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Wireless Electricity
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I express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness on the successful completion of my seminar report
work, which would be incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible whose
precious guidance, encouragement, supervision and helpful discussions made it possible.

I am grateful to the Dept. of Electrical Engineering, GIET Bhubaneswar, for providing me the
opportunity to execute this seminar work, which is an integral part of the curriculum in B.Tech.
programme at BPUT.

I would also like to express my gratefulness towards my seminar guide Prof. Avishek Mohanty, who has
continuously supervised me, has showed the proper direction in the investigation of work and also has
facilitate me helpful discussions, valuable inputs, encouragement at the critical stages of the execution of
this seminar work. I would also like to take this opportunity to express my thankfulness.

Date………………………. Name of the Student- RAKESH

KUMAR SWAIN
Regd.No- 2101326241

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Downloaded by Positive ([email protected])

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ABSTRACT

The objective of this technical report is to provide electrical energy to

remote objects without wires. Wireless energy transfer also known as wireless
energy transmission is the process that takes place in any system where
electromagnetic energy is transmitted from a power source to an electrical load,
without interconnecting wires. Wireless transmission is employed in cases
where interconnecting wires are inconvenient, hazardous, or impossible.

The principle of wireless electricity works on the principle of using

coupled resonant objects for the transfer of electricity to objects without the use
of any wires. A witricity system consists of a witricity transmitter and another
device called the receiver.

The receiver works on the same principle as radio receivers where the
device has to be in the range of the transmitter. It is with the help of resonant
magnetic fields that witricity produces electricity, while reducing the wastage of
power. The present report on witricity aims at power transmissions in the range
of 100 watts. May be the products using WiTricity in future might be called
Witric or Witric's.

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TABLE OF COTENTS

Chapter : 1 Introduction (page 1 start ) Chapter : 2

Theory (page 2 start)

2.1 introduction 2

2.2 radio waves 3

2.3 light 4

2.4 Electrical Conduction 4

2.5 Evanescent Wave Coupling 5

Chapter : 3 System design(page 7 start )

3.1 Oscillator 7

3.1.1 Design 8

3.1.2 Design details 9

3.2 Power amplifier 10

3.2.1 Design 10

3.2.2 Design details 11

3.3Transmitting and receiving coil 11

3.3.1 Design 12

3.4 Voltage rectifier 13

Chapter : 4 All applications (page 15 start )

4.1 Combination of wireless power and network 15

4.2Contactless Energy Transfer Desktop Application 15

4.3 Wireless powered LED bicycle lights 16

4.4 Wireless powered and controlled laptop screen 16

4.5 Applications using Powercast technology 17

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4.6 Solar powered recharging backpack 18

4.7 Wireless audio speakers 18

4.8 Wireless powered vacuum cleaner 18

4.9 Wireless power-on function 19

Chapter : 5 Result and measurement (page 20 start

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Chapter 1: Introduction
Wireless power transfer may seem like science fiction, but the idea is more than 100 years old. Around
1900 Nicola Tesla claimed to be able to radiate power over long distances with minimum loss of power,
took a patent and even got some industrial finance for trials. These failed. Hundred years later, an
electric toothbrush using Contactless inductive charging device is a common commodity in many
households. Even more recently new breakthroughs are claimed to radiate enough energy from a power
outlet to feed a nearby low-voltage lamp or electronic device using radio- frequency radiation over a
distance of one meter. In this project, we came up with nine possible applications of wireless power
transfer. They were analyzed based on a list of criteria, and based on this, the feasibility of the two
best applications was investigated further. These criteria were:

• User-friendly, easy to use and easily standardized.

• Technologically possible to make.

• Economically feasible.

• Sustainable.

In chapter 2 of this report you will find the theory about the various ways of wireless power transfer. In
chapter 3, all applications we came up with are mentioned, and these applications are analyzed and rated
based on the criteria in chapter 4. Then in chapter 5 and 6, the two selected applications are investigated
more thoroughly. In on these applications is drawn, and some recommendations are given.

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Chapter 2: Theory
There are different ways to achieve wireless power transfer from a power source to a receiver. This
chapter will discuss the basic theory behind several ways of wireless power transfer.

