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SBI3u: Unit 5: Systems Unit

(Cell membrane, Cell transport, enzymes, digestive system, respiratory system, circulatory system)

Cell Process and Cell Transport

The Cell Membrane
o The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane) is the only thing between a cell and its outside
environment. It has a crucial role to play in the life of a cell – it must control what enters and leaves the cell.
o The cell membrane allows substances to pass through it, it is said to be permeable (to pass through).

o An impermeable membrane is that through which no substance can pass.

o Semipermeable membranes are those that let only solvents, like water, to pass through it.
o Permeable membranes are those that let solvent and solutes, like ions and molecules, to pass across
it.
o There are also selectively permeable membranes, i.e., membranes that besides allowing the passage
of solvent let only some specific solutes to pass while blocking others.
o Most living membranes are selectively permeable, in which they control what passes through them.
o Non-living membranes are semi-permeable, since they can prevent certain molecules from passing
through them.
o A cell membrane is mainly composed of proteins and phospholipids (known as the phospholipid bilayer). Cell
membranes also contain cholesterol in the phospholipid bilayer. Some membranes only have a few cholesterol
molecules, while some have many. Cholesterol makes the bilayer stronger, more flexible, but less fluid and less
permeable to water-soluble substances (like ions and monosaccharides). Both the proteins and the phospholipid
bilayer help control the passage of materials through the cell membrane.
o The construction of the bilayer is unique: the hydrophilic (water-loving) phosphate heads point toward the liquid
environment inside and outside the cell; the hydrophobic (water- hating) fatty acid tails, making up the middle of
the membrane, prevent some molecules from entering the cell.Since the phospholipids are tightly packed together,
molecules that are too large cannot pass through this portion of the membrane. Hydrophilic molecules that are not
fat-soluble cannot dissolve and pass through the middle fatty acid portion of the membrane. The protein
molecules that are embedded in the bilayer provide an entryway for certain small molecules that cannot enter
through the bilayer portion of the membrane.
o The appearance of the cell membrane is known as the fluid mosaic model – the term “fluid” is used because the
phospholipid molecules and proteins that make up the membrane are free to drift around in fluid motion. The term
“mosaic” is used to describe the position of the protein molecules. The molecules are randomly placed and there
is no set pattern.
o Proteins are integral or intrinsic (meaning they are bound to the hydrophobic interior of the membrane) or
peripheral (meaning they are not bound in this way). Proteins serve four functions:
(or extrinsic)
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a. Structural support – when attached to the cell’s cytoskeleton

b. Recognition – binding sites on some proteins can serve to identify the cell to other cells (such as those
of the immune system) (glycolipids and glycoproteins)
c. Communication – receptor proteins, which protrude out from the plasma membrane, can be the point
of contact for signals sent to the cell via traveling molecules (such as hormones)
d. Transport – proteins can serve as channels through which materials can pass in and out of the cell.

o Transport proteins allow larger molecules, or molecules that are too hydrophilic, to enter the cell. Other
membranes proteins have sugar chains attached to them. These carbohydrate and protein combinations are known
as glycoproteins – and they act as attachment sites for molecules that need to enter or carry a message to the cell.
They are highly specific to each individual and help the cells of your immune system to recognize your body cells
while also identifying foreign cells in your body so that they can be destroyed.

Fatty acid tails that

are water hating

Phosphates that are "water loving"

Passive Transport: Does not need ATP to occur;
moves molecules from areas of high to low
The Movement of Solutes and Water concentration; particles move along the
ex: salt, o Solutes are substances that are dissolved in fluid to form a solution. concentration gradient
sugar o The liquid that the solutes are dissolved in is referred to as the solvent. Many of the molecules that must enter
and leave the cell, such as glucose, oxygen, and carbon dioxide, are dissolved in water are referred to as solutes.
ex: water
o Diffusion is the tendency of particles to move from an area of high concentration, where there are more random
collisions, to an area of lower concentration, where there are fewer collisions.
o equilibrium has been achieved. Movement from an
When there is an equal concentration of particles in all areas,

area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration is known as moving along the concentration
gradient.
o Movement along the concentration gradient is referred to as passive transport. Diffusion is the driving force
behind the movement of many molecules through the cell membrane, including oxygen, carbon dioxide, alcohol,
and small lipids.
o A number of factors determine whether a molecule can enter a cell by diffusion.
o One of these factors is size. Large molecules cannot squeeze through the tightly packed phospholipids
easily.
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o Another factor is lipid solubility. If a molecule cannot dissolve in the oily mixture created by the
membrane fatty acids, it cannot diffuse through the membrane.
o Other factors include: the size of the concentration gradient, and the distance the molecule has to travel.
o An example of diffusion occurring in your body is in your lungs which rely exclusively on diffusion to add
oxygen and to remove carbon dioxide from your blood.

• Osmosis is a special type of diffusion. It is the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane, such as
the cell membrane. Despite the fact that water is not lipid (fat) soluble, they can easily pass through the
phospholipid bilayer. This is because it is small enough to fit through the gaps created by the moving
phospholipids.
• During osmosis, water molecule pass from the side of the membrane that has a higher concentration of
water and less solute concentration, to the side that has the lower concentration of water and a higher
solute concentration.
• The osmotic conditions of the solution surrounding a cell are given special names:

Water moves in the • Hypertonic solutions are when the fluid surrounding the cells has a higher solute concentration
direction to DILUTE the than the cytoplasm of the cell. As a result, water diffuses out of the cell by osmosis. (cell would shrink)
higher SOLUTE • A hypotonic solution is when the fluid surrounding the cell has a lower solute concentration (cell
concentration. It moves than that found in the cytoplasm of the cell. As a result, water diffuses into the cell by osmosis. swells)
toward the area that is
• In an isotonic solution, the concentration of solutes in the fluid surrounding the cell is the same
hypertonic
as it is in the cell’s cytoplasm – the solute concentrations are at equilibrium and no net
movement of water occurs. (nothing happens to the size of the cell)

5% salt 5% salt 10% salt

5% salt 10% salt 2% salt

Adenosine triphosphate
o ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) is an important nucleotide in the cell. Unlike DNA and RNA, which are polymers (a
macromolecule comprised of repeating units of a smaller molecule – a monomer), ATP is a monomer (a small
molecule that can be joined together in a repeating fashion to form more complex molecules called polymers).
o Cellular respiration is the name for a series of reactions in cells that release energy from glucose molecules to form
molecules of ATP.
o ATP is a molecule made from a nucleotide – it consists of adenine, five carbon sugar ribose, and three phosphate
groups. The three phosphate groups are attached to the ribose (a type of sugar).
o The bonds between these phosphate groups are often called high-energy bonds because they are associated with
energy release. ATP is the energy-providing molecule of the cell.
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o When the third phosphate group is split off by hydrolysis, a net release of energy results and ADP (Adenosine
diphosphate) is formed (ATP → ADP + Energy).

Active and Passive Transport

o Active and passive transport processes are two ways in which molecules and other materials move in and out of
cells and cross intracellular membranes.
o Active transport is the movement of molecules or ions against a concentration gradient (from an area of lower
to higher concentration) and does not ordinarily occur. Active transport requires both enzymes and energy in
order to occur.
o Active transport relies on transport proteins to allow substances to pass through the membrane. The molecules or
ions bind to the proteins and are then pumped across the membrane. Moving molecules or ions this way requires
energy that was released from the breakdown of ATP to move substances against the concentration gradient.
o The sodium/potassium pump in nerve cells (neurons) is an important example of active transport.
o To function properly, neurons must maintain a higher concentration of sodium ions outside the cell
compared to inside the cell. They must also maintain a higher concentration of potassium ions inside the
cell compared to outside.
o To maintain this imbalance, specialized transport proteins in neurons to pump sodium out of the cell and
potassium in.
o Three sodium ions from inside the cell bind to a transport protein. ATP gives up a high-energy phosphate
group to bind to the transport protein. The binding of phosphate causes the shape of the protein to change.
The channel opens to the extracellular fluid. The sodium binding sites are lost and the ions are released
outside the cell. Then, binding sites for potassium are created.
o Two potassium ions bind to the transport protein, releasing in the release of the phosphate group from the
protein. The loss of the phosphate group returns the proteins to its original shape. The potassium ions are
released inside the cell and the transport protein is ready to bind more sodium ions.

1. ATP attaches to
the protein
2. Three Na+ attach
to the protein
and leave the
cell
3. Two K+ attach to
the protein and
enter the cell
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o Passive transport is the movement of molecules or ions from an area of higher to lower concentration. Since it is
movement across the concentration gradient, it does not require energy to occur. Examples of passive transport are:
simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, filtration, and osmosis.
o Facilitated diffusion: Some molecules cannot travel through the lipid portion of the cell membrane. They may be
too large or may be hydrophilic.
o Facilitated diffusion occurs when molecules enter cells through channels that exist in special transport
proteins that span the membrane.
o Transport proteins are specialized to carry only certain molecules into or out of cells.
o Since they only transport materials along the concentration gradient, no energy from ATP is required to
perform facilitated diffusion. For this reason, facilitated diffusion is a form of passive transport.
o For example, glucose is too large to travel through the cell membrane without the help of a specialized protein
carrier. Since glucose is constantly being used inside the cells for energy to produce ATP, the concentration
of glucose inside the cell is usually lower than the concentration of glucose outside of the cell. Therefore,
glucose moves along the concentration gradient and into the cell by facilitated diffusion.
o Diabetics are unable to produce a protein-based hormone called insulin that binds to transport proteins on the
cell membrane and allows glucose to enter cells by facilitated diffusion. Without insulin, the cells are unable
to take up glucose. This causes the glucose level of the blood to increase to dangerously high levels when the
person eats a meal.
This is why diabetics are
thirsty and urinate so
often...their blood is
hypertonic and so they are
always pulling water to dilute
their blood (this makes them
thirsty and the extra water
that is pulled will go to the
kidneys to leave as urine
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o Sometimes, there are situations that require the movement of large particles into the cytoplasm. For example,
defence against infection, or the secretion of hormones. These situations require the formation of vesicles and
involve some rearrangement of the cell membrane. Proteins and polysaccharides re examples of very large
molecules that need to pass into and out of cells. Because these molecules are too large to fit through a protein
carrier, they must use another method to enter or leave the cell. This is a form of active transport, and is called
bulk transport. It includes: Endocytosis and Exocytosis.

o Endocytosis is the movement of material into the cell by pinching a portion of the cell membrane around the
material to be transported into the cell. The pinched-in portion eventually breaks free from the cell membrane and
forms a vesicle in the cytoplasm. This allows the material within the vesicle to travel to its final destination within
the cell. There are three types of endocytosis:
o Phagocytosis – involves the movement of large molecules and sometimes even whole cell’s interior.
Phagocytosis literally means “cell eating”. An example would be your white blood cells known as
macrophages.
o Pinocytosis – involves the transport of liquids into vesicles. Pinocytosis means “cell drinking”.
o Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis (RME) - this is the way a number of nutrients and proteins, such as
the hormone insulin, enter the cell. During RME, the molecule that is to enter the cell binds to special
receptor proteins located on the outside of the cell membrane. These receptor proteins move within the
cell membrane toward other identical receptor-molecules complexes. Once enough molecules have
gathered in one area, the cell membrane pinches in, forming the vesicle that will transport these molecules
into the cell.

