )
( ,
('
(
r2.3/MOMENTMAGN|flCAT|ON-STNGLECURVATURE
737
( ' 756 12/ coMBtNED ANDAxIALLOAD
BENDING
('
Case3 - EqualEnd MomentsWithoutTransyerseLoading'
( Since (SecantFormula)
d2ttti
( that .[/, : M2: M in Fig.12.2.1.
Consider in whichcaseEq. l2.z.l3becones
f:-lY
(
is required' Let
"ffr(z) * 0; the particulal solution for the differentialequation M, ^^t: M ( 12 . 2 . 1i;
( the particularsolutioninto
,it>: Cr * irz; i.e.,any Pollnomial. Subsritute
\,
( Eq. 12.2.4.
(
a'[/'!')J
:o - lLil t
2(1 - cos&I- )
:M(
i j
dz' 1 - cos2i<l l, coskLi2 |
( KL
0+fr2(Cr+Crz):-, - M secT (12.2.1r)
\ Thus
( Ct : - u'/k2 Loading a beam-columnwith constant moment over its length causesa
( constant compressionalong one entire flange and constitutesthe most seyere
t
_Cr:0 loading on.sucha member.In view of this it rvould alu'aysbe conservati!'ero
( Equation 72.2.5then becomes multiply the maximum primary moment due to anj loading bv seckLi?.
(12.2.15) rvhich is excessivelvconservativein most cases.
( Llr: ,{ sin kz + Bcoskz - w/kz
('
Applying the boundarYcoaditions,
12.3 MOT'TENT
MAGNIFICATION- SIMPLTFIED
TREATMENT
t ( l ) a tz : 0 , Mr:o FORMEMBERS IN SINGLECURVATURE
\ WITHOUTENDTRANSLATION
0:B-nt/kz
( As an alternateto the differentialequation approach,a simple approximate
. . . 8 ,: w / k z
( procedureis satisfactoryfor many common situations.
( 2) at z : L, It{ ,: g Assume a beam-columnis subject to lateral loading rr'(z) that causesa
( deflection 6o at midspan,'as shown in Fig. 12.3.I. The secondarybending
( 0 : Asinlct + |.o, kL - +
K-
ntoment may be assumedto vary as a sine cun'e, rvhich is nearly correct for
k'
\ w l1-cos/cl\
( .'..4- .l----l
kt\ sinkl, I
(
Since dfr(z)/dz: 0, Eg- 17-2.9givesmaximummoment' I=+:;L6=:
l-,J i,
i\
ll, ^o = Mo t P/n,
u)
( M,^, t,
( Primary trnding mcment *1.
wl kL \
( : - l,, A',sumeas
k'lsecT i;ne curvg
( Seccndarybending moment Py
:Tlm]l'*z-t,|
l:;
wLzl 8 \t kL \
( .(12.2.16) Centroid ot shadedarea
(
magnificatior f a.tor ds€ Frgure12.3.1 Prigary and secondarybending loomeot.
( ro axial comprcssior
(
758 12/ CAMAIT{ED AND AXIALLOAD
B:NDTNG
12.3i MO[.,{ENT
MAGhIFICAT|ON
_ SINGLECURVATURE 759 ( ,
or P M^
( ,
z -
- w P
[TITITT'Tirn1rrI- . 1.0
G ,-.\r ( r
! r : ( f r + 6 . )rc+ (12.3.2)
(
M ^ i
rvhereP, : n2E I / L2. Solwngfor yr, 3 1 - 0.2a
_z+__ i
(.,
, ,:- ^oolt
l _ P/'' / _ \
l -: ^oo\ " ( ,
)'r (12.3.3)
e7r,l 1 "/ 4 1 - 0.3c I - 0.4o (
rvherea: P/P,. Since/."" is the sum of 6o and y1,
(-r
6o M ^ j
)r"",:6o*1:6o*6.{'J-) (12.3.4) t
P P
I - 0.4 1 - 0.4o ,, (
l - c
\ r - d l
Z:\ ( ,
The maximum bendingmomeot including the axial effect becomes
o
M,*: Ma* P!^^, (12.3.5) b
P 7"'
\-.....,_
1 - 0.4c 1 - 0.3o
('',
-z-
tr{ r^ -: M o Bt (12.3.6)
i
I
(
0 M_
( ,
P\
c^ 8
f-t M ^ -T E q .( 1 2 . 3 . s ) nol
available ('
where BL (r2.3.7) M^* Me M"'
1 - a (
uAdaptcd
from AISC Comoea,:ry.-TableC-Hl.1
[1.6, 1.16]. (
and c^:t.(#- 1)":1**q (12.3.s)
(',
ning with the 19E0 AISC Manual. It is noted that the
For usual casesof singlecun'ature. the rnrgnificarioniactor 13, to be magnification of (',
negative moment is necessaryin order to maintain zero slope
applied to the primary bendingmoment is equai iir i,,,.,'i.1- or). ltigorous at the fixed
supports when the beam deflecs in the positive moment iegion. ( "
difierentialequationsolutionsfor Cases1 to 7 shoi'.'nin Table 12.3.1are Fron a
practical point of vtew it is doubtful that zlro slope is maintained;
ar.-.lablein Timoshenkoand Gere[6.6?,Chap.1]. Calculrtionof approxinra- thus, the (;
negativemoment magnificationis probably overestimated.
tions of C- in the form of Eq. 12.3.Ehn'e been made by Yura, whose
The reader may not'ethat C- will be close to 1.0 for all casesbecausc (,
calculationsare presentedby Iwankiw [12.3]. a
rarely will exceedabout 0.3, For this reasonLRFD and ASD-HI permit
The approximatevaluesfor C- for positivemomentshorvnin Table 12.3.1 using
are computed using Eq. 12.3.8 and they are in general agreementwith
c^: 1-0 for u*estrrined ends. For restrainedends. c - 0.s5 i; permitted; i
horvever,this low value is generallyunconservative.The use of the values
theoretical results even though Eq. 12.3.8 is derived using a sine curve from \ i
Table 12.3.1 sarisFrestbe LRFD and ASD-HI indication that
deflection.The negativemomentvalueshave been includedby AISC begin-
determinedby ratioaal anelysis." e..may be ( ;
(',
r')
('t
f
r
t .
12.4/ [4Oh{eNTMAGN|FICATION
_ Er.lDMOMENTSONLY
12 I' COMBINED BENDINGAND AXIAL LoAD 761
I
(
12.4 MOI,IENTMAGNIFICATIbN
_ TUEMBERS
SUBJECT
ts EX{TITPLE T23.7
( TO ENDMOMENTSONLY;NO JOTNT TRANSLATTON
Comparethe differentialequationmagnificationfactoi for the loadingof Fig.
( 12.2.3,Eq. i2.2.16, with the approximatevalue,Eq' 12'3'?' For the situation shorvnin Fig. 12.2.2.u'hich has no transvcrseloa<ling.
rhc
, ( therrrcticrlma-rin:ummomenl is givenby Eq. 12.2.13.
: r SOLUTION
For the differential equation,
t
(ttrtttr)=- z(4)it.l*t tt * t
( M,*n : Mzrf
- y
facror:
B, : magnification - t) (.) s i n 3k L [12.2.13]
( Gh(r..T
For this situation the marimum momentmay be eirher (1)
('r u'here the rargerencr
nromenrJy'' at rhebracedlocation(Fig. 12.a.ta).or (2) the magnificd
t.f r
P x r iorlr.n,
|\
tl
- : -
Lr tJ
: sivenbl' Eq. 17.7.13rvhichoccursat variouslocationsout alon!
the span(Fig.
a
Z
"
L
)
E Luo 12.4-l b). depend ing on t her at io M Jlvl2 and t he'alue of c, sincekL: ; r d.
( i In order to make an analvsis,one needsto knot. whether
For the approximatesolution, the maximunr
( inomcnt occurs at a location a*'ay from the support. and
if so. the correcr
Jistance'To eliniinatethe needfor suchinfor*ution. the concept
( "D t -- 1C - ^o
of equi'ale't
uniformmoment(Fig. 12-4.1c) is used.Thus*'hen in'estigarinia memberar e
( Ir,,--ationalvay from the supportedpoint, use of rhe cqui.alent
Sv,La wLz momcnr
a.s.sumes ,l/_-*-. tO be at midSpan.
( 6o: Mo - To establishthe equivalentrnoment Mr. ret the
3g4F; T sorurionfor uniform
' ( moment,Eq. 12-2.17 rvith M : M6, be equarJdir-ithEq. r2.2.r3.one
6 o = 5L2 obrains
( Mo 48EI ! (lL,I/M)' - Z(Mr/M)cos kL + l
Itf, = I[r1f ( r 2 . 4 .)1
( ll 2( l - coslll )
(
( 1 + 0.028a (b)
B,' : --T- .;
( l - c 1 . 1 .< M 2 l c r M, ,rn ) llz
all values ot o
( =-#
t .:.# i
eg
, ( F
;Eis
762 1,2 C}fu1e,ii.i[DBENDING AND AXLALLOAD 12.4/ MOMENT _ EfiDr.,toMENTS
tJAcNrFlcATloit ONLY 763 (
/
''
(
-,
By the procedureused in Example 12.3-1 it may be shown that for
Equation 12-4-5doesnot considerlateral-torsional
buckling,or fully cor.er (
the double-curvaturecasesrvhereMr/Mr lies betrveen-0.5
uniform moment, the magnification factor is obtained from Eq' 12'2'18: and -1.0. Tlie {'
actual faiiure of membersbent iri double curi,arurervith behding
k L 1 momenr
(12.4.2) ratios -0.5 to -1.0 is generallyone of "unwinding,,through (
B,' : sec;- fro* d";i;;;
z r - a single curvature in a suddentype of buckling,* iir.ussed
by Ketrer I12.41. (,,
among others.
and using the equivalentuniforrn moment !t!, to replaceM, and M2, the fuil Austin 172-21has discussedproposalsof lvia:sonner
marimum moment maYbe exPressed as - - [12.1] and Horne (
t12.5] to approximarec-. For many yearsthe AISC Specificarions
t l \ have used the follorvingsimple approximation, [1.5, r.i5J (
Mr-*: utl ' -l (r2.4.3)
\ r - q , ' ( ,
which when comparedwith Eq- 12-3-6may be *ritten
c ^ : 0 . 6+ o . 4 Y ( 12. 4. 6) (
M:
I T \ ( ,
M,oar:c^Mrl (12.4.4) where Mt: smallerbendingmomentat one end of a member
,_",l Mz: largerbendingmomentai one end of a member ( ,
where Prior to the 1986LRFD Specification, Eq.72.4.6wasnot permitted to be less (
C^: Mt/Mz r.',.-_ lhul A.4; a very conservativeprocedure.Aoru.u.r. since* as used in curent ( .
designinteraction
- Z(M'/M) coskl + 1 "--'lateral-torsional rerationships by LRFD and ASD is noidirectl;rrelated to
-- r ,
| (Mr/u=)' (r2.4.s) buckling in ihe mannerof the i\{assonnetand Horne equa- (
|lt 2(1 - coskL) tions, thereis no reasonfor the lower limit. A rhcrc''ugh
studyof C^ has been
presentedby Chen anCZhout12.61. ( ,
The 1986 LRFD Specification [1.15]and i9S9 ASD Specification[1.5]
have removed the 0.4 lower limit on C^
A comparisonof Eqs. 12.4.5and 12.4.6is shou'nin Fig. lZ.4.Z. (
Nore that
for a given value of c: P/P", the curve'terminates when the moment ,\[) at (.;
the end of the memberexceedsthe magnifiedmornentwithin the
span. The
most important situationsare thoservhire the m:gnified moment u'irhin (
L
I
span exceedsthe momentat the end.The srraighrline usedby AISC
the upper limit for C- at any givenbending,n-o*.n, rario. and
the
lies near (
o.tl- thus seemsr(,
be a reasonableapproximation. (
It- (
ou 12.5 MOMENTMAGNIFICATTON
_ (
i'
M E M B E R S$ I I T H S I D E S W A YP O S S I B L E
"I ,
The unbraced frame,i.Eflhrame q'herejoint t:anslation
instability arisesdue to slendc-rness
may occur v;l1q'1
of the .o,r,pr..rrionelements,does not r rir:
(
(
; itse'f to the simple but relativelyaccurarerreatnlr'iripres€oted (
I in the last :ii.
o'I sections.More completetreatmentof bracedanclunbracedelastic
frames is in (
Chapter 14 and in the .S.SRC Grrirle[6.E].
L
(
{simple approximationof C- for this casem:-v be obtainedby staling
I I
I il
t
with Eq. L2.3.6which appliesfor the single.un,rr"r. ,ur..
+t.O 0.75 0.5 0.?5 o 46 -0.50 -0.i5 -l 0
(
ltrlq - 8|'din9 tnotntnl rrlb (podrivr tq Btgb cl,fvtlur€)
( ,
M*,. : MoB: Ilo(-gj (12.5.1)
Frgure 12.4.2 Comparison of theoretical C- with AISC straigbt line approximation for \ r - a 1 (
where B : magnification factor.
members subject to end monnentsonly, without joint uanslation.
f l
l ,
(
!E'
.r:-tj
, -lNSTABlLtw lN THEPLANEOFBENDING
tZ.6/NOMINAL STRENGTH 765
( A'*
:a'€
ANDAXIALLoAD
12lcoMBlNED BENDING
( 76.1
(
qith sidesway'
Frgure 12.5'1 Beam-column - INSTABILITY
12.6 NOMINALSTRENGTH
(
IN THE PLANE OF BENDING
(
buckling and
( N e x t c o n s i d e r t h e s i r u a t i o n o f F i g . l 2 . 5 . l . wthe
h a t defleciion
everthede turvt'
greeoand
frestraint The basic streagth of a beam-columnwhere lateral-torsional
of the n*-:;;'--.*U.r, prevented, and bending is about one axis' will be
at the top and Uorto* may r-eas:nably local buckling are adequately
bendin, r";Xi(;"rt** qtnettion;' (without twisting)(case
( thereforethe secondary used.whenno achievedwhen insubility o.iurc in theplaneof bending
a sine curve, ir di;; iur", th. development 2 of Sec. 7Z.l)-The difierential equationsolution, which includes the second'
be assumedto be 2L from Fig' 12'5'1
(
occurs cig."iz.i.l) is "r* l"rla here' Since order P times deflection y term, tho*t that the axial compression effect and
sidesrvay by
( Eq' 12'3'7for C"' becomes the bending moment effect cannot be determined separately and combincd
equalsL for rig''izlr't'
superposition-It is a nonlinearrelationship' ,L .L-
( the -.:^rr
yield stress
_ ,)" (t?,9 Furthermore, residual stressescausesome fibers to reach
C^:1 + stresses due to applied load
( before others, even s'hen the elasticallycomputed
. . \ is similir to the effect on arially loaded
are the same at those fibbrs. This
( in the comPutaiion compressionmembers discussedin Secs'6'5 and 6'6'
(2I instead of L) is also used compres-
( The larger effectivelength An analysis to determine the strengthinteractionbetweenaxial
;;;.n".;t, referringto Fig' 12'5'1' sion P and bending *o*.n t M for " b.u*-.olumn is complicated' First' the
( compression) relationship must be devel-
@/4L3 (12.5.3) M-0-P lmornent-iurvature-axial
(Fig'
(
6o-
3EI oped. This can be done by assumingih. yield penetration depth vft
range of
12.6.1) at various values. For each ytr there will be a complete
HL (12.s.4) in nondimensional form, rvhere Mo is the
( M_a-P, or IL!/M,-0/0y_P/P,
Mo= _T plastic montent, 6r"is ih6 curvitrr. when the extremefiber reaches
stress 'E''
( : M/Mp-0/gr. P/P-rllTtt'aseries of M/Mo-0/0'
il 4 ArFr-rio*these
( and 12'5'4into Eq' 12'5'2gives .u*"Jcur, 6. obtarned; one for eachvalue of P/Pr'
Substitutionof Eqs' i2'5'3 of
I Once M/'iIp:0/g"'curves_!1u. been obtained,a specificcombination
( 2 \ the moment M/lvIp is then
( c^:1.|#l#)t,;)-'J"
fn'EtlHLt\{ p,/p, arrO iten"agrneis ratio KL/r is selected;
applied incrercentatly to as high a value (!I-"/.!{.) such that the
and KL/r
deflection is
represents one
still stable. Ttxs combination of Pu/Pr, It'{"/Mp,
( reiati6nship, tu.tt as shown in Fig' 72'6'2'
point on a srrength interaction
( "- (12.s.5) various aspecis o-f this procedurehave been explainedby Ketter, Kaminsky'
C : 1 * {L-r\o:1-o-18q una g..ot. 1tz.r1,Galambosand Ketter [12.8],and Ketter [12.a].
( \12 l
, (
-
12.7/ NOI''IINALSTRENGTH_ FAILUREBY B:NJIi.:G AND TORSION 767
/bo 12 / COil,{BINEDBENDINGAND AXIAL LOAD (
-.P,: (
=rl I
where maximum axial compression load n'hen nominal strength is
,r-Trr1 (
"F-
reachedbasedon the interaction relationship
P, : nominal strength of an axially roaded compressionmember (
il Mu:
basedon slenderness ratio KL/r
madmum momentwhen the nominal strengthis reachedbased
(
ll ; I on the interaction relationship, including the second-order
effect (
JL-]
L_"_l
I ev..'
Mo:
a:
:
(the sa-calledP-A, effect)
Eq. i2.3.6 : MoC^/(l - o)
primary bendingmoment
P uLz/n2 EI
(
(
C ^: E q' 12' 3 . 8
(
(c) Strain (d) Stress'stratn
(b) Asumed Yield
diagram lot M,: maximummomentstrenglh- &{o for the laterallystablesitua- (
penetration and
series of stress
mai?rlal tion discussedin this section
conditions {
and bending,for €r 3 €.,. Thus, Eq. 12.6.1may be written ( ,
Figure12.6.1 Memberunderaxialcompression
';.#^='
An interaction equationrepresentingthis behavior that the strength{ when Mu:0 is basedon rhe slenderness ratio KL/r,. As (
stated at tle beginning of the section, the member was assumedto fail bu ,(
( i 3 . 6i t instabilityin the planeof bending.
Other studiesof instability in the plane of bending have included the (
effectsof transverseloading U2.4, 12.13-ll.l7l.
(
(
1 2 . 7 N O M I N A L S T R E N G T H- FAILURE BY COMBINED (.
BENDING AND TORSION (
The ordinary beam-solumnunbracedover a finite t.ogrtr involvesconsidera- (
tion of instability transverse or oblique to the plane of bending,invoS'ing (
torsionel effects.This subjectis an extension of lateral-torsionalbuckling in
beams (Chapter 9) and involvesboth elastic and inelastic considerations. (
_ - - - - .: - - , i ,l . r--------
, l Inteiaction cui-v'csfor a number of elastic buckling situationshave been
dei'eloped,including (1) I-sec1ie16slrrmnswtth eccentricend loads in the
(
planeof the web [12.18];(2) I-columnswitb unequalend momenrsbut without (
0.4
.2 0.4 0.6 0 restraintto rotation about principal axesat the ends of the member
MJhle [12.19t; (
MJMo
and (3) I-columns n'ith unequalend moments-hinged at ends for rotation
about strong axis, but elasticallyrestrainedfor rotation about the weak axis at (
(b) l,'lomentralio = + C 5
( : ) l J ! o m e nr at t i o= - 1 . 0 thc ends[12.20].An excellentsummaryof the topic is presentedby Massonnet
- (
F, 33 ksi. lincar residu:l ,t[t.!s [12.1]which includesdiscussion of plasticeffecrs.
Figure 12.6.2 Suength interactioncurvesov8X31, 7 ForF > li krr'u'c
Nore:
tto-" n:timbers' A number of studiesare availablecontaining both analytical and experi- (
4 : 0.34,.,
rooo*-riH;il.it+LC*+i
from Ketter[12'a])
adjustedL/r : tu.iuJ L/4{F,1n' (Adapted mental treatmenrsof inelasriclateral-torsionalbuckling
llz.zl -12.26l. (
r
(
t
I
a !idf----;
( s;
tt
12.8 / t'iolJlNAL STRENGTH- TNTERACTTON
Al'lDAXIALLoAD - ?*r
3' EOUATIONS 769
( 768 12,z69gt,NEo BENDING
(
r.0
( Testsby Massonnet[12.U and computerstudies[12'21, 12'221including I
I 'Eract''
to those in Fig-
inelastic efiects indicate that interacriondiagrams sinrilar r -.- - solution
(ACaptedfrom Ref. 12 6)
( nill result rvhen including lateral-torsionalbuckling. The main differ- I
1L6.2 I
F E q . 1 28 r .
(rveakaxis) rather than
en.. i,s that P"/P, rvill be loweri'hen basedol Kl/r,
I
( I
P L'l .
Mn mzy also be iess than M, becauseof I
,
on KL/r., (strong axis). Of course, I 4't'ar'4sto
( lateral-torsionalbuckling.
I
L
I
( I
I
0.5f-
( Trtrstonal-FiexuralBuckllng of Thln-walled open sections
u l
I
' l
slightlybuclled position'
a torsionalmomentactingevenwithoutbeingin the
f-
( and center of gravity do not coincide (see I
L _ ^
( Pekozand \Vinter'[12.27].Pekozand II
r 1.TB
bliYu 1iz-:11.The AISI Specification [1'11]provides detailed i
rvellsumrnarized
buckling' 0
rules for designto"inclubethe possibilityof torsional-flexural
0.5 1.0
(
l,'! - l,l -
(
;rgure 12.8.1 "Exact" nominal strengtbinteractionrelationshipfor tlpical wide-flange
( 1 2 . 8 N O M I N A LS T R E N G \cctions (including residualstress)comparedrl'ith interact-ionequation-Case l, no
rnstability.
( P, to bending mo-
Strength interaction equationsrelating axial compressicn
recognized as the practical procedure for design.
