Year 11 Textile Technology Notes 1 Compressed
Year 11 Textile Technology Notes 1 Compressed
Syllabus
Principles of Design
Aesthetic
Appropriate Design
Verbal
Written
Knitted
Non-Woven
Knitted
Non-Woven
Fabric and Fibre Properties and Testing Aesthetic, Durability, Comfort, Dimensional Stability
and Care
Filament
Twist Level
Novelty Yarns
Comfort
Care
Fibre Structure Molecular
Morphological
Regenerated
Synthetic
Fibre Blends
Formatting Key
→ elements of design, including; line, direction, shape, size, texture, colour and value
Overview
● The elements of design are the tools used for design. They include; line, direction, shape, size, colour and texture.
● The elements of design are used in both structural and decorative design and each evokes a different physiological and
psychological effect.
● Physiological effects relate to the opticals or visual effects the elements can create, whereas psychological effects relate to the mood
or emotional effect the element creates.
Line
Shape
● The enclosing of an area using lines creates a shape. Shape can create visual illusions which affect size and weight; large shapes
advance towards the viewer, appearing bigger, whilst smaller shapes recede from the viewer, appearing smaller.
● There are three basic styles of shape; geometric, organic and abstract. Geometric shapes are regular and rigid such as circles,
triangles, squares, rectangles, ovals and hexagons. Organic shapes are free flowing and are usually rounded or curved in a manner
similar to shells, leaves or flowers. Abstract shapes are a combination of regular, free flowing forms.
● Angular, tapering shapes imply height. These strong lines create the psychological effect of stability, dominance and confidence.
Shapes with diagonal lines such as triangles and hexagons are more interesting, attracting and holding attention.
● Round, undulating shapes imply bulk or fuller shape – these have a more subtle and softening effect.
● Silhouettes are the outline or basic shape of a garment. There are several basic fashion silhouettes;
Size
● Size refers to how big or small parts of a design are – affecting the design and its surroundings.
● Exaggerating size can achieve dramatic effects, creating visibility whereas smaller sized decorations are more delicate.
Texture
● Texture refers to the surface qualities of an object and is determined by the surface characteristics of the fibres, yarns and
fabrics used.
● Texture can be described in two ways; tactile (also referred to as the hand of the fabric), the way a surface feels and visual, the way a
surface looks.
○ Texture creates visual illusions and affects the appearance of the item.
○ Coarse, heavy and bulky fabrics like tweed, tapestry and heavy weight cord add bulk and enlarge objects.
○ Thick pile and fluffy fabrics conceal the contours of the figure and make the overall shape larger.
○ Lightweight fabrics such as voile and chiffon have high drape and cling to the contours of a shape.
○ Fabrics that are lightweight but stiff like taffeta or organdie stand out from the shape underneath, producing a dramatic or
striking effect.
○ Smooth, matte surfaces such as crepes, linen and poplin absorb light and produce a receding effect.
○ Smooth, shiny and textured fabrics like satin reflect light, giving an advancing effect and make the figure appear larger.
Colour
● Colour has physical, emotional and psychological effects. There are three main classifications of colour; hue, value and
intensity.
● Hue is the name of a colour in its pure form. It distinguishes one colour from another colour, for example yellow or red.
○ The colour wheel is arranged in the sequence that occurs in the light spectrum and is divided into three categories;
primary, secondary and tertiary.
○ Primary colours are colours that cannot be made by mixing colours together. This includes red, yellow and blue.
○ Secondary colours are colours made by mixing two primary colours together. This includes green, violet and orange.
○ Tertiary colours are colours made by mixing a primary colour with its neighbouring secondary colour. Tertiary colours take
their name from the two colours which were used to produce them, and include yellow-green, blue-green, blue-violet,
red-violet, red-orange and yellow-orange.
● Colour schemes are divided into harmonious schemes and contrasting schemes.
Monochromatic This colour scheme uses one colour or hue in different values, for
example powder blue, mid blue and dark blue.
