Unit 5

A Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System (FACTS) is a family of Power-Electronic based devices
designed for use on an Alternating Current (AC) Transmission System to improve and control Power Flow
and support Voltage. FACTs devices are alternatives to traditional electric grid solutions and improvements,
where building additional Transmission Lines or Substation is not economically or logistically viable.

In general, FACTs devices improve power and voltage in three different ways: Shunt Compensation of
Voltage (replacing the function of capacitors or inductors), Series Compensation of Impedance
(replacing series capacitors) or Phase-Angle Compensation (replacing Generator Droop-Control or Phase-
Shifting Transformers). While other traditional equipment can accomplish all of this, FACTs devices utilize
Power Electronics that are fast enough to switch sub-cycle opposed to seconds or minutes. Most FACTs
devices are also dynamic and can support voltage across a range rather than just on and off, and are multi-
quadrant, i.e. they can both supply and consume Reactive Power, and even sometimes Real Power. All of this
give them their "flexible" nature and make them well-suited for applications with unknown or changing
requirements.

The FACTs family initially grew out of the development of High-Voltage Direct-Current (HVDC) conversion
and transmission, which used Power Electronics to convert AC to DC to enable large, controllable power
transfers.[1] While HVDC focused on conversion to DC, FACTs devices used the developed technology to
control power and voltage on the AC system. The most common type of FACTs device is the Static VAR
Compensator (SVC), which uses Thyristors to switch and control shunt capacitors and reactors, respectively

Series and Shunt Compensation

A. Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)

The objective of series capacitive compensation is to vary (or reduce) the overall effective series
transmission reactance between the sending and receiving ends. Thyristor-controlled series capacitor (TCSC)
provides variable series capacitive compensation using the thyristor firing (or delay) angle control. The
TCSC can be applied for power flow control, dynamic and transient stability, voltage stability, and damping
oscillations caused by sub-synchronous resonance (SSR).

Need for Variable Series Compensation

▪ The series capacitor provides fixed series capacitive compensation and it may not be suitable if there
are changes in the power network configurations (i.e., outage of lines/network). In such cases, the
TCSC can be applied to vary the compensation level depending on the network requirement or
configuration.

▪ The fixed series capacitor compensation can produce SSR problems (i.e., oscillations at sub-
synchronous frequencies and instability) when it interacts with the generator-shaft torsional systems.
The TCSC gives a better response in damping such oscillations and providing stability.

Principle of Operation of TCSC

The principle of TCSC is to provide the variable capacitive reactance continuously by varying the inductive
reactance using firing angle control. The TCSC consists of a series capacitor in parallel with a thyristor-
controlled reactor (TCR) as shown in Fig. 1. It consists of the fixed series capacitive reactance XC and
variable inductive reactance XL(α) and SW refers to the thyristor switches. The firing angle (α) is measured
from the peak of capacitor voltage or the zero crossing of line current. In the TCSC arrangement, the
reactance of the TCR (XL) is smaller than the capacitor reactance (XC). The expression for the TCSC
reactance XTCSC(α) is given in equations (1) & (2).

Fig. 1. Schematic Diagram of TCSC.

Where, XL(α) is the inductive reactance controlled by thyristor firing angle (α). XC is the capacitive
reactance. If the inductive reactance XL is varied by changing the thyristor firing angle (α), the TCSC
reactance XTCSC(α) can be controlled.

Modes of Operation of TCSC

The TCSC Reactance vs Firing Angle Characteristic is shown in Fig. 2. The TCSC has the following
operating modes based on the thyristor firing angle ranges as given below.

▪ XTCSC(α) is capacitive for the firing angle range, αC lim ≤ α ≤ π/2

▪ XTCSC(α) is inductive for the firing angle range, 0 ≤ α ≤ αL lim

▪ Resonance at XL(α) = XC for the firing angle,αL lim ≤ α ≤ αC lim

 Fig. 2. TCSC reactance vs firing angle characteristics.