( *rn,",vl, have long been
(
'.'.herc P, : compressionncnlinal strengthunder axial load bascclon slcn-
( Casel-Nolnstabili$
dernessratio for the axis of bending
(i'e', KI/r:0)'-1he
( For the braced locationrvhereinstabilitycannot occur M t: : Eq. 12.4.7(or irs alrernate,F4.72.4.6)
may be approximated by
uppeirnostcurvesof Fig. 12-6'2apply and P": n2EI/Lz
(
'u Mu
n :1.0 (12.8.1)
( P) 7.18MP Massonnet[12.1]hassho*n that Eq. 12.8.2is a good approximationby
comparingit with the curv'esof Galambosand Ketter [12.S].A comparisonin
(
i'ig. 12.8.2 of Eq. 12.8.2 r*iih some curves from Fig. 12.6.2ashows thc
Mo: maxrmum
( and lt["/Mrs 1.0. In the aboveequation,Pr7 Arlt-*9 correlation.
axial'.loao(eqrialsthe plastic
moment strengthof rhememberin the absenciof For primary bending moment from transverseloading, Lu and Kamal-
( local buckling is prerent-ed)' The
moment for all caseswhere premaiure rand [12.13]have shorvnthat when M, is replacedby C^l{",, using C^ as
result in Fig. 12-8.1shorvs Eq' 12'8'1 to be a
( .ompuriron rvith the theoretical riren by E+ 12.3.8,Eq. 72.8.2(actuallyEq. 12.8.3rvith C_ : i.0) is also a
good approximation. trrod representationfor the "exact" solutions.Thus, .r general,the interaction
( cquationmay be rvritten
(
Case 2 - Instabitity in the Plane ol Bending
( Pu
- +
c^ilui
and values of : 1.0
The curvesof Fig. 12.6.2for variouscombinationsof moments P^ ILIPI - P'/P")
(12.8.3)
( bY
L/r, maYbe aPProximated
( P, ,u
_ ,:1.0 (12.8.2) ilr ell cases of instability in the plane of bending.
( -
Pn MeT P,/P")
r 1
-
77A BENDINGANDAXIALLOAD
12/ COMBINED 1 2 S / B | A X . . . LB E N D I N G 771 (
(
, Mn: nominal momentstrengthin the absenceof axial load computed (
r by methodsof chapter 9. For adequatelybracedmembersof
---"E:act"sclution t'
(Adagtedfrom Rel. 12'4) low slenderness
ratio wherelocal buckling is precluded,Mn:
-Eq. t28.3, MP. (
z . M n C^: factorsdiscussed
in Secs.12.3-l1.s
(
1* q;fiv;=t D _ _
trzEI
C': 1'0 'e
2z
other proposals for interaction equationshave been given by Cheong-
P
P
Siat-Moy and Downs [12.55],Duan and chen [12.56],and Sohal,Duan, and II
Chen 112.571.
(
I
(,
12.9 BIAXIAL BENDING
(
o-5 l.u '" The nominal strengthof membersunder axial compressionand biaxial bend-
ing has been studied by Birnstiel and N{ichalos[12-30],Culver {12.31,12.321, ('
MJMo ,,
tlarstead, Birnstiel, and Leu [12.33],Syal and Sharma112.341, Santathadaporh
Figure 12-8.2
"Exact" nominal Streagth interaCtion.curve for tlpica! urtie i ' (,
( '' and Chen [12.35],and Chen and Atsuta 112.361. Even with a number of
,"i,ioor (including residual stress) conpare{ idth-interaction equatron-'i ' simplifying assumptions,the analysisis complex.Some testshave been per- r
io the p"laneof $gading ("exect" solution from Fig' 7 of Rc"f lI
i*oUifiri formed 172.371which,though limited, have shown agreementwith computer
For actual use, use adjusted L/r : (acnuJ t/r)ffi ' (
studies.Tebedgeand Chen [12.39]have given interaction surfacesin the form
of tables for design.The status of work on biaxial bending of compression (
members is summarizedby Chen and Santathadaporn[12.38] and more (
recently by the ^SSRCGuide 16.8).
Simpleplastic theorybecomesinadequatervhenmomentsexist about ts'o t
Case 3 - Instablllty by Lateral'Torslonal Buckllng principal axes. When only one moment exists.plastic behar.ior(constanr
[;''1 i -' ' (
Massonnet[12.U has shown that witb only slight error the form oi moment with increasingrotation d) is e.rhibitedno matter what the value of
h" :
may also UL usea for this case. P" for this case may be gowrnld axial compression.The effectiveplastic moment reducesas axiai compression (
';"'
slendernessratio for the axis normal to the axis of bending- Furthc:-' "! increases,but plasticbehaviordoesoccur. r (
lq'ss tii'rn Upon applicationof an additionalmomentabout the other principalaxis.
lateral-torsionalbuckting as a beam may occur for a moment
trf ('-' {r':' one might consideran interactionsurfacerelating.P, fu{,, and M,. Even for
;; t, instead of.M, i"-gq. 12.8.3.Using the variousdefinitioos (
lltr i
Secs.12.3 through lf-\ the generalnotation C^Mui should be u-sed' : ideal elastic-plasticmaterial,horvever.presentplastic anall'sistheoremsne-
(
r:t'r" glect the influence of deformation on equilibrium. For zero length compres-
instability under Cases2 ir l, the following"infiraction equation
consideredto aPPIY: sion members,the conceptof an interactionsurface(seeFig. 12.9.1)may he (
thought of as a first step to obtaining the strengthunder biaxial bending.
While few designersconcern themselvesgreatly about the sequenceof (.
P u , MuiC^ -:i
: 1.0 {ll s load application, nevertheless loading sequenceaffects strength.This is alsc
Pn ,1/,(1 - P,/P") true for uniaxial bendingand compression, but it has lesseffecton that case
than for the biaxial loading.
*'here P, : applied a:cialccmpressionload Figure'12.9.2 illustratesseverallcading sequencesto reach point A- (
L{ui: applied primary $gading moment a particular value of P,, M,.., and iy',,. Point / may be reachedby the
:rrr-!r':' (
e): i)f-: nominal stt agtU for axially loaded ccmprc'iicn following paths: (1) Apply P" first, then M,r, rhen if,, (path 0-1-2-l);
ber fus. 6.7.7 ot 6-?-8for ^Q would be used in LRFD) (2) apply P,. first, then appl! M,, and ,}/,,, proportionally (path 0-1-,4):
(
L {
5 s
f:
I
/
\
.s'
{ 772 ANDAxIALLOAD
12 / c,o^tBrNEDBENDTNG 1 2 . 1 0/ L O A D A N D R E S I S T A N C E
' F A C T O RD E S i G NC R I T E R I A
1;..-.. 773
(
( - -.. For lack of anv contrary inf<irmation.
--,.; an interaction formula.
such ..s Eq.
( .!_. r:.s.4.is usualllassu.mccr
to appr,v
for biariaru.nJing.computerrr"di;, ;:i
1.0 rornetcsrsindicate.rhatsucha procedure i, ,;"i;;;; for thosecases
i( g:ricd.Thusthefulr inreraction in'csir_
i-'
; equarion...ourd be
( 0.8 I
y - rivl2x 3 t 'r!u'Cn"
: +" aa rn''''.:"
---
- p,/p,,i, *- ,v"'{i _ pJ1)
,.t ,ll
:(' A' u.o
w l 4 x 426 Pn ll,,(l < i (12.9.i)
: -
ir
(
u.q
*iicrc all tcrnrs are as definecrfolro*-ing
( 0 = 1.,,P,
Ec1.r2.g.4.exccpt thlt ntr* tric
uuantities'ubscriprcdr anci-),musr be ei'aluiredfor
0.2 bc:icingrbout rhe aris
( rntl i errcdbv su bscr ipt .
,(
r\T Yilt' Service_toads
P :87 5 kips dead load
(c) Beanreffect.The laterally'unbracedlength 15 is l5 ft.
W
262.5 kiPs live toad
t l l l ttiit
M o : F , , 2 , : 6 0 ( 1 3 0 ) / 1 2 : 6 5 0f t - k i p s
( l,tl= 15 tl-k:Ps dead load
45 ft'hrPs iive load
h{,: (r, - 4),s.: (60- i0}(117)/tz:4SS fr-kips
(
(
,5-o'illl
|lll
Iiil
iiil U
Fr: 60 ksi
L o : 3 , ,' :
",tji,Tl:aeft
/oo(tz)
'-$Jk++
( 1,4
V
I L . . i n gX r : 2 3 5 0 k s i a n d X z = 4 6 9 Ax 1 0 - 6 i n . a T k i p s l ,
(
( I I
I r -,, r :
,,XT
--._--:-._
(4 - 4) v
r : 20. 6f t
(
F i g u r, re. l O , e.*-:otuo,o for ExamPles12.10'1ard 12'14'1' SrnceI-r'. Lr. L,. M^ lies betu'een-lI- and M, for Ca: 1.0. In this case.
( i r.rn' ever,
C r:7.75 usingEq. 9. 6. 11:t h'ls. it is pr obablet hat lll" r viil equal
.t/-. Checkwhetheror not the W16x67 is "compact" for F, : 60 ksi accord-
,(
i
SOLUTION i ng to LR FD -B 5!
i( (a) Factoredloads'
+ 1.6(262-5): 525ki P s I b, 10. 235 \
,( P, : ! '2Po + 1'6PL: 1'2(87'5) l': : 7 . 7 1. ( 4
\ ' -, ;-' : 8 . 4 T a b l e 9 . 6 . l )O K
2(0.665)
,;( + 1-6(45)= 9o ft-ktPs \2,r |
M n , : 1 ' 2 M D + 1.6M1: 1.2(15)
,( LIu: BrMn,
(? : ss.gllo* LRFD tr, : 82.6rablee.6.1) oK
) . t "o
\ ,. M anual /
,;( subscript
moment is referred to using the l'lre sectionis "compact".Next use Eq. 9.6.4to computeMn,
Note that the factoredprimary
ir (no translation)'
(b) Column effect' Calculatetr. using
Eq. 6.7.3, l- it,,- r-\l
M,,: cdMo- (M, - tv,)l-t' = t t, [1.0.+1
i (
KL 1 . 0 ( 1 s ) 1:2 " p i ll
l
KL 73.2 L \-'
Largesto c l - : - :
S i n c eB , i s c o m p u t e d t o b e l e s st h a n 1 . 0 . u s e 1 . 0 . I n t h i s c a . c . l h c : : r . : : : , ' r '
l'arvingfrom90it-kipstozerooverthe15ftlengthist!rc-!Ji!!c
('n.;\1",:0.6(90) = 54 ft-kips were constant over that length.'fhc -:{ it-i..:g.': r:
rhcn magnified to 54{1.0?):58 ft-kips, but it is still less thun Iize utttt..t! t.:,'..
: 1.0 is the srme r\ i-!r:::'r
90 ft-kips at the end of tlte nzember-The use of Br
rhc magnified value out in the span is less than the value M. at thc c;:.j. : rt.-
member.
( c ' l C h e c k L R F D F o r m u l a ( H 1 - 1 a ) ,E q . 1 2 . 1 0 . 1 o, m i t t i n s t h e h ' - ' t t . j , : i '!ir : " '
for the t'-aris.
s, 90 \ -_ : 0.e73 ('h
.
u.636 : 0.836
+ 0.137 <I
;\ 0.10(650)
J
Thc W16x67secticnis acceptable to LRFD-
according EP"
12.11UhIBRACEDF R A M E-
E1
LOAD AND RESISTANCEFACTORDESIGN
As sho*'n in Figs.6.9.2b and c and 6.9.3,an unbraced frarne rnu\l rE!\ ' :'
flexural interaction of its beams and columns to limit horizontai displ.,.i-'::'
"braced" frame will resist the lateral ftrrcc hr
'' "il
Undcr lateral loads. a
components as diagonai bracing or shearwalls so that lateral disiorttltt
crf small magnitude.Thus secondarybending moments PA frorr s1jgs"!
''
'i
"unbrsced" f r;ri::'
' ll
il
P-l effect) may ordinanly be neglected. Hon'ever. for t l
relativelr larger sidesrvaydeflection A due to lateral load s'ill *iii::
seconCarymoments Pl 1P is the gravity load) that must be prortJ';..- :
: tl
tlcsign. ThuS, an unbraced frame requires an anall'sis to 3691'1111"'l'
:' tl
follo*ing tasks:
.|j
1. Pru.r'idestrengrhunder factored loads to resist gravin'lo:d- r'';-''.': -
anv sidess'ay'effect except in rare cases of unbalanced 1".:i1::.'
"signiiic3nl rc\li-r:::: '
unsvmmetric structural configuration where a LP"
j:':
f o ; . : , , , (" L R F D C o m m e n t e r yH l , p a r . 7 ) r v o u l d b e n e c e s s a n l t ' i : . ' '
cll (b) Second-order analysis: For
s\\.1,\.Out-oi-plumbnesscan tlpically be erpectcd to have st'.-li{: equilibrium, Br(Mn,, + Mnz) = HuL"+ Ip, lr,
between adjacent floors, end for the entire frame. is within f--:.
The first-order sway dejlection aru causesthe total gravity
l, divided by {00 or 5t-rtiun'j:: Fi- load rp, to be
linrits lusuatty, say, equal to theheight acting at ihe eccentricityAr,. The literat load mom rn{ HuL-,
*,' is thus increased
s':n'ice loads). by the amounr rP, Ar,. since the total moment now actin! ii
*{
-- s-
Fie.l2.ll.lb,thatis,thetotalmoinentdividedb-vL"ma1'betakenas Bz: ( 1 2 . 1. 11 1 )
(
,( I& A', (12.11.5) r - :P,t t , i , , , i
V
ii
1 - -r' "P H,LrJ .':Cerfactorebloads.A second-orderanall'sisis one in which thc equationsof
t .'quilibrium are based on [he deformed structureinstead oi the original
ir 12'11'3gives
SubstitutingEq' 12'11'8into Eq' rndeformedgeometryas in first-orderanalysis.Thc readcris rcfcrrcclto thc
( 1 :ncthods of MacGregor and Hage t12.431,Le\,lessurier.\lcNamara, and
(tz.tt.s)
(
Br:ffi \ertvenetrl72.Ml, Lelr{essurier172.45.12.46J.wood, Beauiieu.and Adanrs
'1:.47.12.48],
-* rL - \u-'p " \t . - - 1 and ScholzU2.491forsuggesrions on second-ordcr anal1.'sis.
r HrL,l
"',t:TrTrilii"?
I
t Equation72.77.11is of the form Cerivedin Sccs.12.3and i2.5. ancl["it;.
isthe'o.'cr-T:::i"5*:ti]
NotethatH,,inEq'12'11'e
I
{ i:.1I.12 was derivcd as Eq. 12.1i.9, replacing J,,. bi' the s1'mbor4,,,,.
(
X":Jf'lT;il#ts*;iffi ffi;Pl-!L:u{*;'i';'*':'1f"lll'iJ*'T' 1 * r':cognizingthat .F/, is the toral horizontalforce aciing in the siory by using
rn the oenvauor ;r.iiT.tr#*::i":1'::',f,J?li:fl
a
l
(
n
#11.',#.lf
for ilH?'#l;iJiiffi
';:iHfactored loads
loads will be the same' since the
fir:;i-ora.t analysisis to
bc *
x{
ri:: I siBn. Further. ncting rhat rhe quanriry Jat,/LH may be clrher fot
;-rcioredioads or for serviceloads,the subscriptu is r:ot used-
:\ i;t service
&
elastic.
t-
r EXAMPLE r2.l1.l
Investigate the acceptabilityof W14x145 columns in a single-bat multtri(ir"' (a) Gravity load
SOLUTION
(a) Compute factoredloads.In accordance with LRFD-A4.I. at tc.rrl lt ,'
factored load combinationsare necessarywhen wind or eanbquakeact t.lnthc
structure, (b) Gravity+ wind (c) Nonswaypart (u) Sway part
:":i"i:l
i ijf ,] n..,,
.neacb
2. Gravity lnad + Wind [LRFD-A4.l, Formula (A+a)] (b) First-orderelasticstructural analysis.Unlessa second-orderanalysisis (
P": 1.2(230)+ 0.5(92): 322kiPs to be performed, the factored moments used..in the investigation must be {
obtained using moment magnilication, Eq. 12.11.i0. Assume the factored
Hu: 1. 3 (7 8 ): 1 0 1 .4k i P s gravity load (loading1) in part (a) givesthe factoredmomentsin Fig. 12.11.3a. i
The gravity plus wind (loading 2) in part (a) is divided into t*'o separate
l% : 1.2(0.5)+ 0.5(1.5): 1.35kips/ft on all floorsexcaFirtxrl t
first-order elastic analysesunder factoied loads; a nonsway analysis under
gravity loads only, aod a sway analysisunder lateral load only. Assume the
results on the column to be iavestigatedare as shorynin Fig. 12.11.3cand d;
the sway analysisalso causesan additional factored compressiveload of 15
kips on the leeward column. (
P = 23Ok$3 a'-& ic?-
"'c3C (c) Colunn strength.Tbe effective length factor K, in the plane of the
92 k'Ps l*€
w = 0.5 krPsT!i eezc, iceJ frame is determinedusing restrainl factors G with Fig. 6.9.4.
1.5 kiPs: !t lrie :3:c
H :78 kips sitd loai
l ,
Ll/L,columns 2(I/13) ^ no
G,oo
a/L,br^ t: rAryn:J'ud
{
Gbo,,o.: 1.0 (Thepracticalrc.:ommendation of LRFD ('(
Commentary-Fig. C-Cz.2for nominally
nxedbase.) I
Lrrrnrlr
Figure 12.11.2 Lowest portion of single-bay multistory unbraced fra'cc for Find K, : 1.57 (FromFig.6.9.a)
12.11.1.
(
I
i
t2 1t /UNBMCEDFRAME_LRFD 795
784 12 / coMF,lNED BENDING AND AXIAL LCA3
: -;--i i
-i'F when B, is computedto be lessthan 1-0,the magnifiedmomenrber,*.een
pinned at the top and
Since in the .u-directionthe column is c-.-nsidered ihc e:rdsof the columnin Fig. 12.11.3c is lessrhan the momenrat the end of
bottom. K,, : 1-0: thus' *c member(26 ft-kips).Use BlIn,: 26 ft-kips.The facroredload { in rhe
K,L, _ i.57(13)12 x,1...: :39.2 6, equationequalsthe load in Fig. 12.11.3c [i.e.,322+ 1.35(14)].
:3g.? (f) N{oment magnification-swav magnifier B, for srructure of Fig.
6.33 r..
rx i:.11.3d. The total factoredcompressionload I{ ro be carried b1,.all
(LRFD..NU!\,1ERIC.{L
VALUES''TABLE5) c.'rlumnsof the frame *ithin one story (in this casetwo columns)is
+F., : f,E.2ksi
- = 1204hiPs IP, = 2(322)+ 1.35(28): 682kiPs
e,Pn: e,F,,As 28 -2(42'7\
ChcckP"/(+,P^) > 0'2' l-he Eulerload P" for the columnbeinginvestigated must be computedusing
XL. r for the axis of bending.and the K value must be for rhe unbracetj
iP" 3 2 2 + 1 5 + 1 . 3 5 ( 1: 4 0) . i 0 '1 > 0 . 2 : U seE q' 12' 10' 1
:r.:nre.that i s, K > i. 0. I n t his case.K, : 1. 5? and Kr L, / r , : 3S. T as
r204 ;crei-minedin part (c).
\o1":
Lu i s 13 ft.
(d) Beam effect.Thb laterallyunbracedlength ,r2EA6_ r2(?9,ooo)42.7
: 780ft-kiPs
Llo: FrZ': 36(260)r/11 -P e : : 8160kips
( KL'/r)2 (33.7)2
3oo 3oo(3.9Si
Lo: -: 1r v6'.v6frrr
.:nJtheIP .: 2(8160) : 16. 320kipsbecause
bor hcolum nsr esisr ing
Slr - a1. 3r .
fit,: ffi1iT
:Jcntical.Thus, the su'aymagnifierB, is
SinceLb<Lp,M,equalsY.o'Ch"ks'hetherornottheWl4xl45is
to LRFD-B5'
"compact"flr Fr': 36 ksi accordihg Bz= : 1.04
,' DPu 692
^
{br: rabree.6'1)
: t.t). (tr,:10.8 o K j LP" 16,320
t\ . o; ' l #ffi ''-..'
. The maximummagnifiedmomenrl'!,,Eq.12.1i.i0. for column I is
--''. s | l o * L R F D \ ' . ( X p : 1 0 6 . 7 T a b I e 9 . 6 . 1 ) o K .
|^,:te t r f , : Bt M r , + BzM r t
Manual ...
\ t* I
o '
,
"compact"; therefore' lln: Mp: 780 ft-kips; QMn '' . - 1.0(26)+ 1.04(450): 496ft-kips
The section is -'
: 7A 2 ft-k i p s '
0. 90( 7S 0) .r-, b c^- -r-,^rtr?A
( B' t]T:"j:,,of Fi& ": \i' ic that LRFD-HI.2.a requiresthe manimuntMn, and maxintumMr, to bc
I (e) Moment magnification-nonswa) rira$nifier. lT = ',;'edin computing M,. Logscally,the valuesol !uI^, and Mn simultaneouslJ'
KLf r iniolved in moment magnificadon
( 12.11.3c.The slenJ.i.r, ratio ratio
this casethe x-axis' Thus K'31'0 for ru' 'h.ruldbe at the sameend of the member.Eventhat procedureis
not entirell'
must relate to the axisof bending,in '--
( actuall,van unbracedone' the authots -.ri'reclbecausethe maximummagnifiedmoment in the nonswaycasema\
the nonsway part. Sinceihe structureis Fig
salue less than 1'0 (say' from .'Jcurout in the span(andwill when B, exceeds 1.0)rvhilethe magnifiedsway
( reconunend using 1.0 rather than any a+ i:r)mentoccursat the end of the member.
6.9.4a). (,s)ChbckLRFD Formula(H1-1a),Eq. 12.10.1,
( 1-0(13)12 ^ a I omitringthe bendingrerrn
KL KL :,.r rhe-u-axis,
( Axis of bending
(
(.
C^ :0 .6 - 0 -4 (MJ t[z ) :0 ' 6 - 0' 1(13/26) : g' 4
n2(29,ooo)4:,.?