Analogous This colour scheme uses colours which are adjacent to each other on
the colour wheel and have been mixed from a common primary
colour for example, yellow, yellow-green and green or red,
red-orange and orange.
Achromatic This colour scheme uses only black, white and grey.
Contrasting Colour Schemes (colours widely spaced from one another on the colour wheel)
Complementary This colour scheme uses two colours which lie exactly
opposite each other on the colour wheel. They emphasise each
other by contrast. For example, red and green, or blue and
orange.
Split Complementary This colour scheme uses one colour with the colours that are
on each side of its complementary colour.
Accented Neutral This scheme uses one colour or hue with a neutral (white, black
or grey).
→ principles of design, including; proportion, balance, rhythm, emphasis, contrast, harmony and unity
Proportion
● Proportion is the relationship between the size and space of the elements within a design
and to the whole design.
● The golden mean uses the ratio of 3:5:8 or 5:8:13. Good space division is achieved by using
ratios of 3:5, 5:8 or 8:13.
● The proportions of all elements can be changed to produce different effects.
● Correct proportional use of the elements of design such as shape, size, texture and colour
maintains balance in design.
● The use of large shapes, heavy textures and bright colours can be overpowering to the
● proportions of a design, whilst when used in smaller proportions can complement a design.
Balance
● Balance refers to a feeling of equilibrium, or a sense of steadiness or stability. It is achieved when the visual features of a
design appear equal on either side of a vertical, horizontal or radial axis.
● Vertical balance is achieved when the top and bottom halves of a design balance or draw equal attention, and horizontal balance is
achieved when the left and right hand side balance.
● The radial is balanced around a central focal point. There are
two types of balance; formal balance and informal balance.
○ Formal balance occurs when the design features
are the same as on either side of the axis –
producing a serene, dignified, or stately effect.
○ Informal balance occurs when design features differ
on either side of the axis. To achieve a pleasing
visual effect design features are varied in shape,
size, texture or colour to introduce interest. Informal
balance can produce a dynamic, dramatic or causal effect.
Rhythm
● Rhythm refers to patterns which create movement. In a design, rhythm leads your eye to move through a design, pausing at the
features of the design.
● Rhythm can be flowing, giving a subtle or sophisticated effect to the design, or it can be disjointed or abrupt, which can be exciting
in a design.
● Too little rhythm can create a monotonous effect. Too much rhythm can create confusion and be overwhelming.
● Rhythm can be achieved through; repetition, alternation, gradation or radiation.
Emphasis
● Emphasis is the creation of a focal point of interest in a design. A dominant feature completes
a design and anchors the eye to prevent it from wandering from point to point.
● Emphasis can also be useful for drawing attention away from an area, resolving conflict or
contrast between competing visual forces and achieving unity.
● There are a number of techniques to create emphasis in a design;
○ size – bold, large sized features or decoration stand out and draw the eye,
○ grouping objects – using buttons and decorative details, such as tucks or pleats,
○ contrasting lines, shapes, or textures – introducing an unusual element at a particular
point,
○ contrasting colours – using light against dark colours or a bright, bold colour to
produce a dramatic effect to draw attention, or
○ decoration on a plain background with one strong element.
Contrast
● Contrast exists when two or more features in a design are totally unrelated – creating opposition, conflict and tension.
● In moderation, contrast will relieve monotony. Good use of contrast does not
distract from the rest of the design and creates a sense of unity.
● Contrast involves all elements of design. There may be contrast in line,
direction, colour, shape, size and texture.
● A small amount of contrast can result in a subdued design. The design may
appear monotonous because of the similarity of the elements. A large amount
of contrast may cause the design to lose cohesion and be overwhelming
because of the intense competition between the contrasting elements.
● The differences that contrast creates draw attention to the opposing qualities
of the elements in the design.
Harmony
● Harmony is a feeling of consistency or
agreement in a design – created when
one or more of the design elements are
alike.