When the thyristor switches (i.e., SW in Fig. 1) are closed, the following two actions can happen.

▪ The capacitor is getting charged/discharged (depending on the switching instant) by the line current
which will act as a constant current source.

▪ The charging of the capacitor is reversed during the resonant half-cycle of the LC circuit. Therefore,
the resonant charge reversal produces the DC offset in capacitor voltage.

The time duration of capacitor voltage reversal mainly depends on the XL / XC ratio. If XL << XC, then the
voltage reversal is almost instantaneous. If XL is increased related to XC , the TCR conduction period will
increase and the zero crossing of capacitor voltage majorly depends on the line current. In practice, the X L /
XC ratio of TCSC is in the range of 0.1 to 0.3. The DC offset in capacitor voltage (which is produced due to
charge reversal) can be controlled by adjusting (advancing or delaying) the firing instant of thyristor
switches.

V-I Characteristics of TCSC

The V-I characteristic (compensating voltage vs line current) of TCSC for the voltage control mode is shown
in Fig. 3. In the capacitive region, αC lim limits the maximum capacitive voltage (VC max) at low line currents
(Imin) and α=90° limits the maximum capacitive voltage (VC max) at the maximum line current (Imax). In the
inductive region, αL lim limits the maximum inductive voltage (VL max) at low line currents and α=0 limits the
maximum inductive voltage (VL max) at the maximum line current (Imax).
 Fig. 3. V-I characteristics of TCSC.

Static VAR Compensator (SVC)

▪ A Static VAR Compensator (SVC) is a shunt-connected static VAR generator or absorber whose
output is adjusted to exchange capacitive or inductive reactive current to maintain or control specific
parameters of the electrical power system (typically bus voltage).

▪ The SVC is a variable impedance type shunt connected device. It is primarily used for voltage
control, reactive power (VAR) control, dynamic & transient stability, and power oscillation damping.

▪ The SVC can be divided into the following topologies:

▪ Thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR)

▪ Thyristor-switched reactor (TSR)

▪ Thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC)

▪ Fixed capacitor - Thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR)

▪ Thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC) - Thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR)

Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TCR)

▪ A thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) is a shunt-connected reactor in series with a bidirectional

thyristor valve. The schematic diagram of TCR and its firing delay angle control are shown in Fig. 4.
The TCR is used to control the VAR absorption by controlling the inductive reactive current using
firing delay angle control.
 Fig. 4. The schematic diagram of TCR and firing delay angle control.

▪ In TCR, the current flow through the reactor (iL) can be controlled from maximum (α=0) to zero
(α=90°) by controlling the firing delay angle (α). The current flow through the reactor (iL), the
fundamental reactive current (iLF) and the variable reactive admittance (BL) as a function of firing
delay angle (α) can be expressed by,

▪ Where, V is the amplitude of the applied AC voltage, L is the inductance of the TCR, α is the firing
delay angle, σ is the conduction angle, and ω is the angular frequency of the applied voltage.

▪ The V-I characteristics of TCR is shown in Fig. 5. Where, VLmax and ILmax are the voltage and current
limits. BLmax is the maximum reactive admittance of the TCR.

Fig. 5 V-I Characteristics of TCR Fig. 6 V-I Characteristics of TSR

Thyristor-Switched Reactor (TSR)

 ▪ A thyristor-switched reactor (TSR) is a shunt-connected reactor in series with a bidirectional thyristor
valve that is used to switch the reactor ON or OFF. The TSR provides fixed inductive admittance
controllable in a step manner.

▪ If the TCR switching is restricted to a fixed firing delay angle (α=0), then it becomes a thyristor-
switched reactor (TSR). If the TSR is operated at α=0, the steady state current will be sinusoidal. Fig.
3 shows the V-I characteristics of the TSR. Where, BL is the admittance of the reactor.