• Exocytosis is the opposite of endocytosis and is used to export large molecules out of the cell.
• Large molecules such as proteins are surrounded by a membrane at the Golgi complex and a vesicle is
formed.
• In this vesicle, the substance makes its way to the cell membrane where the vesicle membrane joins with
the cell membrane, and the large molecules are expelled from the cell.
• Exocytosis, like endocytosis, requires energy from the breakdown of ATP molecules.
• For example, specialized cells in the pancreas make the blood-sugar controlling hormone called insulin.
Like other hormones, insulin travels throughout the body through your blood.
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Enzymes
o Enzymes are specialized protein molecules that function as biological catalysts. Catalysts facilitate chemical
reactions.
o Enzymes allow reactions to be completed up to 10 billion times after than they would without the presence of the
enzyme.
o Enzymes speed up reactions by binding to the reactants known as substrates. The enzyme-catalyzed reaction
occurs at a location on the enzyme known as the active site. The joining of the enzyme to the substrates
produces an enzyme-substrate complex. Mainly ionic bonds and hydrogen bonds hold the substrate in the
active sites to form the enzyme- substrate complex. It is during the formation of the enzyme-substrate complex
that the reaction occurs. Following the reaction, the enzyme releases the products.
o Enzymes are reusable, so once the products are released, the enzyme is ready to bind to more substrate.
o Examples of reactions that require their own specialized enzymes in order to proceed include cellular respiration
and photosynthesis. Other examples include the digestion of food, which requires digestive enzymes created by
specialized cells located in the stomach, small intestine, and pancreas.

products
substrate
active site

enzyme
enzyme-
substrate
complex

o By binding to their substrates, enzymes are able to lower the amount of energy that must be supplied for the
reaction to occur. This energy is known as activation energy – which can be compared to a barrier that must be
overcome in order for a chemical reaction to occur. The presence of the enzyme makes the obstacle or barrier
smaller, and as a result, the reaction can occur faster and more energy is available to be used in more reactions,
rather than being wasted on overcoming the obstacle.

Enzymes lower the

activation energy (energy
needed to start a chemical
reaction)...so, the reaction
happens with less energy
and happens faster.
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Theories on Enzyme Activity

o Each enzyme generally catalyzes only one chemical reaction. Therefore, enzymes are said to be specific to their
particular substrate. The enzyme specificity occurs because of the three-dimensional shape of the active site of an
enzyme – it is designed to precisely fit and accept the substrate molecule.
o These observations lead to what is known as the “lock and key” model of enzyme action. The lock and key
hypothesis explains the idea of enzyme specificity by stating that the shape of the key being the substrate is
complimentary to the shape of the lock which is the enzyme’s active site. It is a rigid hypothesis as it makes note
that the active site of the enzyme is the exact same shape as the key and thus fits precisely.

o The second, and now more widely accepted enzyme model is called the “induced fit” model of enzyme activity.
In this theory, the active site changes its shape to enfold a substrate molecule. The enzyme’s active site changes
shape to ‘better fit’ the substrate. As the substrate gets closer to the enzyme’s active site, it induces a slight change
in the shape of the enzyme which allows the active site to become totally complimentary. The shape of the
enzyme is affected by the substrate. After the products are released, the activation site of the enzyme then returns
to its original shape and, binds the next substrate molecule.
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Enzyme Activators and Inhibitors

o An enzyme activator is a molecule that binds to an enzyme and increases the enzyme’s activity. They can
attach to either the active site, or they can attach to an allosteric site (any site on the enzyme that is not the
active site). For example, fructose 2, 6-bisphosphate (which activates phosphofructokinase 1 during glycolysis).
o If an activator attaches to an allosteric site on the enzyme, it can also be known as an allosteric
activator.
o An enzyme activator can be a co-enzyme (organic compounds such as vitamins) or a co-factor (inorganic
compounds such as minerals and metal ions).

Enzyme activators increase

the enzyme's active site's
affinity (attraction) to the
substrate so that more
reactions can happen (and
faster).

• An enzyme inhibitor is a molecule that binds to an enzyme and decreases the enzyme’s activity. An inhibitor
can bind to the enzyme’s active site, and this would be called a competitive inhibitor (as it competes with the
substrate to bind with the enzyme’s active site), or it can bind to an allosteric site, and this would be called a non-
competitive inhibitor (as it does not compete with the substrate for the enzyme’s active site). A non-competitive
inhibitor will change the shape of the active site so that it can no longer bind with the substrate. A non-
competitive inhibitor is also known as an allosteric inhibitor.
• An example of a non-competitive inhibitor would by cyanide and arsenic. If either of these poisons is present in
the body, they compete with the intended substrate, bind to key enzymes involved in important metabolic
pathways, and prohibit them from functioning. This inhibition leads to death if not treated immediately.
• An example of a competitive inhibitor is penicillin. It blocks the active site of an enzyme that bacteria use to build
their cells.
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Let’s Do Practice Questions….

1. Label the following diagram of the Cell Membrane.
glycoproteins
glycolipids

cholesterol

phosphate (hydrophillic head)

phospholipid
bilayer fatty acids (hydrophobic tails)

intrinsic (intregral) protein

extrinsic (peripheral) protein

2. Explain the 3 forms of permeability and state which type is found in human cells (and why).
Forms of Permeability Definition
Impermeable
Does not allow any solutes or ions to pass through it

Selectively permeable Selects (chooses) which solutes and ions can pass through it.
Human cells are selectively permeable to ensure necessary nutrients,
gases, and waste can move through the cell.
Semi-permeable
Only allows water and ions to pass through it

3. Discuss why the cell membrane is known as the “Fluid Mosaic Model”.

Fluid - because everything in the bilayer is constantly moving around

Mosiac - because there are so many different things embedded in the membrane (proteins, cholesterol,
etc)
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4. What are the main differences between active versus passive transport? Provide an example of both forms of transport.
Passive Transport Active Transport
Definition The movement of molecules from The movement of molecules from an
an area of high concentration to area of low concentration to an area of
an area of low concentration until high concentration to maintain an
equilibrium is reached. imbalance.

Does it require NO YES

ATP to occur?
Movement and Along or with the concentration Against the concentration gradient
the Concentration gradient
Gradient
Example Diffusion, Osmosis, Facilitated diffusion Sodium-Potassium Pump, Bulk transport

5. Explain how spilt perfume can makes it way throughout the entire room.

It has a high concentration where it was spilled, and the molecules will move along its concentration
gradient to spread out around the room until the entire room has equal amounts of perfume molecules.

6. Decipher between the 3 forms of osmotic solutions.

Water will move

to where there
is too much
solute to try and
dilute it

ISOTONIC HYPOTONIC HYPERTONIC

No net movement Water moves INTO the Water moves OUT of the
of water cell and the cell swells cell and the cell shrinks
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7. A person has a wooden splinter stuck in their finger. Using the idea of osmotic solutions, explain why it is beneficial to
soak the finger in salt water.

The salt water is hypertonic to your finger. So, the water will move out of your finger into the salt water (tor
try and dilute it), and this will pull both water and the splinter out of your finger.

8. Using the concept of osmotic solutions, explain why adding too much salt to meat as it cooks can dry it out.

The salt on the outside of the meat is hypertonic to the meat. So, fluids from the meat will be pulled out of
the meat to dilute the outside, and this will dry out the meat.

9. Explain the following diagram.

A B A B
Side B is hypertonic to side A (Side B has more solute)
So, the water moved from side A to side B to dilute side B.

10. Explain the diagram below regarding the Sodium-Potassium Pump.

ATP attaches to the protein channel in our nerve cells.

This allows 3 Na+ to attach and move out of the cell.
Then, 2 K+ ions will attach and move into the cell.

This keeps the concentration of Na+ high outside the cell and
the concentration of K+ high inside the cell.

It is active transport (needs ATP to go against the gradient)

11. Compare and contrast exocytosis and endocytosis.

Endocytosis - moving large molecules into a cell by creating a vesicle from the cell membrane.
EX: Phagocytosis (moving solids in); Pinocytosis (moving liquids in); Receptor-Mediated (need a
receptor to allow it entry)

Exocytosis - moving large molecules out of the cell as a vesicle attaches to the cell membrane to
release it.

Both are forms of active transport

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The Digestive System

o The three main fluid components of the body are: (a) the cytoplasm inside the cells, (b) the fluid between the cells (the
interstitial fluid); and (c) the fluid in the blood. The fluid in these compartments is mainly water (which makes up
approximately 60% of the body).
o These compartments also contain and are composed of thousands of different kinds of molecules and ions (for
example: water, phosphates, hydrogen ions, and sodium ions – all are small, simple, inorganic (non-living) matter).
o Larger, more complex assemblies of organic molecules are called macromolecules and are known as nutrients.
These nutrients are the raw materials that our bodies need to provide energy, to regulate cellular activities, and to
build and repair tissues.
o Macromolecules are often grouped into four major categories: carbohydrates, lipids (such as fats),
proteins, and nucleic acids.
o Energy released from these macromolecules is used to maintain the body’s metabolism. Your
metabolism is the sum total of all of the chemical reactions that occur in an organism. It is all the
chemical processes carried out by cells in order to maintain life.