2.1 Induction

When the magnetic flux through a circuit changes, an electromotive force (emf) and a current are
induced in the circuit. This effect is for example used in dynamos, electric motors and transformers.
The central principle behind electromagnetic induction is Faraday’s law, which relates to the induced
electromotive force (emf) in any closed

Loop including a closed circuit 1.Induction can be used as a means of wireless power transfer. A
changing current in one coil 1 creates an emf, which in turn induces a current in a coil 2, as shown in
Figure 2.1.

The coils are not in contact and in this way energy can very simply be transported over short distances.
This is used in for example an electric toothbrush charger. The short distance that is required for
induction is the largest drawback of this way of wireless energy transfer, because it limits the
applicability to very close-range situations 2.

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2 Radio Waves
The key component for wireless power transfer by radio waves is the rectenna. A rectenna is a
combination of a rectifying circuit and an antenna. The antenna receives the electromagnetic power and
the rectifying circuit converts it to DC electric power. A schematic rectenna design is shown in Figure
2.2.

Figure 2.2: A schematic rectenna diagram.

A simple rectenna can be constructed from a Schottky diode 5 placed between the antenna dipoles.
The diode rectifies the current induced in the antenna by the microwaves. Schottky diodes are used
because they have the lowest voltage drop and highest speed and therefore waste the least amount of
power due to conduction and switching.

The amount of power that can be transferred is limited. For safety reasons, the transmitted power is
limited by regulations, for instance by the Federal Communications Commision (FCC), and the
received power is attenuated, mainly due to free-space path loss. Furthermore, because portable devices
have small dimensions, the rectenna should have small dimensions as well. This results in a small

antenna area and, consequently, a low amount of received power. Because of these limitations, wireless
power transfer using radio waves is mainly suitable for low-power applications, e.g. a low-power
wireless sensor.
2.2 Light

Power delivery that starts with sunlight has many advantages such as sustainability and the fact that
the sun is present every day. However solar cells have limited efficiency and sunlight is not available at
night. An alternative is to generate artificial light, from a laser, transmit it through air, and then convert
it into electricity. New refinements are making this alternative more attractive. NASA has demonstrated
flight of a lightweight model plane powered by laser beam, directed at a panel of infrared-sensitive
photovoltaic cells mounted on the bottom of the aircraft.
A theoretical setup consists of a laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) and a
photovoltaic, or solar cell. First electricity is converted by the laser into a laser beam, which consists of
coherent radiation. Next this beam is pointed towards a photovoltaic cell receiver, which in turn
converts the received light energy back into electricity. This is generally called “power beaming”. Both

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steps are not highly efficient and also a direct line of sight between laser and the photovoltaic cells is
required

2.3 Electrical Conduction

Power is normally supplied by means of a conducting wire, where the conductive material is a metal. In
the case of wireless power supply through conduction, this conducting wire is replaced by ionized air.
Air is a good insulator and a high potential difference, called the breakdown voltage, is required to
generate a current. In the case of lightning this can easily be 10.000 volts. In order to lower this
breakdown voltage one can ionize the air by means of a high-power ultraviolet beam. This concept
works as follows: The high-power ultraviolet beam strikes the air molecules thus exciting the electrons.
The electron that formerly occupied the HOMO (Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital) level of the
molecule is no longer bound to the molecule and the oxidation state of the molecule is increased thus
generating an ion (Figure 2.3). This way, the laser beam creates a plasma Channel in the air which
contains free charge carriers (Figure 2.4). The air has been made conductive and can now serve as a
conducting medium just like a metal wire.

In order to actually transmit power, it is necessary to create a loop, so in the case of supplying power
through ionized air, actually two paths of ionized air have to be made. It is also possible to connect both
sender and receiver to the ground.

2.1 Evanescent Wave Coupling

Evanescent wave coupling (or “WiTricity”18) is a technique that has recently been investigated by
researchers at MIT. The physics behind this technique is rather complicated. At a glance, it basically

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extends the principle of magnetic induction to mid-range applications up to a few meters. The main
difference is the use of resonance; if sender and receiver have the same magnetic resonance frequency,
energy can efficiently be transported, while losses to the non-resonant environment are small. Using
resonance, for the same geometry, power can be transported approximately 106 times more efficiently
than without resonance.

The experimental setup used by the MIT researchers is shown in Figure 5. The coils can be compared to
antennas; the electric and magnetic fields produced by antennas can generally be divided into the near field,
which is dominant at close ranges, and the far field. The far field, responsible for electromagnetic waves,
radiates energy into the environment. The near field does not radiate, so no energy is lost, except when the
sender and receiver have the same resonance frequency. In that case energy is transported from the sender
to the receiver. The main achievement of the MIT team is to have figured out

how to fine tune the system so that the near field extends to distances of a few meters,
simultaneously limiting the power radiated through the far field.

