Feng Chia University AIEEC LAB

Taiwan FCU

CHAPTER 2
MATRICES
2.1 Operations with Matrices
2.2 Properties of Matrix Operations
2.3 The Inverse of a Matrix

Elementary Linear Algebra

R. Larson (8 Edition) 1
2.1 Operations with Matrices
 Matrix(矩陣):
 a11 a12 a13  a1n 
a a a  a 
 21 22 23 2n 

A  [aij ]mn   a31 a32 a33  a3n   M mn

 
    
am1 am 2 am 3  amn 
mn

(i, j)-th entry: aij

row: m
column: n
size: m×n
2

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, p.40
  i-th row vector(列向量):
ri  ai1 ai 2  ain  row matrix(列矩陣)

 j-th column vector (行向量):

 c1 j 
c 
cj   2j
 column matrix(行矩陣)
  
c 
 mj 
 Square matrix (方陣): m = n

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, p.40
  Diagonal matrix(對角矩陣):
d1 0  0
0 d2  0
A  diag(d1 , d 2 ,, d n )     M nn
   
0  d n 
 0

 Trace(跡數):

If A  [ aij ]nn

Then Tr ( A)  a11  a22    ann

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, Addition
  Ex:
1 2 3  r1 
A   
4 5 6  r2 
 r1  1 2 3 , r2   4 5 6

 1 2 3
A    c1 c2 c3 
 4 5 6
1  2 3
 c1    , c2    , c3   
4 5 6 
5

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, Addition
  Equal matrix(相等矩陣):
If A  [aij ]mn , B  [bij ]mn

Then A  B if and only if aij  bij  1  i  m, 1  j  n

 Ex 1: (Equal matrix)
1 2 a b 
A  B 
3 4   c d 

If A  B
Then a  1, b  2, c  3, d  4

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, p.40
  Matrix addition(矩陣相加):
If A  [aij ]mn , B  [bij ]mn
Then A  B  [aij ]mn  [bij ]mn  [aij  bij ]mn

 Ex 2: (Matrix addition)

 1 2  1 3  1  1 2  3  0 5
 0 1   1 2   0  1 1  2   1 3
       

 1  1  1  1  0 
  3   3    3  3   0 
       
 2  2  2  2 0
7

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, p.41
  Scalar multiplication (純量乘法(純量積)):
If A  [aij ]mn , c : scalar
Then cA  [caij ]mn

 Matrix subtraction(矩陣相減):
A  B  A  (1)B

 Ex 3: (Scalar multiplication and matrix subtraction)

 1 2 4  2 0 0
A   3 0  1 B   1  4 3
   
 2 1 2  1 3 2

Find (a) 3A, (b) –B, (c) 3A – B 8

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, p.41
 Sol:
 1 2 4  31 32 34  3 6 12
(a)
3A  3 3 0  1  3 3 30 3 1   9 0  3
     
 2 1 2  32 31 32  6 3 6
(b)
 2 0 0   2 0 0
 B   1 1  4 3    1 4  3

 
 1 3 2  1  3  2
(c)
 3 6 12  2 0 0  1 6 12
3 A  B   9 0  3   1  4 3   10 4  6
     
 6 3 6  1 3 2  7 0 4
9

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, p.41
  Matrix multiplication (矩陣乘法):
If A  [aij ]mn , B  [bij ]n p
Then AB  [aij ]mn [bij ]n p  [cij ]m p

Size of AB
n
where cij   aikbkj  ai1b1 j  ai 2b2 j    ainbnj
k 1

 a11 a12  a1n  b  b

    11 1j  b1n   
      
b  b  b
 ai1 ai 2  ain    
21 2 j 2 n

       ci1 ci 2  cij  cin 

  
  bn1  bnj  bnn   

an1 an 2  ann   

 Notes: (1) A+B = B+A, (2) AB  BA 10

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, p.42 & p.44
  Ex 4: (Find AB)
 1 3
   3 2
A 4 2 B
   4 1
 5 0
Sol:
 (1)(3)  (3)(4) (1)(2)  (3)(1)   9 1 
AB  (4)(3)  (2)(4) (4)(2)  (2)(1)  4 6 
   