CARBOHYDRATES
o Carbohydrates are macromolecules that always contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen – and usually in the same
proportion: two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen for every atom of carbon. For example: C6H12O6
o Carbohydrates provide short-term or long-term energy storage for organisms.

o Monosaccharides:
o Are a simple sugar with three to seven carbon atoms (and the corresponding number of hydrogen and
oxygen atoms).
o “Mono” means one; and “Sacchar” means sugar
o Examples include: glucose (the sugar found in blood) and fructose (the sugar found in fruit).

o Disaccharides:
o Are a simple sugar made up of two monosaccharide molecules.
o They are “double sugars, made up of two simple sugars.
o Examples include: sucrose (table sugar), maltose (the sugar found in germinating grains), and lactose (the
sugar found in dairy products).
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• Polysaccharides:
o Are a large molecule made up of many linked monosaccharide molecules.
o They are known as complex carbohydrates and consist of many linked simple sugars.
o Examples include: starch, cellulose, and glycogen (a polysaccharide made up of glucose sub-units).
o Glycogen is stored primarily in the liver, and some is in our skeletal muscles. When our blood glucose
levels are too low, glycogen is broken down to release glucose into our blood.
o Starch performs the important function of storing energy in plants.
o Cellulose is found in cell walls. It is made up of Beta-glucose molecules, which is hard for humans to
break down (we don’t have a lot of enzymes to break down beta bonds).

Bonds made in carbohydrates are called glycosidic linkages.

The numbers associated with the bonds tell us which carbon atoms are involved making the bond.
and the word alpha or beta as added to the name of the bond based on the type of molecule (for
example: amylose has alpha 1-->4 glycosidic linkages)
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LIPIDS
o Lipids are organic compounds that have one important property in common: they are insoluble in water.
o The basic structure of lipids is a molecule of glycerol (an alcohol) consisting of three carbon atoms, each

attached to a fatty acid chain (an acid with a long tail of carbon and hydrogen atoms).
o Lipids store 2.25 times more energy per gram than other biological molecules; therefore, some lipids function as
energy-storing molecules.
o Other lipids, called phospholipids, form the membrane that separates a cell from its external environment.
o Examples of lipids include: fats, such as butter and lard, oils (such as olive oil and safflower oil).
o Saturated fats have more hydrogen atoms and are solids at room temperature. Saturated fats are less fluid
due to having only single bonds between the carbon atoms (this causes it to be saturated with hydrogen). Diets
high in saturated fats is increased LDL (low density lipoprotein cholesterol) which is linked to heart disease.
o Trans fats are formed when unsaturated fats have hydrogen pumped into them. This process is called
hydrogenation. Trans fats raise LDL and lower HDL levels.
o Unsaturated fats have fewer hydrogen atoms since there are double bonds between carbon atoms.
Unsaturated fats are liquids at room temperature, and are the healthier fat choice. Unsaturated fatty acids have at
least one double bond between the carbon atoms. This makes the fatty acid more fluid. Diets high in unsaturated
fats is known to raise HDL (high-energy lipoprotein cholesterol), which is good for heart health.

(no double bonds - so low fluidity)

(one double bond - so high fluidity)

The double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids creates This is a triglyceride...it is made up of 3-C molecule
kinks in the chain so they cannot be stacked called glyerol attached (by ester bonds) to 3 fatty
tightly (which makes the fatty acids more fluid) acids.
and this is a good thing for our health.
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PROTEINS
o Proteins are assembled from small sub-units that are known as amino acids.
o Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Hundreds of amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds to
create protein molecules. These chains are called polypeptides.

NUCLEIC ACIDS
o Nucleic acids direct growth and development of all organisms using a chemical code.
o The two types of nucleic acids are ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

RNA: DNA:
-single stranded -double stranded
-bases are: U,A,C,G -bases are: T, A, C, G
-has the ribose sugar -has the deoxyribose sugar
-helps put amino acids -contains our genetic code
together to make a protein

Summary of the Four Major Categories of Macromolecules

Macromolecule Main Functions Examples
Carbohydrates • Provide materials to build cell membranes Glucose, fructose, lactose,
• Provide quick energy for use by cells maltose, starch, glycogen,
cellulose
Lipids • Store energy reserves for later use by cells Fats, oils, waxes
• Cushion and insulate internal organs
• Provide materials to build cell membranes
Proteins • Provide structure and support for blood cells, body tissues, Insulin, hemoglobin, collagen,
and muscles antibodies, enzymes
• Aid in muscle movements, such as contraction
• Act as catalysts to speed up chemical reactions in the cells
• Provide immunity against infection and disease
• Transport ions in cell membranes
Nucleic Acids • Contain the organism’s genetic information Deoxyribonucleic acid
• Direct the organism’s growth (DNA); ribonucleic acid
(RNA)
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BREAKING DOWN MACROMOLECULES

o Before the body can use carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, these large molecules must be chemically broken down
into molecules small enough to be absorbed by the cells lining the small intestine.
o Hydrolysis is the chemical reaction in which water breaks apart macromolecules into smaller molecules. The word
“hydro” means water, and the word “lysis” means to loosen.
o This breakdown of the chemical bonds involves a special class of protein molecules called enzymes.
o An enzyme is a protein molecule that helps speed up important chemical reactions in the body (they act as a
catalyst). Enzymes are secreted by cells in the digestive tract.
o There are three main types of digestive enzymes:
Type of Enzyme Macromolecule it Product of breakdown Example of enzyme and Where it
breaks down functions
Carbohydrase Carbohydrate Simple sugars Amylase: produced in the salivary
(monosaccharides) glands and functions in the mouth.
Lipase Lipid Glycerol (an alcohol) and Pancreatic lipase: produced in the
fatty acids pancreas and functions in the small
intestine.
Protease Protein Amino acids Pepsin: produced by the stomach
glands and functions in the stomach.
Nuclease Nucleic acid Nucleotides Pancreatic nuclease: produced in the
pancreas and functions in the small
intestine.

THE MANY ROLES OF WATER IN THE BODY

o Water makes up two thirds of the body’s mass and is needed for the proper functioning of all cells and organs.
It’s many roles include:
o Transporting dissolved nutrients into the cells that line the small intestine
o Flushing toxins from cells
o Lubricating tissues and joints
o Forming essential body fluids, such as blood and mucus
o Regulating body temperature (by sweating)
o Eliminating waste materials (in urine and sweat)
o Water is also vital for maintaining the body’s fluid balance, the condition in which the amount of fluid lost from
the body equals the amount of fluid taken in.
o A constant supply of water is needed to replenish the fluids lost to normal, daily bodily functions.
o An average adult produces 1.5 litres (6.3 cups) of urine per day and loses about 1 litre of water through the breath,
perspiration, urine, and bowel movements.
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THE VITAL ROLES OF MINERALS AND VITAMINS

o Minerals and vitamins are inorganic and organic substances that enable chemical reactions to occur and aid in tissue
development, growth, and immunity.
Key Functions in the Body Possible Sources
Mineral
Calcium • Forming bone Dairy products
• Conducting nerve signals
• Contracting muscles
• Clotting blood
Iron • Producing hemoglobin Red meat
Magnesium • Supporting enzyme functions Dark, leafy greens
• Producing protein
Potassium • Conducting nerve signals Grains, bananas
• Contracting muscles
Sodium • Conducting nerve signals Salt
• Balancing body fluid
Vitamin
A (Carotene) • Good vision Fruits
• Healthy skin and bones
B1 (Thiamine) • Metabolizing carbohydrates Beans
• Growth and muscle tone
C (Ascorbic acid) • Healthy bones, teeth, gums, Fruit
and blood vessels
• Boosting immune system
D • Absorbing calcium Fish
• Forming bone
E • Strengthening red blood cell Fruit
membranes

THE FOUR STAGES OF FOOD PROCESSING

o The essential function of an animal’s digestive system is to break food down into small, soluble units that can pass
through cell membranes.
o The digestive system breaks down food into useful substances that can be absorbed into the circulatory system. The
circulatory system transports these substances to the individual cells of the body.
o Digestion of food occurs in four stages:
o Ingestion: The taking in or eating of food
o Digestion: The breakdown of food by mechanical and chemical processes into molecules small enough for
cells of the body to absorb.
o Absorption: The transport of the products of digestion from the digestive system into the circulatory system,
which distributes them to the rest of the body.
o Elimination: The removal of undigested solid waste matter from the body.
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o In complex animals, food enters the mouth and is physically broken apart into smaller pieces by the teeth. The food is
further broken apart as it moves along the digestive tract by the muscular contractions of the tube itself. This process
of physical breakdown of the food into smaller bits is called mechanical digestion.
o At the same time, various fluid-releasing glands in the mouth and digestive tract add liquid, and enzymes that help to
break down the macromolecules of food into smaller molecules. This breakdown of macromolecules by enzymes is
the process known as chemical digestion.

THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

PARTS OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
o Even before you take your first bite of food, the smell or sight of food can trigger the salivary glands to secrete saliva
into the mouth.
o Salivary glands are glands in the mouth that produce saliva to begin the chemical digestion of food. There are three
pairs of salivary glands in the mouth. saliva is a watery secretion in the mouth that begins the digestive process.
Chemical digestion begins with saliva. Saliva contains an enzyme called amylase that starts to break down the
starches in foods into simpler sugars. Saliva dissolves water-soluble food particles. It stimulates the taste buds,
making it possible to taste the flavours of the food. It also lubricates the food to make it easier to swallow.
o Mechanical digestion also begins in your mouth as your teeth bite, tear, and grind food into smaller pieces. This
mechanical action also exposes more of the surface area of the food to the saliva, making it more accessible for
chemical digestion.