One of the benefits is that most common materials do not interact with magnetic fields, so obstructing
objects do not have much influence. This also goes for human tissue and therefore health risks are low.
The coils shown above are too large for applications in i.e. a cell phone, but the receiving coil can be made
smaller. The researchers state that the transmitted power can be kept constant, if the size of the sending coil
is increased to keep the product of the sizes of both coils equal. The efficiency of the above setup is
around 40 to 50% for wireless power transfer over 2 meters. However, the efficiency from power outlet to
light bulb was 15%, because a ery inefficient component (Colpitts oscillator) was used.

Chapter 3: SYSTEM DESIGN

With all the necessary background research completed it became clear what basic design components the
entire system would require. First we needed a method to design an oscillator, which would provide the
carrier signal with which to transmit the power. Oscillators are not generally designed to deliver power,
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thus it was necessary to create a power amplifier to amplify the oscillating signal. The power amplifier
would then transfer the output power to the transmission coil. Next, a receiver coil would be constructed to
receive the transmitted power. However, the received power would have an alternating current, which is
undesirable for powering a DC load. Thus, a rectifier would be needed to rectify The AC voltage to output
a clean DC voltage. Finally, an electric load would be added to complete the circuit design.

3.1 OSCILLATOR
There are two general classes of oscillators: sinusoidal and relaxation. Op-Amp sinusoidal oscillators operate
with some combination of positive and negative feedback to drive the op- amp into an unstable state, causing
the output to transition back and forth at a continuous rate. Relaxation Op-Amp oscillators operate with a
capacitor, a resistor or a current source to charge/discharge the capacitor, and a threshold device to induce
oscillation. The oscillator design that we utilized was a relaxation oscillator using a single Operational
amplifier. This

In the design of a Relaxation oscillator, as shown in the figure below, we used a high speed Operational
amplifier, AD829, which had a very high frequency response of 120 MHz. The operational amplifier was
connected in a Schmitt-trigger configuration with positive feedback through a resistor of 500 Ohms and a
variable resistor of 1K.The inverting input for the Op- Amp was biased with a capacitor of 20pF and a

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resistor of 200 Ohms.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:
Initially, the non-inverting input at the Op-Amp is biased at a voltage of VOUT * R2 / (R2 + R1) and the
op-amp's output is saturated at that particular voltage level. Since the op-amp always attempts to keep both
its inverting and the non-inverting inputs, V+ and V- equal to each other, the feedback causes the
20pFcapacitor to charge and make the value of V- equal to V+. When V- reaches the value of V+, a switch
to negative saturation at the output occurs and the capacitor begins to discharge. The charging and
discharging of the oscillator effectively causes an oscillating signal to the output.

The general equation for charging a capacitor is given by:

In this case, V is -VOUT, and if the voltage at V+ is called VOUT, q0 becomes CVOUT. The charging
equation then becomes

When q gets to -VOUT, another switch will occur. This time it is half the period of the square wave.
Therefore:

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Solving for T gives:

The frequency of oscillation can be determined by. In our case, the variable resistor R1 could be varied
using a 1K pot which was able to tune the frequency from 1.6 MHz to 10.3 MHz.

3.1.1 DESIGN DETAILS

The challenges encountered during the design of the oscillator were the selection of the oscillator design and the Op-
Amp chip required to produce a stable and symmetrical oscillating signal. We had experimented with IC Logic chips
and low frequency response Op-Amp chips for the design of the oscillator. However, the oscillation signal output from these
circuit configurations was not stable or symmetrical. We also initially had problems with distortion of the signal by the
unstable power supply from the PCB board and other extraneous noise at high frequencies. We dealt with this problem by
neatly laying out the relaxation oscillator circuit using shorter wires and the placing two decoupling capacitors of one
microfarads each between the positive and negative power supply to the ground

3.1 POWER AMPLIFIER

In order to generate the maximum amount of flux which would induce the largest voltage on the receiving
coil, a large amount of current must be transferred into the transmitting coil. The oscillator was not
capable of supplying the necessary current, thus the output signal from the oscillator was passed through a
power amplifier to produce the necessary current. The key design aspect of the power amplifier was to
generate enough current while producing a clean output signal without large harmonic distortions. For this
purpose, we utilized a simple switch-mode amplifier design whose design aspects are described below.

