PHYSICS

PROJECT
Name: Shiva Singh
Class: XII-A
Roll No.: 11
School:
College Lucknow Public
Topic:
various To studyon
factors thewhich
the
and internal
EMF of resistance
a cell depend
on
Index
S. No. Title Page No.
1 Introduction 6

2 Cell 7-8

3 Electrochemical Cells 8-9

EMF of a Cell
4 4.1 Calculation of EMF 9-11
4.2 Relationship between Standard
Electrode Potential and EMF of cell
Internal Resistance of a Cell
5 5.1 Effects of Internal Resistance 12-13
5.2 Components of Internal Resistance

6 Relationship between EMF and Internal 14

resistance of a Cell
7 Factors affecting EMF of Cell 14-19
7.1 Effect of Concentration
7.2 Effect of Temperature
 7.3 Material of Electrode
7.4 Nature of Electrolyte
7.5 Cell Design and Structure
Factors affecting Internal Resistance of
Cell
8.1 Concentration of Electrolyte
8 8.2 Temperature of Cell 19-22
8.3 Material of Electrolyte
8.4 Age and Condition of Cell
8.5 Physical Construction
Experimental Analysis
9.1 Expeiemnt-1: To study how
temperature affects the Electromotive
9 Force (EMF) of an electrochemical cell. 22-26
9.2 Experiment-2: To study how the
material of the electrodes affects the
internal resistance of an
electrochemical cell.
10 Conclusion 27

11 Bibliography 28

Acknowledgeme
nt
I wish to express my deep gratitude
and sincere thanks to the school
Principal, Mrs. Anita Chaudhary for her
encouragement and for giving me this
golden opportunity to do this
wonderful project. I extend my
appreciation to Mr. Rajendra Singh,
my Physics teacher who guided me to
the successful completion of this
project. I take this opportunity to
express my deep sense of gratitude to
his invaluable guidance, ongoing
encouragement, enormous
motivation, which has sustained my
efforts at all the stages of project
development.
I am very grateful to my family and
friends for their constant support and
encouragement in the process of the
completion of this project.
Certificate
This is to certify that Navya Singh, a
student of class XII-A of Lucknow
Public College has successfully
completed her project work on the
topic ‘To study various factors on
which the internal resistance and EMF
of a cell depend on’ under the
guidance of her subject teacher, Mr.
Rajendra Singh during the academic
year 2024-2025 in partial fulfillment of
Physics practical examination
conducted by CBSE.

______________
_______________
Teacher In-charge External
Examiner
_____________
________________
Principal School
Stamp
INTRODUCTION
Cells, also known as batteries, are fundamental
components in electrical systems, providing power for a
wide range of applications, from portable electronics to
renewable energy storage systems. The Electromotive
Force (EMF) and internal resistance of a cell are crucial
parameters in understanding the efficiency and
performance of batteries and other electrochemical cells.
These two factors directly influence the cell's ability to
deliver power, store energy, and perform over time.
Importance of the Study:
Understanding the factors that affect EMF and internal
resistance is critical for designing more efficient and
durable energy storage devices, such as batteries and
fuel cells. This project will focus on experimentally
measuring the EMF and internal resistance of different
types of cells under varying conditions, such as
temperature, electrolyte concentration etc. The goal is to
identify the key factors that significantly affect these
properties and to gain insights into how to optimize the
performance of electrochemical cells.
Objectives of the Project:
• To measure and analyze the EMF of a variety of cells
under different conditions.
• To determine the internal resistance of different types
of cells and how it changes with various factors.
• To explore the relationship between temperature,
electrolyte concentration, and the performance of a
cell.
By studying these factors, this project aims to contribute
to a deeper understanding of how electrochemical cells
operate and how they can be optimized for better
performance in practical applications.
CELL:
A cell, often known as electrochemical cell, is a device
that develops electric energy by converting chemical
energy. This energy is called current.
Electrodes and electrolytes make up a cell. As conductors,
the electrodes transmit current via the circuit. The anode,
or positive terminal of the cell, is the electrode with the
higher potential. The cathode, or negative terminal of the
cell, is the electrode with the lowest potential.
When a cell is connected to an external load, it produces
energy. Outside the cell, current flows from anode to
cathode, but current flows from cathode to anode inside
the cell.
Cells are used in electrical circuits and a combination of
several cells together form a battery. Apart from this, a
cell can also be described as a source of electricity. It is
the fundamental component in electrical systems,
providing power for a wide range of applications, from
portable electronics to renewable energy storage
systems. The structure and internal resistance of a cell
enable it to supply power.
Furthermore, the positive terminal of the unit has a higher
electric charge than that of the negative terminal. A
charge gets potential electrical power from a chemical
reaction as it moves throughout the cells from the
negative to the positive terminal. The potential
difference, or voltage, is the increase in power for every
unit (coulomb) of charge.

ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS:
An electrochemical cell is a device that converts chemical
energy into electrical energy (or vice versa) through
redox reactions—reactions that involve the transfer of
electrons between species. Electrochemical cells are
fundamental to many processes, from powering devices
(like batteries) to electroplating and industrial
electrolysis.
There are two main types of electrochemical cells:
1. Galvanic Cells- A galvanic cell is a type of
electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy into
electrical energy spontaneously. It is the principle behind
most batteries, such as the familiar alkaline
battery or zinc-carbon battery
2. Electrolytic Cells- An electrolytic cell is a type of
electrochemical cell that requires external electrical
energy to drive a non-spontaneous chemical reaction. In
contrast to a galvanic cell, where the flow of electrons
generates energy, an electrolytic cell consumes energy to
cause a chemical change.

EMF OF A CELL:
The EMF, which stands for Electromotive Force, of a cell is
the potential difference across its terminals when no
current is drawn from it.
In this scenario, EMF represents the energy per unit
charge that is available to move electrons from one
electrode (the anode) to the other (the cathode) due to
chemical reactions or other processes occurring within
the system, such as in a galvanic cell or a battery. The
potential difference (EMF) exists because of the
difference in the tendency of materials at the anode and
cathode to gain or lose electrons, which creates a
voltage.
When no current flows, the EMF is simply the maximum
potential difference the system can provide, and it is the
driving force that would cause current to flow if a
conductive path (such as a circuit) were connected
between the two electrodes. Once a load is connected
and current starts to flow, this potential difference can
drop due to internal resistance and other factors.
It represents the ability of the cell to do electrical work.
The electromotive force of a cell can also be defined as
the net voltage between the oxidation and reduction half-
reactions. The electromotive force of a cell is mainly used
to determine whether an electrochemical cell is galvanic
cell or not.
EMF is always greater than or equal to V (potential
difference).
In an open circuit,
I = 0 (no current flows)
V (open) = EMF
Calculation of EMF:
The cell EMF is calculated as:

Relationship between the Standard Electrode

Potential and the EMF of Cell:
• Under Standard Conditions:
The standard electrode potential (E°) is a measure of
the potential difference (voltage) between an
electrode and its surrounding solution when the
system is at standard conditions (which typically
mean A concentration of 1 M for all aqueous ions, a
pressure of 1 atm for any gases involved and a
temperature of 25°C (298 K)).

In the above equation, he cell potential is defined as

the potential difference between the cathode and
anode. The cathode potential is a reduction reaction,
and the anode potential is an oxidation reaction.
Since oxidation is the reverse of reduction, we
subtract the anode potential (oxidation) from the
cathode potential (reduction).
• Under Non-Standard Conditions:
In real-world applications, the conditions are often
not standard (e.g., the concentration of ions may not
be 1 M or etc.). To account for this, we use
the Nernst equation to calculate the cell potential
under non-standard conditions.
The Nernst Equation is as follows:

Where:
n= number of moles of electrons transferred in the
reaction
Q= reaction quotient
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL:
This is the opposition to the flow of current within the cell
itself, resulting in the generation of heat. Internal
resistance is responsible for voltage drop when current
flows through the cell and limits the cell’s efficiency. It is
measured in ohm. Fresh or new cell has low internal
resistance but it increases with continuous use.
Internal resistance is caused by heat loss, friction, and
other processes which act to slow down or stop the
movement. Internal resistance formula is often used in
engineering applications when designing engines and
powertrains for cars or trucks, but it can also be applied
in many other situations.
The Effects of Internal Resistance:
• When current flows through the cell, the internal
resistance causes a voltage drop within the cell.
• This results in the terminal voltage being lower than
the cell’s EMF when the cell is under load.
• The greater the current or the internal resistance, the
greater the voltage drop across the internal resistance
and the lower the terminal voltage.
• The internal resistance has a more significant impact
when the current drawn by the external load is high.
• For high-performance batteries (e.g., in electric
vehicles or high-power applications), minimizing
internal resistance is crucial to maximize the available
voltage and improve efficiency.
Components of Internal Resistance:
The internal resistance of a cell arises from several
components, each contributing to the overall internal
resistance. The key components that contribute to the
internal resistance of a cell include:
• Resistance of the Electrolyte- The electrolyte
provides the necessary conductivity for the redox
reactions to occur at the electrodes. However, the
electrolyte itself has some resistance to ion flow,
which contributes to the overall internal resistance
of the cell.
• Resistance of the Electrodes- The electrodes
are the conductive materials that participate in the
redox reactions at the anode (oxidation) and
cathode (reduction). These electrodes can have
resistance to the flow of electrons, which adds to
the internal resistance of the cell.
• Resistance from Internal Connections
(Current Collectors and Internal Wiring) - The
internal resistance from these components is
typically small, but it becomes significant in high-
power applications or when the cell is heavily
loaded, as the current flowing through these
connections increases.
• Contact Resistance- Contact resistance refers to
the resistance at the interface where the electrode
materials meet the current collectors or the
electrolyte. This is due to imperfect contact
between the components, which can result from
 surface roughness, contamination, or oxidation at
the interface.
• Ohmic Losses Due to the Separator- Resistance
due to the separator occurs because the separator
may have a small amount of resistance to ion flow,
especially if it is thick or if its pore structure is
suboptimal. The separator's material, thickness,
and ion conductivity all contribute to the total
internal resistance.
The total internal resistance of a cell is the sum of all
these individual resistances.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMF AND

INTERNAL RESISTANCE:

FACTORS AFFECTING EMF OF CELL:

The EMF of a cell depends on the following:
• Effect of Concentration: From the Nernst equation,
we can see that the EMF E depends on the reaction
quotient Q, which in turn depends on the
concentrations of the reactants and products in the
cell.
• When the concentrations of the reactants are
higher than the products, Q will be greater than 1,
and the cell potential will be lower than the
standard electrode potential.
• Conversely, when the concentrations of the
products are higher than the reactants, Q will be
less than 1, and the cell potential will be higher
than the standard electrode potential.
As the concentration of the reactants or products
changes, the reaction quotient Q changes, this in
turn alters the cell potential. The cell potential
increases when the concentration of the products is
lower (or the reactants higher), and decreases when
the concentration of the products is higher (or the
reactants lower). This dependency is critical in
understanding how real-world electrochemical cells
behave under non-standard conditions.
• Effect of temperature: Temperature plays a critical
role in the rates of electrochemical reactions and in the
electromotive force (EMF) of an electrochemical cell.
The effect of temperature on the EMF can be
understood through the influence it has on the reaction
rates and the thermodynamics of the electrochemical
processes. The Nernst equation, which relates the EMF
 of a cell to the concentrations of reactants and
products, has an explicit temperature dependence. The
general form of the Nernst equation is:

As temperature increases, the term nF/RT increases,

leading to a larger contribution from the concentration
term lnQ in the equation. This means that temperature
not only affects the standard potential but also
influences the effect of concentration changes on the
cell potential.
• Material of Electrode: The electrode materials in an
electrochemical cell play a crucial role in determining
the overall electromotive force (EMF) of the cell. The
electrode potential of each material, as well as its
ability to participate in the electrochemical reaction,
directly influences the cell's performance. Let's explore
how different electrode materials, such as zinc, copper,
lead, and others, affect the EMF of a cell. The choice of
electrode material directly determines the electrode
potentials, which in turn determine the overall cell
potential.
The effect of different electrode materials on EMF is as
follows:
• Zinc Electrode (Zn): When zinc is used as the
anode in a galvanic cell, it contributes a relatively
low electrode potential (negative), meaning it easily
loses electrons. This results in a relatively large cell
potential when paired with a material that has a
higher electrode potential at the cathode (such as
copper).
• Copper Electrode (Cu): When copper is used as
the cathode in a galvanic cell, it contributes a
relatively high electrode potential (positive), meaning
it can easily gain electrons. This increases the overall
EMF of the cell.
• Lead Electrode (Pb): In a lead-acid battery, the
combination of lead (Pb) and lead dioxide (PbO₂) as
electrodes gives a relatively moderate EMF. The
electrode potential affects the voltage output, which
is typically about 2 V per cell in a lead-acid battery
(with lead and lead dioxide as electrodes).
• Silver Electrode (Ag): Silver electrodes can
contribute to a high EMF in electrochemical cells,
particularly when paired with a more negative
electrode such as zinc or copper.
• Nature of Electrolyte: The electrolyte in an
 electrochemical cell plays a significant role in
determining the overall electromotive force (EMF) of
the cell. The electrolyte's type, concentration, and pH
influence both the electrochemical reactions occurring
at the electrodes and the reaction quotient (Q), which is
central to the Nernst equation. The type of electrolyte
(acidic, basic, or salt) can influence the oxidation and
reduction reactions that take place at the electrodes,
and this, in turn, affects the overall EMF. The type of
electrolyte affects the concentration of ions involved in
the electrochemical reactions and the electrode
potential of the half-cells
.
• Acidic Electrolyte: An acidic electrolyte is one in
which the concentration of hydrogen ions is high. A
common example of an acidic electrolyte is sulfuric
acid (H₂SO₄) or hydrochloric acid (HCl).
The concentration of hydrogen ions significantly
affects the EMF because their role plays in the
reduction half-reaction.
According to the Nernst equation, the EMF is
sensitive to the concentration of ions involved in the
reaction, where
Q includes the concentration of hydrogen ions in the
cathode reaction. As the concentration of hydrogen
ions increases (as in acidic conditions), the
reduction of hydrogen ions is favored, which can
either increase or decrease the EMF depending on
the other species involved.
• Basic Electrolyte: A basic electrolyte contains a
high concentration of hydroxide ions (OH⁻).
Common examples of basic electrolytes are sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH)
solutions.
The concentration of OH⁻ ions at the cathode
affects the reduction process and thus alters the
EMF. Since the reduction involves hydroxide ions,
the concentration of these ions is critical in
determining the cell potential.
In basic conditions, a cell might have a lower EMF
compared to the same cell in acidic conditions
because the potential for hydrogen reduction is less
favorable compared to acidic conditions.
• Salt Electrolyte: A salt electrolyte contains salts
like NaCl, KNO₃ or Na₂SO₄, which provide neutral
ions in the solution.
Salt solutions can create more stable cell conditions
compared to acidic or basic electrolytes, as they
provide a neutral environment that is not as
reactive as acidic or basic solutions.
The concentration of ions in salt solutions affects
the reaction quotient (Q), which in turn affects the
 EMF according to the Nernst equation. Higher ionic
concentrations tend to increase conductivity and
may slightly reduce the EMF if the ions are involved
in the electrochemical reactions at the electrodes.
• Cell Design and Structure: The design and structure
of an electrochemical cell have significant effects on its
overall performance, including its electromotive force
(EMF). Key design elements, such as the size of the
cell, the materials used for the electrodes, the
electrolyte composition, and the separator material,
can influence the electrochemical reactions at the
electrodes, the efficiency of ion transport, and the
internal resistance.
• Size of Cell: In larger cells, there is a larger volume
of electrolyte, which means that there are more ions
available for electrochemical reactions at the
electrodes. This can improve the overall cell
performance by reducing the likelihood of ion
depletion during operation, which would otherwise
slow down the reactions and reduce the EMF. Also,
for a given amount of current, if the size of the cell
is increased, the current density decreases. A lower
current density typically reduces the rate of
electrochemical reactions and can lower the cell's
efficiency. Therefore, in larger cells, the EMF might
decrease due to slower reaction kinetics.
To maximize the EMF while maintaining high
efficiency, cells are typically designed with a size
that balances the need for enough electrolytes to
prevent ion depletion while keeping internal
resistance low.
• Separator Material: Most cell separators are
made from porous materials such as polypropylene,
polyethylene, or glass fibers. These materials allow
ions to migrate between the anode and cathode but
prevent direct electrical contact between the
electrodes. The pore size and porosity of the
separator material affect the resistance to ion flow.
A material with smaller pores can reduce the rate of
ion transport, which can increase the internal
resistance and decrease the EMF of the cell. On the
other hand, a highly porous material promotes
better ion flow, reducing internal resistance and
potentially increasing the EMF.
• Surface Area of Electrode: A larger surface area
increases the number of active sites for the
electrochemical reactions, leading to a higher
current density and more efficient ion exchange.
This can reduce internal resistance, allowing for a
higher output EMF. For instance, in high-
 performance batteries, electrodes with increased
surface area (such as using porous or
nanostructured materials) can increase the overall
efficiency and EMF.