The Esophagus:
o As you chew your food, your tongue helps mold and smooth it into a soft mass, called a bolus. The tongue
then pushes the bolus to the back of your mouth.
o When you swallow, the bolus enters the top of the esophagus to begin its passage to your stomach.
o The opening of the esophagus lies next to the opening of your windpipe (trachea), which carries air to and
from your lungs.
o To prevent food from going down the wrong tube and choking you when you swallow, the opening of the
trachea is closed by a valve called the epiglottis when you swallow. (it is always open unless swallowing)
o The esophagus is the muscular tube through which food passes from the mouth to the stomach in a series of

wave-like muscular contractions called peristalsis. Glands in the lining of the esophagus produce mucus,
which keeps the passage moist and aids in swallowing.
o The entrance to the stomach is controlled by a ring of muscle called the esophageal sphincter. This
sphincter is normally closed to prevent the acidic contents of the stomach from backing up into the esophagus,
but it relaxes to allow each bolus of food to enter the stomach.
o When you vomit, the contractions of the esophagus are reversed.
o If small amounts of acidic liquid escape from the stomach and move up the esophagus into your throat, it will
create a burning sensation known as acid reflux (heartburn).
 20

The Stomach:
o The stomach is a muscular, J-shaped organ in which food is temporarily stored while further chemical and
mechanical digestion takes place.
o The walls of the stomach are folded like an accordion, allowing the stomach to expand after a meal.
o The stomach is lined with millions of gastric glands that secrete gastric juices when stimulated by the presence of
food. gastric juices are a mixture of hydrochloric acid, salts, enzymes, water, and mucus that is produced by
glands in the stomach to help digest food. The mucus coats the walls of the stomach, protecting it from attack by
the strongly acidic gastric juice. The rest of the gastric juice continues to the chemical digestion of the food.
o The stomach has 3 layers of muscle fibres that contract and then relax to churn and mechanically break up pieces
of food and mix them with the gastric juices. The results of this churning and mixing, is a thick liquid called
chyme (pronounced: kihm).
o At the lower end of the stomach is a muscular valve called the pyloric sphincter. When closed, this valve keeps
food in the stomach.
o The stomach usually does not digest the proteins that make up its own cells, because it has three methods of
protection. First, the stomach secretes little gastric juice until food is present. Second, some stomach cells secrete
mucus, which prevents gastric juice from harming the cells of the stomach. Third, the stomach produces its
protein-digesting enzyme called pepsin in a form that remains inactive until hydrochloric acid is present. Once
active, pepsin hydrolyzes proteins to yield polypeptides – a first step in protein digestion in the digestive tract.
o When the small intestine is full and still digesting food, the stomach temporarily stores the chyme. When
processed food has moved out of the small intestine into the large intestine, the pyloric sphincter opens and the
stomach pushes chyme into the first part of the small intestine – the duodenum.

The Small Intestine:

o The small intestine is part of the alimentary canal (tube through which food is processed) in which
digestion is completed – the nutrient macromolecules are finally broken down into their component
molecules.
o The nutrients are then absorbed through the membranes of the cells that line the small intestine, and they pass
from the digestive system into the circulatory system.
 21

o The Duodenum:
o The duodenum is a short, wide U-shaped section of the small intestine into which food passes from
the stomach. It is the first section of the small intestine.
o It helps to speed up the process of absorption. The walls of the small intestine are lined by folds that
greatly increase the surface area through which nutrients can be absorbed. 90% of digestion and
absorption of nutrients happens in the duodenum.
o These folds are covered by tiny, finger-like projections called villi that increase the surface area to
improve the absorption of nutrients. Each villus, in turn, is covered with many fine brush-like
microvilli.
o As food passes through the duodenum, it receives secretions from two organs that support the
function of the digestive system: the pancreas and the gall bladder.
(pancreas: releases digestive enzymes; gall bladder releases bile)

o The Jejunum and Ileum:

o The jejunum is the portion of the small intestine that follows immediately after the duodenum.
o It is about 2.5 m long and contains more folds than the duodenum.
o The jejunum breaks down the remaining proteins and carbohydrates so the end products can be
absorbed into the bloodstream.
o The ileum is the portion of the small intestine the follows immediately after the jejunum.
o It is about 3 m long, and contains fewer and smaller villi than either the duodenum or the jejunum.
o Its function is also to absorb nutrients, as well as push the remaining undigested material into the large
intestine.

The Accessory Organs:

o The pancreas and the gall bladder are not part of the alimentary canal itself, but they are connected to the
canal by ducts. Because of this close association with the alimentary canal, the pancreas and the gall
bladder are referred to as accessory organs. Fluids produced by the accessory organs are essential to the
process of digestion.
o In adults, the pancreas secretes about 1 L of pancreatic fluid into the duodenum each day. Pancreatic
fluid contains numerous enzymes that chemically digest carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. The fluid also
contains bicarbonate, which is very important to the function of the enzymes. The bicarbonate alters the
pH of chyme from strongly acidic (pH 1) to weakly basic (pH 8), thereby producing conditions in which
the enzymes in the pancreatic fluid can work most efficiently.
 22

o The liver is the largest internal organ in the human body. In an adult, the liver is the size of a football,
which a mass of about 1.5 kg. The main digestion-related secretion of the liver is bile – a greenish-yellow
fluid mixture that is made up of bile pigments and bile salts. Bile pigments do not take part in digestion.
They are waste products from the liver’s destruction of old red blood cells and they are eventually
eliminated with the feces.
o After bile is produced in the liver, it is sent to the gall bladder, which stores the bile between meals. Bile
contains bile salts that are essential for the digestion of fats. Because fats are insoluble (they cannot be
dissolved) in water, they are suspended in the chyme as small droplets – like the blobs of fat that float up
if you put a greasy dish in a sink of hot water.
o Bile salts act like detergent, physically breaking up the fat droplets into smaller fat droplets, and
suspending the smaller fat droplets so they can disperse throughout the chime. The many smaller fat
droplets create a greater surface area to be exposed for digestive enzymes to chemically break down the
fats in the small intestine – this makes it easier for the intestinal cells to absorb the fats.

THE LARGE INTESTINE

o After the nutrients in digested food have been absorbed from the small intestine into the bloodstream, the
remaining material moves into the large intestine, or colon.
o This part of the digestive system is much shorter and wider than the small intestine.
o The main function of the large intestine is to absorb water from the alimentary canal. About 90% of the water is
absorbed back into the blood and extra-cellular fluids.
o The volume of the indigestible food matter (mostly indigestible plant matter) is therefore reduced by about two
thirds.
o Billions of anaerobic bacteria (bacteria that do not live or grow in the presence of oxygen) in the colon break
down undigested matter further. Some of these bacteria produce important vitamins, including folic acid, several
B vitamins, and vitamin K, which are absorbed into the bloodstream through the colon.
o The leftover matter forms feces, which are pushed by muscular contractions of the colon into the rectum.
o The typical brown colour of feces is due to the bacterial breakdown of bilirubin. Bilirubin is a by-product of the
breakdown of hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen in the blood). Bilirubin gets secreted into the bile in the
liver.
o Fecal odour comes from gases produced by bacterial activity. The rectum stores the feces until they are eliminated
at the anus.
 23

Mouth:
-Chemical (amylase
breaks down carbs)
-Physical (teeth)

Esophagus:
-Physical (peristalysis)

Stomach:
-Chemical (pepsin to
break down proteins)
-Physical (churning)

Small Intestine:
-Chemical (enzymes
from pancreas for all 3
macromolecules; bile for
lipids)
-Physical (peristalysis)

TIME REQUIRED FOR HUMAN DIGESTION

Digestive Structure Primary Function Time Food Spends in Each
Structure
Mouth Mechanical and chemical digestion 5-30 seconds
Esophagus Transport (swallowing) 10 seconds
Stomach Mechanical and chemical digestion 2-24 hours
Small intestine Mechanical and chemical digestion 3-4 hours
Large intestine Water absorption 18 hours – 2 days
 24

Chemical Digestion and Absorption

o The bile and pancreatic fluid in the duodenum help break down carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids into
smaller molecules that can be absorbed into cells that line the small intestine.
o Enzymatic digestion of macromolecules is performed by carbohydrases (which digest carbohydrates), lipases
(which digest fats), proteases (which digest larger polypeptides), and nucleases (which digest nucleic acids).
o Most enzymes work at a pH between 7-8. The exception is pepsin which works at a pH between 1-2.

Complex Carbohydrates Proteins Fats Nucleic Acids

Mouth Polysaccharides

Salivary amylase

Disaccharides
Stomach Proteins

Pepsin

Small polypeptides
Small Polysaccharides and Smaller polypeptides Fat droplets DNA and RNA
Intestine disaccharides
Proteases (trypsin and Bile Nucleases
Carbohydrases (pancreatic amylase, chymotrypsin)
sucrose, maltase, and lactase) Fat droplets Nucleotides
Peptides (emulsified)
Monosaccharides Nucleotidases
Peptidases Lipases
Nitrogen-containing
Amino acids Glycerol and fatty bases, sugars, and
acids phosphates

FACTORS THAT AFFECT ENZYME ACTION

o Two factors: temperature and pH, can affect the rate at which an enzyme functions to break down complex
molecules.
o More energy is added at higher temperatures, so the enzyme activity increases.
o The chemical bonds become too weak to maintain the enzyme’s shape. The enzyme becomes denatured, meaning
that its molecular shape and structure (therefore, its properties) are changed.
o For most human enzymes, the optimal temperature range is fairly narrow, peaking at about 37°C.
o Enzymes also function best within an optimal pH range. Some human enzymes, such as pepsin, function best at a
low pH. Pepsin is found in the acidic environment inside the stomach.
o However, most human enzymes, such as trypsin, function best in pH environments of about a pH of 6 to 8. Trypsin
is found in the more neutral environment of the small intestine.
 25

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM DISORDERS

Peptic ulcers
o Is a sore in the lining of the stomach or duodenum, most commonly caused by infection with the bacterium
Helicobacter pylori. They form when the tissues become inflamed because the protective mucus that covers the
lining has weakened.
o A peptic ulcer can cause abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, and loss of appetite. Ulcers can be very painful
because exposed, unprotected tissue comes into contact with acidic gastric juice.
o They can happen to people of all age groups.
o Most ulcers begin when populations of an acid-resistant bacterium, Helicobacter pylori, attach themselves to the
wall of the digestive tract and prevent the area from producing the protective mucus.
o Because ulcers are caused by a bacterium, they can be treated with antibiotics to kill the bacteria. Along with
antibiotics, the doctor will often prescribe medications to reduce the acidity in the stomach.
o Treatment may also include lifestyle changes, such as losing weight if overweight, avoiding alcohol, and not
smoking.

