GEOLOGY MIDTERM EXAM QnA:

1. Which of the following statements regarding the scientific methods is true?

B. A theory is a hypothesis that has withstood many scientific tests.
2. According to the principle of uniformitarianism,
A. Geologic processes we observe today have operated in the past.
3. Approximately how long ago did the Big Bang take place?
D. 10-15 billion years ago.
4. Under intense pressure and high temperature, hydrogen atoms combine to form helium. This
process is called:
A. Nuclear fusion.
5. What are the two most abundant elements in nebula (gas clouds) in the universe?
C. Hydrogen and helium.
6. The process by which an originally homogeneous Earth developed a dense core and a light crust
is called:
B. Differentiation.
7. The heat that caused melting in the Earth's early history was supplied from which of the
following events or causes?
C. a large impact event and radioactivity
8. How thick is the crust of the Earth?
C. About 40 km.
9. The layer that separates the crust from the core is the?
C. Mantle
10. What drives the Earth's internal heat engine?
A. Radioactivity.
11. In general, igneous rocks:
- form at relatively high temperatures
- form by crystallization of solids from a liquid
- form at high and low pressures
12. Minerals:
B. Are crystalline solids.
13. Metamorphic rocks are changed rocks. Which of the following rock types could be the "parent"
of a metamorphic rock?
- Sedimentary
- Igneous
- metamorphic
14. _______involves the transfer of heat by the physical movement of the material:
B. Convection.
15. __________is called the "father" of geology.
C. James Hutton.
16. New seafloor is created at a ____________?
B. Mid-ocean ridge.
17. The descent of oceanic lithosphere into the mantle is the process of _______?
B. Subduction
18. Which of the following features is not associated with a convergent plate boundary?
 A. A mid-ocean ridge.
19. The greatest threat to our environment is ___________?
C. Humans.
20. Earth materials always trace the complete rock cycle from sediment through igneous rocks
False
21. The terms crust and lithosphere are synonymous.
False
22. The terms mantle and asthenosphere are synonymous.
False
23. Because we rarely witness dramatic changes in the Earth, we can conclude that the Earth is not
changing very much.
False
24. The motions of the three types of plate boundaries would be described as divergent, convergent,
and static.
False
25. The crust of the Earth is static and stable.
False
26. Features useful in defining plate boundaries include all except:
A. shorelines between continents and oceans
27. The age of the Earth is currently thought to be
D. About 4,500,000,000 years old.
28. The contribution made to geology by James Hutton was:
Uniformitarianism:
- Hutton originated the fundamental principle of uniformitarianism.
- This principle assumes an enormously long span of time during which different kinds of
rocks composing the Earth formed through diverse natural processes.
- According to uniformitarianism, the features of the Earth’s crust can be explained by
observable processes operating over geologic time12.
Challenging Prevailing Views:
- During Hutton’s lifetime, the prevailing view was that the Earth was only a few thousand
years old.
- Hutton challenged this belief with his theory called plutonism, which proposed that
geological processes occurred over vast time periods.
- His ideas were in opposition to the Church’s view that the Earth was only around 6,000
years old3.
Foundation of Modern Geology:
- Hutton’s work eventually formed the foundation of modern geology.
29. One of geology's greatest contributions to human thought is:
C. The recognition of the long span of time involved in Earth history
30. Evidence of uniformitarian change includes:
- Earthquakes:
- Erosion and Sedimentation:
- Volcanic Activity:
- Sea-Level Changes:
 - Weathering and Soil Formation:
31. Living organisms have been on Earth for ______ of Earth's history.
D. about 80%
32. Humans have been on Earth for _________ of Earth's history.
A. Less than 1%.
33. What caused dust and condensing material to accrete into planetesimals?
B. Gravitational attraction and collisions
34. Which of the following is not one of the four inner planets?
C. Neptune.
35. The outer planets are composed mostly of ?
C. Hydrogen and helium.
36. The moon is ?
- The revised age is approximately 4.46 billion years old.
37. The name of the layer of the Earth that separates the crust from the core is the___?
D. Mantle
38. What powers the Earth's internal heat engine?
C. Older than the Earth.
39. The Earth's external heat engine is not responsible for which of the following:
C. Tides
40. Oxygen built up in the Earth's atmosphere because:
C. Algae and other organisms employed photosynthesis.
41. Which of the planets is not geologically active?
B. Mercury.
42. When did geologists develop the theory of plate tectonics
D. In the 1960s
43. The lithosphere is approximately ______ kilometers thick.
C. 50-100 kilometers.
44. The asthenosphere is _________.
D. Hot and weak.
45. The Earth's lithosphere is broken into approximately ______ large, rigid plates.
B. 12.

46. A __________ plate boundary is illustrated in the figure shown above.

B. Divergent
47. Which of the following statements about convection is true?
C. Hot material flows upward and displaces cool material.
48. Approximately how fast does an Earth's lithospheric plate move?
A. Several centimeters per year.
49. Which of the following is not a type of plate boundary?
- Convergent
- Divergent
- transform fault
50. New seafloor is created at a ________.
B. Mid-ocean ridge.
51. The descent of oceanic lithosphere into the mantle is the process of ______.
A. Subduction.
52. Approximately how deep (below sea level) are deep-sea trenches?
B. 10km
53. Which of the following features is not associated with a transform plate boundary?
A. A mid-ocean ridge
54. Volcanism is associated with which of the following types of plate boundaries?
D. Divergent and convergent plate boundaries.
55. The Andes Mountains of South America are a result of which type of plate boundary?
A. Convergent
56. Mount St. Helen's. a part of the Cascade Range of volcanoes, result from the subduction of which
plate?
C. Juan de Fuca
57. What is the name of the large supercontinent that existed 200 million years ago when all of the
continents were together?
D. Pangaea.
58. Why is our vulnerability to natural disasters growing?
B. Because the human population is increasing.
59. The theory of plate tectonics was not initially widely accepted because ______.
B. rocks of the Earth's crust were considered too stiff for continents to move through them