 (5)(3)  (0)(4) (5)(2)  (0)(1)   15 10

 Ex 5: Matrix Multiplication
11

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, p.43
  Matrix form of a system of linear equations:
 a11 x1  a12 x2    a1n xn  b1
 a x  a x  a x  b
 21 1 22 2 2n n 2
 m linear equations
 
am1 x1  am 2 x2    amn xn  bm


 a11 a12 a1n   x1   b1 
a a22 a2 n   x2   b2  Single matrix equation
 21 
     A xb
     m  n n 1 m 1

 am1 am 2 amn   xn  bm 

=

A x b
12
 Ex 6: Solving a System of Linear Equations
Department of Electrical Engineering
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, p.45
  Partitioned matrices(分割矩陣):
submatrix
 a11 a12 a13 a14 
 A11 A12 
A  a21 a22 a23 
a24  
   A21 A22 
 a31 a32 a33 a34 

 a11 a12 a13 a14   r1 

A  a21 a22 a23 a24   r2 
   
 a31 a32 a33 a34   r3 

 a11 a12 a13 a14 

A  a21 a22 a23 a24   c1 c2 c3 c4 
 
 a31 a32 a33 a34 
13

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, Addition
  Linear combination of column vectors:
Ax = b的線性方程式系統，可改寫為行矩陣與係數的線性組合

 a11 a12  a1n   x1 

a x 
a22  a2 n 
A   21   c1 c2  cn  x   2
      
a x 
 m1 am 2  amn   n
c1 c2 cn
 a11 x1  a12 x2    a1n xn   a11   a12   a1n 
 a x  a x  a x  a  a  a 
 Ax   21 1 22 2 2n n
  x1  21   x2  22     xn  2 n 
           
a x  a x    a x  a  a  a 14
 m1 1 m 2 2 mn n  m1  m1   m2   mn 
Department of Electrical Engineering
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, p.46
  Ex 7: (Solve a system of linear equations)
x1  2 x2  3 x3  0
4 x1  5 x2  6 x3  3 (infinitely many solutions)
7 x1  8 x2  9 x3  6

 1 2 3  x1  0   1  2  3
 A  4 5 6, x   x2 , b   3, c1  4, c2   5, c3  6
7 8 9  x3  6 7   8 9

 x1  2 x2  3x3   1 2  3 0

 Ax   4 x1  5 x2  6 x3   x1  4   x2  5  x3 6   3  b
 7 x1  8 x2  9 x3  7   8 9 6
Use Gaussian elimination can find the this system has infinitely many solutions,
one of which is x1=1, x2=1, x3=-1 . That is, b can be expressed as a linear combination of
the column of A.
 1 2  3 0  1
 14  1 5  (1) 6   3 (one solution : x   1, i.e. x1  1, x2  1, x3  1) 15
7  8 9 6  1
Department of Electrical Engineering
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.1, p.47
Key Learning in Section 2.1
 Determine whether two matrices are equal.
 Add and subtract matrices and multiply a matrix by a scalar.
 Multiply two matrices.
 Use matrices to solve a system of linear equations.
 Partition a matrix and write a linear combination of column
vectors.

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Department of Electrical Engineering

2.2 Properties of Matrix
Operations
 Three basic matrix operators:
(1) matrix addition
(2) scalar multiplication
(3) matrix multiplication

 Zero matrix(零矩陣): 0 mn

 Identity matrix(單位矩陣) of order n: I n

17

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, 52-55
  Properties of Matrix Addition (矩陣加法特性):

If A, B, C  M mn , c, d : scalar
Then (1) A+B = B + A Commutative property of addition

(2) A + ( B + C ) = ( A + B ) + C Associative property of addition

(3) ( cd ) A = c ( dA ) Associative property of multiplication

(4) 1A = A Multiplicative identity (乘法單位元素)

(5) c( A+B ) = cA + cB Distributive property

(6) ( c+d ) A = cA + dA Distributive property

18

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.52
  Properties of zero matrices(零矩陣):
If A  M mn , c : scalar
Then (1) A  0mn  A
(2) A  ( A)  0mn
(3) cA  0mn  c  0 or A  0mn
 Notes:
(1) 0m×n: the additive identity(加法單位元素) for the set of all
m×n matrices
(2) –A: the additive inverse (加法反元素) of A

 Ex 2: Solving a matrix equation 19

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.53
  Properties of Matrix Multiplication(矩陣乘法特性):
(1) A(BC) = (AB)C Associative property of multiplication

(2) A(B+C) = AB + AC Distributive property

(3) (A+B)C = AC + BC Distributive property

(4) c(AB) = (cA)B = A(cB)