Inflammatory bowel disease

o Is the general name for a group of diseases that cause inflammation in the intestines.
o The incidence of inflammatory bowel disease is increasing in Canada – over 200 000 people (1 in 160) are living
with the disease. IBD is a chronic disease, meaning that it is long lasting and recurrent. IBD can only be treated –
not cured – by a special diet and by taking medication to reduce pain and inflammation.
o The main forms of IBD are Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis.
o Crohn’s disease is a form of IBD that can affect any part of the alimentary canal from the mouth to the anus.
Children with Crohn’s disease generally do not grow properly during puberty. They develop thinner bones that
increase the future risk of fractures, and they experience poor muscle development.
o Ulcerative colitis is a form of IBD that attacks the colon. Symptoms of colitis include loose and bloody stool,
cramps, and abdominal pain.
o In severe cases of IBD, it may be necessary for surgeons to remove the affected part of the colon and create a new
external opening for digestive waste.
 26

DISORDERS OF THE ACCESSORY ORGANS

Hepatitis
o Is an inflammation of the liver. There are three types of hepatitis: A, B, and C.
o Hepatitis A is usually contracted from drinking contaminated water.
o Hepatitis B is spread by sexual contact, but there is a vaccine to protect against it.
o Hepatitis C is usually spread by contact with infected blood. There is no vaccine for Hepatitis C.

Cirrhosis
o Is a chronic disease of the liver that occurs when scar tissue replaces healthy liver tissue and prevents the liver
from functioning properly.
o Cirrhosis is irreversible and is typically caused by chronic alcoholism and hepatitis C.
o There are few symptoms in the early stages of the disease. Blood tests can determine if the liver is becoming
fatty – an early warning sign that cirrhosis is developing.
o The liver has the ability to health itself, but in many cases there is not enough regeneration to avoid liver
failure.
o A liver transplant is the primary treatment for liver failure.

Gallstones
o Are small hard masses that form in the gall bladder. Sometimes, cholesterol (a fat-like substance found in the
blood and cells) in the bile can precipitate out of the bile and form crystals. The crystals grow and become
gallstones.
o Factors that are related to the formation of gallstones are obesity, alcohol intake, and heredity.
o Gallstones are usually treated with medications or with ultrasound shock waves to disintegrate the stones so
that they can be passed out in the urine.
o Since gallstones often recur, it is important to reduce the causal factors. Cholesterol in the gall bladder can be
lowered by losing weight, increasing the intake of omega-3 fatty acids (unsaturated fats that are found in fish
and nut oils), and decreasing the size of meals.
o If gallstone problems are serious, the entire gall bladder may need to be surgically removed.

Diabetes
o Is a chronic disease in which body cells are unable to use glucose to provide energy for muscles and tissues.
o Normally, the pancreas releases insulin into the bloodstream after the individual has eaten.
o Insulin allows glucose from the digested food to enter the body’s cells, and this lowers the amount of glucose
circulating in the bloodstream throughout the body.
o As the glucose level in the bloodstream drops, so does the release of insulin from the pancreas.
o Remember that glycogen can be temporarily stored in the liver, so that when the insulin level gets low – for
example, when you have not eaten for a while – some of that stored glycogen is converted back to glucose to
keep the blood glucose at a normal level.
o Diabetes develops when there is not enough insulin in the bloodstream or when the body cannot properly use
the insulin that the pancreas makes.
o Without insulin, glucose cannot get into the cells and the glucose level in the blood can increase to life-
threatening levels.
 27

o Type 1 diabetes occurs when the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas are destroyed by the immune
system and therefore no longer produce insulin. Type 1diabetes is most often diagnosed in children, teens,
and young adults.
o Type 2 diabetes occurs when either the body does not make enough insulin, or it is unable to properly use
the insulin it makes. Although type 2 diabetes is most often diagnosed in people over the age of 40, it is
becoming increasingly common in children and adolescents.
o Gestational diabetes can develop during pregnancy. Even though this type of diabetes often ends when
the baby is born, women who have had gestational diabetes are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes later in
life. Gestational diabetes is often a result of pregnancy hormones or inadequate levels of insulin production.

o The risk factors for diabetes also include being of advanced age, having a family history of the disease, and
belonging to certain high-risk ethnic groups (Aboriginal people and people of African, Asian, Hispanic, and
Pacific Island descent).

The Respiratory System

o Most of the cells of your body need a continual supply of oxygen (O2) to carry out cellular respiration.
o This process releases energy from glucose inside cells and produces carbon dioxide as a waste product.
o The resulting chemical energy is used to perform cellular activities.
o The main function of the respiratory system is to ensure that oxygen is brought into the body and made
available to each cell that needs it, and that carbon dioxide can leave each cell and be removed from the body.
o Respiration is the general term that is used to describe this overall process. (is the process of breathing)
o There are several stages in human respiration, and each stage has specialized structures to facilitate it.
Inspiration is o The first stage in respiration – breathing, involves two basic processes: inspiration – the action of
an active drawing oxygen-rich air into the lungs, and expiration – the action of releasing waste air from the lungs.
movement (needs Inspiration moves air from outside the body into the lungs. Expiration moves air from the lungs back to
energy) the outside of the body.
o The second stage in respiration – external respiration, is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
Expiration is a between the inspired air inside the lungs and the blood. This stage of the respiratory process performs the
passive movementvital function of gas exchange. Gas exchange is the delivery of oxygen from the lungs to the blood, and
(doesn't need the elimination of carbon dioxide from the blood to the lungs.
energy) o The third stage in respiration – internal respiration, is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
between the blood and the body’s tissue cells.
o The fourth and final stage in respiration – cellular respiration, which is a series of energy-releasing
chemical reactions that take place within the cells. It is the sole means of providing energy for all cellular
activities.
 28

Gas exchange: lungs give oxygen

to the blood, and the blood gives
carbon dioxide to the lungs (to
exhale)

Gas exchange: blood gives oxygen

to the cell, and the cell gives
carbon dioxide to the blood (and it
takes it back up the level of the
lungs to exchange once again)

Respiratory Surfaces
o There are two main requirements for respiration. First, the area of an animal’s body where gases are exchanged
with the environment, called its respiratory surface, must be large enough for the exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide to occur quickly enough to meet the body’s needs. Second, respiration must take place in a moist
environment, so that the oxygen and carbon dioxide are dissolved in water.

Gas Exchange on Land

o Air breathing vertebrates, such as reptiles, birds, and mammals, rely on lungs for gas exchange.
o In air-breathing vertebrates, the respiratory system is a specialized system that provides a passageway for air to
move from outside the body to inside the body, where gas exchange occurs.
o Air does not flow into and out of the lungs on its own. The brain acts as a respiratory control centre to co-ordinate
breathing movements and regulate the breathing rate. It also monitors the volume of air in the lungs and the gas
levels in the blood.
o Two sets of structures – the diaphragm and the rib muscles – control the air pressure inside the lungs.
o Changes in air pressure cause air to move into and out of the lungs.
o The diaphragm is a dome-shaped layer of muscle that separates the region of the lungs (the thoracic
cavity) from the region of the stomach and liver (the abdominal cavity).
o The rib muscles, or intercostal muscles, are found between the ribs and along the inside surface of the rib
cage.
o With regular signals from the brain, the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles work together at the same time to
move air into and out of the lungs.
 29

o Inhalation begins when the external intercostal muscles and the diaphragm contract, and the diaphragm moves
down. This action expands the rib cage upward and outward, and the floor of the chest cavity moves downward.
Since the chest cavity is air tight, its volume increases. As a result, the air pressure in the thoracic cavity
decreases. As the chest cavity expands while inhaling, this causes the air pressure in the lungs to be lower than the
air pressure outside the body. Since air moves from regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure, air
rushes into the lungs form the external environment.
o The opposite muscle movements expel air from the lungs. Exhalation begins when the diaphragm and the rib
muscles relax. This reduces the volume of the chest cavity. Therefore, the volume of the lungs decreases, and the
air pressure inside the lungs increases. This will move air from the lungs to the lower-pressure environment
outside the body.
Inhale: diaphragm and
intercostal muscles contract
pulling the ribcage up and out.
This makes more space in your
lungs (= low air pressure),
so...air flows into the lungs
from the environement.

Exhale: diaphragm and

intercostal muscles relax,
letting the ribcage go back to
normal position. This makes
less space in the lungs (= high
pressure), so....air leaves the
The Spirograph lungs
• A spirograph is a graph representing the amount (volume) and speed (rate of flow) of air that is inhaled and
exhaled, as measured by a spirometer. It represents the air the moves into and out of the lungs with each breath.
A Spirograph has the following features:
• tidal volume – the volume of air that is inhaled and exhaled in a normal breathing movement when the
body is at rest.
• inspiratory reserve volume – the additional volume of air that can be taken into the lungs beyond a
regular, or tidal, inhalation.
• expiratory reserve volume – the additional volume of air that can be forced out of the lungs beyond a
regular, or tidal, exhalation.
• vital capacity – is the total volume of gas that can be moved into or out of the lungs. It can be
calculated as tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume + expiratory reserve volume.
• residual volume – the amount of gas that remains in the lungs and the passageways of the respiratory
system even after a full exhalation. This gas never leaves the respiratory system; if it did, the lungs and
the respiratory passageways would collapse. The residual volume has little value for gas exchange
because it is not exchanged with air from outside the body.
 30