60. Referring to the diagram above, path A is _______ .

C. Burial and Lithification.
 Unit 4 ASSESSMENT
61. Discuss the attitudes, Outcrops, Study of Structures, their bearing on Engineering Construction,
Rock Mechanism, and the physical and mechanical properties of rocks.
Attitudes of Structures:
- Attitude refers to the orientation of geological structures (such as rock layers, faults, and
folds) with respect to the Earth’s surface.
- Geologists measure attitudes using concepts like dip, strike, and bearing.
- Dip: The angle at which a rock layer or fault plane inclines from the horizontal.
- Strike: The compass direction of the intersection line between a horizontal plane and the
inclined rock layer or fault.
- Bearing: The direction of a line or structure relative to the north.
Importance for Engineering:
- Understanding attitudes helps engineers design foundations, tunnels, and slopes.
- It influences the stability of structures and the behavior of rock masses during excavation
and construction.
Outcrops:
- An outcrop is a visible exposure of bedrock or unconsolidated material at the Earth’s surface.
Geologists study outcrops to:
- Examine rock types, structures, and fossils.
- Understand the geological history of an area.
- Assess the suitability of rock for construction materials.
Importance for Engineering:
- Outcrops provide valuable information for site investigation and foundation design.
- They help engineers assess rock quality, stability, and potential hazards.
Study of Structures:
- Structural geology investigates the deformation of rocks due to tectonic forces.
- It includes the study of folds, faults, joints, and fractures.
Importance for Engineering:
- Engineers consider geological structures when designing tunnels, dams, and foundations.
- Understanding fault zones helps prevent infrastructure damage during earthquakes.
- Knowledge of joint patterns influences excavation and slope stability.
Rock Mechanism:
- Rock mechanics studies the mechanical behavior of rocks under stress.
- It involves understanding elastic and inelastic deformation, strength, and failure.
Importance for Engineering:
- Rock mechanics guides tunneling, mining, and slope stability.
- Engineers analyze rock properties to design safe foundations and excavations.
- It helps predict rock behavior during construction and long-term stability.
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Rocks:
- Physical properties include density, porosity, permeability, and thermal conductivity.
- Mechanical properties involve stress-strain relationships, Young’s modulus, shear modulus,
and Poisson’s ratio.
Importance for Engineering:
 - Engineers use rock properties to design foundations, tunnels, and retaining walls.
- Understanding how rocks respond to stress helps prevent failures and ensures safety.
62. Classify the different types of folds and illustrate their development.
1. Anticline:
- An anticline is a fold that is convex upward.
- The oldest rocks are located in the core (crest) of the fold.
- Anticlines often form due to compressional forces in tectonic settings.
Development:
- Initially, horizontal layers of sedimentary rock exist.
- Compressional forces cause the layers to buckle upward.
- The central axis of the fold forms the crest of the anticline.
2. Syncline:
- A syncline is a fold that is concave upward.
- The youngest rocks are located in the core (trough) of the fold.
- Synclines also result from compressional forces.
Development:
- Initially, horizontal layers of sedimentary rock exist.
- Compressional forces cause the layers to buckle downward.
- The central axis of the fold forms the trough of the syncline.
3. Monocline:
- A monocline is a fold in which only one limb is tilted.
- The other limb remains essentially horizontal.
- Monoclines often occur near fault zones or areas of crustal extension.
Development:
- Initially, horizontal layers of rock exist.
- Tectonic forces cause one limb to tilt, creating a step-like structure.
4. Overturned Fold:
- An overturned fold (or overfold) has the axial plane inclined to such an extent that the strata
on one limb are overturned.
- It occurs when compressional forces are strong.
Development:
- Initially, horizontal layers of rock exist.
- Intense compression causes one limb to tilt beyond the vertical.
- The strata on one side are overturned
5. Recumbent Fold:
- A recumbent fold has an essentially horizontal axial plane.
- It occurs when rocks are intensely deformed.
Development:
- Initially, horizontal layers of rock exist.
- Extreme tectonic forces cause the axial plane to become nearly horizontal.
63. Explain the application of the classification of folds and faults to the work of a civil engineer.
- understanding folds and faults in geology significantly impact civil engineering. Folds
influence foundation design, tunneling, and slope stability. Faults affect seismic safety,
 tunnel construction, and groundwater flow. Understanding these structures is crucial for
safe and resilient infrastructure.
UNIT 5 ASSESSMENT
64. Discuss the following key terms comprehensively.
a. Site Investigation
- Site investigation is a crucial process in civil engineering that involves collecting essential
information about the ground conditions at a proposed development site.
b. Geological Methods
- Geological methods play a crucial role in understanding Earth’s structure, history, and
resources.
c. Exploration Techniques
- Exploration techniques play a crucial role in understanding the Earth’s subsurface and
uncovering valuable resources.
d. Geophysical Methods
- Geophysics is a fascinating branch of Earth science that employs principles and techniques
from physics to explore the physical properties and processes of our planet.
e. Seismic
- seismic events are essential for understanding Earth’s dynamics and ensuring public safety.
f. Electrical Methods.
- Electrical methods are geophysical prospecting techniques that rely on the electrical or
electrochemical properties of rocks and subsurface materials. These methods exploit the
fact that different materials in the Earth’s crust possess widely varying electrical
properties.
65. Explain the significance of analyzing and investigating the soil condition/behavior before
construction implementation.
- soil testing ensures the stability, retentivity, and resistance of buildings, making it an
essential step in any construction project.