The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual framework that divides network

communications functions into seven layers. Sending data over a network is complex because various
hardware and software technologies must work cohesively across geographical and political boundaries.It is a
7-layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work
collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to another across the globe.
OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how information from
a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application in
another computer.
It is divided into seven layers that work together to carry out specialised network functions, allowing for a
more systematic approach to networking.

Physical Layer – Layer 1

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical
layer. It is responsible for the actual physical connection
between the devices. The physical layer contains information
in the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual
bits from one node to the next. When receiving data, this
layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s
and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the
frame back together.

Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the

synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock
controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at the bit level.

Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e.
bus, star, or mesh topology.
Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected devices. The
various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Note:
Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known as Lower Layers or Hardware Layers.
Data Link Layer
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main function of this
layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a
packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC
address.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
Logical Link Control (LLC)2>Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame size of the
NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request onto the
wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.
Functions of the Data Link Layer.
Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for
a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This
can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning
and end of the framePhysical addressing: After creating frames, the Data
link layer adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or
receiver in the header of each frame.
Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control
in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data
may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that
can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to
determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.
Network Layer – Layer 3
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different networks.
It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number
of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
Functions of the Network Layer
Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This
function of the network layer is known as routing.
Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the network layer defines an
addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such
an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
Note:
Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.
Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.
Transport Layer – Layer 4
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network layer. The
data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the
complete message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission
and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data transmission. It
also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to the
Network Layer.
The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For example, when a
web application requests a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port
assigned to web applications. Many applications have default ports assigned.
At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it
has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented
data.

Session Layer – Layer 5

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and authentication,
and also ensures security.
Functions of the Session Layer
Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two processes to establish, use,
and terminate a connection.
Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization points in
the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly,
and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in half-duplex
or full-duplex.
Note:
All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the TCP/IP model as
the ????pplication Layer”.
Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also known as Upper
Layers or Software Layers.
Device or Protocol Use : NetBIOS, PPTP.
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger application
running in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which provides the user with an
interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is compressed, encrypted (if any secure data),
and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Presentation Layer – Layer 6
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is extracted
here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between the two
systems.It acts as a data translator for a network.This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from
one presentation format to another format.The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer. Functions of the
Presentation Layer

Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The encrypted data is
known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as
well as decrypting data.
Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
Note: Device or Protocol Use: JPEG, MPEG, GIF
Application Layer – Layer 7
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred
over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the network and
for displaying the received information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Note: 1. The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
2. Device or Protocol Use : SMTP
Functions of the Application Layer
The main functions of the application layer are given below.
Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers and email clients. It provides protocols
that allow software to send and receive information and present meaningful data to users. A few examples of
application layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office
Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name System (DNS).
FTAM- File transfer access and management: This application allows a user to
access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
Mail Services: Provide email service.
Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources
and access for global information about various objects and services.
Note: OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the Internet because of its late
invention. The current model being used is the TCP/IP model.
The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers and email clients. It provides
protocols that allow software to send and receive information and present meaningful data to users. A few
examples of application layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol
(FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name System (DNS).

TCP/IP Model

The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a

computer from one device to another. The main
condition of this process is to make data reliable and
accurate so that the receiver will receive the same
information which is sent by the sender. To ensure
that, each message reaches its final destination
accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into
packets and combines them at the other end, which
helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while
transferring from one end to another
end.TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer
Networks. The basic difference between TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet
Protocol) is in the transmission of data. In simple
words, IP finds the destination of the mail and TCP has
the work to send and receive the mail. UDP is another
protocol, which does not require IP to communicate
with another computer. IP is required by only TCP. This
is the basic difference between TCP and IP.
Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP Model, the TCP/IP Model divides the
data into packets at the sender’s end and the same packets have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to
form the same data, and this thing happens to maintain the accuracy of the data. TCP/IP model divides the
data into a 4-layer procedure, where the data first go into this layer in one order and again in reverse order
to get organized in the same way at the receiver’s end.Layers of TCP/IP Model
Application Layer
Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
Network/Internet Layer(IP)
Data Link Layer (MAC)
Physical Layer
1. Physical Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is responsible for generating the
data and requesting connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network Access layer on the behalf
of the receiver. During this article, we will be talking on the behalf of the receiver. Its protocols include HTTP,
FTP, Post Office Protocol 3, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol and Simple Network Management Protocol. At the
application layer, the payload is the actual application data.
2. Data Link Layer
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by the data-link layer. Error prevention
and “framing” are also provided by the data-link layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet
IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-link layer protocols.
The transport layer is responsible for maintaining end-to-end communications across the network. TCP
handles communications between hosts and provides flow control, multiplexing and reliability. The transport
protocols include TCP and User Datagram Protocol, which is sometimes used instead of TCP for special
purposes.

3. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are responsible for the
logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols residing at this layer are as follows:
IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source host to the
destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4
is the one that most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is
limited in number when compared to the number of users.
ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP datagrams and is
responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.
ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a host from a
known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of protocols that define the
Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of data from one device to another across a
network. It does this by assigning each device a unique IP address, which is used to identify the device and
determine the route that packets should take to reach it.
The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and connects independent networks to
transport the packets across network boundaries. The network layer protocols are IP and Internet Control
Message Protocol, which is used for error reporting
the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the email from your computer to your friend’s computer.
It uses IP addresses and routing tables to determine the best route for the packets to take, and it ensures
that the packets are delivered to the correct destination. Without the Internet Layer, it would not be possible
to send data across the Internet.

4. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit missing packets
to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end communication is referred to as such.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level
(UDP).
TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were physically connected by a
circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character transmission rather than separate
packets. A starting point that establishes the connection, the whole transmission in byte order, and an ending
point that closes the connection make up this transmission.
UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport layer protocol. Connections
between receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that transport little amounts of
data use UDP rather than TCP because it eliminates the processes of establishing and validating connections.

5. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end
communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities
of data. The three main protocols present in this layer are:
HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World Wide Web to manage
communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of
HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in,
authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.
SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is
preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a secure session over a
TCP/IP connection.
NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our computer to one
standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions. Assume the following situation
without the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at
2:30 PM while the server records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.

Data Communication
is defined as exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission media such as a cable,
wire or it can be air or vacuum also. For occurrence of data communication, communicating devices must be
a part of communication system made up of a combination of hardware or software devices and
programs. Data Communication System Components : There are mainly five components of a data
communication system:
1. Message2. Sender3. Receiver4. Transmission Medium5. Set of rules (Protocol) below
Figure – Components of Data Communication
System
Message : This is most useful asset of a data
communication system. The message simply refers
to data or piece of information which is to be
communicated. A message could be in any form, it
may be in form of a text file, an audio file, a video
file, etc.

All above mentioned elements are described :

Sender : To transfer message from source to destination, someone must be there who will play role of a
source. Sender plays part of a source in data communication system. It is simple a device that sends data
message. The device could be in form of a computer, mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or a
workstation, etc.

Receiver : It is destination where finally message sent by source has arrived. It is a device that receives
message. Same as sender, receiver can also be in form of a computer, telephone mobile, workstation, etc.

Transmission Medium : In entire process of data communication, there must be something which could act as
a bridge between sender and receiver, Transmission medium plays that part. It is physical path by which data
or message travels from sender to receiver. Transmission medium could be guided (with wires) or unguided
(without wires), for example, twisted pair cable, fiber optic cable, radio waves, microwaves, etc.
Set of rules (Protocol) : To govern data communications, various sets of rules had been already designed by
the designers of the communication systems, which represent a kind of agreement between communicating
devices. These are defined as protocol. In simple terms, the protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communication. If two different devices are connected but there is no protocol among them, there would not
be any kind of communication between those two devices. Thus the protocol is necessary for data
communication to take place.
data communication is communication in which we can send or receive data from one device to another. The
data communication is divided into three types:
Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can say that unidirectional communication in
which one device only receives and another device only sends data and devices uses their entire capacity in
transmission. For example, IoT, entering data using a keyboard, listing music using a speaker, etc.
Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication, or we can say that it is a bidirectional
communication in which both the devices can send and receive data but not at the same time. When one
device is sending data then another device is only receiving and vice-versa. For example, walkie-talkie.
Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is a bidirectional
communication in which both the devices can send and receive data at the same time. For example, mobile
phones, landlines, etc.