• Electrode Composition and Concentration: A

higher concentration of ions in the electrolyte leads
to lower internal resistance because more ions are
available to carry charge between the electrodes.
Lower internal resistance means less energy is lost
as heat, and more of the generated EMF can be
used to perform work. The choice of ions in the
electrolyte also influences the electrode potential
and the overall EMF. For example, an electrolyte
made with strong acids or bases will result in a
different set of electrochemical reactions compared
to a neutral salt solution.
FACTORS AFFECTING INTERNAL
RESISTANCE OF CELL:
Internal resistance of a cell depends on:
• Concentration of Electrolyte: The concentration of
the electrolyte directly affects the ion migration
resistance, which in turn influences the overall internal
resistance of the electrochemical system. Ion migration
refers to the movement of charged particles through
the electrolyte in response to an electric field. The rate
at which ions move is influenced by both their mobility
and the concentration of ions in the solution. Increasing
the concentration of the electrolyte increases the
number of ions in the solution. With more ions present,
the electrolyte becomes more conductive because the
ions are able to carry charge more efficiently between
the electrodes. As the ion concentration increases, the
resistance to ion migration decreases, because ions are
more likely to move in the presence of many other ions,
reducing the time and distance over which each ion
needs to travel.

• Temperature of Cell: Temperature influences the

movement of ions through the electrolyte, which in turn
affects the internal resistance of the cell. At higher
temperatures, the kinetic energy of molecules
increases, which generally leads to increased ion
mobility. This is because the ions move faster and
experience less resistance from the solvent or
electrolyte medium. Lower ion mobility leads to higher
ionic resistance, and vice versa. At higher
temperatures, the increased mobility of ions typically
reduces the internal resistance because ions can move
 more freely and rapidly, requiring less energy to
conduct charge across the electrolyte. This reduction in
resistance results in improved efficiency of the cell,
enabling faster charge/discharge cycles and higher
power output.

• Material of Electrode: The internal resistance of an

electrochemical cell decreases as the electrode surface
area increases. This is because a larger surface area
provides more active sites for the electrochemical
reactions to occur. More sites for ion exchange and
charge transfer lead to a lower resistance for the flow
of current. Materials with high conductivity (e.g., metals
like copper, silver, or platinum) are more efficient at
conducting electrons, leading to lower resistance.
• Low Surface Area + Poor Material: An electrode
with a small surface area and made from a poor
conductor will exhibit high internal resistance. This is
because fewer reaction sites are available, and the
conductivity is insufficient to efficiently transfer
charge.
• Large Surface Area + High Conductivity: An
electrode with a larger surface area and made from
a highly conductive material will have the lowest
internal resistance. The combination of more active
sites and better electron flow leads to optimal
performance.