 Ex 3: Matrix Multiplication is Associative

20

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.54 & p.56
  Real number:
ab = ba (Commutative law for multiplication)

 Matrix:
AB  BA
m n n p

Three situations:
(1) If m  p, then AB is defined , BA is undefined.
(2) If m  p, m  n, then AB  M mm , BA  M nn (Sizes are not the same)
(3) If m  p  n, then AB  M mm , BA  M mm
(Sizes are the same, but matrices are not equal)

21

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, Addition
  Ex 4: Noncommutativity of Matrix Multiplication
Sow that AB and BA are not equal for the matrices.
 1 3 2  1
A  and B 
 2  1  0 2 

 Note: AB  BA
22

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.55
  Real number:
ac  bc, c  0
 ab (Cancellation law)

 Matrix:
AC  BC C0
(1) If C is invertible, then A = B

(2) If C is not invertible, then A  B (Cancellation is not valid)

23

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.55
  Ex 5: (An example in which cancellation is not valid)
Show that AC=BC
 1 3  2 4  1  2
A  , B  , C 
 0 1  2 3   1 2 

24

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.55
  Properties of identity matrix (單位矩陣):
If A  M mn
Then (1) AI n  A
(2) I m A  A

 Notes: if A is a square matrix of order n,

then 𝐴𝐼𝑛 = 𝐼𝑛 𝐴 = 𝐴

 Ex 6: Multiplication by an Identity Matrix

 Ex 7: Repeated Multiplication of a Square Matrix

25

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.54 & p.56
  Transpose of a matrix (轉置矩陣):
 a11 a12  a1n 
a a22  a2 n 
If A   21   M mn
     
a am 2  amn 
 m1

 a11 a21  am1 

a a22  am 2 
Then AT   12   M nm
     
a a2 n  amn 
 1n

26

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.57
  Ex 8: (Find the transpose of the following matrix)
 1 2 3 0 1
 2
(a) A    (b) A   4 5 6 
(c) A  2 4

8   
7 8 9  1  1
Sol: (a)  2
A   AT  2 8
8 
(b)  1 2 3 1 4 7
A  4 5 6  AT  2 5 8
   
7 8 9 3 6 9
(c) 0 1
0 2 1
A  2 4  AT  
  1 4  1 27
 1  1 Department of Electrical Engineering
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.57
  Properties of transposes(轉置的特性):
(1) ( AT )T  A
(2) ( A  B)T  AT  BT (A  B  C )T  ?

(3) (cA)T  c( AT )

(4) ( AB )T  BT AT ( ABC)T  ?

 Ex 9: Finding the transpose of a product

28

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, p.57
  Symmetric matrix(對稱矩陣):
A square matrix A is symmetric if A = AT
 Skew-symmetric matrix(反對稱矩陣):
A square matrix A is skew-symmetric if AT = –A

 Ex:
 1 2 3
If A  a 4 5 is symmetric, find a, b, c?
 
b c 6
Sol:
 1 2 3 1 a b 
 T
A  a 4 5 AT  2 4 c 
A A
     a  2, b  3, c  5
b c 6 3 5 6 29

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, Addition
  Ex:
 0 1 2
If A   a 0 3  is a skew-symmetric(反對稱), find a, b, c?
 
 b c 0 
Sol:
 0 1 2  0 a b 
A   a 0 3   AT   1 0 c 
 
 b c 0   2 3 0 

A   AT  a  1, b  2, c  3

 Note: AA T is symmetric Pf: ( AAT )T  ( AT )T AT  AAT

 AAT is symmetric

 Ex 10: The product of a Matrix and Its Transpose 30

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.2, Addition
Key Learning in Section 2.2
 Use the properties of matrix addition, scalar multiplication,
and zero matrices.
 Use the properties of matrix multiplication and the identity
matrix.
 Find the transpose of a matrix.

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2.3 The Inverse of a Matrix
 Real number equation ax = b, To solve the equation for x :
ax  b
 (a 1a) x  a 1b
 x  a 1b , where a-1 is the multiplicative inverse(乘法反元素)

 Inverse matrix(反矩陣): Consider A  M nn

If there exists a matrix B  M nn such that AB  BA  I n ,
Then (1) A is invertible(可逆) (or nonsingular非奇異)
(2) B is the inverse of A

 Note: A matrix that does not have an inverse is called

noninvertible(不可逆) (or singular奇異).