# . i ( k )= ' o Irz.ro.i
]
-Pe -
n z EA ,
---:= : =@- : 20.200kips
( (KL/r)' o 3 o+ : o . r o+ 0 6 3: o e 3< 1 OK
( 0.4
;{#)
c^ : : g-41
: 0.4(1.02)
p I l
Pr : ihe \\:i4x145 sectionrs acceptable
( I - P"/P. T- lati:o:oo accordingto LRFD.
t 1
-
A.l.lDAXLq'LLC.:.:
12 / COtlBrftFD eEi\,:Dl;'.lG 12.12/ DESIGNFROCEDURES_ LfiFD (
(
-
12.12 DESIG$IPROCEDURES TABLE 12.12.1 APPROXII/ATEVALUESFOR RATTOS
& AND Bb TO USE tN LFRD
DESIGi.IOF BEAM-COLUMNS
LOAD AND RESISTANCEFACTORDESIGN
A^ z,
To aid in selection of a beam-column section, it is usuall,t" advantagct)ur rr P*:i n _
Pb- 7
convert, in at least an approximate way, ti:e resultj"eg bending monlcn!. .r.J. I inht Medium Heavy
into an equivalent adal ccmpression load {.q. Occasionalll'- corrversirir;r I !'.Jeight VJeight Weighl
the axial compression into equivalent momenl *'ili spee.dihe selectioo pr.tl', Secticns (1 / in) (1 / in.) (1 / in.)
The interaction cquation f.or P"/Q,Pn > 0.2, Eq. 12.i0.1, is
wl0
Pu
Q,Pn
. ; {# : . k l = ' o I t z . t rol
wl2
wl4
0.?2
0 . 16
0 . 13
0.24
0.20
0.16
0.28
0.20
0.20
2. 1
2.?
2. 1
w 16 0 . 15 0.16 0.17 5. 0
by g.P"gives
Multiplying wl8 0 . 12 0.14 0.16 5.0
w 21 0. 10 0. r 2 0.14
8/
6 - P -i i 8lo.P- 6.0
''* ,l ( Q ' P 'P: . E Q
( r)lr ' ri ' w24 0.09 0. 11 0. 12 7.0
-/t l'". t t o f r , ' '""'< w27 0.08 0.09 0.10 7.0
w 30 0.08 0.09 0.09 7.5
T h e n , l e t l { n , : F r Z , a n dI [ , r : ' F r Z y f o i Mnn., t t t r t t i ' , '
prelim.i-e.a-r't'desig w 33 0.07 0.08 0.08 8. 0
less than the plastic moment strength as co:ltrolied by the ljmit st:ite\ ,'i w 36 0.07 0.07 0.08 8. 5
lateral-torsionalbuckling, locd flange buckiing, oi lc:zl rveb bucklrng: h,",'
ever. commonly ill,.. will equal the plastic iioinent s'rrength. lf ":.1/-. rr:il
usualll'be a good assumpiionat the start of a Cesign. Next, factoring oui ilr.
cross-sectionalproperties As/2, and Ar/2,.. Eq. l2.t2.I becomes where Mn,: factoredmoment using first-orderanalysison a braced frame
Bo,: ratio-.As/Z, using Z, or Z, as appropriate for rhe ads of
g/+n.\,{-
'3 r' 8 ! q . F - 'A1 , bending
p u e Q : 'pu -'L - t , i M " , u a= ill ll -',
g\ebFr! z, ;9i =i p aF , 'l :2. V .,,
,"" B^:286,0001. usingI,or I; as appropriatefor the a.r.is of bending
KL : K,L, or K.,1, as appiopriatefoi the ads of bc.nding
For a braced frame under uniaxial '\elding 3:-'i cornpression ri l:er.
Mu.: !l{n,,lCn,/(1 - P",/P"..)]. Eq. 72.12.: (neglec:-::s the :rird lcnr! i,: Equation 12.12.5is a reasonabre rvay to approachthe rJesignof a beam-
bending about the ;'-aus) becomes column. EstimateB.- from Table 12:12.1.Ta'f.i"g
Bo,:0.lin. ri.ill be a
reasonablegeneralapproachwhen the depth of section-hu,n.-,,
bee' predeter-
mined- The first bracketedterm (stressruiiol will be a reduction rerrn
Puue:.,.;t#)t
..-
r. a
Cnt
/ -
\ ^ -l '' -l ;
/ i r be estimated as 0.7 to begin the proce*. Th* llst brackered
and mav
term ; ;;
magnificationterm and might be neglectedfor the first approrimarion.
' P *
l - -
I P-- l3o.f-'C,-
i- i
'D
uEQ Pu+
M'(;). ",(T) ( I i . 1 26 )
P' I
1-
P,,
*'here d : nominaldepthof the section
Thus .t he equiv a l e nfa t c to re cdo l u m nl o a ' 3P -= o = :' .' be e(?r3c\c! :t' r:r' (
br: nominal u.idthof the flange
g L R F D -F o rm u :a1 H 1 - i :r for ani ari rtli rr;tti :r:;
Eq . 12. i2. 2,c or r es p o n d i nto
v+,hettlf n :
: tr{,: factoredmomentabout the x-axis (BJv{^, for the (
lf o. * braced frame
t
+' or BrMn, + B2I{/r for the unbracedframe) a
{ ao^r^-I n d; ilIr: factoredmomentabout the y-axis
P u . Q : P u +] ! n , p o r l * ;
\
It
, ! a t t
I! l - . i - . . '
\ i
r-
I B- - P,( KL)zI i!:
* N otc that Z,= 2A r(d/ 2) and Ar = 2Af i t her ef or e( &, ) , :
Ar / Z*= 2/ d
e .
;,
b
::.
+
\
( 'E@'-.
!
(
P=150k
(8")''= 8/br' closeto
( taliing Zr= A1.b/a eiv11
.rsirr Eq. 12.12.6-Further, yuia. is essen- SeMce loaas
hy Ar " iii, approximation,Yura
( the 7.5.ib, recommended oi it't stressratio term and the 5C0f t'kips
,;';;;;;, ir,.-r.ou.ti,oneffect h
iialir suggesting a logical beginning'
elfect .rr-ir,-.*ugnification term;
h - |tole
( rncrcssrng internal force' it ma-vbe
i: ./
=,/
\\.hen rhe bending momenrir;";;;domiiant bcnding
r-1
( by comiuting an estimatedequivalent
-a
rracricll ,o u,r"rt..it.-problem F=
-
-
follows:
( ;;;.;, .Lf,,eefor uniaxial bending' as t-t
d
*,,.(*)l*)
f
Prtmary SeccnC::y
( (12.17.1) rnoment,
lf uso : .0,,(;) rr'
( k
( -
12.13EXAL'lPLEs li appears that loading Case 2 u'iil be the more sel'ereloading: thus. i:',c th:tl
( FACTORDESIGN
ioao ANDRESIqIANcE .:rse to select the section. Then an.v other loading casescen be chcckctl.
the interaction (b) Estimate the Puro for the given conditions using either Yura's c(ltr:r-
( to illustrate application of
Several examples are included from Chapter 6, and i:irn. [0. 12.72.6,or the more detailed Eq.12.77.7. For fu' l2-12'6.
proceduresfor columns
( formulas using principles and
beamsfrom ChaPters7 and 9' D
P , +M , ( ; i : i 5 e+ 5 6 0 ( 1 2 ) i ; i : 1 l r o k i p s
( ruEQ-
( loador120kips
tg :urryu:.*i.li compression
;.t-ff.tl,$,l1;ti;i* secdon i. using'Eq. 12.72.7and estimatingB,- as 0.16 from Tahlc 12..l2.1for
"stressratlo" tcrm.
( and using0.7 for the
ri,u.liumweight W14 sections.
d e a d l o a d a n d 3 0 k i p s l i v e ! o { , i n c o m b i n aand
t i o n300
w i tft-kips
h a b e nrvind m o mThe
d i n gload' entof
ft-kipt ;;;'ioj.
( 100 ft-kips dead l;;i: 100 ,uppoit provided in each Puro : P, + tr'In,Bor(0.7)
system,rvith transverse.
rnemberis part of a braced of a l4'ft'tength' Conservativcly
( ift. ,op "na'Uoiio"t
principal aire"tion ai and varies as shorvn in Fig' : 1 5 9+ 5 6 0 ( 1 2 ) ( 0 . 1 6 ) 0: . ?9 1 2k i p s
**urur.
( assume trre momeri-.uur.r'single
Load and ResistanceFactor Design' 'lhc "strcssratio" term.
12.13.1.Use 436 'i..t ana differenceil the estimatesis the 0.7 reductionfor the
( ( rri'lscrvatively
assumetheeffectii'elengthfactorK: 1.0.If adjacentmember
( I)L(JTION
itrffnessesare known, the alignrnentchart, Fig.6.9.4a. could be used to
- . r t r---.aa ^ fircr-6.
( a ) C o m p u t e f a c t o r c d l o a d s . A s s u m e a f i r s t . o rro""urut t i c a n aand
d e r e l a s (A4-2) lysiswar ,i'.'irrmineK < 1.0 for this bracedframe.
( ro ouiuin the given ror".r.-uft LRFD-A;.;.
performed
* (
12.13/ EXAMFLES- LRFD
(
7go B€NDINGAND AXIALLOAD
12/ cQMe]i$.lED 791
( t
*COLUMNS" giving
f.P,. Entcr For this section, the ratio M^,/Q:M,: 56A/$2- : 0.89, making it likely this (
Use LRFD Manual t1.171load tables
with { : 912 kiPs and KL:14-0 ft" section is adequate. (
(e) Moment magnification for W14x132. The slendernessrario KL/r
F in d : W 1 4 x 1 2 0 , Q ,P n : 9 7 \ ki ps. (
involved in moment magnificationmust relate to the axis of bending,in this
W14x132, Q,P,: 1070kiPs casethe x-axis, (
Checkthe W14x120-
*t KL 1'0(14)12 (
(b) Column effect' Axis of bending : :
KL KL r-o(14)12 26.g
-MS 6'28 (
Largxt::T:i^
c- : l.u (;r,;, *oolo,y (
Findp.{, :27.5ksi (LRFD-"NUN{EzuCALVALUES"TABLE 3-36r r 2( zg'000) 38'8
: P": , o'EA''. , - : 15, 500kips (
Q,Pn:Q,F,,Ar: 27.5{35-3) 971kiPs ( KL/ r ) 2 ( 26. q2
( t
CheckP"/(+,P,)'0.2,
. Bt:= ?,=:, (
I -_t'1,-,,-:1.01
(+: g : 0.164'l
< 0.2;useEq.Lz.to.z t-Pu/P" 7-759/75,500
(
\+e e7r I (f) check LRFD Formula(H1-1b),Eq. 12.10.2,omitting the bendingterm
ttr 'for (
Both the flange and the web satisfy tr < tr, to preclude local buckling prior the y-axis,
achievingcolumn strengthbasedon KL/r- M u, - - M n, Br : 560( 1. 01): 566f t - kips (
(c) Beam effect.The laterally unbracedlength Lu is 14 ft'
M o : Fyz, : 36(212)/12 : 636 ft-kiPs - L ; * ( * : : i =- , 0 [12.10.2]
( r
Secondary
(
7g2
(
-._..: i i : er c i o r c . e o t r { , m u s t b e l i n e a r l vi n t c r p r r l a t e db e t r v e e nQ o l t o { l i i
f t - k i p s )e n c i
(
,;,..1.f,{ 152 ft-kips) according to Eq. 9.t'.4 nrultiplied b}' 0r'
t"iYitJJ:pureracro,.il"-.il:^:",",,::"^r[$:lii,'1";*ff
( "il|,'J:"'uu'
Formula
givenror".r."irlne I-REO-A4'1,
(A4-2)'
i i L^- t.\l
( pcrformed,o oui"ii-rrl. h t n :c o i r t-, ( r { o - J t { , ) t | !"f rl l' J = . n , [l'o+]
+ 1'6(96): 182kiPs \'-'
(' & = 1.2(24) L
''l
:
/i 2) 76'o ft-kiPs I ; 2 0- 1 0 . 5 : : o s
( M n,: P,( " ) : 182(5 i;,x,:
-
1.01:il ( 1 3 -
3 1 5 r ) i fi-kips
1 8 . 1_ i 0 _ 5i l
( ( b ) E s r i m a t e t h e P * o f o r . t h , e eiq'i v erz'rZ'?'
n c o n dFor r r s72'72'6'
i t i oE4' .usingeitherYura'seqt'3.
att"iita
( tion. Eq- 12'l.,';'"' tilil"" ratio KL/r
for \\'12x58.The slenderness
(, Ilgment magnification
i i \ : 1 8 2+ 7 6 . 0' -(' 1 .rri,.,,lrctlin nrornent niagnification;rrust relate to the axis o! bending,.in this
2Ji) (
\ d1
( P . , E e =P u + i l . . \ ; J - ' " " ..r.c tltc -x-axis.
i(
.t : 321ki P s
t:( g ,p n : Q,F .A s : 1 8 ' 9 (1 7 ' o)
il LRFI> I F.XA-MPLEIi.I3.3
exceeds0'2; therefore. W sectionfor the serviceloadingconditionsshorvnin
182/371- 0'567.rvhich
t 7r
t 1 \ Pu/Q,P,: it*ign a beam-column
The ratio
?
12.11.1,aPPlies' : iig. 12.13.3. The compression load P is 30 kips dead load and 70 kips live
iit Formula (H1-1a)' Eq' i.'ltl. The bracketloadW is 2 kips deadloadand 18 kips live load.as mightbe
(d) Beam actlon'
i1( . ri:rcdby a crane.and the horizontalload H is 5 kips live load' as might be
f t ) t ( L ' : 3 8 ' 4f t )
( L , : 1 0 . 5f t ) . ( L o : 2 0
t 1
lF!
a
794 12 / CO},{BINED SENDING AND AXLAL LCAD 12.13/EXAMPLES_LFFD 795
( t
(
A::ume hing€dsupports in borh directions,
tc, and bottom.
(
(
--[--J] (
t \ l
De.flection
\ 'Providesr (
I lateral
$Jpporr of compression
f lange
(
Ct = 1-75 (
L for KLlrr,8 tt
= 16 tt, KL, = 8 tt
16=8ft (
Kl,
( ,
( a ) C o l u m na c t i o n (b) Beamaction
*,
W 12X40 e"pn: 269 kips i, , / i, : 2. 66
Mnt: ltlZ + 31.2/16lS: 47.6fr-kips f
Wi4X43 g.P, : 337kips r*/rt - 3.0g (
--
:t* ,
i;:
(b) Establisheffectivelengths.The member must be viewed as a column weak axisdoescontrolcolumnactionsinceall haver,/,rr> Krt, (
*. /K,rr: 2.0.
without bending moment, then as a beam without column lord, 1rs in t- Note the wl2x40 and the w14x43 are rhe tightesiiauutut.o i"
G-
trtitturnn (
t:
5
(
F
(
(
( 12,/COMBINED BENDINGAND AXIAL LOA.D 12 13/A<AMPLES_ LRFD 7g7
(
-
;.'1.=---
( load tables; however, the next lighter sections,\Vi2x35 or W14x38, may r EXAMPLE 12.13.4
-
( rvork. In'esrigarethe adequacy of the wgx24 secrionin Fig. r2.i3.5.
of 4572 Gra,ie
(d) CheckW10x39 columnaction. io sreerroadedas a beam-column. The ariar.o*pr.r-son is ti tip. J*o
( snd 60 kips live load, and the uniformlydistributed r".;
ff.,t.. i.o(16)11 K'L,: t superimposed larerallcrad
,'f 0.1 kip/tt deadload and 0.4 kip/ftlive load
( _ :45.0 :(:ltt :48.5 _:: .uur., b.ndin_qabout rhc.rieak
r.. 4.27 r. 1.98 :r,rs. Use Load and Resistance Fiitor Desien.
( .:
Find d{, : 27'0ksi (basedon KL/r: 48'5)
(
Q , P n : Q , F , A r : 2 7 " 0 ( 1 1 . 5:)3 1 1 k i p s
( A.1kip/ft dead toad
The ratio P,/+.P,: 1'19/311: 0.576.*'hich exceeds 0.2; therefore,LRFD- 0.4 kiq7ft live toad
( F or m ula( H1- 1 a ).Eq . i 2 .1 1 .1a. p p l i e s .
( (e) Beamaction. P= 15'
, ( L o : 8 . 3 f r ) , ( L u : 8 . 0f r ) dead load
( 60k
t r v el o a d
( Therefore. " i",e 12.13.5 Erample
12.13.4.
trIn : i l [o : F ,Z , u 3 6 (4 6 -8/)12 : 140ft-ki ps
(
( e ttrIn : 0 .9 0 (1 4 0:) 1 2 6ft-k i p s ,,()LLITION
( (f) Moment magnificationfor W10x39. The slendernessratio KL/r t a') Compute factored loads- Assume
involved in moment magnificationmust relate to the a-risof bending.in this a first-orclerelastic analvsis*.as
;-crformedto obtain the given forces.Using
( casethe x-axis. r-nrn-na.i,;;;;'";'tn?_r,.
(
F"
79:B BENDINGANDAXIALLOAD
12/ C},treii.,lED 12.13/EXAMP(ES-LRFD 799 (
( i
buckling is precluded;that is, when l. 3 t r ofor the flange. Assume girder moment of inertia three time that gf mlumn (
- b t : l ' o n t , : s . 1 \. ( ^ : -
l 6 5 \ ( l
:9.21 OK
l\ r 2tr 2(0.400) I ,IF, I M
( ,
_T =
1(r g ( '
Therefore,
M n : M o : F r z r : 5 0 ( 8 ' 5 7 ) / 7 2 : 3 5 ' 7f t - k i P s '
-i 7 ( ,
J
1U
A
E) (
QuMn: 0.90(35.7) = 32-1ft-kiPs M/2
"BEAI'{S" becausethosc (
This value cannot be obtained from LRFD N{anual P
reblesare only for x-axisbending. (
(a) Frame (b) End view (c) Loadingand moment
(d) Moment magnification.Tbe slendernessratio KL/r involved in mo' diagram (,,
menr magnificationmust relateto the axisof bending,in this casethe J-axtr. Figure12.13.5Examples
I2.I3.5,L2.L3.6,
and 12.15.4 (
KL K' L '
Axisof bending : :74-5
f f v
(
momentsat the top of cgrumn M^-,r: ft-kips and at the bottom Mntr :
84 ft-kips. use 436 steel and Load and.'.1!g
ResistanceFactor Design. (
"'-(zs'ooolz'oa
: 365kiPs
'": *+- (
(x tl r)2 (? 4 .5 )3 SOLUTION
(a) Establisheffectivelengths.The member must
be viewedas a column (',
loadinE,C^ may be evaluatedusingTable 12-3-1,Casei. r"'hicir
Fci transverse without bending moment' then as a beam without column
load. For the plane (
indicates of bending, rhe effective length factor K, may be estimated
as = 0.7 from
C^: 1'0 Fig. 6.9.5,or may be obtainedfrom Alignmenichurt, (
Fig. 6.9.4a,as
c- ^ 1.0 I,!2:: (
-Rr . : :1.45 G e : 1 . 0 ( f i x e d,) G'r-:
t-P"/P, l-lL4/365 0 .' 5) '.
u K': o33
3I/n: (
omitting ihe bendrngrcrni
(e)CheckLRFD Formula(H1-1a).Eq. 12.10.1, For the transversedirection, the memberis assumedhinged
at the top and (
bottom; thus, Ku : 1.0. For beam action. Lt: l0 ft
ior the x-axis. and for moment
magnification,K-l ,: 0.73(20): 14.6ft.
Mu, : 14'3ft-kiPs
Mn,B,= 9'86(1'45) (b) Estirnate the P*eq for the given conditions using
either yura,s equa- (
tion, Eq. 12.72.6,or rhe more detailed Eq. 12.12.7.using
P, 8 i "r'ru ' \ 8114.3\ ^^ Eq. 12.12.7and
estimatingBo, as 0.24 for w10, 0.20 for wi2, and 0.Id roirvii,
-l I : 0 . 5 ?* : l : - - I :0.97 < 1.0 oK from Table (
Q , P n 9 \ + a M , ,I 9 \ 3 2 . 1/ 12'12'l for medium weight sections,and using 0.7 for the "stress
ratio,, ternr. (
TheW8x24,A5'12
Grade50,is acceptable. P.,tQ : Pu + It{n,Bo.(0.7)
( !
=
.Y19, {*o = e2+ 168(12)(0.24)0.2
:431 kips (
]:lj, {*o = e2+ :
16s(12)(0.20)0.?
37akips
N EK{MPLE I2.I3.5 w14, puee 92+ 168(12)(0.16)0.2
: 3tgkips (
Sel*t a suitableW sectioafor the column member of the irame sho*n in Using the LRFD Manual"COLUMNS" road
tables,serectfor KL: (
Fig. i2.13.6.The joints are rigid to give frame action in the plane of bending: 10 ft.
hc* er'.-r,in the ti"nruers. directionsrvaybracing is proviciedand the attach- (
nlents are assumedto be hinged. The frame is attached to other braced f, W10x54 e,P, = 431kips r, / ry: I .?1
&t (
conslruction such that this frame is considered part of a braced s)stctn' W12X53 e"Pn:422 kips
.-\ssumea structural analysishasbeenperformedusing factored loads and the
F
+i-
r,/ry: 2.ll
(
t. W14x48 S"p": 351kips r,/ry- 3.06
resulrsare as follows: factoredaxial compression Pu: 92 kips; and factored l:- (
F',
f*-
(
(
+
i u -..!
r
l
( 800 ANDAXIALLOAD
I ?,;96tr,1''NEDBENDING 12.13/EXAIVIPLES- LRFD gOt
I
:
a
I
: For the tables to give the correct dP' rr/rt,for the sectionmust exceed - , -.,!-
From LRFD Manual "LOAD FAcToR DESIGN sELEcTIoN
i/'
TAtsr.r:
€ (.1. /KrL; : 0.7(20)i10 : 1.40; the above sections all qualify. Try 2,". and looking for l, about 6.6 ft,
v w14x48.