4 DESIGN
The main idea behind the switch-mode Power Amplifier technology is to operate a MOSFET in
saturation so that either voltage or current is switched on and off. The figure below shows the circuit
diagram of the switch-mode power amplifier.

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Figure 3.3:oscillator

Our switch-mode design consisted of a MOSFET IRF 510, which when turned on allowed large current
from the DC power supply to flow through the resistor of 50 Ohms and through the transmitting antenna to
transfer current from the power supply through the transmitting coil. The large current from the
transmitting coil was able to generate a large flux to induce a high voltage in the receiving coil. The current
and voltage required to drive the gate of the MOSFET IRF 510 was supplied by the MOSFET IRF 640
whose gate was

3.1.1 DESIGN DETAILS

Since our single op-amp relaxation oscillator was using an AD 829 chip, it was not able to source enough
current to drive the Mosfet IRF 510 or control the amplitude of the output signal. For this reason, we
employed the Hewlett Packard 3310A Function Generator as our oscillator. The signal generator was
capable of supplying current and voltage required for driving the gate of the IRF640. Furthermore, using
the signal generator, we were also able to set the DC bias voltage and tune the output voltage to get
maximum voltage out.

The major challenge while designing the power amplifier circuit was to drive the gate of the Mosfet IRF
510 to switch the Mosfet on. Our initial approach was to design a class D amplifier to drive a H-Bridge3
configuration (which meant driving 4 IRF 510 Mosfet) for an efficient power amplification using a single
positive power supply. The H-Bridge 4 required two digital signals that were 180 degrees out of phase with
a small dead-time in between the signals. The whole second week we were working on trying to generate
these signals as inputs to the H-bridge. In generating these signals, we encountered problems with our
comparator chips to output noise free digital signals at high frequency (5 MHz range). Using 2 high speed
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comparators, LT1016, and introducing terminating resistances (68 Ohm) in series to the output, we were
able to output digital signals 180 out of phase with a small dead time for the input to the H-Bridge.

However, the signal output from the comparators as can be seen from the image above was unable to turn
the Mosfet IRF 510 on. The comparator could not source enough current to drive the gate of the Mosfet to
turn on at a frequency range of around 5 MHz.

3.2 TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER COILS

The transmitter and receiver circuit combined is called the coupling circuit. It is the heart of the entire
system as the actual wireless power transfer is carried out here. The efficiency of the coupling circuit
determines the amount of power available for the receiver system.
3.3.1. DESIGN

The transmitter and receiver coils were designed by former Cornell students, Lucas Jorgensen and Adam
Culberson. The coils had a resonant frequency of 4.8 – 5.3 MHz, which could be tuned with our oscillator
(later a signal generator) to get to the resonance frequency of the coils. The basic configuration of the
design can be seen from the table and the image below.

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3.1 VOLTAGE RECTIFIER :

A rectifier would be needed to rectify the AC voltage received from the receiver coil to drive a DC load. it has some
specified DC component is a Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying
diodes connected in a closed loop "bridge" configuration to produce the desired output. The smoothing capacitor
connected
the bridge circuit converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a smooth DC output voltage.

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Since the diodes had to rectify AC signals of Megahertz frequencies, fast signal diodes, 1N914B, had to be
used for the bridge circuit. However we did not implement this circuit with our final setup as we did not
drive a DC load with our setup.

Chapter 4. All applications

In this chapter, possible applications using wireless power supply are introduced. The applications came up
during a brainstorm session. Powercast is an application that is already being developed commercially. The
contactless energy desktop application of is based on research currently conducted at Eindhoven University
of Technology. All other applications are ideas of our own.

4.1 Combination of wireless power and network

Wireless networks eliminate cables by using radio waves to transfer the data from computer to router.
However, the battery life of a laptop is still limited, so there still is the need of carrying a cable for
powering the laptop itself. It would be nice to combine these two into one: using the radio waves of a
wireless network, not only for internet but also for powering the laptop itself.

4.2 Contactless Energy Transfer Desktop Application

Contactless Energy Transfer (CET) is the process in which electrical energy is transferred between two or
more electrical devices through inductive coupling. The CET desktop application is a new development in
the area of wireless power transmission, where a table with embedded “power transmitting coils” powers
and recharges different electronic devices, which normally need to be charged by Plug & Socket
connectors, like cellular phones, music players and laptops . This is done by simply placing them on top of
the desk.