Thyristor-Switched Capacitor (TSC)

▪ A thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC) is a shunt-connected capacitor in series with a bidirectional

thyristor valve which is used to switch the capacitor ON or OFF. Fig. 4 shows the schematic diagram
of TSC and the conditions for transient free switching of TSC. The TSC can be used to control the
VAR generation by controlling the capacitive reactive current.

▪ A reactor is connected in series with the capacitor and the thyristor valve. This reactor is connected to
limit the surge current in the thyristor valve under abnormal operating conditions (for example,
control malfunctions cause capacitor switching at the wrong time) and also it is used to avoid
resonance with the AC system impedance at the selected frequencies.

▪ The capacitor should be switched at the specific instants in each cycle to avoid the huge switching
transients. The firing delay angle control is not suitable for capacitors. Therefore, the TSC can
provide step change capacitive reactive current.

▪ The conditions for transient free switching are given below as shown in Fig. 6:

▪ If the residual capacitor voltage is lower than the peak AC voltage (VC<V), then the correct instant of
switching is when the AC system voltage is equal to the capacitor voltage (V=VC).

▪ If the residual capacitor voltage is less than the peak AC voltage (VC>V), then the correct instant of
switching is at the peak of the AC voltage (Vmax) and when thyristor valve voltage (VSW) is minimum.

▪ The V-I Characteristics of TSC is shown in Fig. 7. Where, VCmax and ICmax are the voltage and current
limits, and BC is the capacitive admittance.
 Fig. 6. The schematic diagram of TSC and the conditions for transient free switching.

Fig. 7. V-I Characteristics of TSC.

Fixed Capacitor - Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (FC-TCR)

▪ The FC-TCR is the combination of fixed capacitors (FC) and thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) and
that is shown in Fig. 8. The fixed capacitors provide fixed capacitive VAR generation by injecting
capacitive reactive current. The TCR provides variable VAR absorption by injecting variable
inductive reactive current using firing delay angle control. The capacitive reactive output can be
controlled by increasing the inductive reactive output which can be done by decreasing the firing
angle α.

Fig. 8. The schematic diagram of FC-TCR.

Fig. 9. V-I characteristics of FC-TCR.

Thyristor-Switched Capacitor - Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TSC-TCR)

▪ The TSC-TCR is primarily used for dynamic compensation of power transmission systems with the
intention of minimizing standby losses and providing increased operating flexibility. The TSC
provides VAR generation (capacitive reactive current) in a transient free switching manner. The TCR
provides VAR absorption (inductive reactive current) by firing delay angle control.

▪ Fig. 10 shows the schematic diagram of TSC-TCR and Fig. 11 shows the V-I characteristics of the
TSC-TCR. The response of TSC-TCR is slower than FC-TCR because the maximum delay of
switching in a single TSC is one full cycle and the maximum delay of TCR is only half cycle. The
required capacitive output current is decided by the number of TSC branches.

Fig. 10. The schematic diagram of TSC-TCR.

Fig. 11. V-I characteristics of TSC-TCR.

HVDC Transmission System

The High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Power Transmission is used for transmitting huge power over a
long distance typically hundreds of miles. When the electricity or power is transported over a long distance,
the high voltages are used in power distribution to decrease the ohmic losses. A brief explanation about high
voltage direct current transmission is explained below.
HVDC System Configurations

There are five HVDC configuration systems namely Monopolar, Bipolar, Back-to-Back, Multiterminal &
Tripolar HVDC Configuration. The explanation of these HVDC system configurations is briefly explained
below.