I Find l\ 'llx4"l,
Z, : 95. 4, Lo: 5. 3 f t
(c) Can plastic anai;*sisbe used for this design?Plasticanalysisrna-vbe
{ usedif the follou'ingconditionsare satisfied: I h;s' the preliminarychoicesare w14x48 for a shallowsection,or rhe
lighrer
I
Y \\'llx44 if a deepersectionis desirable.Sectionsdeeper
than wl4
I
t, 1. The sectionis "compact"; i.e., tr . tr, for the flangeand the web, and :ippearin the "CCLUI{NS" load tables.
clo ntrr
{I L, < Loa (LRFD-FI.1). (e) Check W21x44 sectionfor columnaction.
il 2. For compressionmembers,the slendernessparameter tr. may Dot
( K*L,
exceed1.5K (LRFD-EI.2). _ 0.{20)12:20.g K,L,:1.0j10]r2
i',7
3. For unbraced frames, the factored axial load Pu may not exceed f., 8.06 :e5.2
ry 7. 26
t- - r, (LRFD -C2.2).
0.75.4
Find +.{, = 19.0ksi (rase<ion KL/r:
( g5.Z)
For this design.lo, would haveto exceed10 ft, and the factoredforcesr';ould Q,P,: e,F,,Ar: t9.0(i3.0) : 247tr..tps
.(a-
: t )
M , " z ( ) : M ,. ,- ( ; ) ( H ) [12.12jl T.{BLE" find
DESIGN SELECTION
{ "stressterm" as the valuesusedin part (a), the ;l/"ro er M p: . 259 f t _kips; et M , : 159f t - kips
>- Estimatingpo, and the
K I t t |
for a W14 rvouldbe Mn= culMp- (M, \ l
' _ u)lio-
. r ' \ - ?, Mo
, b
,i/
fd
(
c a : 1 7 5+ 1 . o s ( # ) + o'31
/ 84 \2
168
:
,l
1.51 Cr:0'6 - oo;
lr
tvt
:0.6- "(#) : 4. 4
L, 10 C^ 0. 4
:( : 6 ' 6f t B^ r : : - n.4(i.01<
) 1.0
!. 1: iii i - P,/P" -
7 92/8600
I i-/
Itt
r i
C
8O2 12 / CAil$AINED tsENDlNGAND AXIAL LOAD
12.1g _LRFD
/ EXAMPLES g03
\ J
(
Thus, the magnified moment out away frona the support does not exceedtlrc in addition to estimatingBo, edthe ..stressratio,,
term of 84. 12.12.7, (
primary moment at the support; thus, B, : 1.0. B, must be esdmated.usingf8r'estiniateoai i.: -a B,
ar 1.0,
(h) Check LRFD Formula(H1-1a),Eq. 12.10.1,omitting the bendingtcnn (
for the y-axis, Mu: Mn,B, + MaBz
EstimatedMu = 30(1.0) + 138(1.3) : 209 ft-kips (
l { u ,: M n ,Br: 1 6 8 (1 -0 ): 1 6 8ft-ki P s
(
Pu 8i Mu, \ 81168\ ' Next' note that the LRFD Manual "COLUMNS" load tablesgive
^^_-
: 0 ' 3 7*2 ^ the correct
o ' e 5< 1 o Q,Pnfor KrLr: 10 ft only when rr/ryexceeds (
a , P , +, l a r i ; ) of ,ss):
K*L,/KyLr: l.Z4(20)/10 : 2.4g ( ,
Use W21x44, A36 steel.Checksof other sectionsgive 0.98 for Wl6x45. 0.9n
@rw14x 48. I Selection of w10 or w12 section: may likely have
their column strength (
controlled by column buckling in the pline of 6ending, while
deepersections ( ,
E EXAMPLE 12.T3.6 will be conrrolled by weak-axisbuckling
Repeat Example 12.13.5except treat the frame as unbraced in the planc of The estimatedequivalentcolumn loads p*o are
: ( \
bending. Though the total factored loads acting in this example are the sanlc w1?, = gZ + 2}9(12)(0.24)0.7: 513 kips (
as in Example 12.13.5, they would have been determined by an entircll {*o
wt?, =
different procedure.Two elasticanalysesunder factored loads are required:a :\' w14, {*o = 9-2+ 209(12X0.20i0.7
"II
: 443kips (
nonsway analysis for gravity loads, and a sway analysis for lateral loads
92+ 209(12)(0.16)0.2
: gzi;li, a
(
Assumethe factored momenls Mn, for the nonswayanalysisare 30 ft-kips antl using the LRFD Manual "COLUMNS" load tables,
select for KL:
15 ft-kips at the top and bottom of the column, respectively.The factorct! 10 ft, or KL: K,L,/(r,/ry): l.24eq/(r,/r,) : 24.g/(.r,/rr) whenr,/rt ( ,
moments Mr, fsom the sway analysisare 138 ft-kips both at the top and thc < 2.49,
(
bottom. All moments causedouble curvature in the column.
W10, for KL: 24.8/1.71: 14.5ft, (
SOLUTION w1ox68 e,1t, = 4g5 kips 1.71
\/ry: (
(a) Effectivelengthsfor column and beam action.A significantdiffcrcnce W12, for KL: 24.8/2.10: 11.gft,
l-;€ttv€€othis caseand the precedingone is that the effective length factor A , (
W12x58 e,p, = 440 kips 2.10
ior the plane of bendingexceedsone. Using the Alignment Chart. Fig. 6.9.4h \/ry:
'or the unbraced,i:ame (siCesr','ay (
not prevented), W14and deeper, .for KL: 10 fr,
I /20 W14x53 e"pn:3g9 kips r,/ry: 3.07 (
(ir: i.3 liixed), GB: : 0.5, K, = 1.24
3rna AlternativelV,u;ing.thg M** approachwith Eq. ll.l2.7,using (
for deepersecrions(as in Examfie iZ.tf.S), S"- of.A.14
'l-his (
value ol K m;iy be adjustedfor inelastic buckling accordineto thc
discussionin S*. 5-9. M,uq = 20s(B/s) + sz/02(0.14)0 .7) :264 ft-kips (
(b) Btimate the P,eq for the given conditionsusing either Yura's ctlt,rs-
,rn.i
tion, Eq. 12.12.6,or the more detailed 4. 12.12.?.Using Eq. il.ll.r 'fehic .!y'uEQ 264(12) (
estimatingF", s 0.24 for W10, 0.20 for Wt| and 0.16 for W14. frorn
Rcquired
t,: : 9sin.-.
*: ffi ( ,
12.12.1for medium weight sections,and using 0.7 for the "stress ratio" tcrm.
From LRFD Manual "LOAD FAcroR DESIGN
Pu e e : P u + M u Bo ,(0 .7) sELEgfIoN TABLE,,"
selecta w18x50 section-A checkof this sectionwdl
show it to be one secrioa (
I-his tirne the equation includesM, instead of M,, used for the bracedfratttc' too heavy.Check nexr lighter W2lx44.
(c) Check W21X44 setion for column action. (
It is relativelyeasierto estimateB, for the bracedframe(and for 1ftsp1ri15u;r' Here K, : l.Z4 insteadof
part of the unbraced frame analysis)tban it is to estimateB. frrr the srv.tr 0.7 for Example 12.13.6,
(
analysis.Oftea 8, b 1.0 or not much larger; however,B" is commonif in the K*L,:
range 1.2 to 15 and it may be larger- Practical designsshouid havc B' not _ 1 . 2 4 ( 2 0 ) :1 236'9 K,L, (
rx : 95'2 ( Exam Ple12. 13. 5)
exceedingabout 1.5. tr6
t (
( \
(
(
1
( 12.13/ EXAMPLES-LRFD
12lCOMBTNED BENDTNG
AND AX|AL LOAD
(
( 375 |
Since the y-a-xisslendernessstill is the larger, the value of 0.P" : 247 ktps /T\ lrl tl-krps
obtained in Example 12.13.5still prevails.The ratio P,/dP" still equals 38 ft-kips
( - rvd$ Braced {rame
9:/247 : 0.372,rvhich exceeds0.2; therefore.LRFD-Formula (H1-1a),Eq. -
'i'iiil
F{
ft, (ccnse:'vative
g
assumption ol
( 1 :.1 i. 1, applies . EM,f
H
I hinged ends)
- I
(d) Bearnactionon W21x44.Thesecalcuiationsare identicalto Example
(
1 1 . 13. 5.par r ( f ) . Q tIl ^ : 2 5 8ft-k i p s . d
l--vi iin
I t ; t 1
3.
E
l{
.'
H
Factored
loads
( (e) Nonsrvaypari-magnification factor ^B,.This calculationis identical Fr i
i__J+
H 7' -6" | ,i I H given
H
( to Example 12.13.5,part (g). In this exampleit rvould be preferableto use d
H I
( '
1 -
-ris:
1? / COM3INED BENDTNGAND AXTALL-OAD 12.13/EXAMPLES_LRFD ft
(.:
The designermay directly usethe aboveequationbi'estimaringborh i1.,,,.,: .. The result for euMn cannot exceed gtMp: 271 ft_kips. ( ,
Thus, etMn:
\o,y, ot perhapsmore practicaluse the sameBo, f.at both termsanti muirr;-.. 271 ft-kips. Check.ge"F",/(9Qt4,) : 8(36.4)/19(45)l:
0.72,which exceedsthe (,,
the y-axjs term by Bt: z,/zr. T\e Bt may also be esrimatedfrom J'.rhi- 0-7 assumedin estimatingp"eq.'one courd revisethe r*o
at this.tu!, before (.,
12.12.1.Using the latter approach,estimateBo,ds 0.20 and Fa as 2.2 ior \\'i. proceeding,
from Table 72.12.rfor medium weightsections,and using 0.7 for ihc "sr::.
RevisedpuEq: 375+ 38(12X0.20)(0.72) + 14(12)(0.20)(3.4) ( ;
ratio" term, (0.72\
: 375 + 66 + 82: 523kips < (e,p,: (,
P,Ee : P, + Mn,,Bo,(0.7)+ trfn,r\o,gu(0.7) 536kips) OK
(e) Beam action-y'axis. Since lateral-torsionalbuckling
and web local \. )
P,,eQ: 2o)(2
2)0
7 buckling cannor be applicablelimit stares,and A < A, for the"flanle
fiectuoes
:; I:::;?,:,1':H14{12)(0 flange local buckling, ( ,
(b) Selecttrial section.Using K,L,:7.5 ft, selectfrom LRFD }ianu.,. M,y: Mrr:Fr Zr : 50( 21 . 4) / lz: g9. 2f t _kips (
"COLUIWNS" load tablesfor Fr: 50 ksi,
QoMnr: 0 . 9 0 ( 8 9 . 2:)8 0 . 3 f t - k i p s ( ,
W12x45, S,Pn:479 kips; \/ry: 2.10 (f ) Mcrmentmagnification-x-axis. The slenderness ( ;
ratio KL/r involved
: in moment magnification must relate to the axis of bintrtng,
Bo. AB/2,: 0.20; Ft: 2.,/Zr: 3.4 i"l'hi, ;*;;; (
x-axis.
RevisedPueq: 375 + 63.8 + 14(12)(0.20)(3.4)0.7 ( ,
: 519kips
, f x ( .
W12x50, having0,p_: . '
It appearsthe next heavierW12 wiil be needed,;
W12x50. r2(29'ooo)-1q'z ( ,
kips. Try the
(c) Column action.
P,: :n:EA':; - -: 3480
kiPs
TKfif 13*f- ( ,
K,L,: t:(11) KrL, _ 7.s(12) For end momenrloading,e is LRFD Formula (Hl_4), Eq. 12.4.6,
: 34.7 (
: 45
- J 'e
'
rx 5.18 t, 1.96
C ^ : 0 . -6 0 . 4 + : 0 . 6
- o . 4*fJ : o . u (
Find g.{, : 36.4ksi (basedan KL/r: 45.9) ' frr:. 3g \ / (
i C^
Q , P n : + , F " , A s : 3 6 . 4 ( 1 4 . 7: )5 3 5 k i p s
t 0.6
{
!
B,' : : 0 . 6 ( 1 . 1 2<) 1 . 0 (
i
$
I - Pu/P" -
t 37s/34E0
Th e r at io P " / Q , P ^:3 7 5 /' 5 3 5 :0 .7 0 , w h i c h e x c e eds
0.2; therefore.
LR I-i r- *
Formula (H1-1a),Eq. 12.11.1, Thus' the magnifiedmomentout away from the support.
applies. !
does not exceedthe
(d) Beam action-x-axis. From LRFD Manual "BEAIVIS" tabres.iind * primary momentat the support; thus, Br, : 1.0. ','^ (
I (g) lv{omentmagnification-y-axis. T-ireslenderness
t ratio KL/r invol'ed ( ,
L P : 6 ' 9f t in moment magnificationmust relate to the axisof
-
t bending,in this casethe
L': 2l'7 ft t
/-8_X.tS, (' ,,
i
n,:
#r*:0.5r(1.23)<r.o
&
it
#*)]
t ft: (
t (
( ,
f
,*
' - - +*rtJt i a -
p / caMBtNED BENDTNG
AND AXTALLoAD
!
' 3 - . - - LRFD
12.13/EXAMPLES
. t : " :
. -,-:.
i ....-
Thus, the magnified moment out away from the support doesnot erceedthe (b) Effective lengthsfor columnand i** acrion.
primary momcntat the support;thus, 8r.r: 1.0.
(h) CheckLRFD Formula(H1-1a),Eq. 12.10.1, Column action: K..1, : 1.0(12): 12 fr
+ 1 . 6 ( 4 . 0:) 7 . 6k i p s
;Wu:1.2(1.0) pueq
: p,+ Mn,Bo,[*+l[^ t,,r,,) 112.12.51
'--.-
P u : 1 .2 (1 7 )+ 1 .6 (6 8 ): 1 2 9ki ps \ 9 0 r F ,I \ B ' - p ( K L ) ' I
,v==F_,
)o Using the LRFD Manual "COLUI{NS Structural tees cut from W
ll
I shapes"load tables,selecttot KrLr: 6 ft or K,Lr: L2 ft,
U Borrom
r--l 2'-0"-----f- Verticatsuppon
0.0.,-J-- Laterat
supporr For K, L, : 12 f t For KrLu: 6 ft
l--u'-0"
N=,,,rn,r.,,,i'
wT?x37 Q "P, : 293 kiPs Q , Pn: >293kiPs
u e= ' T
assum
W - wT8x28.5
WT9x30
Q,P,: 262kips
*, Pn: 253kips
Q,Pn: 272kips
Q,Pn: =240kiPs
Figure12.13.8 ExampleL2.13.8.
f "
tr..1,"[:
KL/r
.iE 5e.8fso-mDt
:;V (
V E :0.766
wT9 L-l.2 0.3 ,tooo (
wT8 1 - 1 .5 0.3 use l.y'T to enterLRFD Manual ..NUMERICAL (
wT7 L.2-2.0 0.3-0.5 vALuES,,TABLE 4.
wT6 1 .5 -2 .0 0.5 0.4 (
wT5 2.0-2.5 0.6 0.665; 0 . 4 , : 0 . 6 6 50( . g 4 2 ) s 0 : 3 1 . 3k s i
wT4 2.5-3.5 a,;: (
0.7
Q , P n : e , F n A s : 3 1 . 3 ( g . 3 g:) 2 6 2k i p s (
Additional selectiondata may be obtainedby noting the proporrr()n, : The ratio Pu/+.p,_: 129/262:0.492, ( ,
P,uq that representsthe bendingeffect.For the Wfi above.rhc'bc1r.t:r:r which exceeds0.2; therefore,IRFD-
Formul a(H l -l a), E q. 12. i1. 1,applies. (
proportion is 54 rc (7531282)of the toral effect,rhus,
(e) Beam action-fl*gr it, compression. check the ratio
2'47/r'60 > 1'0; thus, the literal-torsional r,/ry: (
:9 {\ e+r , ,jt = o , o ''sidered'
The maximum nominal moment
tive interpretationof LRFD-F1-5
buckling limit saatemust be con-
strength according to the conserva-
occurswhen-.ith., the flange extreme (
which, noting that r{^: F,,sr,r,"- maximum, gives an approximate rcQurrr.,,! in compressionreaches (or a resser fiber
'alue if local buckring makes
S...r,..,,, than unity), or the srem$exrreme e" ress (
fiber ,;r;;.;
----'-" '
control, ;.;, ' L ) rension.The srem wi,
8(11.4)12
RequiredS,.,,".= -. Y:- :
e+r4(0.s4) e(0.e0)(s0)0.54 hfr:
4&,,,.'lr : 50(7.77)/tZ :32.3 ft-kips (
For the tentariveselections, Wfix37 heSS,,,,.,',: 6.25 in.l, WT8X2E.5ii.r. It will be highlv unlikely thar Iareral-torsional
5 'r.stc:nr
7. 77 in. 3,an d WT 9 x 3 0 h 4 s S,,r," * :0 .: i n . 3.Furtherchecki ncl hc buckling will conrrol on (
structurartees.However,LRFD-FI.5 g:..t
WTEx2S . 5. , l" i' 5, . , , .,o: 8 .3 8 /1 .7 7: 1 .1 ; re v i s e dp req = 234 ki ps. [:r,,nl "".qr"ri"" for rv{n.UsingCt,: 2.3 (
"COLU\1NS" load in LRFD Formula(F1-15)as illustrated
tablesit still appearsthe WT8x28.iiray be the spprtrfn. in Exampi, e:2.2, Lb:143 ft rvhen
Mu : M, : 32.3ft-kips.
a te ch oic e. (
(f) Beamaction_u,ebin compression.
Irr- W T 8x 23. 5- SinceI . l, as determinedin part
(d)' g" : 0.942.For flexurul-.*b.rs, (
accordingto LRFD-Appendix
(d) Column acrion.CheckWT8x28.5. the maximum bendingstress"shali B5.3a,
nor e.xceedE.F;Q; Thus, 1,
K ' L ' : t 1 ( t 1 ) : 5 e . 8 K,L,': 6(11) M' :40,{,,,"* : 50( 0. 942) ( 7. 7i) / 12:
: 45.0 30. 5f t _kips (
r, 2.47 rv 1.60
In this e.rample,the factored forces (
Since the stem of a structural tee is a thin compressionelement.locrl are the same at the supports
midspan;therefore,the strengthcriterion and at
r:rav be a contrcllng limit state;check ), > I, from LRFD-85. at the supporrs(tr{r,:30.5 ft-kips) (
will control.
(g) Moment magnification.The (
; d 8.215 127 \ slendernessratio KL/r involved
-K,-L,7r.,:
i' mo-
I t r : r* :le1)>
( ^ ,
: - : 18.01 NG relate
totheorisofbending;,
inthis.us.
\ 0.430 Itr
V'I' I $$$$$Ttr:ffifi.ffI,Iff:
The cfficicncy'of the stemis reduced;i.e..0, < 1.0.Usi:rgLRFD-.{ppe!:,i;r o'EA'
i J5 .3 .ef or A . < I < 1 7 6 /U T ., P,:- - -n2(29'wo)s'38
: 671kiPs (
(6 (sr3)t-
Q,: L908- 0.00T15(d/r*),1\. t
For restrained
endswith concentrated_road
at midspan,one may take : (
Q,: L908- 0.00715(19.1)160-
: 0.942 0.85in accordance
with LRFt-ii.zr.ii. ari;;;;#.iy, e
pressionfrom LRFD-commeo."ry a more accurareex- (
TABLE c-ur.i (Tabre 12.3.1, Case7.
(
(
(
(
812 ANDAXIALLOAD
I2I'COMBINEDBENDING 12.14/ ALLOWABLESTRESSD:SIGN CRITERIA 813
(
(
negativemoment) is rvhich gives as a design requirement,
(
( c,,: r - 0.2
+
P,
:1.0- oz(XJ: o.ru ( 1 2 . 1 4 . )j
\671/
( o'nu
g ', : - c ^ - : : 1.19 f.or uniaxial bendins and compression.
( 1-P"/P" 1-129/671 By analogy, for- bending about both x- and l,-axes.Eq. 12.1,1.3u'ouiij
( l f C ^ : 0 . S 5 .8 i : 1 . 0 5 . become
(h) Check LRFD Formula (H1-1a), Eq. 12.10.1,omitting the term for
( f' f"c''''
bendingabout the _r'-axis,
Fr,(t- fJn
-* p^11
,,, ,l'9"',,. i < 1.0
- fJF:,1 (12.i4.4)
{, 1-
r l u ,: r' l n t,B L ,: 1 1 .4 (1 -1 9:) 1 3.6ft-ki ps
( rl'!-ichis the stability interactionequation,ASD Formula(H1-1),
i6l/n, : QoMr: 0.90(30.5): 27.4ft-kips
( where f.: P/A- : axial compressionstressat serv'ice load
(
3 * igA =,0
Q,P; 9 \QtM". )
[12'ro1] f 6r,f t,y: flexuiai at
stresses sen'ice load basedon primary bending mc'-
ment about the x- and y-axes,respectively
129 8 i 13.6\
( - _ r - _ l _ : _ l : 0 . 4 9 2 + 0 . 4 4 1: 0 . 9 3 < 1 oK 4, : allo.*'ablecompressionstressconsideringthe nremberas loaded
2 6 2 9 \ 2 7 . 4I by arial compressiononlY
(
(
UseWT8x28.5,A572Grade50 steel. E
-- "" Fb': ;"il:r';:il:'J::,T':;'i';
::il:::'"Jru'*.ff:l'ililio'i:
STRESSDESIGNCRITERIA the definition of C, in ASD-F1.3,rvhenthe stabilityequation,
( 12.14ALLOWABLE
E4,. 72.14.4,is used for bracedfrantes Ca = 1.0' but rvhen Eq.