The CET desktop uses a matrix of hexagon spiral windings embedded underneath its surface, to transfer
power to CET enabled consumer electronics devices placed on the wooden or plastic table. When electronic
devices fitted with power receiving coils are placed on the table, the increase in electromagnetic coupling
between primary and secondary coils, allows power to be transmitted from the desktop to the devices. To
improve efficiency and limit stray magnetic fields, clusters of only three primary coils, located closest to
the receiving devices, are excited. The coils are excited with out-of-phase currents to further reduce stray
magnetic fields. The power transfer efficiency is not constant but varies throughout the surface of the table,
because the magnetic field of a coil is not homogeneous.

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4.1 Wireless powered LED bicycle lights

Removable LED lights are used worldwide on bicycles that do not have wired lighting. The advantage of
these lights is that they do not require a dynamo to power them, because they use batteries. However, the
batteries can unexpectedly run out of power and need to be replaced often which is not environmentally
friendly. As an alternative a new application, using a dynamo to wirelessly power LED lights using radio
waves, is introduced. Because this is one of the applications that were chosen for further research, more
information can be found in chapter 6: Wireless Bicycle Lights.
4.2 Wireless powered and controlled laptop screen
A common defect in laptops is that the cable that connects the display is damaged causing the screen to
flicker or to go black. Normally this is caused by wear and tear and it has the tendency to occur outside the
laptop’s warranty. One way to avoid the cable to break is to have no cable at all. As a new application the
wireless powering and controlling of a laptop screen is introduced.

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Since the display is attached to the rest of the laptop via a hinge, it is very close to the bottom part of the
laptop. Powering of the display can be easily achieved using mutual induction, a principle that has been
very well proven to work for all kind of applications. Controlling the contents on the screen can be
achieved using a radio signal. This can be done just like with wireless internet on for instance the 2.45 GHz
band.

The application would work the same way as a power transformer: a changing current in the first circuit
creates a changing magnetic field; in turn, this magnetic field induces a changing voltage in the second
circuit If the primary circuit (in the laptop bottom part) and secondary circuit (in the display) are very close,
which will be the case for this application, a very high efficiency can be achieved. Everything inside a
laptop is DC powered. To be able to use mutual inductance, this DC must be inverted to AC first. There are
already small inverters around to be able to cope with the 8-10 Watts power requirement 25 of a laptop
display26,
27. Depending on the efficiency of the inverter, it could be so that not much extra power is consumed powering a wireless
display, compared to powering a wired display.

4.1 Applications using Powercast technology

Powercast is a company that has invented a way to wirelessly transfer energy using radio waves to a so
called harvester module. The modules are made to power small devices such as cell phones, lighting,
remote controls, sensors and toys. Recently, the first commercial product using Powercast was released, a
Christmas tree with wirelessly powered lights. While it is presented as wireless power, Powercast isn't just
a replacement for a universal charger. Instead, it is meant to either continuously charge a battery or replace
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the need for them altogether. It works like this: a transmitter can be placed anywhere. This transmitter sends
out a continuous, low radio frequent (RF) signal. Anything with batteries set within its range (and

4.3 Solar powered recharging backpack

Currently existing models of backpacks that have flexible solar panels on them use batteries and wires to
charge the equipment in them. Wireless power supply could be a nice alternative to charge these electrical
devices without the necessity of plugging them in. Just by placing the device inside the backpack, it will be
charged.

The distance from the transmitter to the receiver is quite short, therefore mutual induction can be used, but
it is also possible to use evanescent wave coupling. It is even possible that energy is shared among various
people wearing these backpacks. If for instance a person has excess power, because his devices are already
charged, he can share this surplus power with other persons in his vicinity, thus making efficient use of the
solar energy harvest.

4.4 Wireless audio speakers

One interesting application is wireless powering of speakers. For example, a typical home cinema set has
five speakers, each with its own cable. Installing these cables is quite a hassle, and it often looks very ugly,
especially for the rear speakers far away from the receiver unit. Already, a lot of wireless audio sets are
available on the market, but these all use batteries for the power. Usually only the two rear speakers are
wireless, but even changing only these batteries can be frustrating when the speakers are placed high on the
wall. Furthermore you don’t want your system to stop functioning when you are out of batteries, and
batteries are quite expensive compared to normal electricity and hazardous to the environment.