The Passage of Air through the Upper Respiratory Tract

o Air enters the respiratory system through the nostrils. Air can also enter through the mouth – especially if
breathing is rapid, as it is during strenuous exercise.
o Inside the nasal passages at the back of the nose, air is warmed, moistened, and cleansed of dust and other small
particles.
o Very thin bones, called turbinate bones, project into the nasal passages and increase the surface area of these
chambers. A thin membrane covering the turbinate bones secretes mucus, which moistens the air and traps
particles of dust, bacteria, and other foreign matter. The ciliated cells that are found in the membrane have
waving, hair-like projections that move the trapped particles into the nose or throat where they can be expelled by
sneezing or coughing.
o The warm, moist, cleaned air passes from the nasal passages through the pharynx, or throat. At the base of the
pharynx (the passageway just behind the mouth that connects the mouth and nasal cavity to the larynx and
esophagus), behind the tongue, is the entrance to the trachea (or windpipe – is the tube that carries air from the
nasal passages or mouth to the bronchi and then to the lungs). This opening of the trachea though which air enters
is called the glottis. The glottis can be closed by the epiglottis. The epiglottis is normally upright to allow air to
pass freely into the trachea. When you swallow food, the epiglottis covers the glottis to prevent food from
entering the trachea and passing into the lungs.
o Between the glottis and the trachea, air passes through the larynx (or voicebox – which contains the vocal cords).
This structure is made of cartilage, which is a tough, firm connective tissue. The larynx is used for sound
production in mammals. The pitch of the sound varies with the length of the vocal cords. Long cord produces a
low sound, and a short cord produces a higher sound At puberty, the vocal cords of males grow quickly, which
often causes a “breaking” quality in the voice.
 31

o The two tubes that branch from the trachea to the lungs are called bronchi (singular: bronchus). One bronchus
enters each lung.
o In humans, the lungs are divided into regions called lobes. The right lung has three lobes, and the left lung has 2
lobes (leaving space for the heart in the thoracic cavity).
o Each lung is surrounded by a thin, flexible, double-layered sac, called the pleural membrane. The outer layer of
this membrane is attached to the inside of the chest wall, and the inner layer covers the lungs. The thin space
between these two layers contains a lubricating fluid that allows the layers to easily slide against each other
during the movements of breathing.
o Inside the lungs, each bronchus subdivides many times to form a network of microscopic tubules called
bronchioles. Each bronchiole eventually ends in a grape-like cluster of tiny sacs called alveoli (singular:
alveolus). Respiratory gases are exchanged in this sac.
o There are an estimated 500 million alveoli in an average-sized adult human lung.
o Surrounding each alveolus is a network of fine capillaries.
o The walls of the alveoli and the walls of the capillaries are only one cell thick.
o It is across these very thin membranes that the respiratory system and the circulatory system interact – as
oxygen from the air diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide from the blood diffuses into the lungs.
 32

How Blood Transports Respiratory Gases

o During respiration, both oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are transported via the bloodstream.
o About 99% of O2 that reaches cells is carried by hemoglobin. The remaining 1% of O2 is dissolved in the water blood
plasma.
o Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein found in red blood cells (RBC) which binds to and transports oxygen from
the lungs to the rest of the body.
o When CO2 leaves the tissue cells and diffuses into the capillaries, it enters the red blood cells.
o About 23% of CO2 is carried in the blood by hemoglobin. The remaining CO2 (77%) is carried in the blood fluids.
o When CO2 reaches the lungs, it diffuses into the air in the alveoli and is exhaled.

My brain does not

recognize low oxygen
being carried on our
hemoglobin, but it will
recognize if there is too
much CO2....so to rid
extra CO2, we increase
our breathing rate.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM DISORDERS

Laryngitis
o Is an inflammation of the larynx caused by an infection or allergy, or by overstraining the voice, such as by prolonged
yelling.
o Remember that the larynx contains the vocal cords. So, when the larynx is inflamed, the vocal cords cannot vibrate as
they usually do.
o People with laryngitis may “lose” their voice, or speak in a hoarse whisper.
o This condition is usually not serious and clears up on its own after a few days.

Pneumonia
o Is disease that causes inflammation in one or both lungs. It is caused by a viral infection or a bacterial infection.
o Pneumonia interferes with gas exchange, and the body becomes starved for oxygen.
 33

o There are two main types of pneumonia: lobular pneumonia (which affects the lobe of the lung), and bronchial
pneumonia (which affects patches throughout both lungs).
o There is a preventative vaccine, called the pneumococcal vaccine, which provides long-term protection from the
bacterium.
o Viral pneumonias are usually less severe than bacterial pneumonias, and they can be treated with anti-viral
medications. Viral pneumonias may be followed by a secondary bacterial infection. This secondary infection must be
treated separately with antibiotics.

Bronchitis
o Is a respiratory disease that causes inflammation of the mucous membranes of the bronchi. It is classified as either
acute (due to an infection) or chronic (due to an irritant).
o With bronchitis, the bronchi become red, inflamed, and filled with mucus, which the person expels by coughing.
o Short-term bronchitis (acute) is usually caused by a bacterial infection and can be treated with antibiotics.
o Chronic bronchitis is long-term disorder caused by regular exposure to concentrations of dust or chemical compounds
(often in the workplace), or cigarette smoke. Because the exposure takes place over a long period of time, the cilia
lining the bronchi are gradually destroyed.
o Chronic bronchitis is referred to as a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and is one of a few lung
diseases that is usually caused by smoking. COPD cannot be cured, but in can be treated by quitting smoking, taking
medications, and gently exercising.

Asthma
o Is a lung disease that causes chronic inflammation of the lungs and overproduction of mucus in the lungs.
o Inhaled irritants such as pollen, dust, and smoke can often trigger an inflammation of the bronchi and bronchioles.
o The inflammation narrows the air passages of the bronchi and bronchioles, which reduces airflow.
o People with asthma experience wheezing, coughing, tightness in the chest, and shortness of breath.
o During an asthma attack, muscles around the airways contract and cells in the airways may increase mucus
production, which further blocks airflow.
o Asthma often starts in childhood. Although it cannot be cured, it can be managed.
o Many people who have asthma use a hand-held inhaler – a device that delivers medication deep into the lungs.
o Asthma medicaitons act by relaxing the bronchiole muscles and reducing inflammation, therefore, opening up the
airways.
 34

Emphysema
o Is a chronic respiratory disease that affects the ability of the lungs to expel air.
o Emphysema entails the walls of the alveoli losing their elasticity. This loss of elasticity reduces the respiratory surface
for gas exchange and causes an oxygen shortage in the tissues.
o Exhaling becomes difficult because the small airways collapse during exhalation, trapping air in the lungs and
blocking the airflow.
o The most common cause of this condition is smoking.
o Emphysema is also classified as a COPD. It is not curable, although the symptoms can be relieved by using an inhaler
to open up the bronchioles and a low-flow oxygen tank to boose the supply of oxygen to the body.

Cystic fibrosis
o Is a genetic disease that causes a thick build-up of mucus in the lungs, resulting in infection, inflammation, and
damage to the lung tissues.
o The mucus traps disease-causing agents, making it difficult to clear bacteria that cause lung infections.
o The mucus also blocks the ducts of the pancreas, preventing digesting enzymes from reaching the intestines to digest
food.
o There is no cure for cystic fibrosis, but symptoms can be relieved by medications that thin the mucus and antibiotics
that reduce bacterial infections.
o The lack of the normal protein (from the mutated version of this particular gene) causes cells to secrete the extra thick,
sticky mucus.

Lung Cancer
o Lung cancer is a disease in which uncontrolled cell growth and division occurs in the lungs.
o As the lung cells continue to grow and divide in an uncontrolled way, they can create a rapidly growing mass of cells
that form a tumour, or carcinoma (a tumour made up of rapidly multiplying cells).
o Carcinomas can grow as large as 8 cm, significantly reducing the respiratory surface of the lungs.
 35

o Cancerous cells can also break away from a tumour and travel, therefore spreading cancer to other parts of the lungs
and to other organs and tissues.
o The spread of cancer from its original site is called metastasis. The cancerous cells that spread are called metastatic
cells.
o Because lung tissues are located deep within the thoracic cavity, lung cancer is difficult to detect in its early stages
and difficult to treat.
o Symptoms include a persistent cough, difficulty breathing, chest pain, and loss of appetite.
o An X-ray of the chest does not show the presence of tumours until they are already quite large and beginning to
spread.
o About 80% of people die within 5 years of diagnosis, making lung cancer the leading cause of cancer deaths for men
and women in Canada.
o The main cause of lung cancer is smoking tobacco, since tobacco smoke is a carcinogen (a cancer-causing agent).
o Lung cancer can also be caused by persistent exposure to: second-hand smoke or other pollutants in the air, the
radioactive gas radon (naturally found in some rocks and soils and can enter buildings through cracks in the
foundations), asbestos (a fibrous, heat-resistant mineral once commonly used as insulation in buildings and in brake
linings).

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Main Functions of the Circulatory System
o The circulatory system is the system that transports blood, nutrients, and waste around the body.
o The circulatory system has the following three main functions:
o It transports gases (from the respiratory system), nutrient molecules, and waste materials (from the digestive system).
o It regulates internal temperature and transports chemical substances that are vital to health from one part of the body
to the other.
o It protects against blood loss from injury and against disease-causing microbes or toxic substances introduced into the
body.

Major Components of the Circulatory System

o The circulatory system has three major components: the heart, the blood vessels, and the blood.
o The heart is a muscular organ that continuously pumps the blood through the body and generates blood
flow.
o The blood vessels are a system of hollow tubes through which the blood moves.
o Together, the heart and the blood vessels comprise the cardiovascular system.
o Blood is the fluid that transports nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and many other materials throughout the
body.
 36

The Two Types of Circulatory Systems

o Many invertebrates have an open circulatory system.
o An open circulatory system is a circulatory system in which vessels open into the animal’s body cavity. It is called
“open” because blood flows freely within the body cavity and makes direct contact with organs and tissues. There is
no distinction between the blood and the interstitial fluid. In invertebrates, such as insects and crustaceans, the mixture
of blood and fluids that surrounds the cells is called hemolymph.
o A closed circulatory system is a circulatory system in which the circulating blood is contained within vessels and
kept separate from the interstitial fluid. The blood flows in a continuous fixed path of circulation and is confined to a
network of vessels.