( For Allou'able StressDesign,the strengthinteractionequations,Eqs. 12.8.1 12.74.4is used for unbraced frames,Ct: 1.75+ 1-05(ltli/I{2)
+ 0.3(M r / M ) I < 2. 3
( through 12.8.4.nay be convertedto unit stresses and a factor of safety(FS)
applied to bring them into the serviceload range. C^: factors discussedin Secs.L2.3 through 12.5. to be taken as
( follou's:
-j
franze,membershaving transverseloading betweensup-
r r:^- L--^-)
( Stability Interactlon Criterion ... l. For braced
r
.-.:. ports. C- is an integral part of the moment magiifier Bi, and whose
( The nomiaal strength interaction equation, Eq. 12.E.4,including lateral-tor- value ma1"be determinedby' rational analysis,
sionalbuckling is
( C^ : 1 + rfa (ASD Commentary-Hl) (i2.14.5)
Pu Mri C^
( : Valuesfrom Table 12.3.7
M,(t-PJP):i [12.8.4J
h-
( C^: 1.0 (ASD'Hl) (12.14.6)
where { and trlu,arc the axial force and primary bending moment, respec-
(endsof memberunrestrained)
( tively, that occur whenfailure is imminent. When both the nurnerator and
denominator are divided by a factor (FS) to bring ail terms into the sen'ice ' -- C-:0.85 (ASD-Hl) (12.14.11
( load range (endsof memberrestrained)
( c^
P"/(A sFS) M",/[S(FS)] , For bracedfrante membersn-ithout transvetselcading bctrveensup-
* :1.0 (12.14.1)
( P ^/ ( A s F S | M" /[S(F S )J t- P"/(r8FS)I ports but having end moments ,t/, (smallerone) and .4/' (larger cne).
(
(
Ll- ./GSJ C- converts t'he linearly va4rlng primary benCingmoment into an
equivalentuniform mornent Me: C^M2,
P/As
*'
M,/S c^ : 1.0 ltz:.t+.21 c,, : 0.6 - 0.4M/ M, (12.14.8)
(
P ^/ ( A sF S ) M ,/IS(F S )]
(
, ( l'-#tu] :
j
'
.
- l
i
1
a
The moments .,\y',and, lf -, aie rolational moments, rather than bending
monents as used in Sec. 72.4. Thcrefore, the ratio is negative (-) for
F
814 BENDING
12/ COM9|NED ANDAXIALLOAD 12.14/ ALLOWABLESTRESSDESIGNCRITERIA (
815
(
singlecurvatureand positive( * ) for double curvature.Since M, is the (
primary moment, C- is really not part of the magnificationfactor. P/A
r lvt/s (
* :
3. For unbracedframe members, F,/U.FS) r.18MP/ts(FS)l 1 . 0 (12.14.13)
(
C- : 0-85 (ASD-Hl) (r2.14.e)
or from ASD-Commentary Hl,
which gives as a designrequirement. (
(
C^: 1 - 0.18f"/F: (12.14.10) - _f"+ : 1.0 (12.r4.14)
as discussedin Sec.12.5. 0.60d r.18Me/ls(FS)l (
In the application of Eq. 12.14.4[ASD Formula (H1-1)], the term F,' Tlie ASD Specificationhas used an expressionmore conservative than Eq. (
refers to the effectiuepin-end length in the plane of bending: 12.14.14by using 1.0 insteadof 1.18,and'insreadof Mo/[.s(FS)], which for
(
I-shaped sectionswould correspondto 0.66{ for x-axij bending and 0.75i
P. *2EI for y-axis bending, ASD-HI has used d. Fbr instance, the allowable stres-s
'ac r : - _ : _
\
lsFS A.LZFS Fa, might requirereductionbelow0.66F'or evenbelow0.604 becauseof the
laterally unbracedlength adjacentto a bracedlocation. (
t2r2E 149.000
: - : - - t - - : (12.14.11)' Thus ASD-HI usesfor rhe yield criterion, (
23(KL/r\' (KL7r)''
(
where K : effectivelength factor lsee Secl6.9) L * ! ! <: 1
^' . 0 (12.14.15)
0.604, F, (
L : actual unbracedlength in the plane of bending
r : radius of gyration for the axis of bending f,or uniaxial bending and compression. (
It is noted that a nominal safety factor of 23/12: 1.92 is used; this is the For biaxial bending,the generalequationis
maximum factor used for long axially loaded members(seeSec.6.11) and is
f o f f
therefore conservativein the maenification tenn. -+-+$++<1.0
0.604, Fu,
(12.14.16)
Fur.
Yleldlng lnteractlon Criterlon
which is the yield interacrionequation, ASD Formula (H1-2), where the
At support locationsrn bracedfrantes and for low slenderness situationsin quantitiesare as definedfollowingEq..12.14.4,exceptthat in er.aluating
{.
unbracedfram,es.yielding (plastic strength under the action of P and lvl I
Td 4, the momentgradienttenn c, is usedin exactlythe way it. is used for
under combined axial compressionand bending may govern. The strength bending alone, rather than in the special way it is used for the stability
interaction equation, Eq. 12.8.1, iorms the basis for the Allowable Stress interaction crite'rion,Eq. 12.14.4. r
Design criterion.
',, 'Vu Simplilled lnteractioncriterion for Smail Axiat compression
Py
*
L.I8.!{P
:1.0 Irz.s.rf
when f,/F" does not exceed0.15, ASD-HI perntits use of the following
where P" aod Mu are the axial force and primary bending moment, respec- insteadof the two formulas,ASD Formulas(Hi-l) and (H1-2):
tively, that occur wheo maximum strength is achieved.When the numerator
and denominator are divided by a factor (FS) to bring all terms into the
sen'iceload ranse. I .
*.*,.f,='o $zu.tt 1 \
{
&/(.{sFS) M"/ls(FS)l which is ASD Formula(H1-3).
' : 1.0 (12'14.12)
F-
r :
As is usual with designspecifications,current requirementsreflect some
4Z;"FE
I
L.LsMe/ls(FS)l L-"
t:
''
historicaldevelopments. Until 1961,the AISC Specificationdid not consider
the secondarybendingmomentdue to deflection.When axial compressionis
E
t' relatively small, neglectof the secondaryeffect makes little difference. This
'For SI unis. 1027,000
Il' - ----- MPa t l 2 . l a . Il ) h simpl.ified alternative of neglectingthe secondaryeffect is not included in
( KL/r)'
r-.
.LRFD.
ba'
tr-.
(
(
Cn'tenln
DESIGN
STRESS
t 2.14/ ALLoWAtsLE 817
( 816 ANDAXIALLOAD
BENDING
12ICOMBINED
(
Thus, Lu: \1.6 ft (the largerof 11.6 and 9.4 ft). Sincel, exceedslu the
( Redlstributlon of Moments to Approximate Plastlc Behavlor and
allowabli stresswill-bereduicd belo$'0.60f,.Use ASD Formulas(Fl-6)
( mo- (Fl ,8),
Regardingbending i'nornentadjustmentsto accountfor plastic-behavior
as in
discussed Chapter 10, ASD-Fl'l allorvs the 10%
( ment redistributio"n. 12.000 12.000
reduction ir"r negarive moment on a beam to be used in proportioning
the rr(F1-8): - :: ::27.8ksi<0.60F.,
buckling' Lbd /Ai 1 s( 1 : )( 2 . 1 0 )
( column if the broo, or girder has L, < L. for lateral-torsional
..compactsectioni requirementi,and the compressive stress/, on the
( sarisfies L o - 1s(12)
0.154. : 65.5
column doesnot exceed rT 2.75
(
( E EXAMPLE I2.I4.I ( L^/rr\= (65.5)l
under the :40'0-
investigatethe acceptabilit;-of a W16X6?usedas a beam-column ^q,(F1-6):40.0 *:29'9ksi
( The total loacis
service are P: 350 kips and
loadinishos'n in Fig. 12.10.1'
(i'e''
( iV : {0 ft-kips, and {, : 60 ksi. Use Allowable StressDesign. Since 2g.g> 27.8.F^(Fi-6) controls.In both formulasCu is takenas 1'0
becauseC- in this situationconverts the moment diagraminto an
not used),
( SOLUTION equivalentuniform moment,for rvhichC, rvouldbe 1'0'
(a) Colunrn efiect.
( Cn,: 0.6 - 0.4(lrI/ I/:) : 0.60
KL i5(12) i
( _ : : -. 6 0 (1 2 )
rv 2.46 f.- :6.15ksi
ro 777
(
KL/r 73 c^f o 0. 6( 6. 15)
( : 0.747 - - 6 T : v ' L z n r^
C, 9'1.7 F;
(
F o : C o F , : 0 ' 3 8 1 ( 0 0:; 2 2 ' 8k s i (c) Momenr magnification.using AsD l\'{anuai
"NUN{ERICAL VAL-
(
(nso "NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE 3) U E S ' ' TA B LE 8.
(
P 350 KL 1s(12)
- ---- : 17.8ksi - - '6.96 : 2 5 . 9 ; F! : 223ksl
( tfs 79.7 rx
As
( t 17,8 where the x-axis is the axis of bending.The magnificationfactor is
0 .? 8> 0 .1 5 ; u s e AS DF o rm ul as(H 1-1)and (H 1-2)
Ja
: -:
(
1 22.8 1 1.0
-
1.0
: 1.09
( 1-fJF::1-1738i- 1 0.0798
(b) Bearneffect.DetermineL" from Eqs.9'7'1 and9'7'2,
( (d) Check cf ASD Formulas:
L,: : 8'4ft (controts)[l.r.t] For stability, Formula (H1-i),
(
H: ffi
'( ' C *tfhr ll 1
- '' -o, \
or -f ,- '+ l : 0 . 7 8 + 0 . 1 2 ( 1 . 0 9 ) : 0 '<9i 1' 0
Fo' Fh \1-f"/F;l
(
,.: j9Y= : 11.6
= =T;91?..
(aye,)n, 2.40(60)12
rt ls.t.z\
For yielding, Formula (H1-2), at the bracedpoint,
(
17. 8 6. 15
( s L. the allowable stress Fb will be less
Thus, l. : 8.4 ft. Since lo exceed f" fu
the
than 0.66{.. Check L, usin! Eqs.9.?.21(oneof which is Eq. 9'7'2 above); 0.604, Fb 36 36
(
other is
For the above equation rvhich does not involve C-, ft (F1-9] shculd use
( - 1 : ksi'
Cd:1.75 for this problem. In which case.Fu> 0.60F,.;use 0'60F'' 36
r - -
:2.75 - : 9.4 ft
Lu: lT
for the givenloading. E
( 12 Tiie W16x67 is acceptable
, (
*"; F
1,F;'
' (
EENDiNG AND AXIAL LOAD
12 / COTAAINED
;"r
12.15/ DEs' .fli F;-€CrlUF:- -AsD 81g
818
(
_ When f "/ F" < 0.15, Pro may be computedsimilarly frorn 4.12.14.17 as (
12.15DESIGNPROCEDURES
ALLOWABLE STRESSDESIGN t
PeQ:P + MB",(.;j (12.1s.7)
(
To aid in selectionof.a beam-columnsection,it is usuallyadvantage()us trr
convert, in an approximate rvay, the resulting bending moment int..' .ln (
equivalentaxial compression load and then to make useof column trtble,r. ;rr correspondingto ASD Formula(H1-3) for uniaxial beading.
conversionof the arial l,,eri Severalexamplesfollow which demonstrateapplicarionof the interaction (
was done in Sec.72.72for LRFD. Occasionally,
into equivalentmomentwill be helpful- formulas,using principlesestablishedin Chapters6, 7" and 9- The following (
The stability interactionequation,Eq. 72.14-3,may be written examplesuse the approachesoutlined above; however,alternative approaches
and usesof various designaids have been proposed[12.50-12.551including (
P '^
*'( l :r.o (i2.15-lr nonconventionalcasessuchas steppedcolumns. \'
ArFu rrs \, | - f"/F"' I
(
g by A "I, givcs
lv'l.ultipl-vin E EXAMPLE I2.I5.I
Selectthe lightest W14 sectionto carry serviceloads consistingof an axial (
P- rr(+)(?i( : o.n,:
P,e (l2.l5.li compressionP of i50 kips in combinationwith a moment M of 500 ft-kips. (
#) The member is part of a braced system (see Fig. 12.13.i), with support
piovided in eachdirectionat top and bottom of a 14-ft length. Conservatively ( ,
Nsxt. e.xlmine the magnification term, which may be changed in form. urrn! assume the moment causessingle curvature and varies as shovrn in Fig.
I : q . 1 2 . i 4 . 1 1f o r . f ' ,
(
12.13.1.Use A36 steeland AllowableStressDesign.
(
1 F' 1 4 9 ,0 00r2
7 - f"/F.' F"' - Io
(")1#F
;)
(l2.lj.-lt
SOLUTION
Consenatively assumethe effective length factor K : 1.0. If adjacent
memberstiffnessis known,the alignmentchart u"hichappearsas Fig. 9.6.4ain
(
(
Chapter6 may be usedto determineK < i.0 for this braced frame. (
149,000A -rz Sinceat the start one mav have no idea n.hether!./F" < 0.15. use the
"1)
(12.15 (
-
1 4 9 ,0 0 0 1 8 1 2 P (KL )= simplestPro expression,Eq. 12.15.7,
l r (
'fhus I t^
the equivalent usingEq. 12.15.1.
columnload P.q may be expressed P u o : P + Mp"rl;
corrcspondingto ASD Formula(H1-1)for uniaxialbending. \fa
(
'^,o \ "COLUMNS" load tables: for \\'14 sections,find
P e Q :P + r r p " , | : j { {11.i5.5} Referringto ASD Manual
l'el\; 'tKtf,l the averagebending factor with respectto the strong a{s, po, = 0.19.Neglect (
temporarilyF"/F6; i.e.,assumeFo = po. (
rvircrc Ru, : bending factor : A r/S
Pee = i50 + 500(12X0.19): 150 + ll40 : 1290kips (
ci : ii9.000,-1rr2 f,rr a-'t:soi bending
( ANDAXTAL
l2 / coMstNEDBENDTNG
- ' t
820 LOAD * -1 | 12.1s/ DESTGN _ ASD
PROCEDURES
: '-.
.L. I 821
( ;.- -i
I
( Check:Use ASD !\{anual"NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE 3.
- - _ i
- l
For colunrn action:
(
K,L,: t1(11): 4r.3; KL/r
: -
4I.3
: 0.328
; ^.1.. : 16 ft; ff.,l.., : g ft
( rt. 4.08 c, 726.7 Required r.,/ r,. 2 ? if KL : 8 ft is r.alid for enrcring ASD
( il:inual, " COLU\lNS" load tai-.les
F ind C" : 0 .5 3 0 ; F o : C o F r,: 0 .5 3 0 (36): 1 9 . 1k s i
( Lt : 1- 1ft < L .
F o r b e a n re c t i o n :
(Se c .9 .7 ); It: 0.66I. : 24 ksi
( L,, : Latcrally unbraced length : E ft
Fo r9.l:o.go
_ L for momenr magnification : 16 ft
( Fh 24
( b ) C h e c kW l 0 x 3 9 :
( Rcl'iseusing closerapproximationsfor the variables, Colunin action:
( P r Q : 1 5 0 + 5 0 0 (1 2 )(0 .1 8 3 )(0 .8:0)1028ti ps P ll0
fo: - :]f).4ksi
( Selectfor the rerised Poq, As ii.5
(
(e) Unbraced frame-estimate equivalentcolumn load Pro. The particu- For this unbraced frame the stability requiremenrgoverns.Thus if a small
overstressis acceptablefor the unbracedframe, rhe sameW21x44 could be (
lar feature of the unbracedframe is that K, for the axis of bending exceeds
one. Using the alignment chart from Chapter 6 (Fig. 6.9.4b) for unbraced used whether the frame is bracedor unbraced.Without exceedingrhe safety
frame (sideswaynot prevented)for Ge :1.0 (fixed at botiom; ;nd Ga : 0.5 criterion, the w16x50 would be the choice(wlgx46 gives 1.01 for ASD I
:
C- 0.85 for unbracedframe
a c t o r:
M a g n i f i c a t i of n
ci
. 1'*r' r,. : 0.89
l
f:
KL/r
q
59.8
:
mJ:o'542
co: 0.461 (nsn Manual"NUI\'IERICAL
VALUES"TABLE3)
F
: :=,:
1-f"/F,' I -4.6/710 Fo: CoQ,4: 0.461(0.942)50
: 21.7ksi
f" frl C^ \
? + 4l -f - f o / . , : o.l++ 0.77(0.8e)
: 1.03> 1 tfa. . : *g . 3 g : 1 0 . 1k s i
Fo F;\l \
t
f'
*.
e
C 12l/COMBiNED 9€ND|NGAND AXIAL LOAD SELECTED
REFERENCES
(,
(
(b) Beam action-at the support.At the tensionface (flange), compresston,
(
7'5(i2)1'94 F"' : .11.8ksi (basedon .&.1..,.'r..
: 59.E)
- : 3'6 ksi (tensionat top)
( -fr: ;tr{
5...n..;. 4s.7 C , , : 1 . 0 - A - 2 ( f " / F " ' ): 1 . 0- 0 . 2 ( 1 A t / 4 1 . 8 ): 0 . g 5
(
Fo : 0.60{,.: 30 ksi q,
( : : 1'25
At the compressionface(stern), t - fJry I - io;v4lJ
(
j|r 7.s(12) l0.i .1.6
( 4 : : -# : 11.6ksi (compression
at borrom) :----:--- - (' 1. 25)= 0. 465+ 0. 136: 0. 60 < 1. 0 OK
*
"-r-stcm "t ' 21.7 33
(
F b: Q , ( 0 .6 0 .[) : 0 .9 4 2 (3 0:) 2 9 .3k s i At the stem e.{trsn:efiber (tensionat stcni).
(
10.1 1i.9
( (c) Beam action-at midspan.At the tensionface (srem), - ( 1 . 2 8 ): 0 . 4 6 5- 0 . 5 0 7: < 1 . 0
Z1:? OK
t
30
( 7.5(12)
, :_ _ M : : 11.6ksi (tensionat bottom) The WT8x28.5. A572 Grade 50, is significantll'understressed
/o accordingto
S..**_ 6
( A l l oqabl cS tressDesign. !
( 4 : 0'60F, : 30 ksi
( At the compressionface(flange),
SELECTED
REFERENCES
( M 7.s(12)1.e4
'ft: : 3.6ksi (compression
at top)
u T- 48'7 "stabiiity
( {' nu"rt 12'1- CharlesN1a-ssonnet. Considerations
in the Designof StcelColumns."
Journal of the StructuralDiuisiorz, ASCE.85, ST? (Scptcnrbcr1959),75_111.
( ' Fr: 0.('6F,.: 33 ksi (flangesatisfies,.coiltpact" 12-2. Walter J. Ausln. "strcngth and Dcsignof Mctal Bcam-Columns."Journai oj
sectionrequiremenrof ASD-B5.; the StructuralDitision, ASCE, 87, ST4 (April 1961).1_32.
( 12.3. Nestor R. I*aakiw. "Note on Beam-ColumnN{omentAnrplification Factor."
( (d) check the bracedpoint (the support)using ASD-Formula (H1-2), Eq. EngineeringJountal, AISC, 21, 1 (First euartcr 19g4),2r-23: Disc. by Le-wu
1 2. 14. 15. Lu, 22, 1 {Firsr Quaiter 1985), 47-48: Disc. by JosephA. yura, 22, t rnirsr
( Quarter1985).48.
fo 12.4. Robert L. Ketter. "Further Studiesof the Strengrhof Beam-Columns."
( .+<l.o [12.14.1sJ Journcl
of the StrutitiralDicision,ASCE,87, 5T6 (August1961),135-152. Also Trauac-
( tions, ASCE. 127 (1962),Parr II, 244-?66.
At the flange extremefiber where Ft:0.60{, in tension,the totai srressis 12.5. N[. R- Horne. "The StanchionPrcblcarin Framc StrucrurcsDesigncdAccord-
( -10.1 + 3.6: -6.5 ksi < 0.60.q, OK ing to ultiaare carrS'ingCapacity,"proc. Insr.cit:il Engrs..5,l, part III (April
frop: f"+ fu: 1 9 5 6 ) ,i 0 5 - 1 4 6 .
( 12'6. Wai-Fah Cben and SuipingZbou. "Q, Factor in Load and RcsistanceFacror
At the stem extremefiber whereFa: 28.3ksi,
( Design,']- Jountal of Structural Enginetring, AscE, l13, g (August 19ET1.
10.1 11.9 1738-r754.
( * : 0.337+ 0.420: 0.76 < 1.0 OK i2-7- Robcrt L. Ketter. Edmund L. Kaminsky,and Lynn S. Bccdlc."Plasric Defor-
30 2gJ mation of \\'ice-Flange Beam-columns," Transactiotis, ASCE, lz0 (1955).
( (e) check the stabiliryequarionar midspan using ASD-Formula (H1-1), 1 0 2 8 -1 0 6 9
Eq. 12.14.3. 12.8. Theodore \'. Galambos and Robert L. Ketter. "Columns Under CornbineJ
(
Bending l.d Thmst," Journalof the Engmeering !,lechanicsDiuision,ASCE.S5.
( f" c^ \ -=. t'o
,^ EM2 (April 1959),1-30. AIso Tratz:cctrorts, ASCE. t26 {1961),part I. l_25.
*h( r[tz't+'r]
rrr, 12-9' George F- Hauck and Seng-LipLee. "stabiliry of Elasto-Plastic
( Fo Fu\t- f"E J Wide-Flu"g.
Columns," Journa[of the StructuralDfutsion.ASCE. 89, 5T6 (Decemberi963).
At the flange extreme fiber rvhere 4 : 0.66^q,,as a "coritpact" section in 297-324.
(
: (
-
830 i2 / CCl.'lSiNfD SENDINGAND AXLcL LCAD SEiECTEDREFERENCES 831
(
(
"Buckling oi SteelColumns Under Arbitrary'[:nd 12'29" Wei-Wen Yu. Cold-Formed Sree! Structures.New york:
12.10.S. L. Lee and G. F. Hauck. ' 19'73, McGraw-Flill, Inc., ,.t
Lo3ds," Journc!of the StructuralDitision. ASCE,90, ST2 (April 1964),I79- 2A) Chap. 6' Reprinr edition with correcdons.Malabar, FL: Robert E.
Krieger
"Buckling of EccentricallyLoaded SteelColumns." Publishing company, Inc. (Kricger Drive, Marabar, FL 32950),
12.11.S. L. Lee and S. C. Anand. 19g2.