• Age and Condition of Cell: As a cell ages, its internal

resistance increases due to several factors related to
the degradation of its components, such as the
electrodes, electrolyte, and other internal structures.
• Electrode Surface Area Degradation: Over time,
the materials that make up the anode and cathod
can degrade. This degradation may involve the loss
of active material, mechanical breakdown of the
electrodes, or the formation of solid electrolyte
interfaces that reduce the effective surface area
available for charge transfer.
• Electrolyte Degradation: Over time, electrolytes
can decompose due to chemical reactions or
overcharging/overdischarging, leading to the
production of gases, loss of conductivity, and
reduced ion mobility. This decreases the efficiency of
charge transfer between the electrodes and
increases internal resistance.
• Physical Construction: The internal resistance of a
cell—whether it’s a battery, electrochemical cell, or
similar device—depends on the physical construction of
the cell, including the size, arrangement, and material
properties of its components. These factors determine
how easily charge carriers can move through the cell's
various parts, ultimately influencing the overall
resistance.
• Distance between Electrodes: The distance
between the anode and cathode affects the
resistance to ion flow through the electrolyte, also
known as the ionic resistance. The greater the
separation, the longer the ions need to travel,
which increases resistance. In electrochemical
cells, the current flow is carried by ions in the
electrolyte, so longer travel distances lead to
higher resistances.
• Electrolyte Type and Concentration: The type
of electrolyte and its concentration of charge
carriers (e.g., ions like Li+, Na+, or H+) influence
the ionic conductivity. Higher ion concentrations
lead to lower resistance, as there are more charge
carriers available to conduct current.
• Shape and Size of Cell: The overall geometry of
the cell can impact both the electron and ion flow.
A cell with an irregular or less compact shape
might have areas with poor ionic or electronic
contact, leading to increased resistance.

EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS:
EXPERIMENT-1
Aim: To study how temperature affects the Electromotive
Force (EMF) of an electrochemical cell.
Apparatus and Materials Required: Zinc and Copper
electrodes 1 M Copper(II) sulphate (CuSO₄) solution, 1 M
Zinc sulphate (ZnSO₄) solution, voltmeter, thermometer,
water bath , salt bridge, beakers and stirring rod.
Theory: As the temperature of the electrochemical cell
increases, the EMF will decrease due to the temperature
dependence of the Gibbs free energy and the Nernst
equation.
Procedure:
• Immerse a zinc electrode in 1 M ZnSO₄ and a copper
 electrode in 1 M CuSO₄. Connect the two half-cells with
a salt bridge filled with KCl to allow ion flow.
• Use a thermometer to measure the initial temperature
of the electrolyte solutions.
• Using a voltmeter, measure the open-circuit voltage
between the zinc and copper electrodes and record the
value.
• Place the cell in a temperature-controlled water bath,
gradually raising the temperature in increments of 5°C,
and allow the system to stabilize.
• At each temperature, use the voltmeter to measure the
EMF and record both the temperature and the
corresponding EMF value.
• Measure the EMF three times at each temperature for
accuracy, then record all temperature and EMF data in
a table.
Observations: The table below shows the experimental
results for the EMF of the zinc-copper electrochemical cell
at different temperatures.
Temperature (oC) EMF (V)
20 1.10
25 1.08
30 1.06
35 1.04
40 1.02
45 1.01
Result: As the temperature increases, the EMF of the
electrochemical cell decreases. At 20°C, the EMF is 1.10
V, while at 45°C, it drops to 1.01 V.
Precautions:
• Ensure correct electrolyte concentrations (1 M ZnSO₄
and 1 M CuSO₄) for consistent results.
• Gradually increase temperature in 5°C increments and
stabilize before measuring.
• Ensure thermometer is placed correctly in the
electrolyte solution.
• Connect the voltmeter properly across the zinc and
copper electrodes in parallel.
• Ensure the salt bridge is properly submerged and
connected to allow ion flow.
 Experiement-2
Aim: To study how the material of the electrodes affects
the internal resistance of an electrochemical cell.
Apparatus and Materials Required: Zinc sulphate
solution and copper sulfate (CuSO₄) solution for two half-
cells, different electrode materials like zinc, copper,
graphite etc., voltmeter, ammeter, a resistor, beakers,
salt bridge, thermometer
Theory and Principle: Different electrode materials will
lead to different internal resistances due to differences in
their electrical conductivity, reactivity, and ability to
facilitate electrochemical reactions.
Formula Used:

Procedure:
• Set up two beakers with 1 M ZnSO₄ and 1 M CuSO₄
solutions. Use different electrode materials (e.g., zinc,
copper, graphite, platinum) for the anode and cathode
in separate experiments.
• Link the two beakers with a salt bridge to allow ion
flow, and connect the electrodes to a voltmeter to
measure EMF and an ammeter to measure current.
• Record the open-circuit voltage using the voltmeter
before applying any load to the cell.
• Attach a known resistor, measure the current with the
ammeter, and calculate the internal resistance using
Ohm's law.
• Repeat the measurements for each electrode material
(zinc, copper, graphite, platinum), ensuring constant
temperature and accurate data recording.
Observations: The following table shows the measured
internal resistance for different electrode materials:
Voltag
Electrode EM Curre e Internal
Material F nt (A) under Resistance
(V) Load (ohm)
(V)
 Zinc (Anode) 1.10 0.30 0.90 0.67
& Copper
(Cathode)

Zinc (Anode)
& Graphite 1.05 0.28 0.85 0.71
(Cathode)

Zinc (Anode) 1.08 0.32 0.92 0.50

& Platinum
(Cathode)
Copper
(Anode) & 1.12 0.33 0.94 0.55
Graphite
(Cathode)
Copper
(Anode) & 1.15 0.34 0.96 0.56
Platinum
(Cathode)

Result:
• Platinum offers the lowest internal resistance due to its
excellent conductivity and stability, followed by copper
and graphite.
• Zinc has a higher internal resistance when used as the
anode compared to copper, and when paired with
graphite, the internal resistance increases.
Precautions:
• Ensure correct connections of voltmeter (in parallel)
and ammeter (in series) for accurate readings.
• Maintain consistent electrolyte concentration to avoid
variation in results.
• Keep the temperature constant throughout the
experiment to prevent interference with results.
• Clean electrodes before use and ensure they are
properly immersed without touching each other.
• Ensure proper salt bridge connection and complete
circuit for consistent ion flow and accurate
measurements.
 Conclusion
This project explored the key factors influencing the
Electromotive Force (EMF) and internal resistance of
electrochemical cells, shedding light on their
interdependent nature and impact on cell performance.
Through careful examination of variables such as
temperature, concentration of electrolytes, electrode
material, and cell design, we saw how these factors
govern both the efficiency and longevity of energy
storage systems.
The primary findings of the project indicate that EMF is
predominantly determined by the chemical potential
difference between the anode and cathode materials,
while internal resistance arises due to factors like the
conductivity of the electrolyte, the distance between
electrodes, and the overall design of the cell.
Furthermore, the materials used for electrodes play a
crucial role in determining both the cell's EMF and
internal resistance.
Understanding these dynamics is essential for designing
batteries and fuel cells with optimal performance,
longevity, and efficiency. Some improvements in cell
design might include optimizing electrode surface area,
electrolyte concentration, and the development of new
materials that offer both high conductivity and stability,
leading to more efficient and durable electrochemical
cells
Bibliography
• www.wikipedia.com
• www.unacademy.com
• www.vedantu.com
• www.sarthaks.com
• www.byjus.com
• NCERT Class XII Physics book
(Part-I)