The Human Circulatory System: The Heart

o Your heart is located slightly to the left of the middle of your chest and is about the size of your fist.
o The walls of the heart are made up of a unique type of muscle called cardiac muscle.
o Cardiac muscle cells are arranged in a network that allows the heart to contract and relax rhythmically and
involuntarily without becoming fatigued.
o In addition to pumping blood, a healthy heart also ensures that blood keeps flowing in one direction only, and that
oxygen-rich blood is kept separate from oxygen-poor blood.
o The human heart (like the heart of all mammals and birds) has four chambers – a top chamber and a bottom chamber
on both the right and left sides.
o The two top chambers are called the atria (singular: atrium) – fill with blood returning from the body or the lungs.
o The two bottom chambers are called the ventricles – they receive blood from the atria and pump it out to the body or
lungs.
o The atria and ventricles are separated from each other by a thick muscular wall called the septum.
o The right side of the heart receives blood that is coming back from the body, and then pumps this blood out to the
lungs. Two large vessels, called the vena cavae (singular: vena cava), open into the right atrium. The superior
vena cava collects oxygen-poor blood (called deoxygenated blood) coming from the tissues in the head, chest, and
arms. The inferior vena cava collects oxygen-poor blood coming from the tissues elsewhere in the body.
o The oxygen-poor blood flows from the right atrium into the right ventricle. The valve that separates the right atrium
and the right ventricle is called the tricuspidvalve.
o From there, it enters the right and left pulmonary arteries – large blood vessels that carry blood from the heart to
the lungs. The pulmonary arteries are the only arteries that carry oxygen-poor blood. The valve between the right
ventricle and the pulmonary arteries is called the pulmonary semilunar valve.
o The pulmonary arteries bring the oxygen-poor blood to the lungs. Once at the lungs, gas exchange occurs. Now, the
blood is oxygen-rich (and has diffused its carbon dioxide out into the alveoli of the lungs).
o The oxygen-rich blood (called oxygenated blood) returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins – blood vessels that
carry blood from the lungs to the heart. The pulmonary veins bring the blood to the left atrium. The pulmonary veins
are the only veins in the body that contain oxygenated blood.
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o The blood flows from the left atrium into the left ventricle. The valve that separates the left atrium and the left
ventricle is called the mitral valve (also known as the bicuspid valve).
o The left ventricle pumps blood through the largest vessel in the body called the aorta – the artery that carries blood
directly from the heart to the other arteries. This valve is called the aortic semilunar valve.

Blood Vessels
o Arteries: are blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the rest of the body. Arteries have
highly elastic walls. This elasticity allows the artery to expand as a wave of blood surges through it during a
contraction of the ventricles, and then to snap back during the relaxation of the ventricles.
o When you measure your pulse, what you feel is the rhythmic expansion and contraction of an artery as blood moves
through it.
o Arterioles: are smaller diameter arteries.
o Veins: are blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood from the body toward the heart. Veins have a thinner wall than
an artery, and a larger inner circumference. Veins are not as elastic as arteries, and they cannot contract to help move
the blood back to the heart. Instead, the contraction of muscles keeps the blood in the veins flowing toward the heart.
Veins also have one-way valves that prevent the blood from flowing backward. These one-way valves are especially
important in your legs because they ensure that the blood flows upward to your heart, against the downward pull of
gravity.
o Venules: are smaller diameter veins.
o A network of capillaries connect the arteries and arterioles with venules and veins.
o The one cell thick capillaries are the site where gases, nutrients, and other materials are transferred from blood to
tissue cells and from tissue cells to blood. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels. They are spread throughout the
body in a fine network. The capillary wall is a single layer of cells and the average diameter of a capillary is about 8
micrometres, which is just large enough for the largest blood cells to pass through in a single file.
 38

The Mammalian Circulatory System: A Closer Look

o To meet their needs, mammals keep oxygen-rich blood and oxygen-poor blood flowing separately through what is
known as a double circulatory system. It is called “double” because blood is pumped through one circuit between
the heart and the lungs, and it is pumped through a second circuit between the heart and the rest of the body.
o The movement of blood from the heart to the lungs and then from the lungs back to the heart again is called
pulmonary circulation. The blood that flows from the heart to the lungs carries waste carbon dioxide gas. As this
blood passes through the respiratory surfaces of the lungs, gas exchange takes place – carbon dioxide leaves the blood
and oxygen moves into the blood. The freshly oxygenated blood goes back to the heart and is pumped from the heart
into a second circuit that transports it throughout the rest of the body.
o systemic circulation is the path that blood follows from the heart to the body and back to the heart. It takes
oxygenated blood from the heart to other tissues and organs throughout the body. After circulating throughout the
body, the blood returns to the heart carrying waste carbon dioxide from the body’s tissues. The blood then re-enters
the pulmonary circulation.
o At any given time, between 80-90% of your blood is in your systemic circulation. Most of the remainder is in
pulmonary circulation.
o The heart itself is supplied by blood vessels that are in the heart muscle. The movement of blood through the heart
tissues is called cardiac circulation.

Blood and its Components

o An average adult human has about 5 litres of blood moving continuously through the circulatory system.
o Blood is sometimes called a connective tissue because it links all the cells and organs in the body.
o It is also considered to be a tissue even though (unlike most of the body tissues) it appears to be a fluid.
o Blood consists of two distinct elements: a fluid portion and a solid portion.
o The fluid portion is called plasma – which consists of water plus dissolved gases, proteins, sugars, vitamins,
minerals, and waste productsPlasma makes up about 55% of the blood volume.
 39

o Plasma is a clear, yellowish fluid composed of about 92% water and 7% dissolved blood proteins. The remaining 1%
of plasma consists of other organic substances and inorganic ions such as sodium, potassium, chloride, and
bicarbonate.
o The main proteins in blood are albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen.
o The components of blood plasma and their functions are:
Components Major Functions
Water • Dissolves and transports other substances
Plasma proteins • Maintain fluid balance in plasma, in cells, and in spaces
between cells
• Help maintain slightly alkaline pH (7.4)
• Fibrinogen helps with blood clotting
• Globulins (antibodies) strengthen immunity
Salts (ions) • Maintain fluid balance in plasma, in cells, and in spaces
-bicarbonate, calcium, chloride, between cells
• Help maintain slightly alkaline pH (7.4)
magnesium, potassium, and Assist in nerve and muscle function
•
sodium

o The solid portion of the blood, the formed portion, consists of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
These cells and platelets are produced in the bone marrow, which is inside the bones. The formed portion makes up
the other 45% of the blood volume.
o Red blood cells, also called erythrocytes, make up approximately 44% of the total volume of blood.
o Red blood cells are specialized for oxygen transport. The oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood is dependent
on the number of erythrocytes that are present and the amount of hemoglobin that each red blood cell
contains.
o A mature red blood cell is a disk-shaped cell with no nucleus. Each cell is packed with about 280 million iron-
containing molecules of the respiratory protein hemoglobin.
o Large quantities of oxygen can be transported in the blood because hemoglobin has special properties that
allow it to pick up, or chemically bond with, oxygen. Hemoglobin releases oxygen in the presence of cells
that need it.
o Hemoglobin also transports some of the carbon dioxide waste from cells. After carbon dioxide diffuses into
the blood, it enters the red blood cells, where a small amount binds to hemoglobin.
o White blood cells, also called leukocytes, are part of the body’s response to infection.
o They make up about 1% of your total blood volume, but this may increase to more than double levels when
your body is fighting an infection. All white blood cells have nuclei and appear to be colourless.
o There are 5 main types of white blood cells and together they fight infections and cancer:
o Phagocytes – leukocytes that attack pathogens by engulfing and destroying the pathogens. This process is
known as phagocytosis.
o Neutrophils – are the most abundant leukocytes and are found in the body tissues of an animal as well as in
(first line of defence against bacteria or viruses by ingesting them and releasing
the blood.
enzymes to kill them)
o Eosinophils – are found in the mucous lining of the digestive and respiratory tracts.
o Basophils – aid in immunity by secreting substances that attract phagocytes to destroy pathogens.
 40

o Lymphocytes – produce proteins called antibodies that incapacitate pathogens and allow them to be easily
detected and destroyed.
o Monocytes – circulate in the bloodstream for only a few days before they become specialized as
macrophages, which destroy bacteria.(play a role in both inflammatory and anti-inflammatory processes)
o Platelets, also called thrombocytes, are the third major substance in the formed portion of the blood.
o Platelets are membrane-bound fragments of cells that form when larger cells in the bone marrow break apart.
o Platelets do not contain nuclei and they break down in the blood within 7-10 days after they have formed.
o Platelets play a key role in clotting blood, which prevents excessive blood loss after an injury.

Blood clotting can be summarized as follows:

• When a blood vessel is broken due to injury, it releases chemicals that attract platelets to the site of injury.
• The platelets rupture, releasing chemicals that combine with other chemicals in the plasma to produce the enzyme
thromboplastin.
• As long as calcium ions are present, thromboplastin reacts with prothrombin (a protein made by the liver) to
produce another enzyme called thrombin.

• Thrombin reacts with fibrinogen (another plasma protein) to produce fibrin (an insoluble protein that forms a
fibrous mesh over the site of injury) – this mesh prevents the loss of blood cells and eventually solidifies to form a
clot.

The Functions of Blood

Transport
o Blood is closely connected to the function of the digestive system. For example, blood in the capillaries in the
walls of the small intestine absorbs many of the nutrients that are end products of digestion.
o Blood also absorbs nutrients that are synthesized by cells in parts of the body other than the digestive tract.
o These nutrients, which include glucose and amino acids, are carried to the liver, where they are converted into
storage products for transport to other parts of the body.
o As well, blood picks up chemicals and gases through the respiratory system and carries them throughout the body
to where they are needed. It also carries carbon dioxide, and other waste products of cells, to the lungs, where it is
then released.
 41

o Blood also transports and removes the waste products of cellular processes. Blood carries excess amounts of
various mineral ions (which are the end products of protein metabolism) and other waste products to the kidneys
for processing and excretion.

Temperature Regulation
o Temperature regulation involves balancing the loss of heat from the body with the production of heat by
metabolic processes.
o A mammal’s circulatory system can control heat loss by changing the volume of blood flowing near the body
surface.
o Under the control of the nervous system, blood vessels in the skin can either expand to carry more blood or
constrict to carry less blood.
o An increase in blood flow by widening or dilating the vessels is called vasodilation. This occurs when the core of
the body becomes hot because of vigorous activity or a high external temperature.
o The body has several mechanisms for releasing heat, including the evaporation of water in sweat. If the body
needs to rid itself of excessive heat through perspiring, such as during a fever, dehydration can be a serious
problem. Vasodilation helps the body to lose heat more rapidly.
o A decrease in the flow of blood by narrowing or constricting the blood vessels near the surface of the skin is
called vasoconstriction. This reduces the amount of heat that is dissipated from the skin, and helps the body to
conserve heat. At the same time, waves of muscle contraction, called shivering, increase the production of heat by
cellular metabolism. This heat is spread through the body by the blood.
o Vasodilation and vasoconstriction are controlled by a number of factors. Sometimes, it may be triggered by the
brain in response to changes in blood pressure.
o If blood pressure is too high, vasodilation will reduce it by widening the vessels so that blood flows easier
through them. A person can also use diuretics to lower blood pressure as it will release extra fluid within the blood
to decrease the pressure within the vessels.
o If the blood pressure is too low, vasoconstriction will increase it.
o Vasodilation and vasoconstriction may also be triggered by increased metabolic activity. For example – exercise
results in vasodilation to increase the blood flow to the tissues. Alcohol and nicotine can promote vasodilation and
cause blood to rush to the surface of the skin.