' I23A' Charles Bimstiel and James \fichalos. "Ulrimate Load of
Journc{ of the StructuralDiuision, ASCE 92, ST2 (April 1966),35i-370- H-Columns Under (
"Eccentricalll'Loadetl Biaxial Bending," Journar of the structurar Diuision,ASCE" g9,
12.12. Eds:n C. Rossow,GeorgeB. Baroe-v,and Seng-LipLce. sr2 (April
Steel Columas q'ith Iniial Curvature," Journal of the Structural Diaisiott.ASCE. 1963),161_197. (
93, ST2 (April L967),339-358- L2.31. charles G. culver. "Eract
. "UJtimate Strength of Lateralll' LoadcC Solution of Bia;riat Bendi.g Equations,,,Journal of
12.i3. Le-Wu Lu ald HassanKamalvand. the structural Dicision ASCE, 92, sr2 (April 1966),63-g3.
Columns," Journal of the Struawal Diuision, ASCE, 94, 5T6 (June l96l{t. 12'32' Charles G. Culver. "Initial Imperfectionsio Bia:cial Bending,', (,
Journal of the
1505-1524. StructuralDiuision,ASCE,92, ST3 (June1966),119_135.
"Further Studiesof Inelastic Beam-Column Problem," Jaurnul o{
t2.l.l. W. F. Chen. L2'33' Gunnar A. Harstead,Charles Bimstiet, and Keh-Chun Leu. "Inelastic i
(
All probtems(exceptProbs. 12.27-12.31)are to be done accordingto AISC
( Loai and Resistun.. Factor Designor AllorvableStressDesign,as indicated lvrz x 136
W, S,
by the instructor.The requirementof W sectionis intendedto include 436
( loads unlsssothenviseindicated.
and M sections.All given loads are sen'ice Consideras lateratsuppcn only
('
12.4. Invesrigarethe aCequacyof the given section.No joint translation 12.7. Selectthe lightestW14 sectionto carry a serviceload P as shownin the
occur and external lateral supPort is provided at the ends only. accompanyingfigure,with an eccentricitye:12 in. with respectto the (
strong axis. Assume the member is part of a braced system, and
w8x28 conservativelyassumethe effective length equals the unbraced height. (
436
Use (a) ,4'36steel; (b) A572 Grade 60 steel. (,'
(
e=12"
Service loads Serviceloads
Mo:1 .M'' dead load P = 1 0 0k i p s
2.0'* live load dead load
Mr:2.C9'' dead load
400 kips
'- live toad
2.91 live load
P - 1Okies dead load
4C kips tive load
WAx2g
e=12"
M.
Prob.12.4
M"
'1:: '"
12.5. Derermine the safe senice load tv permitted for this braced frani.' 12.8. Selectthe lightestW14 sectionto carry an axial compressionP of 100
beam - c oiumn - kips dead load and 140 kips live load along with a bendingmoment M
of 125 ft-kips dead load and 325 ft-kips live load, which, for conserva-
*l.|qejgeg:
l" As$rne
P- 40 kips 6ea4|oad
tive simplicity, is assumedto be constant along the 15-ft equivalent
pin-end length of the member in the braced structure. Use (a) 4,36
!*/' hinged
for both
6O kigs lrve bad
steel;(b) A572 Grade50.
principal Itl-20% clead load
direcibns 80% live load 12.9.If the serviceload P is 30 kips deadload and 95 kips live load and w is
0.8 kips/ft dead load and l.2,ktps/tt live load for the beam-column t.,
Prcb.12.5 ('
i.
w superimposecl Service loads
w:l kip/tl
(
12.6. Determinethe serviceaxial load P which theW12X45 may be permit- dead load
tcd to carr)'. Lateral support is provided at ends and at midspan' 3 kips/tt
live load
Compare for A36 and A577Grade 50 steels' P = 20 kips (
dead load
Service loads 50 kiPs
P r^ - live load
-t>
w=O'ZkiPltt dead load
Wl2 i. .15
> l crpportt =
t."terar
0.5 kip/tt live toad P rob.12.10 {
(t
F-,o-o'-J-,r'*'-{-
f--ts'-or'-J-t5'-c' |!n ffif"':;'
i - v€rticat support 12.11. For the member of a bracedsystemin the accompanyingfigure, select (
the lightest W section;Use (a) ,4'36steeland (b) A572 Grade 60 steel.
Prob. 12.6 (
;\
(
( PROBLEMS 837
ANDMIAL LOAD
I2lCOMBINED BENDING
(
(
( lC' 21o' '
99l1e9-lee9! I
Prob.12.11
(
(
12.12.Redesignthe sectionfor Example12.13.5for All|Grade 60 steel'
( frame and analysishas determinedK..:1..1: in the perpendicular
12.13.A frame braced againstsidesrvayhas a beam-columnloadedas in the di recti onthe s t r uct ur eis br acedsuch t hat K; : 1. 0. Fir st - or derf ac-
( accompanying figure resulting from an elasticanalysis.The horizontal tored load analysesunder dead load, live load. and rvind (1.2D + 0.5L
membir has tateiat support at its ends and every9 ft. Selectthe iigbtes! + 7.3W) have been performed:the nonswaygrauty analysis(7.2D +
( W section acceptableusing A36 steel' 0.5t), and the sruaywind (1.31V)analysisgiving the valuesas shown.
12.14.Redesignthe column memberof Prob- 12.73as part of an unbraced Assumeall columnsin the story are the sarneand the load on each is
( frame, but disregard the serviceloads of that problem. Assume trvo i denti cal .U se st eels:( a) 436; ( b) F": 50 ksi; ( c) 4 : 60 ksi; and
factored load first-order analyseshave been performed: (1) the gravity (O .F,: 65 ksi.
( load nonsrvayanalysisgiving Pu: 65 kips and Mn': 100 ft-kips; alg' 12.16.DesigncolumnsA and B as W sectionsfor the unbracedframe of the
( (2)aswayanalysisgrvingM/,:275ft.kipsandP,:l0kips.Assume
accompanyingfigure. Perpendicularto the frarne, assumethe system
both columns must carry the sameload' bracedand the-columnsadditionallybraced at mid-heightrvith K,:
(
1.0. Design for the dead load, live load, plus *'ind case.Use steels: (a)
( A36; (b) 4. : 50 ksi; (c) Fu : 60 ksi; and (d) F, : 65 ksi'
(
( 18' -g'
Servtce loads
( Braced frame
\
Probs. 12.13 and 12-14
(
( memberof
12.15.Designthe column A as aW sectionfor the unbracedframe
in the plane of the P r o b .1 2 . 1 6
( the accomPanFng figure. The frame is unbraced
(
(
838 12 i @i*NED ANDAXLcLLOAD
BENDING PFOBLEMS 839
( t
( ;
12.17. Design columns A and B as W sectionsfor the unbraced frame shorvn re.rg.'.For the vierendeeltruss(rigid frame) shown, investigatethe adequacy
'of (
in the accompanyrng figure. The system is braced in &e direction members ,{ and B. The uniform loading is 90% live load and l0%
perpendicular to tbe frame such that Kr:1.0. Design for the dead dead load including the weight of the steel section. Assume all other
(
load, live load, plus wind load caseusing the unifcirm live load'acting forces are l}@,o
dead load and 90% live load. The steelis A.36.Assume
oo both sPans.Use steels: (a) A36; (b) 4,: 50 ksi; (c) 4 : 60 ksi; simple cross-bracingbetrveengiven frame and an adjacentparallel one. (
and (c) 4: 65 fsi. 12.20. RedesignmemberA f.or A572 Grade 60 steel. ( l
( ,
w = 1.0kaps/nDL; 1.7 kips/ft LL
vJzlx 132 ( t
I'
vl24xu (
\
R i g i di o i n l
/ lYrad uniform 1-
17-6"
/ toad = 0.9 kips,'ft ( t
_. Hinge €er$ce loads 1_
/
/
-
\
\ |I / ,' # ' *1 (
i n'l 5@14'-0"=7Cl'-0" l"'I ( "
teralsupporttransverse
to frameevery4 f.t
( r
\
220tr-*ip, ft'kios
Prob. 12.17 .r.- - . - 450 f t'kips
/ 1.3k/ft 4220 r.3 k/fr ( ,
215k +-> Fnrrrmirq +i- zrsr nor ( - -#*,+frtttt
. i
\ t tI / 545ft.kips
\ ,\
/ noo
( t
12.18. Design the lightest W12 sectionfor column .4 of the unbraced frame in I I I ( t
the accompaoylng figure. Use the dead load plus lit'e load plus *'ind Member A Member 8
loadirg ss5s. pls'liminary designhas selectedW27x94 for all adjacent Probs. 12.19and 12.20 ( - i
,|* ( )
vr21x94 20k 20k
I 240fr-krps ( )
tl ?
il
w27 x 94 - l lll It 275 k
(
275 k
A tl ll -t4o (
U U 140ft-kips I t tt.kips
u/27 x 94 t Vzoo l---
t .t 3'^-0" . ^ .Lateral
i 8'-O' ---+-- t support ( )
I I
530
?^'-rv, ____-_J_
36,-0,, _- Vertical support (
Nonsway Sway Torsionally (
analysls analysis
L-o'o,'-l o-r .l *,"*n, Ma Ma
fixed at ends
(
Prob.12.18 Prob. 12.21 (
(
(
(-'
i
,( ;€tlr I
BENOING
t2,/COMBINED ANDAXIALLOAD PROBLEMS 841
(
t
( i-',r,
12.22.Investigate the given structural tee for the loading shown in the 12.25. A column in a building has the factored load reactions ar the top from
( beams franling into it, a.sshoun in the accontpanving figurc. Assur.re
accorllpanying figure. The uniform lcading is delivered through con-
( struction which preventslatt-'ralbuckiingof the member.Assumeconti- thc frarning beams contribute moments at the tcp of the cr-rlumn.but
nuity over the cnd supports u'hich resultedin giv'enend moments. the bottom of the column is hinged (no monrcnts).The beams framrng
( Assumeall loadsxe 25%dead load znd 75%live load. Use A36 steel. into the tveb are assunredto rest on scats,u'ltcre reactions are assumcd
( to be 2 in. from the center of the rveb. The reaction from the other
beam is assumed to be acting at the face of the flange. Use A35 steel
( ' 0.7 k/ft (incl. beam weiqht) and select lightest W scction.
Top
( r ---- T r - -
( : U r!, = 3 7k r p s
l /
l ^ , ^
Y -U
, t:ss:rne given monenis a:e t
t /
/
n
* --+
F-- t/ I
tne :'esuliot a siaiically
;ii je:erminate anal)SiS,
( r 4s
= alkiPs./
P r ob. 12. 22
( Faclored I\U
loaCs | 1 , = 1 5k r p s
E l f e c t i v ei e n g t h= 1 4 f r
12.23,Select the lightest WT? structural tee for the loading shoun in the for both x and y
,(
accompanyingfigure.Assumeverticaland lateralsupportsat endsonly. directions
ir
l\. Use A572 Grade 50 steel.
i
:( Prob.12.25
ir I
l a
I
|
l--
<a,
lu -ua ' ,
P = 20 krps Cead load
conditions:
(a) Wl4 using.436steel
t \ 5C k:ps live load (b) W in any dep$ usingF": 50 ksi
'
Prob.12.23 (c) W14 using 4 : 60 ksi
( ' (d) W14 using 4. : ?0 ksi
( r
( r 12.2A.Select an economicalstructural tee to sen'e as a continuous compres- { - 3C0kips F, = 330kips
sion chord member of a truss to carry service loads as shown. For
(-r design purposes assume fixed ends on the member- Use the more
M", = 270 tt-kiPs
M-t = 33it-ktps
u ( '
v
(
( bracingsystem(suchas cross-bracing). Structures
usinssimpleframingcon-
ncctionshave lt-ingbeen crllcd "T1'pc 2" constnrctionin Alltrriablebrcrs
( Design(ASD-.4'2.2)and arc called"T-r'pePR" (for partiirli.rr,'streinctl)in
LRFD-A2.2.The designation PR for thcscconnectionsis in r.-c,:3:iiticn
of thc
(
fact that some restraintis alu'at.spresent.
( Load and Resistance FactorDesignrequiresthar u'henTlpe PR constnrc-
tion is intendedto be ''simple framing" threespecificrequirencnts(LRFD-
(
A2.2) apply, oaraphrasedas follorvs:
(
(a) The simply supportedbeam reactionsunder factoredlcads must be
(
adequatelycarriedby suchconnections.
( ' (b) Tlte structureand its connectionsmust be adequateto resistfactored
latcral loads.
(
(c) Connectionsmust have sufficientinelasticrotat.ioncapacityso rhat
( angle changesinherent in the simple framing assumprionC"n occur
under factored loads w,ithoutouerloading
the endfcstertiri?-rl.-r/enr.
( t I
I
\.:t
t
( ."I[ ' . 3. Semi'Rigid Framing. Semi-rigidframing occurs uhen rotational re-
l -t;;
( straint is approximatelybetween20% and 90onof.thar necessary ro prevent
relative angle change.This meansthat with semi-rigidframingi6. *orn.nt
( $+r..E transmittedacrossthe joint is neitherzero (or a small o*orni] as in simple
\*i' framing,nor is it the full continuity momentas assumedin elasricrigid-frame
l-l f :,:
( -t'::i i
analysis.semi-rigid framing is specificailydesignatedas ..T'r-pel" under
( r.ffi; ASD-A2.2. In Load and ResistanceFactor Design. semi-rigci framing is
(
'*$g**".h.= iiIeJ
includedin "Tvpe PR" rvhereits use"dependson the el'idenceof predictable
>.:r*
, - --i':
5
t"!--.d\.F
*.t'-;'!
!._--,
proportion of full end restraint."ln ASD, the designof semi-rig,id connections
( requiresa "dcpendableand known moment capacityintermeCrate
:f':*i
:=s\|-.-
,-€ in degree
betrveenthe rigidiry of Type I and the flexibility of i1.pe 2."
( Semi-rigidconn€ctionsare not usedin structuresrvhenplasiicanalysisis
;ga
a,:a used in design. and are not commonly used in Alloivable SrressDcsign
(
becauseof the difficulry'in obtainingthe momcnt-rotarion relarionshipfor a
( given connection. Horvever,rvith greateravailabilitl.'of high-srr.ngthstecls
( required in designing this ty'pe of connection,the authors beileve use of
semi-rigidconnecrionswiil increase.
(
(
( Eearn Line
( lVelded connectionsfor rigid frame construction,showingbeam-t+colu;rn connections In order to better understandthe practicaldistinctionbet*'cenrhe AISC
with column web stiffeners.Rural Mutual insurance Building, \{aCisce. Wi. (Photo by framing types. the beam lir,e de.reloped
( C. G. Salmon)
by Batho and Rowan[13.1]and useci
by Sourochnikoff[13.2]is a usefulgraphicaldevice.
( As shown in Fig. 13.1.1,considera beam AB lsadedin anl.mannerand
( subject to end moments !ll" and trlo, and g'ith end slopesd" and 0r. The
i-nomentsnecessaryto have 0o:0u:0 are designatedI4r" and iL{ro, the
(
t,
(
v
( t
846 13lCONNECTIONS 13.2/FRAMEDBEAMCONNEC;IONS 847
( )
( ,
Type FR LRFD-A2.Z
Type 1 ASD.A2.2 ( l
\
B J
tuo
Fult fixily for uniform loading ( ,
Final end mornent! and slope ur"='# ( i
\,, "''u Figure 13.1.1 Moments and rotations
for slope-deflection cquations (shown ( \
F) with positive signs).
19
MF"
Type PR LRFO-A2.2
Fired-end moments -.
c
Type 3 ASDA2.2 ( ,
q) Mr 'V/
E BFam line at 1.7 times service load
o
( t
1 -Beam line at service load
fixed-endmoments.Writing the slope deflection equations,* T'
UJ M3
f TypePR LRFD-A2.2 (
4EI LEI t /\Type2 ASD-A22
M'o- Mpo * ,o ( ,
Tr"* , M2 Simple beam for unilorm loading
zEI 4EI
( 1 3 . .1l ) (, t.=ffi ( :
Mo=Mn* Uu -M'"
70"* , o - (
2EIIL
5 .
t-
( t
3-:.
eccentricioading. The fasteners.bolts or welds, are designedin accordance i and for the concentratedload ?" acting at mid-length of a simply supported ( ,
-3:
rvith proceduresof Chapters4 aad 5, respectively. span g (weldedconnection),
: ( '
The thicknessof the freming anglesor plate is usually controlied by the ?-
" block shear" strength.In Ts3 (
addition,anglesshould be thick enoughsuch that
bearingdoes not control. The acgles are expectedto bend so that the assumed a-_:_ (13.2.2)
488! (
rotation of the supportedbeemat its ends can occur.
Noting that the maximum force ?" *'ill occur rvhenthe top of the angle yields;
(',
i.e., Max T : 2{.1 per unit lengthat the rop, and that / : f /lz per unit
Flexural Deformatlon and Sbength of Connectton Angtes ',- length, Eqs. 13.2.1and 13.2.2become ( ,
Referring to Fig. 13.2.3,the tensileforce T per inch acts at tbe top of framing (
ZF"lt F'Tt
anglesof lcngth L as shownin Fig. 13.2.1whenan end momentacts.This end L:
192E\tr/r2)
-:
8Etz
(rr.z.s) (
momentarisesfrom the reactionP acting at an eccentricity€ measured,as in
Fig. 13.2.1bor c, from the point cf actionof P to the centroidof rhe fasrener and
linc I or to the centroidof weld l. \.,
The concentratedload I acdngon the connectionanglesmay be consid- 2Frtgt
A _ ---------- Frgt (
ered as acting on a fixed-endbeam for the bolted connectionand on a simpl1.. _: (13.2.4)
488(t'/12) 2Et2 (
supported beam for a welded connection.The true situation for each case is
\'
partially end restrained.The higherrestraint for the bolted connecrionarises Note that the more rotation requiredat the end of the beam the greater ( ,
from the clamping action betweenthe piecescausedby initial tension in the must*be the deformation A and the thinner (lorv r) must be the angles.In
bolts, ivhile the weldingcausesbttle clanrpingac-tion. general,this deformationis self-limitingbecause (
the mid-lengthponion of the
A simple approximationof the deflection A ar the tension end of the angleswill remain elasticeventhoughthe top end may be inelastic.Further- (
framingangleswill thereforebe tbat of a fixed-endbeam(high-strengthbolted more, the use of thick angleswould mean that the stressat the rop of the
connection)having concentrated load r at mid-lengthof a span g. angiesdue to f might be lessthan {, thusreducingA (and the corresponding ( ,
end rotation). (
Tgt
A -
(13.2.1) E EXAMPLE 13.2.1 (
792Er
Compute the factoredload { capacityfor the reacrionon the 5 ro*, framed (
beam connectionof Fig. 13.2.1for connectrng a w30x99 beamto a column
b = leg dimensio
haring a ]-in. flange.Use ]-in.-diam 4325 bolts as a bearing-npeconnection (
(A325-X) having no threadsin the shearplanes.The connecrionusesstandard
(
holes with clean mill scale(ClassA) surfacecondition.Use Load and Resis-
tance Factor Designand A.36steel. ! (
(
SOLUTION
(a) Design strengths+R" per bolt for the connecrionro the web of (
w30x99, /," : 0.520in. using Eq. 4.7.2.ths designstrengthin double shear
('
(nr : 2) is
(
+ R , : O ( 0 . 6 0 4) n r , e ,
(
: 0.65(0.60)(120X2)0.4418
: 41.4kips/bott
(
The designstrengthin bearingon the 0.510-in.web, from Eq. 4.?.6,is
(
l' o -l !I oR n : +( 2. 4F") dt
r'
\
: A.75(2.4X58X0.?5)0.520
: 40.Tkips/bott
(r) High-nrengthbolted (b) Welded (
(b) Total connectionfactoredload { capacitybasedon the rveb connec-
Figure 13.2.3 Behavior at tensionedgeof framing angles. tion to the W30x99 beam.Commonpracticebas been to neglectthe eccentric- ( r
t -
6
i, (
( ;
l
(
;5;3:i
( 852 13,/CoNNECTIONS .'?:.Ti
l-Jii't
=3:-'l
B.t / innuro BEAM
coNNEcloNS 853
{( ':* t
( ity e *'ith respectto the fastenerline. Thus, the maximum factoredreaction { '
'=:11.1
If the combined shear aad tension effect is considered.
;-:
- i . ;
and the eiastic
*'ould equal the designstrengthper bolt timesthe number n of bolts, vector method is u-sed.the factored tension T, at the most heavily lc'recltd
(
Madmum Pu: nQR": 5(40.7): 204kiPs bolt is
( - l
(
P : 63 kips (basedon sen'iceability limit state
( of slip consideringeccentricity) .i'rlr r'-rt"
(
The LRFD Manual tablesacceptP :l|kips (neglectingeccentricity;.- Figure 13.2.4 Fras'ied beam connectionhari-agulequal reactions
(
t (
\
H
-,:
.€
;>'
,.''-
or (for W10 section) ( ,
^n'=:;:; , r- - ^ = % : 0 . 2 1 in. (r
: 1e8sein.
l"ffi;tr)to 47o it.
l \ ' :
0.75(," )L.Lr
t'
n',=:ffi;;':ffisqin | ::j
Lrse2-L4x3l x * x 0'-7i" for W10x68.
'-Use 2-L4x3ix
i x l'-7i" forW24x104.
( t
The angles(seeFig. 13.2.4)are made nonstandardbecausethe lengrhof
+ 58(0.75): 107kips conlrols
P" : 0.60(36)2.94 angleshouldnot exceedthe dimension?'which is 7i in. for the Wl0x6E. The l')
girder flangethicknessis suchthat it requiresa cope that encroaches
on rhe i"
+ 36(0-94): 103kips
P. : 0.60(58)1.98 ( t
dimension;thusthe 2*-in. spacingis prescribed so that adequateedgedisrance
The factoredreactioncapacityP, is f (where f : 0.75) times the nominal will be availableon rhervebof the W10x68. E
reaction(10?krPs), (,;
Weld Capacity in Eccentric Shear on Angte Connections
& : 0-?5(107): 80 kips > 70 kips required OK ( ,
Sinceno initial tensionis involvedwith weldedconnections.the eccentricitr.t-ri
Lse 3 bolts to connectthe W10 section. (
loading,even thoughsmail,is considered. The principlesof Chaprer5 iSec.