The most suitable method of wireless power supply for this application seems to be evanescent wave
coupling (WiTricity). It is suitable for distances to a few meters, and has a high efficiency compared to, for
example, RF energy that is radiated in all directions. Methods requiring an interrupted line of sight such as
laser light are not suitable in a living room setting.

4.5 Wireless powered vacuum cleaner

Vacuum cleaning your floor can be a tedious job, but this can be automated using robotic vacuum cleaners.
Current models (Figure 12) use an internal battery and a loading station for power supply. It is however
possible to implement a power grid into the floor (Figure 13), similar to the power grid in the CET desktop.
At the exact spot where the vacuum cleaner is cleaning, this power grid can be turned on, thus providing
power to the cleaner by means of mutual induction.

The contact distance between the floor and the vacuum cleaner is quite short, so a relatively high efficiency

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is possible. The power level supplied to the cleaner can also be higher than

4.6 Wireless power-on function

A lot of in-home applications are constantly in standby-mode, waiting for the user to press the power
button on the remote control. This consumes a significant amount of power. Also, standby modes increase
fire risks. It would be great to let devices have a “passive” standby mode, which uses no power at all but
still makes sure the device can be powered on by the remote control. Perhaps, it could be achieved by using
the power of the signal sent by the remote control to turn on the device.

Probably the most convenient way of doing this is by installing a RF transmitter in the remote control, and
a receiving rectenna in the device. When the signal reaches the rectenna, it induces a current which can be
used to change the state of a latching relay. A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the
control of another electrical circuit, in this case the rectenna. A latching relay differs from a normal
relay in that it has two relaxed states, so that you don’t need a constant current to keep the switch turned
on. This way, a single pulse is enough to turn the device on or off.

Chapter 5. : RESULTS AND MEASUREMENTS:

At a distance of 0.18 cm between the two coils, we were able to transmit enough power to power a 40 W
light bulb. As the distance of separation between the coils was increased, the bulb got dimmer. It was
evident from this simple experiment itself that the power ransmitted was related to the distance of
separation between the coils.

To demonstrate the presence of evanescent waves being produced which transferred power from the
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transmitter coil to the receiver coil, we measured the voltage across the 40 Watt light bulb at varying
distances and orientations. We took measurements starting at a distance of 0.5 m between the coils in 10 cm
increments up to a distance of 2 m of separation. We found that the resonant frequency changed with
distance due to the imperfect match in the resonant frequencies of our coils. The frequency was then
adjusted to find the maximum output voltage at every measurement.

PARALLEL CONFIGURATION:
The coils were arranged in the configuration as shown below and voltage measurements were taken as a
function of distance between the coils.

Figure 5.1: parallel configuration configuration.

Based upon the data we collected, the following graph shows voltage as a function of distance between
the coils.

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Since the coefficient of determination (R2) has a value close to 1 for the exponential fit, the data points
were strongly exponentially correlated. In other words, the voltage decayed exponentially as the distance of
separation between the coils was increased. This illustrates the theory of power transmitted through
evanescent waves that decay exponentially as the distance between the coils was increased.

Similar observation of exponential fit was observed when the coils were faced perpendicular to each other
as shown below.

Chapter : 6 Standby Saver

The Standby Saver application eliminates the need for standby power of devices like televisions. The idea
is to use the energy contained in an RF pulse, sent by the remote control, to power a switch that turns the
device on.
Technological design
The basic design includes a transmitting antenna in the remote control, a receiving rectenna, and a latching
relay connected to the latter. This is pictured in Figure 14. Instead of pressing the “hard” power button, one
can now use the remote to completely turn the device on or off and save power this way. This is a slight
improvement of user-friendliness.

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Figure 6.1: Schematic setup of the Standby saver. When the latching relay switches due to a power pulse received
by the rectenna, the TV is connected to outlet power and turns on.