MONITORING THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

o Within the heart, a bundle of specialized muscle tissue is called the sinoatrial (SA) node. The SA node is located in
the wall of the right atrium and spontaneously generates the rhythmic signals that cause the atria to contract. The SA
node is also referred to as the pacemaker, because it sets the pace for cardiac activity.
o As the atria contract, the signal reaches another node called the atrioventricular (AV) node – the specialized heart
cells near the junction of the atria and ventricles that cause the ventricles to contract. The AV node transmits the
electrical signal through a bundle of specialized fibres called the bundle
of His – these fibres relay the signal through
two branches of bundles that divide into fast-conducting Purkinje fibres – which initiate the almost simultaneous
contraction of all cells of the right and left ventricles.
 42

o The normal heart sound is a repeated double beat, often described as “lub-dub”. These two sounds are made as
different heart valves close. The first heart sound is the closing of the AV valves, as blood is pumped from the atria to
the ventricles. The second sound is the closing of the semilunar valves, as blood pumped from the ventricles into the
arteries.
o Variations in the normal heart sound can indicate possible problems – for example: heart murmurs which can be
caused by stenosis (narrowing in the opening of the heart valves or arteries) or when a valve does not close
completely close, allowing for a backflow of blood.
o An ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG) is a record of the electrical impulses generated by a beating heart.
o The P WAVE – begins when the SA node fires and the atria contracts
o The QRS COMPLEX – begins when the AV node stimulates the ventricles to contract and the atrioventricular

valves close, producing the first heart sound (“lub”).

o The T WAVE – occurs when the ventricles relax and the semilunar valve close to produce the second heart
sound (“dub”).
o The relaxation of the ventricles is followed by the next firing of the SA node for the next heartbeat.

Blood Pressure
o Blood pressure is the force that blood exerts against the walls of blood vessels.
o Changes in blood pressure correspond to the phases of the heartbeat. When the ventricles contract and force blood into
the pulmonary arteries and the aorta, the pressure increase in these vessels.
o The maximum pressure during the ventricular contraction is called the systolic pressure. It is the pressure generated
in the circulatory system when the ventricles contract and pus blood from the heart. The phase during which this
(push)
occurs is called systole.
 43

o The ventricles then relax and the pressure in the pulmonary arteries and the aorta drops. The lowest pressure before
the ventricles contract is called the diastolic
pressure. It is the pressure generated in the circulatory system when the
ventricles fill with blood. This phase during which this occurs is called diastole.
o To measure blood pressure, a blood pressure cuff (called a sphygmomanometer) is wrapped around the upper arm
and inflated to exert pressure on a large artery in the arm. This temporarily stops the flow of blood. As air is slowly let
out of the cuff, the blood begins to flow again, and the pressure of the blood against the walls of the artery is
measured.
o Blood pressure is measured as systolic pressure over diastolic pressure.
o The blood pressure of an average healthy young person is 120/80 mmHg (or less).
o As heart rate increases, such as during exercise, the ventricles must push a greater volume of blood per unit of time, so
the pressure within the arterial system also increases.
o Blood pressure is also affected by genetics, activity, stress, body temperature, diet, and medications.
o Continuous high blood pressure is known as hypertension – which causes your heart to work harder for extended
periods of time. This can cause damage to arteries and increases the risk of heart attack, stroke, and kidney failure.
Hypertension is blood pressure of 140/90 (or greater)
Systolic BP can change more due to emotions, etc; Diastolic BP does not fluctuate too much

Cardiac Output and Stroke Volume

What is Cardiac Output?
o It is the amount of blood that is pumped out of the left ventricle each minute.
o Cardiac Output (Q) = Stroke Volume (SV) x Heart Rate (HR)
o Cardiac Output (Q) is measured in L/min.

What is Stroke Volume?

o Stroke Volume (SV) is the amount of blood that is pumped out of the left ventricle with each beat of the heart.
o It is measured in mL/beat.

What is Heart Rate?

o Heart Rate (HR) is the number of times that the heart beats per minute.
o It is measured in beats per minute (bpm).

o With increased physical activity, the cardiac output and rate of circulation increase.
o A low resting heart rate is typical of highly trained athletes and is considered a good indicator of cardiovascular
fitness. Cardiovascular exercises provide health benefits by enlarging the ventricles, increasing their elasticity, and
strengthening the ventricle walls. These changes produce an increase in the stroke volume.
o An unhealthy individual tends to have a higher heart rate and a lower stroke volume since this individual’s heart
does not pump efficiently and therefore needs to pump more often to move smaller amounts of blood throughout
the body.
 44

Cardiac Output Scenarios

Cardiac Output at Rest Cardiac Output at Reasons for this Trend
Maximum Effort
The Average Q = SV x HR Q = SV x HR
= 71 ml/beat x 70 bpm = 190 ml/beat x 190 bpm
Person = 5000 ml/min OR = 36 L/min
5 L/min

The Q = SV x HR Q = SV x HR The HR is high because the heart is weak

= 50 ml/beat x 100 bpm = 140 ml/beat x 190 bpm and cannot pump a lot of blood out with
Unhealthy = 5 L/min = 27 L/min each contraction. This means that the heart
Person must pump much more frequently to
pump out enough blood to meet the
demands of the body.
Since the resting HR was already high,
there is not much more the HR can go
until the person reaches their maximum
effort. This means that the Cardiac Output
at max effort will not have a lot of blood
being pumped out to the body each
minute.
The Very Q = SV x HR Q = SV x HR The HR is low because the heart is very
= 91 ml/beat x 55 bpm = 226 ml/beat x 190 bpm strong and able to pump out a lot of blood
Healthy = 5 L/min = 43 L/min with each contraction. This means that the
Person heart does not need to beat as often to get
a lot of blood circulating in the body.
Since the starting HR was low, there was a
lot of opportunity for the HR to continue
to rise during maximum effort and
therefore, there will be a lot of blood
pumped out to the working muscles each
minute.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM DISORDERS

o Smoking, obesity, and insufficient exercise are among risk factors that contribute to cardiovascular disease – which
is the leading cause of death among Canadians.

Arteriosclerosis
o Is a general term for several conditions in which the walls of the arteries thicken and lose their elasticity. The walls
of the arteries become hardened. Plaque (fatty deposits, calcium, and fibrous tissues) builds up on the inside of
artery walls. As the artery narrows due to this build-up, blood flow is decreased and blood pressure is increased.
o Plaque is especially dangerous if it occurs in arteries that supply the heart, brain, legs, and kidneys.
o Arteriosclerosis can lead to angina (chest pain), blood clots, shortness of breath, heart attack, or heart failure. More
than 90% of heart attacks are due to arteriosclerosis.
 45

o Treatment for arteriosclerosis includes taking aspirin to prevent platelets form sticking together, or a surgery called
angioplasty in which a surgeon inserts a tube into a clogged artery. A tiny balloon is inflated to force the artery to
open. Sometimes, a small permanent wire-mesh tube (called a stent) is inserted into the blocked area.
o In more severe cases, coronary bypass is a surgical procedure in which blood flow is re-routed around blocked
arteries. To do this, a section of a healthy artery or vein (usually from the leg) is used to create a new pathway for
blood around the blockage. It may be a double, triple, or quadruple bypass – depending on the number of blockages
being bypassed.

Aneurysm
o Is a bulge in an artery or heart chamber caused by a weakened area of the heart muscle or arterial wall.
o Blood pressure causes the aneurysm to grow larger over time, which gradually increases the risk of it bursting. If
the aneurysm bursts, there is internal bleed that can quickly lead to death.
o Most aneurysms occur in the aorta.

Arrhythmia
o Is a problem with the speed or rhythm of the heartbeat.
o An irregular heartbeat may be harmless, but in some cases an abnormal heart rate can lead to insufficient blood flow
to the brain or other organs.
o This condition may be treated with medicines, or may require surgery to implant an artificial pacemaker. The
pacemaker only transmits an electrical impulse to the heart when the heartbeat is abnormal.

Stroke
o When arteries supplying blood to the brain are damaged, cutting off the flow of oxygen and nutrients to brain tissue,
the result is a stroke.
o An ischemic
stroke is a stroke caused by a clot in a blood vessel, blocking blood flow to the brain.
o A hemorrhagic stroke is a stroke caused by the bursting of a blood vessel in the brain, which causes blood to leak
into the surrounding brain tissue.
o Both types of stroke kill the brain cells in the affected area. The longer the brain goes without oxygen, the greater
the risk of permanent brain damage.

DISORDERS OF THE BLOOD

Hemophilia
o Is an inherited disorder in which the blood does not clot normally. As a result, a person with hemophilia bleeds for a
long time and is at risk of dying from internal bleeding that may occur as a result of a minor injury. It is a rare
disorder that usually occurs only in males. The missing clotting protein in the blood is known as factor VIII.
 46

Anemia
o Is a fairly common blood disorder in which the blood contains fewer than normal healthy red blood cells.
o Anemia can be caused by blood loss, and it can also occur when the red blood cells do not contain enough
hemoglobin, which is needed to help carry oxygen form the lungs to the rest of the body’s cells.
o The symptoms of anemia include dizziness, fatigue, shortness of breath, headache, and cold hands and feet.

Leukemia
o Is a cancer of the white blood cells. There are two main types of leukemia: myeloid and lymphoid.
o Treatment for leukemia includes blood transfusions to increase the number of red blood cells and healthy white blood
cells, and chemotherapy.
o Twenty years ago, children diagnosed with leukemia had less than a 50% chance of survival. Today, the survival rate
is greater than 85%.
o Another possible treatment is a bone marrow transplant, which provides healthy marrow from which new, healthy
white blood cells can grow.