(c) Connecrionto plate girder web. For this connection,the'threebolts 5.18) are usedwith the n'eldstreatedas lines. (
commonto both sideswill be governedby double shearor bearingon the {-in-
plate.rvhilethe remainderare governedby singleshearor bearingon the *-in. (,,
r EXAMPLE 13.2.4
plate. Compute the factoredload { capacity for rveld I on the angle connccrion ( :
eR, ( b e a ri n g:) + (2 .4 F " )d t shown in Fig. 13.2.1.The beam is a W30x99 and the rvekJis I in. u'irlr ElQ
( ,
electrodes.
The anglesare 4x3ix* x l'-2t" in length. Use A36 sreelar,l
s R, : 0 .7 5 (2 .4 X 5 8 )(0 .7 5 )0 .3: 7259 . 4ki ps/bol t Load and Resisrance Factor Design. (
QR. (doubleshear): 47.4kips/bolt [frorn (a) above] ( ;
SOLUTIOT"
QR" (singleshear): 41-4/2 : 2A-7kips/bolt Analysis of this e'ccentricshear situation may be done using slrengtl,, (
anal,vsisas Presentedin Sec.5.17 or the elastic(vector) rnethodpresenrerJ
in
The six bolts in cornmon
For the boltsconmon to both sides,bearinggt)v€rnS. (
; S ec.5.18.
car+. iA/6 :11.? kips from the W10X68.The remainderis availablefor the f-
(a) Elastic(r'ector)method.Using Io from Table 5.18.1and referringro
Wl-lxi0.l reac'.ion;i.e.,29.4- 11.7: 17.7kips.
i ' (
Fig. 13.2.1c.
If all bols *'ere to carry equalload. L,.
i','. I
t '
r.'.' 8 ( 3 )+' 6 ( 3 ) ( l a . s ) ' (+r a . s ) 3
: \2.7, say14 (
Numberof bolts: I ri. I,:
# t2 #I*:583'5in-i , ' )
r.*
b.
E ( ,
C
(r 13.?/FRAMED
BEAMCONNECTTCNS 861
860' I3/CONNECTTONS
(
( Tests of welded angle connectionsby Johnston and Green [13.21] and
Using the moment of inertia computedwith a l-in. effectivethroat, the force
( per unit length at critical iocationscan he computd, Johnstonand Diets [13.221have demonstratedthat perfoil]rraric€
of web angles
agreesgenerally with assumptions.
(
R, : 0.0244P, (directshearcomponent)|
( #: weld capacity in Tenslon and shear on Angte connectlons
( (3)2 This is the field-weided connecrion shown in Fig. 13.2.1d. There is no
;: tffi:o'44in' agreementregarding the strength analysisfor this situation. Blodgett [i3.23l
(
considersthe strengthas an eccentricshearsituation in the plane of the welds.
( The x and y componentsof force due to torsionalmomentare With the eccentricload as in Fig. 13.2.5b,the anglesbear aginsr themselvcs
(' - 0.44- 0.50)
p"(3.50- 0.4.'1)(3.50 lcr a Cistenceof L/6 fton the top, and the torsionalstressover the remaining
R., : : 0.00671P,
J i of the length L is resistedby the weld. Neglectingthe effectsof the rerurns
( 2(5E3.5) at the top, the horizontal component R, can be obtained from moment
( P"(3.50- 0.44)(?.25) equilibrium. Equilibrium in the plane of the load P and weld leg B requires
Rr: : 0.0190P,
-
(
2(5s3.5) 1 /5 \ 2 P
;zR , . l . L lI :JL : 7€t (1 3 . 2 . s )
( R,:P,/ :0.0354& \ o z
---
. force arm
( +R,,* perinchof rveldis
The designstrength
9Pe.
( 0Rn*,: 6 (o-707a
) (o.6oFspi
) R,:#forcelunitlength (13.2.6)
( : 5.57kips/in.
: 0.75(0.?0i)(1x0.60)70
The direct shear componentis
i 5.57
Pu: : 153kips P
( 0.0364 R, : ;; forcn/unit length (13.2.7)
ZL
(b) Strength analysis.Use LRFD Manual [1.1?],"ECCENTzuC LOADS
(
ON WELD GROUPS," TABLE XXII with d : 0o. For |-in. weld using-E70 | 9 Pe"\z
Actual R :
( electrodes, \ (*)'. |,;ztJ
(
forcelunit lergth (i3.2.8)
(
( k :0.2 0.2A7 0.3
a: 0.2 1.694 1.962
C:1.689 -1 4r r
( 0.211 7.67A 1.689 1.936
II
t,P
0.3 7.473 7.725
(
(
Table value : QPn "'rl
QP n : C C PL : : 97.9ki P s
1 .6 8 9 (1 .0 )(4)i 4.5 - .-t'tetd A
(
rvhere Cr : coefficient for electro6s: (Electrodeused)/70
(
D : number of Ss of an inch in weid size
\LCg8
( .L : length of vertical weld, in. T;
, Sym.about
( Since there are two angles,the factoredload reactioncapacityis q-i
( P ,: 2 (9 7 .9 ): 1 9 6k i ps
Figure 13.2.5 Field-weldedconnectionfor web framing angies.
( As expected,the strengthanalysisgivesthe highervalue.
r.(
F ' ( ,
r3lCONNECTIONS 13.2/FPAMED BEAM CONNECTIONS
( r
( '
Equation 13.2.8neglectseccentricitye1, which tends to cause tension at direct shear component, glving
the top of the weld lines. The authors believe it is more appropriate ro (
P
consider rhe flexural stressdistribution of Fig. 13.2.5cto be a more appropri- R '. . - 2 - L (
(13.2.15)
ate approach.The flexural tensioncompoaent R, at the top'of the weld B is
-
":
Mc
:
I
-
PeJL/Z)
:
ZL3/12
-
3Pe,
yz (r3.2.e) Actual R : .(#)' (
(
P (
when the returns at the tops of the angles are neglected.The dirqct shear R: ntQ kips/in.
ii,[F; (13.2.16)
comPonentR, is (
TI EXAMPLE 13.2.5
P ( '
R, : (13.2.10) Determine rhe factored load capacity of weld B on Fig. 13.2.s
{ if werd
Vfo rc e /u n i tl e n g th is used and I : 2a in- E70 electrodesare used in shieldedmetal fr-in. (
ail welding
(SMAW)- 4 x 3x f anglesare used. Use Load and Resisrance
Factor Design.
Actual R : * 1f 3rPje ,\2 SOLUTION
(
(
(a) Best procedure, Eq. 13.2.16
D
P.u (
Since little of the shear is carried by the returns, they are neglectedfor the A ctual -R.u. -
2Q q2 W +tLrq (
*[ et : 4-in' leg (
R, (tension) Actual R,: 0.0308P"
__]-[' (
il+_ __Fr, P" :
6.96
: 226kips (
tl t t
Il Figure 13.2.6 Weld conliguratioo for
web aagles and beam seats.
o.O:Ot
The autlrors believe method (a) to be appropriatg p" : 23?
kips. I { ;
( ,
( ,
(
(
864 13/CONNECTTONS !3.3/SEATEDBEAI CONNECnbNS- UNSnFFENED 965
(
(
Note that when the elastic (vector) method is used, the same formulas
( apply for Allowabie Stress Design and for Load and ResistanceFactor ?" (min")
and is designedto carry the entire reaction.It must always.however,be used Figure13.3.2 Criticalsectionfor flexureoo seats.
(
with a top clip angle,whoseintendedfunction is to provide laterai support of
, ( the compressionflange.
the beam at the end createsa force tbat tends to restrain the pull a\^'ayfrom
As with the caseof the framed beam connection.the seatedconnectionis
( the column. The critical sectionfor flexure*'ill then be at or near the baseof
intended to transfer only the vertical reaction and should not give significant
the fiilet on the outstanding leg. Similsly for the welded seat, the weld
restraining moment on the end of the beam; thus the seat and the top angle
, ( completely along the end holds the angle tight against the column, in which
should be relatively flexible. The bebavior of welded seat angle connections
casethe critical sectionis as sbown in Fig. !3.3.2c, whether or nor the beam is
'j' i t
has been studied by Lyseand Schreiner[13.24],aad Roeder[13.25]hasstudied
attached to the seat. As a practical matter, rarely will the beam be left
t l / bolted seat angle connections.
i { unattachedfrom the seat,so the designproceduresof this sectionuse a critical
i The thickness of seat angle is determined by the flexural stress on a
l.r section as in Figs. 13.3.2band c, taken at I in. from the face of the angle.
t \ criticai sectionof the angle,as shownin Fig. 73.:t.2.If a bolted connectionis 'E.-
,i The bending moments on the critical section of the angle and on the
used withoui. attachmentto the beam (Fig. 13.3.2a),the critical sectionshould
ir" probably be taken as the net section througb the upper bolt line. When the
connection to the column flange are determinedby taking tbe beam reaction
' i( times the distancesto the critical sections.The beam reaction occurs at the
b.un is atrachedto the seat(as it should be) as in Fig. 13.3.2b,the rotation of'.
centroid of the bearing stressdistribution, as shorvnin Fig. 13.3.3.While the
(
( 1 "
Top clip angle,;- min thickness Erectionclearance.
f i
(
: a .
( { a ,
'
:.1
9.r iar
( 1/2" nominal
clearance r
I
I
--I
( Angle thickness,
I
Angle leg. €
I dependson sirength
determined by I requirementfor bolts or weld
( {texural stresson I
t t
critical section l r 'i
*.
( I
I
Seat lenflh. useratly
( either 6" or 8", degending
(a) Consenrative (b) AtscE (c) Flexible (d) Thick nift
upon u*ral ga$, g-
ass.lmption Ref.13.23 Angle angte
( - . required bearing length assumpticn
d / --_.*;:-
:"e
E (
P
F ,
-'
:!
( r
866 13/CONNECTIC|.,IS a
13.3/ SEATEDBEAtvtCCI:N-CT|CNS * UNSTTFFENED
+ ( t
ra.
&
3 ( t
5
LRFD and ASD Specifications do not state horv the computation of rhis lVeb Crippling-LRFD [LRFD Formuta (K1_5)J,
bending moment is to be made,a conservativeapproachis to assumethe e- f )
-.
,(#)(;)"]
F
reactionat the centerof the full contactwidth (Fig. 13.3.3a).This will lead to
excessivelythick anglesin most cases.The less conservativeapproach of
assumingthe reacti,on at the centerof the requiredbearinglength N measured
from the end of the beam(Fig. i3.3.3b)hasbeenusedby Blodgetr[13.23]and
;. -
t
where 0 :
:oosr3 +
QPn
fr
resistancefactor : 0.75
,tT ( 1 3 . .33 )
( "
(
( ,
t
has been the approach used for AISC Maoual tables. Another rational
distribution for a flexible seat angle is the triangular distribulion of Fig. { : nominal reactionstrength (
f*. : beam rveb thickness
13.3.3c,and if the angleis very stiff tbe reactionmay becomeheavieron the ( ,
lr: beam flangethickness
outer edge,as in Fig. 13.3.3d.
d: beam overalldepth
The design of unstiffenedseatsinvolvesthe follorving steps: ( \
l . Dcterminethe seatwidth. Web Crippling-ASD IASD Formula (Kl-5)], (
,(#)(;)"1{n
7 Dcterminethe momentarms e and e
r. r
t
3. Determinethe lengthand thicknessof the angle.
4 . Determinethe supportingangle leg dimension.and the rveld size: or
P : z+filt+ (13.3.4) ti
the number and placementof bolts.
. L
.. where P : serviceload reaction. {\ .
The designof seatedbeam connectionsand the backgroundfor the LRFD
,._-.Tha moment arms e and e, are obtained as follows, referring to Fig (
load tableshavebeenreviewedby Garrett and Qrockenbrough [13.26]and b,v 13.3.3a.
Brockenbrough[13.27 ]. (
N
The seatwidth is determinedfrom the bearinglength N requiredbasedon el: ercction clearance * ( 1 3 . 3 ). 5
(a) the local web yieldinglimit state,as givenby LRFD-K3 or ASD-K3. or (b) ; (
the rveb crippling lirnit state,as given by LRFD-K4 or ASD-K4. Local web 3 (''
t - -
yielding usuallycontrolsthe bearinglength. € : € t -
, 8 (13.3.6)
(,
The bending momenton the critical sectionof the angleis
l,ocal \Yeb Yielding-LRFD ILRFD Formula(K1-3)], (
M,: Pue ( f or LRFD)
y: !"- -z.sk M : Pe
t'
(13.3.1) (for ASD)
ef ,*.tn The thickness/ of the angle is obtained letting Mu: (
etM, for LRFD or
M : allowable moment for ASD. The strengtt is ttrut o1 .ohd ,..tungular (
l,ocal \Yeb Yielding-ASD IASD Formula(K1-3), sectionsbent about their weakaxis. '!
U
(
\ I _- -2.5k>k (1 3 . 3 . 2 ) AngleThickness- LRFD (LRFD-FI)
t t
(
0.661*l*
(
QJ{, : Q t M p: e6ZFr : +u{ f, (13.3.?)
where & : factoredload reactionfor LRFD
P : serviceload reactionfor ASD {
4Mu 4Pue
0 : resistancefactor : 1.0 t "- : (13.3.8) {
t*, : web thicknessof supportedbeam +*j: QuFrL
: yield stressof web of supportedbeam (
{,.*. Angle Thickness-ASD (ASD-F2.2)
k : distancefrom outer faceof flangeto n'eb toc of fillet (
Nrrticethat in ASD the requiredbearinglength ,\' may not be taken less M: s(o. :
isFy) (13.3.e) {
tlran /c. LRFD-K3 doesnot havesucha lower limit. Gcncrellythe seat*'rdrlr +(o.zs4)
shouid not be lessthan 3 in. with AISC Manual tables[1.7, l.l7l ..SLA,TEI) 6M 9Pe (
l-: (13.3.10)
BEAivl CONNECTIONS-Bolted" indicatinga standard4-in. seat*{drh. 0.75FvL FrL (
{
,,
(
(
13lCONNECTTONS 13.3/SEATEO _ UNSTTFFENED869
BEAMCONNECTIONS
(
(
where P, : factored reaction to be carriedusing LRFD As expected,web crippling does not control. Follorving rhe usual practice
( N : k is used for determininganglethickness,
P : serviceload reactionusingASD
( 0a : resistancefactor : 0-90 1.25 3
e: eccentricity of load to the critical section on angle,such as Eq. "t: *7 : 1.375
in.
(
13.3 .6 z
( l, : length of seatangle(i.e.,width of rectangularsectionbeingbent) -i:
Tryingr:]in.,
P : yield stressof seat anglesteel
( € : € f - t - * : t . 3 7 5 - 0 . 5 0 - 0 . 3 7 5: 0 . 5 0 i n .
This length of ihe seat angie is generallytaken as either 6 in. or 8 in. for a
( beam gageI of 3] in. and 5l itt., respectively. Sincethe usual gage g : 51 h. for w12x40,* use angle length of g in. The
( The number of bolts, which are in combined shear and tension, is anglethicknessrequiredis then,by Eq. 13.3.8,
determinedin accordancervith the principlesof Sec.4.15.
( The weld size and length are obtained using the principles of Sec. 5.19 4Pue 4(24.8)0.50
( with Eq. 73.2.16applicable to this"case;direct shear and bending about the Q uFr L 0. 90( 36) 8
x-x aris for the configuration of Fig. 13.2.5with the returns b = L/77.
(
tr EXAMPLE 13.3.I (b) Determinebolted connectionto column.using lo-in.-diam
Design the seat angle to support a W12X40beam on a 25-ft span, assuming 4325 bolts
in a bearing"typeconnectionwith no threadsin the shearplane.
the beam has adequatelateral support. Use '{36 steel and Load and Resis-
tance Factor Design. 0R, : 20.7 kips (singleshear)
g(3)
= 2.33ksi
bd
36(0.s15)
:0.7s(68)(o.zrsl,[r
epn . r(#)( ffi
)"] 'The distanceg
is not given in the current AISC [{arua]s [.7, 1.17];sce pp. l-17 of ihc ?th
(+P, - 48-6kips), (P": 24-8kipr) Edition of the AISC lr{anual.
( t
87A 13 / CONNECTIOI,iS 13.4 /S;IFFENED SEAT CCNNECTIONS 871
( t
(t
where €t: €I
( t
L4x3x-txo'-4" L4x4xtxa-a" 1A
-a- ;
R, : ' \'' + 2 0 . 2 5 ( 1 . 3 9: ) 2S . 7 } b p s / i n .
lG (;
2(4)''
( t
, OR,* : +(0.707a)(0.60r.o")
: 0.75(0.7A7Qa2.0
:22.3a
A325 (;
bolts
weld sizea : *: 0.26in., sayfr in. ( i
'2
z/..5
' l A more conservativeapproach is to measuree( to the center of the contact ( r
bearing width of the seat (Fig. 13.3.3a).'[his'traditionat AISC method for
t ? ,
( r
i--_T tables giving u'eld capacity for seatsgives
( '
N 3 3.5-0.75
,t:T* +0.75:2.13in. ( i
4: Z
(
ia) Boliec se3t which upon substitutioninto Eq. 13.2.16with 0R,,*,:22.3a : 22.3(0.3125)
:
Figure 13.3.4 Designs for F-xample 6.95 Y,tps/in. (for * in. rveld),givesa facrored load capacity of (
kt1
(
(
872 13//coNNEcfloNS 13.4/STTFFENED
SEATCONNECTTONS 973
(
( Top angles musl be
used. as in Fig. l3'3.4
(
( Clntact
bearing length
7 Sear length
(
ctearance
|"
(
(
3"
g- angre
( L Figure 13.4.3 Two casesof inclination
I (a) angie at free edgeof stiffencr.
( $'nrru. I
j!-u.stiffener
(
Seat
The steps in the designof stiffenedseatsare as follorvs:
( v'lidth
L]
',(
( 1
( ' t
--7
( '
| ,,'I
V
( r
(a) (b)
(,,^
Figure 19.4.2 Bracket supportrng concsotratedload. Figure 13.4.4 Bearing stresson stiffeoed seats.
( '
, ( ,
(
874 1 3/ C O N N E C T I O N S
13.4/ STTFFENED
SEATCONNECTTONS
975 (
(
Assumingthe beam reaction P is located at N /2 from the edgeof rhc S.'Plate thicknessmust be adequateto develop the fillet welds used to
seat,the stiffenerthicknessl, shouldsatisfyseveralcriteria: (
attach ir, accordingto LRFD-J2.+ oi esD-J2.4. The concept for maximum
l. Stiffenerthicknesst, shouldbe equal to or greaterthan the thicknessr" effective rveld sizervasdevelopedin sec. 5.14,grving Eq. s.ta.s relating weld (
of the supportedbeam *'eb, size to base material thickness.
(a) Load and Resistance (
Factor Design(LRFD-J2.a):
tr 2 tn (13.4.11
0.60dr, (
F'tt
2. Local buckling of the stiffenermust be preventedin accordanceu'ith : 0.707
L RF D- B 5 or A S D- B 5 .
d
max cff
2(0.707)0.60.FExx Frxx Is.ra.lJ (
where t, : thicknessof basematerial1: t, here)
"=r,vy fl1lrr
4, : tensilestrengthof basematerial
F** : tensilestrengthof electrodematerial
(
(
rvhereW : width of stiffener. (70 ksi for E70 electrodes) (
3. Bearing on the contact area of stiffener must satisfy LRFD-JS.I or
-,Assuming two lines of fillet weld of size a using 870'electrodes,the (
ASD-J8. For anglestiffeners,it is assumedthat I in. of the angleis cut oii in stiffener thicknessl, requiredsuch that the stiffenerplat. will not be over-
order to get closebearingunder the seatangle: loaded in shearis, from Eq. 5.14.9, (
(a) Load and Resistance FactarDesign(0 : 0.75):
t, > l.lla (for 4.36steel) (
(13.4.8)
P,
t,'- (foranglestiffeners)(13.4.3! t . ,> 1. 52a ( f or { : 50 ksi) (13.4.e)
(
ffi (b) Allow,ablesrres.r Design (ASD-J2.4): Though not developed in (
(b) Allot+,able Stress Design: Chapter 5, the following is obtainedby equatingthe Jlowable capacity for (
two lines of fillet weld to the allo,,vable
shearcapacity of stiffenei plate of
thicknessr,: ( ,
lr)
- 0.5) (for anglestiffeners)
0.90.tr,(2)(w
(13.4.1i
0.40{r, F't ' (
A structuralteemight be usedinsteadof two angles;in rvhichcasethe 2 in thc 4 mar cff - 0.943 (13.4.10)
2(0.707)0.30.FEXX Ft* (
denominatorof Eqs. i3.4.3 and 73.4.4would not be used.Equations13.1.3
and 13.4.4assumeno eccentricityof load uith respectto centerof bearins where F,. : yield stressof basematerial (
contactlengthassumed. F.** : tensilestrengthof electrodematerial
4. For eccentriclaaCingon stiffener,bearing strengthaccordingto LRFD- (70 ksi for E70 electrodes) (
J8.1 or ASD-J8 must be satisfied.It this situation. a single welded plate 'of {
Assuming two lines of fillet weld size a using 870 electrodes,the
stiffener is geneia!.lyused.The highestbearing stressat the outer edgeof the stiffener thicknessr, requiredsuch that the stiffen.t plut. will not be over-
stiffenermay not erceedd(2.0F.,)under factoredload for LRFD, or 0.90L (
loaded in shearis, from Eq. 13.4.10,
under serviceload for ASD. Using ccnbined stress, (
t, > 2.06a (for 4,36steel) (13.4.11)
P ,l[ (
rf D. - . - - r - : t" > 1.48c (for : 50 ksi) (13.4.12)
A s {
Once the stiffenerdimensionshavebeenestablished,the connectionmusr {
(a\ Lot:ri anrl ResrstanceFacior Design (0 : 0.15): be designedto transmit the reactionat the moment arrn er. For the bolterj (
P " (6 e ,- 2 W) connection,AISC tables,"STIFFENED SEATED BEAM coNNECTIONS.'.
l r ) (for u'elded stiffener) ( t : . +r t consider only direct shearin determiningfastenergroup capacitics.Ole ma;. t
Q{2.AFy}w2 reason.as in Example13.3.1,that as long as inirial compressionbetweenthe (
piecesin contact is not reducedto zerodue to flexure,the momentcomponent
1b) ,4ri"x'ab/eS;ress Desigtt:
t need not be considered. (
P {' 6 e' .- 2 W '\ For the *'elded connectionsuggestedby the AISC Manual, as shorvn in
-r r >
- (forweldedstiffener) ( l -1.4.-:
) (
osoFywz *: Fig. 13.4.1b,the rveldconfigurationis subjectto direct shearand flexure using
**. the combined stress at the top of the rveld as the critical one. Thus the t
I
t-
l
t
(
F
(
(
( 876' 13ICoNNECTTONS
| 3.4 / STFFENED SEAT CONNECTTONS
(
( configuration is identical to that usedfor web framing anglcs(seeFig. 13.2.1d) For the seat plate thickness.use a rhiciiaesscarnparablero the flange of
( except the return is longer. Using d: L and b :0.2L in the S valuesfor the w30x99 supported beam; rere : in. Ilbir:ium uleld size for rveldingon
Case4 from Table 5.18.1gives
( f-in. seatand 0.67-in.flangeis ] in.
yz 2 z L The stiffener thicknessis ne.xtio be es..:blished:
- - _ :
\ '
(
2(L+ b) M:fr t,) tn: 0 - 5 2 0i l . [13.1.1]
z(4bL+ rt) 4 (0 .2 L ).L+ L2 W i
Sr: _ : 0.6L2 I '.-) - - - . : :0iltin
( u- J
a
ei,z r
/J/t B-4 [13..1.2]
tat:;
( Then,
r 6-5
( M Pe. e" - : I V 2
:l-0- L1 :3.8in.