It is of course important that the amount of power that is received by the rectenna, is enough to switch the
relay. In order to switch, a typical latching relay needs at least 90 mW of power, during a pulse period of 3
ms. The power transferred from one antenna to the other is given by the Friis transmission equation:

In this equation, Pr is the received power, Pt is the transmitted power, r is the distance between transmitter
and receiver, λ is the wavelength and Gt and Gr are the antenna gains of the transmitter and receiver,
respectively. This equation assumes optimal alignment of the transmitter and receiver. The antenna gain
says something about the directivity of the

antenna. A gain equal to 1 means isotropic radiation in all directions (or reception from all directions for
receiving antennas), a higher gain means the power distribution is more focused. The antenna gain is given
by:

Here, Ae is the effective aperture of the antenna, which is equal to the aperture efficiency times the physical
area of the antenna Ap. The directivity of an antenna a thus increases with frequency (decreases with
wavelength). The aperture efficiency of a typical antenna is approximately 0.5. Equation (1) can now be
written as:

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where the extra η factor accounts for the conversion efficiency of the rectenna. Thus, to optimize power
transfer, the antennas should be made as large as possible, and the frequency as high as possible. However,
when the frequency becomes too high, the antenna becomes too directive, making it harder for the user to
point the remote control correctly. A reasonable size for the antenna in the remote control could be 3cm x
1cm. The one in the television could be larger, say 10cm x 50cm. A reasonable frequency is 5.8 GHz,
which is a license-free ISM-band. If we assume 5 meter distance between sender and receiver, and
incorporate the limited conversion efficiency of the receiving antenna (η = 83% for printed dipole
rectennas, it can be calculated that the following power is required at the transmitter:

This is a very high power level for a battery-powered device. But this amount of power is only required for
3 milliseconds. A solution could therefore be to divide the radiated energy over a larger amount of time.
For example, 500 milliseconds at 11.6 watts yields the same energy as 3 milliseconds at 1934 watts. A
capacitive element between rectenna and relay, could accumulate this energy and discharge with a 3
millisecond pulse. This could however lead to additional losses. Summarizing, this application could be
possible at 5.8 Ghz, with pulses of 500

milliseconds at about 12 watt input power. However, in practice the power requirement may be higher
because of additional losses which are not accounted for in the above discussion. Also, the user has to point
the remote control correctly for half a second. On the other hand, it may be possible to optimize relays to
have minimal power requirements, which could again decrease the power needed.

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Chapter 7. : CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK:

At the end of the research, we were able to design a system for transmitting watts of power wirelessly from
the transmitting coil to the receiving coil that was enough to light a 40W bulb. We were able to design
discrete components such as the relaxation oscillator, switch mode-power amplifier and a full bridge
voltage rectifier for the system design process. We also managed to demonstrate evanescent waves by
measuring exponential decay of voltage as an increase in distance between the transmitter and the receiver
coils.

There can be significant research work that can be done in the future of this research. Future work includes
connecting the relaxation oscillator with the power amplifier using current amplifier chip for providing
enough current to drive the gate of the MOSFET to drive the efficient class D H-Bridge power amplifier.
Also, reduction in the size of the transmitting and receiving coils and utilizing the regulated signal to power
a DC load could be something that could be worked in the future as a means to make this system feasible
for practical applications.

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CHAPTER 8: REFERENCES:

[1] G. L. Peterson, “THE WIRELESS TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY,”

[online document], 2004, [cited 12/10/04], http://www.tfcbooks.com/articles/tws8c.htm

[2] U.S. Department of Energy, “Energy Savers: Solar Power Satellites,” [online document] rev
2004 June 17, [cited 12/10/04],
http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumerinfo/factsheets/l123.html

[3] S. Kopparthi, Pratul K. Ajmera, "Power delivery for remotely located Microsystems," Proc. Of IEEE
Region 5, 2004 Annual Tech. Conference, 2004 April 2, pp. 31-39.

[4] Tomohiro Yamada, Hirotaka Sugawara, Kenichi Okada, Kazuya Masu, Akio Oki and Yasuhiro
Horiike,"Battery-less Wireless Communication System through Human Body for in-vivo Healthcare
Chip,"IEEE Topical Meeting on Silicon Monolithic Integrated Circuits in RF Systems, pp. 322-325, Sept.
2004.

[5] “Category: Radio spectrum -Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia,” [online document], 2004
Aug 26 [cited 12/11/04], http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Radio_spectrum.

[6] Zia A. Yamayee and Juan L. Bala, Jr., Electromechanical Energy Devices and Power Systems, John
Wiley and Sons, 1947

[7] “The Spark Transmitter. 2. Maximizing Power, part 1. “ November

2004,http://home.freeuk.net/dunckx/wireless/maxpower1/maxpower1.html.

[8] R. Victor Jones, “Diode Applications,” [Online Document], 2001 Oct 25, [cited 2004
Dec

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