Monopolar HVDC System Configuration

The Monopolar the HVDC system configuration contains DC transmission lines and two converter stations.
It uses only one conductor and the return path is provided by the ground or water. The monopolar HVDC
configuration figure is shown below.

monopolar-high-voltage-direct-current-configurations

Bipolar HVDC System Configuration

The bipolar configuration of the HVDC transmission system represents a parallel connection of the two
monopolar HVDC transmission system. It uses two conductors one is positive and another one is negative.
Each terminal in the monopolar has an equal rated voltage of two converters connected on the DC side in
series and the junction between the converters is grounded. In the two poles, the current is equal and there is
no ground current. The bipolar HVDC configuration figure is shown below.

bipolar-HVDC-configuration

Back-to-Back HVDC System Configuration

The back-to-back HVDC system configuration consists of two converter stations in the same location. In this
configuration, both rectifier and the inverter are connected in the DC loop at the same place and there is no
DC transmission in the back-to-back high voltage direct current transmission system configuration. The
back-to-back HVDC system configuration figure is shown below.

back-to-back-HVDC-configuration

Multiterminal HVDC System Configuration

The multiterminal HVDC system configuration consists transmission line and more than two converters
connected in parallel or in sequential. In this multiterminal HVDC configuration, the power is transmitting
between two or more AC substations and the frequency conversion is possible in this configuration. The
Multiterminal HVDC system configuration figure is shown below.

multiterminal-HVDC-configuration

Tripolar HVDC System Configuration

The tripolar HVDC system configuration used for transmission of electricity using Modular Multilevel
Converter (MMC). The tripolar HVDC configuration figure is shown in the below.
 VSC-HVDC-tripolar-configuration

The rectifier and inverter consist of three-phase six bridge arms MMC converters and two converter valves
on the DC side within the structure of this configuration. This configuration is highly reliable and this is the
main advantage of tripolar.

HVDC Transmission

The HVDC is an interconnection of AC and DC transmission. It employs positive points of both the AC and
DC transmissions. The basic terminologies used in high voltage direct current transmissions are AC
generating source, a step-up transformer, rectifier station, inverter station, step-down transformer, and AC
load. The high voltage direct current transmission is shown in the below figure.

high-voltage-direct-current-transmission

AC Generating Source and Step-up Transformer

 In the AC generating source the power is supplied in the form of AC. Now in the AC generating source, the
power is step-up or the voltage of the power is step-up by the step-up transformer. In the step-up transformer,
input voltages are low and the output voltages are high.

Rectifier Station

There is an interconnection unit of HVDC in the rectifier station transmission. In the rectifier, we have an AC
power supply as input and the DC power supply as output. These rectifiers are grounded and the output of the
rectifier employed on overhead transmission lines of HVDC for long-distance transmission of this high DC
output and this high DC output from rectifier transfers through over a DC line and supplied to inverters.

Inverters and Step-Down Transformer

An inverter converts the DC input power supply to the output and these AC outputs are supplied to the
stepdown transformer. In the step-down transformer, input voltages are high and the output voltages are
decreases by sufficient values. The DC step-down transformers are employed because at the consumer ends,
if high voltages are provided or supplied then the devices of the consumers are may get damage. So we have
to decrease the voltage levels by employing step-down transformers. Now this step-down AC voltage can be
supplied to the AC loads. This whole high voltage dc system is very efficient, cost-effective and can supply
bulk power over a very long distance.

ADVANTAGES OF HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

1. They are used in connecting power systems where there are different frequencies or problems with
maintaining the frequency.
2. In the HVDC system there is no problem with reactive power in transmission lines, which in the HVAC
technology limits the power transmission capacity. More power can be transmitted cost-effectively over
longer distances compared to AC high-voltage lines.
3. Currently this is the only system used to connect countries that are separated by a significant water area.
4. Power output from renewable electricity generation areas.
5. Ground can be used as return conductor.
6. Less corona and radio interference.
7. No skin effect.
8. Synchronous operation is not required.
9. Cable can be worked at high voltage gradient.

DISADVANTAGES OF HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

1. It is very difficult to break the Direct Current hence it requires high cost D.C. circuit breakers.
2. Not possible to use transformers to change the voltage levels.
3. Cost of conversion equipment is very expensive.
4. Due to generation of harmonics in converters it requires AC & DC filters, hence the cost of converting
station is increased.
5. Complexity of control.
6. Converters have little over load capability.