D : _ : - - :
"x force/unit length --t
.!' 0.6L2
( ", ( Ue, - 2t V) 150( 2?. 5_ 11)
(
P P ,,, : o'38in'[tl+'o]
Ru : forcelunitlengtbL @nilF -,(t*)CIf
M + A;;_ L4L
( The useof a i-in. stiffenerplate u'ould meana inadmum effecrir-e
(
(
R - (#)'.t*)'
p
t, > 1-5)a
t,
u.eldsizeof
0.625
Irr.+.e]
R: + L2 forcelunitlength (13.4.13) Qmaxcrt: : : 0.41 in-
"( TII!/teq,t l-J7 1;;
( Equation 13.4.13is usedfor obtaiaingloads for weldedstiffenedbeam seatsin Thus, weld size is not of concernsincea *'eid smaller than 0.41in. would be
AISC Manual "STIFFENED SEATED BEAM CONNECTIONS," when e, is preferred-Cenerally,the ma.drnumn'eld that can be placedin one passrvould
( be used;in this case,f; in.
taken as 0.81,/. For LRFD, R is the design strength fR,* and P is the
( factored load reaction {. For ASD, R is the allowableweld capacityR*' ed For estimating the length L oi *'eld ;equired, assumethat er in b,q.
P is the serviceload reaction. 13.4.13is approximatelyL/4;i,e., rhar e, : CI-E;tr: 0.g(7): 5.6in. iiroughly
(' -'---"
L/4.
( E EXAIVIPLE 13.4.r
. P : !.-r 2
Design a welded stiffened seatto support a W30x99 beam having a factored i P
( R : ---= 1 6 1- :0.59-
load reaction'P, : 160 kips. Use A572 Grade 50 steel and Load and Resis- 2. 4L! ti6 L
( tance.FactorDesign.
For LRFD. R becomesSRn,, and ushg
*-i"- E70 rveld,
( SOLUTION
fRoo : q(0.707a){0.eOf.-"* I
( The bearing length trr required is obtained from (a) local web yieldiog and
(b) web crippling criteria. From local web yielding (LRFD-K1.3), : 0. ?5( 0. ?07X*X0. 60i; 0: 6. 96kips/ in.
( '.-
P.. 160 t7\ 0.ig(i60!
r ,V: *
sry".t*
- z.Sk- ---
1.0(5oxo.52o)
- )-'-\^
5i1_ | - 2.6in.
to I t =
R. equir ed
U- , *
t: 13. 6in.
( For L: 14 in.,5.6 in. is 0.4L; u'hich s.henusd as e,/L in Eq. 13.4.13
From the web crippling criterioa (LRFD-K1.4), gives
( requiredL = 78 in. The answeriies bei:r.een1$ and 1g in. trv i: 16 in. *'ith
t:-in.rveid,
(
160 %
( R -u :
Using lrr : 3.0 in. gives QPn: 134 kips, which is not enough.Solving by trial -, 1116( 5. 6)+2( 16) : : T. Zkipsr in. > 6. gbkips/ in. NG
( 2.4(16)'
\ using QPn: 1.60kips givesIV : 6.5 in.
The length L : 16 in. is not adequate:one cculd use 1T in. but 1g in. may be
( Required lY = 6.5 + 0.S(setback): 7.0 in. Use 7 in.
preferred.
(
v
(
878 13/ CONNECTIONS l3.s/TR|ANGULARBRACKETPLATES
879
(
UsetoPangle occurs, as in Fig. 13.4-5.The triangular bracket plate arrangement and (
L4X4x3X0'-4"
I notation are shownin Fig. 13.5.1
The behavior of triangular bracket plates has been studied analytically by (
weroon toes t
fi.in. Salmon [i3.29] and experimentallyby Salmon, Buettner, and O'Sheridan (
[13.30]and designsuggestions havebeenproposedby Beedleet al. [13.311. For I t
b constant (,
- 5 (13.5.3)
t
{f,
Figure13.5.1 Triangularbracketplate.
{ ,
(
i
.\-
13/CONNECflCINS r 3,5 / TFTANGULAF
BRACXETPLATES
( 881
(
\
:(
*
ir
t \
!
i: \,.
( 0.30
.,(
lo
lcr
' ( |
l€)
€,J
:13
'r Sl:
lo
l x
o.2o
I
I
'.( I E
I
u 500L
(' 0.10
I
I
I
( t-
4C]0
(
5;-
IL
I
I
r I
edoL ./
I ./
e( I
r
i
It- / ,,\ \
ta Figure13.5.2 coefficientused.toobtainma.:rimum
stresson freeedge. a Simpty su-pporrededges
t \ 2mI /
-
(theory)
I \-
-i r I --/
l-
;
t:(
t l ,
Figure 13.5.3givesthe variarionn (b7){\ with b/a for the theoreticai 100
I
t: studies [13.29] (fixed and simply supported),the welded bracket tests result
i(
[13.30],and the authors' suggesteddesigncurve.The design requirementmay
.( be expressed(with 4, in ksi) as
:: / -
b b 250
For 0.5 > - s 1 . 0 ;
I
S l no
P.cot o Dsinc,4 = 6.2" \
<---
T-; 1 = p r o p o r t i o no f c r i t i c a l
section in compression
at plastic strength I
{1 7)bstnn
(
Figure 13.S.5 Bracker for Exaurple
13.5.1. ((
1
I requirementgives
i l
P u : Q r P n: 0.85Frzbt: 60 kips I
t
t > _ : 0 . 5 8i n
eFrzb 0 . 8 s ( 3 6( 0) . 1 3 5 ) 2 s (
first yield on the free edge.The test results[13.30]indicatedthat ultimate
strcngthsof at least 1.6 times buckting strcngthscould be achieveddue to
The stability requirement,Eq.13.5.4b,
gives
prrst-bucklingstrength.To be certain of developifrgthe plasticcapacityof the
bracket,it may be realisticto usehalf of the limitationsof Eqs.13.5.4aand b. brlF" 25,8
To establishthe plastic strengthof a bracket plate used in rigid-frame - v'-e {
structures,one may fcllow the approachof Beedleet al. t13.31]as shownin 2 5 0 (b / a ) 250(1.25)
Fig. 13.5.4.This methodassumesthat plastic strengthdevelopson the critical
Use f -in. plate. )1
section. Taking force equilibrium parallel to the free edge and moment
equilibriumabout point O givesthe Beedleet al. t13.311equationfor the (b) Plastic strengthmerhod.Using Eq. 13.5,5for the strengthrequire-
u l t i m a t el o a d . ment. i'
Sincc this is a compressionsituation, the design :'trength +p,, should be The authors note that if a 1-in. plate is just stable enough to inhibit
equatedto P,. It may be reasonable
to use the g for compression;g": 0.g5. buckling until the plasticstrengthis obtained,that srength ,rould be 4 times
From Fig. 13.5.2,b/a : zs/30: 1.25, find z : 0.135.Then the srrensth Q.A/0.2.5)thc factoredload {.
i
t
(
( 884 13lc&*.r',t€cfioNs
::3
| 3.6 / CONTT
NUOrrsEEAM_TO€OLU
Mi{ CONNECTIONS 88s
(
-:
( .I3.6 CONTINUOUS
BEAM-TO-COLUMN
CONNECTIONS
(
In continuous beam-to-coium" connectionsit is the designintent to have full
( transfer of mornent and little or no relativerotation of membersri'ithin the
( joint (i.e- LRFD Type FR or ASD T}?e l-rigid-frame connecrions).Since
the fla::ges cf a beam carry most of the bending moment via tension and
( compressronfiange forces acting at a moment arm approximatelyequal to the
( beam depth, it is the transfer of these essentiallyaxia! forces for u'hich
provisian rnust be made. Sincethe shearis carriedprimarily by the rveb of a
( beam, falll continuity requiresthat it be transferredCirectlyfrom the rveb.
k) To9 and borrom pia:es (t l Top piare and sc;l
( Cotumns beirg rigidly framed by beams may have attachmentsto both
ftranges. as in Figs- 13.6.1a,b, and c, or only to one flange,as in Fig. 13.6.1d,
(
(
(
(
i3:-E
(
(
{ c ) S p t l t t e e s ,w r t h o r
(Ci i?elded znd vai"t
( without rveb anElsj
(
(a) No cel:;rn:r gtilteners: {b) Horizontal plate
( direct ilanEe to flaap stiffeners
groove v.'eld; and in Fig. 13.6.2.Alternatively,the iigid attachmentof beamsmay be to rhe
( web, from either or both sides,as in Fig. 13.6.3-lvhen the rigid systemhas
rigid attachmentseither to the flangesor the web (but not to both) the s1-srem
( is said to be a rwo-ivay,or planar, rigld frame. \l'hen the rigid frame sysrenl
( consistsof continuousconnectionsto both flange(or flangesjand web (eithcr
or both sides),the systembecomesa four-way system.or spaceframe.
( The variety of arrangemen$for a continucusbeam-to-colurnn connection
( is so great as to precludeany completelisting or illustration; hoivever,lhosc
shown in Figs. 13.6.1,73.6.2,and 13.6.3are believedto be commonin currenr
( (1989) design use. Most connectionsare partly shop rveldedand then com-
( pleted in the.-fieldby either rveldingor fasteningro;tir tr;gh-strengthbolrs.
The principal design concern is rvith transmissionof concentratedloads
( caused by flange forces on beams to the adjacent columns. The web of a
( coiumn may be unable to accept the compressionforce from a beam flange
without additional stiffening;the flange of a column may exhibir excessir.c'
( (c) Venical tee (d) Seat and top plate deformation causedby a tensionforce from a beam flange.
stifferlers
Rigid framing is used to greatestadvantagein (aj structuresdesigned
(
Figure 13.6.1 Coatbuous beam-tocolrrmn coonectioas:weldedattachment.to column using plastic anaiysis,either under' Load and ResistanceFactor Design or
{ flange. Plastic Design, or (b) structuresdesignedusing elastic analysisrvherethe
(^.
t . (
-
885 13lCONNECTTONS 13.6 / CONTrNUOUSBEAhi-TO-
(-
COLUMN COr.rruECrrOlrs 887
(
glzl
When the forces io b€am flanges' are transmitted to column flanges as
compressionor tension forces, horizontal stiffeners,as in Figs. 13.6.1band d
(a) Top ptiatesand seat and Fig. l3-6-2a" may be required. Such stiffenersprevent local flange bend:ng
bracket
(LRFD-KI.2 or ASD-K1.2) from the tension force, local *.b
lielding
u (LRFD-Kl.3 or ASD-KI.3), web crippring(LRFD-Kl.4 or ASD-K1.4), and
compressisn$ugkling (LRFD-K1.6 or ASD-K1.6)causedby the compiesdon
(
force. Local web yielding and web crippling were rreatedin sec. 7.g. I
/
Local web Yielding Both LRFD and AsD treat this phenommon,
formerly called "web crippling", in an identical manner basedon the s-orli
of 1
Grahanr, Sherbourne,Khabbaz, and Jensent7.Zlt.
Consider a beam compressionflange bearingagainst a column as in Fig.
(b) Top and bottom olates,
73-6.4a.When the'maximum local yielding rtt.ngitr of the column rr-eb is
web plate: and seat plate
reached,the load will have beendistributedalong the baseof the fillet (Ir riom
the face of the flange) on a 1:2.5 slope. Using Eq. t.g.Z for an interior
coacentratedload according to LRFD and F4. 7.8.6 for ASD a1ld laki*g r11e
*tearing length
i/ as the beam flange thicknesst1s andthe reaction R or
9R. (
as the flange force P' grves
(
T-section
Local web Yietding-L,oad and ResistanceFactor Design
Pr y: O ( 5e + t . , ) Fy.n,
.t (13.6.1)
(c) Tee section with where the design srength of the column web to resist a beam fl::ge
la.it^
fiange back-up plates, transmitted force under factored loads, E : resistancefactor : 1.0,
a;':d sr::e.i web plares
yield stress of the column web, and r,n. b the column web thickness.{.. is rhe
Tne
d. Pry could be as high as Fr6'Al when the beam is expectedro der-:icp (
Tq"it
ItSplasucmoment strength.
(
:( :+r:sr3.lr
P,, . r(+)( Fr"t!,
(r.e.r) If the rotationalrestraintprovidedby the column flangesrvereihe fully'
( *)"] tn,
fuied condition,the bucklingstrengthrrould be theoreticallftwice as greatas
( that given by Eq. 13.6.5,Experimentarwork [13.36,13.14,13.45]gu5-5lir$n
where I : resistancefaitor :0.75 that n'hen lower yield stress(such as '{36 steel)material is involled. yield.ine
( Ptt: factored force from beam flange of the web along thejunction with the flangeoccursat a load levelcorr-espor:rJ-
l*.. : column web thickness ing closdlyto rhesimplesupporrcase:i.e..Eq. r3.6.5.when 100ksi (d90lfpal
( tft: beam flangethickness
'! 1-reldstressrnaterialrvasusedin tests,the higheryield stressmaterial proridecl
t.( : column flange thickness a high degreeof rotational restraintalong thi juncrion of flangeto ..-.b. giring
7
d: column overaildepth a buckling strengthabout twice that obtainedwhen 436 steelwas used.Thus
,( Chen and Nervlin [13.a4]suggestedthat the increasein effectivedegreeoi
Web Crippling-Allowable StressDesign fixity at the lcaded edgemay be accountedfor in practical designUy iratin_e
i(
'( the strengthproportional to the squareroot of the yield srress.Theli stabiiiry
p,,:atst,_,lt
. r(+){f Frrl l,
(13.6.4)
criterion is
( ' )"] tn"
^
p
33,40013
- tE_
5570r',,'{*
(' '*'here Pry -- serviceload capacity. ( 13 . 6 . 6
)
a
_--r.
d, y 36 d,
(
ContpressiottBuckling of the Web. Overail buckling of tbe .olu*r, *.1
( The coefficient5570of this semirationatexpressionwas adjusteddor*.nwa:dro
must also be prevented as a controlling limit state. This limit state is of
'1100,representinga lower bound for all test results.
concern when concentratedloads from beam flanges are applied to 6oth Thin for the beam-rr>
( column flanges.When only one column flange is subjecredto i concentrate{ column connsctiont is the column web thicknesstb.r and the conccnrrrted
ioad P., is the nominalreacrionstrength givingrh; LRFD-K1.6 cxprcssion
( load, the overall web buckling limit state need not be checked. {,
Equation 6.74.28appliesto elasricbucklingof a plare,
(
CompressionBuckling of Cotumnlveb-LRFD
( kn2E
tr:
12(1 - pz)(b/t)' [6.14.2s] "'
( ' Pn-aloorl''ri{'' {13'6'7
}
d,
( Chen and Newlin [13.44]and Chen and oppenheim tl3.45J have treated
web buckling in a column as analogous to a plate subject to equal and
( opposite concentratedloads as shown in Fig. 13.6.5.The elastic buckiing load *'here P" : nominal strengthprovided by column rveb,kips
( P", for that situation usinga simply supportedplate having a large ratio a/d,, d. : web depth ciear of fillets - d - 2k, in.
is given by Timoshenkoand Gere [6.67,pp. 387-3g9j as tn,: coldmn web thickness,in.
( Frr: column web yield stress,ksi
4nzEt3 33,400t3
( . - D
: cr
: - _
n0 - p2)d" d,
.1r:.0.s; Substitutionof the requirednominal strengthpu/+ for p,, and using g : G.90
-ioad -b"
( according to LRFD-K1.6, gives the factcred pu, that .un carried
, (
f
F*'"*'
890 13i CC):I.=CTIONS 13.6/CONTTNUOUSBEAM-TO_COLUMNCONNECTTONS
g91
1
rvithout o.u'erallcciumn web buckling when no stiffeners are used, AID design. Pu, is the factored load; in ASD the senice load is
factoredby 5/3.' (
9a100rl.l{ ). Proportioningof stiffeners.The following proportioning requirement
D
' al -- -:-:- ( r : . os r appearsin AsD-K1.8 but not in LRFD-K1.g; however.rhe aurhors
d,
recommendusing it for both LRFD and AsD design.The sriffener (.'
w1dt.hb,_,plus 1 the column rveb thicknessrl,c *uy nit be less than
',rhcre o : 0.90 I
of the beam flange width b16or moment--plati connecrionwidti
Pni : rna.rimumfactoredconcentratedload from beam flanges
deliveringthe force prr, I
Nore thar Eq. i3.6.E appliesonly when Pu, actsat both flanges.
CompressionBucklingof ColumnWeb-ASD
ur,*+ = btu
(13.6.11)
(\
J
(
which makes
d, uaaf*,,{.
--:-s
,r-
(13-6.9i
ur,'?-+ (13.6.12)
rr,herePr, factoredconcentratedload from beam flanges.Note that the 6. The local buckling limits of LRFD-BS or ASD-85 for unstiffened I
strifeners(in pairs)requiredis the excessof the factorediorce P^, cvcr where the first term representsthe bendingresistanceof the column flangeas
trvo plate elements(one on eachside of the rveb)and the secondtcrm is rhe i
&('" t bmF}r\
'f" - - f
Thc rcs:stance factorg for localweb yieldingis prescribed
as 1.0;thus
P* ]
(r3.6.rs)
srnrplii'"ingEq. 13.6.10and makingit applicablefor both LRFD and (
1
C
(
13/CONNECTIONS 13.6/ CONTTNLIOUS
BEAM_TO_COLUMN
CONNECTTONS
( 893
ri 7iil
, I
L . ' , g l tp ' f
flange
/7. > 0.'1
n ( i 3 . t ,.I .
! T r e a ta s aifected by
n'here Ptt : factoredconcentrated
tensicnroad using 57,'3tir:iesthe sc1;;;
lineloec ll,, lt t Pot
'*il'" load.
: l
;( i (
II
Since generalil'the compression-related stiffe;rerrequircmentsare morc
3
t.(
'
lVeld may tear
I
t
Vnt4
L
v
|
l
I likely to control, the readershouldparticularlynore thoserequirements.
a\ray i t l Thc
sameproportioningrequirements for compression sriffenersshouldbe usetjfor
( r--n-j L,n: t,b+2(N- t,c) tension stiffeners.Usually tlie samesize stiffencrsrvouid be used for
both
compressionand tension(if any tensionstiffeneris needed).Examples
( " SectionA - A of thc
designof beam-to-columnmomentconnectionshavebeenpresentedbi.
Figure13.6.6 Strengthof columnflangein tensionregionof conncction. ir{iller
:( [13.46].
r
E EXA,IfPLE 13.6.1
( From tests[7.21]the minimum vaiueof t i^mF,,"/Pnrvasdeterminedto be 0.15. Design the connectionfor the rigid framing of trvo \\'i6x40 beams
ro rhc
Thus, using 0.15 for the secondterm in the bracket of Eq. 13.6.15givesthe flangesof a w12X65 column using A572Grade 50 srecl. as sho*.n
( in Fig.
conservativeexpressionused by both LRFD and ASD for the minimum 13'6-7-Use 436 steelfor stiffenersif needed.Use Load and Resistance
Facror
( column flange thicknessty" to avoid needing a column stiffener to assistin Design.
carrying the tension force frorn a beam flange,
( SOLUTION
Pn
( ty, >- 0.4 (13.6.16) (a) Compressionregion.Designfor the maximum flange force
transnrir-
Fr" ted by the beam' Thus the maximurnfactoredforce will be issumed to
( be the
designsrrengthof the beamflange,
( pt t : Q Ar Fr : 0. 90( 6. 995) ( 0. 505): 50
Local Flange Bending from Tension Force-LRFD trn order fo, ,nort 159kips
( general applicability to any situation, Eq. 13.6.16is solved for the nominal
strength Pn i.o LRFD-K1.2, sincethe beamis "compact"rviih : 5Oksi. If the beamwere..noncompact,,
( 4.
( P,:6.Z\tl,Fr (13.6.17)
t;
' i (
:\ Since the factored flange force P' cannot exceed the design strength SP", 2qs-]xsx ,01
U
$
:; (\ eitlrer Eq. 13.6.17 can be used to determine the available strength or Eq.
! 1 13.6.16can be used to computethe minimum flange thicknessneededto avoid . y/16 x 40
I \
stiffeners.Thus, in LRFD, Eq. 13.6.16for minimum column flange thickness 1 l- = 0.305(web) lvl6 x 40 I
?-
i t.r = 0.5C5(fiange) I
:( f7. would be I
\ /
TF;
(
(
tp> 0.4
V*+
(13.6.i8)
R - t - *^ s , , . t o l 7-
l ^ -w1z x
65
( l* = 0.390(web)
,. = 0.?0s(ftange)
where Prf : factoredconcentrated
tensionload
)( x =ti-
0 : 0.90(LRFD-Kl.2) to