 Ex 1: (Show that B is the inverse of A) 32

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, p.62
  Thm 2.7: (The inverse of a matrix is unique)
If B and C are both inverses of the matrix A, then B = C.
Pf: AB  I
C ( AB)  CI
(CA) B  C
IB  C
BC
Consequently, the inverse of a matrix is unique.
 Notes:
(1) The inverse of A is denoted by A1
(2) AA 1  A1 A  I
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Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, pp.62-63
  Find the inverse of a matrix by Gauss-Jordan Elimination:

A | I  Gauss
   I | A1 
- Jordan Eliminatio n

 Check: AA 1  A1 A  I
 Ex 2: (Find the inverse of the matrix)
 1 4
A 
 1  3
 Ex 3: (Find the inverse of the following matrix)

 1  1 0
A   1 0  1
 6 2 3
 Ex 4: (Show that the matrix has no inverse
 1 2 0
A   3 1 2 
34
 2 3 2 
Department of Electrical Engineering
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, pp.63-64
  Power of a square matrix(矩陣幕次):
(1) A0  I

(2) Ak  
AA

A (k  0)
k factors

(3) Ar  As  Ar  s r , s : integers
( Ar ) s  Ars
d1 0  0 d1k 0  0
0 d  0  
0 d 2k  0
(4) D   2
  Dk  
      
0 0  k
  d n  0 0  dn 

35

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, Addition
  Thm 2.8: (Properties of inverse matrices)

If A is an invertible matrix, k is a positive integer, and c is a scalar

not equal to zero, then

(1) A1 is invertible and ( A1 ) 1  A

(2) Ak is invertible and ( Ak )1  A1 A1 A1  ( A1 )k  A k

k factors
1
(3) cA is invertible and (cA) 1  A1 , c  0
c
(4) AT is invertible and ( AT ) 1  ( A1 )T

 Ex 5: (Finding inverse of 2 x 2 Matrices)

36
 Ex 6: (The inverse of the Square of a Matrix)
Department of Electrical Engineering
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, p.67
  Thm 2.9: (The inverse of a product)
If A and B are invertible matrices of size n, then AB is invertible and
( AB ) 1  B 1 A1
Pf:
( AB )( B 1 A1 )  A( BB 1 ) A1  A( I ) A1  ( AI ) A1  AA 1  I
( B 1 A1 )( AB )  B 1 ( A1 A) B  B 1 ( I ) B  B 1 ( IB)  B 1 B  I
If AB is invertible, then its inverse is unique.
So ( AB) 1  B 1 A1

 Note:  A1 A2 A3  An 1  An1  A31 A21 A11

 Find the (AB)-1, A-1B-1, B-1A-1 1 2   2 1

A  B 
 1 1
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1 3
Department of Electrical Engineering
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, p.68
  Thm 2.10: (Cancellation properties)
If C is an invertible matrix, then the following properties hold:
(1) If AC=BC, then A=B (Right cancellation property)
(2) If CA=CB, then A=B (Left cancellation property)
Pf:
AC  BC
( AC )C 1  ( BC )C 1 (C is invertible, so C-1 exists)
A(CC 1 )  B(CC 1 )
AI  BI
A B
 Note:
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If C is not invertible, then cancellation is not valid.
Department of Electrical Engineering
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, p.69
  Thm 2.11: (Systems of equations with unique solutions)
If A is an invertible matrix, then the system of linear equations
Ax = b has a unique solution given by x  A1b

Pf: Ax  b
A1 Ax  A1b ( A is nonsingular)
Ix  A1b
x  A1b
If x1 and x2 were two solutions of equation Ax  b.
then Ax1  b  Ax2  x1  x2 (Left cancellation property)
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This solution is unique.
Department of Electrical Engineering
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, p.70
  Note:
For square systems (those having the same number of equations
as variables which means the same coefficient matrix A),
Theorem 2.11 can be used to determine whether the system has a
unique solution.

 Ex 8: (Solving Systems of Equations Using an Inverse Matrix)

40

Department of Electrical Engineering

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 2.3, p.70
Key Learning in Section 2.3
▪ Find the inverse of a matrix (if it exists).
▪ Use properties of inverse matrices.
▪ Use an inverse matrix to solve a system of linear equations.

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Department of Electrical Engineering