● Elements are selected and arranged in a
manner which is pleasing to the eye and
expresses the overall mood of the design.
● The following illustration on the left is
harmonious because all the design
elements are similar. The following
illustration on the right is not harmonious
because the design elements in the skirt
are in contrast with those of the jacket.
Unity
● Unity is the outcome or conclusion of the design process. It is achieved when all the elements and principles combine
successfully in a cohesive whole.
● All design strives for unity. A good
design requires interest and variety, but
at the same time there must be an
orderly arrangement of the visual
components which have a connection
with all the other parts of the design.
● A test to determine if unity has been
achieved is to look at the design and
gain a feeling that not a single detail
could be added, removed or altered
without spoiling the overall effect.
Summary
Types of Design
→ functional; items designed for a specific purpose that may include examples from the following focus areas: apparel, furnishings,
costume, textile arts and non-apparel.
● Functional design relates to the performance of a product and how the item performs its function. The primary requirement of
function design is that it suits the purpose. It relates to all aspects of the design which are required for practical functioning of the
item.
● Successful functional design relies largely on materials selection and structural design. For functional design to be successful it
should be;
○ suitable in shape, proportion, size and fit for the end purpose,
○ work safety and functions as it is designed to,
○ of sound construction by using appropriate construction techniques, and
○ made of a suitable material that is suited to the items used.
● Some textile items are designed to primarily be aesthetically appealing or decorative and do not have a practical use. The functional
considerations then is;
○ its ability to retain shape,
○ to withstand fading from constant exposure to sunlight,
○ to not attract dust, and
○ to not require constant cleaning.
→ apparel
→ furnishings
● Interior furnishings.
● They are primarily used to decorate the interior of a home, work or public space and some exterior areas.
● Interior furnishings include lounge covers, throws, rugs, carpets, sheets, quilts, cushions and curtains
● Exterior furnishings include awnings, hammocks and outdoor carpets.
→ costume
→ textile arts
● Textile objects for decoration and adornment, or an artwork that acts as a method of communication.
● This includes wall hangings, wearable art and soft sculptures.
→ non-apparel
● Textile articles are functional for a specific purpose and fall outside of the other categories.
● This includes luggage, medical appliances, crepe bandages and sutures, medical gowns, head coverings, automotive parts, sleeping
bags, tents, towels, kites, children fabric books and toys.
→ aesthetic; surface decoration or design that enhances the appearance of textile related items.
● Aesthetic design refers to the appearance of an object. The primary requirement of aesthetic design is to enhance appearance
and strengthen functional design.
● It refers to the visual and tactile enrichment of an object, or the beautification of a textile item for the purpose of providing visual
interest.
● It provides enhancement to a design that is already functionally successful. For aesthetic design to be successful it should be;
○ applied to be suited to the intended purpose and overall appearance.
○ be used at the structural points of the design to strengthen the design, and
○ applies and balances the principles and elements of design.
→ factors determining appropriate design, including environmental sustainability and manufacturing techniques.
→ environmental sustainability
● Appropriate design must incorporate environmentally sustainable practices, such as using materials that have a low environmental
impact and can be recycled or biodegraded.
● The design should minimise waste and pollution by employing efficient production methods, reducing energy use, and considering
the lifecycle of the product to ensure it contributes to long-term sustainability.
→ manufacturing techniques
● The choice of manufacturing techniques directly affects the appropriateness of a design, as it must be feasible to produce at scale
without compromising quality.
● Techniques like digital printing, seamless knitting, and automated processes ensure that the design can be produced efficiently,
cost-effectively, and with minimal waste, while maintaining the structural integrity and functionality of the textile.
Communication Techniques
→ graphical; examples should include: object drawing (views of items from different perspectives, including orthogonal (2D) and pictorial
(3D) representations), fashion drawing: (figure sketching, rendering using a range of appropriate media), industry production drawing
specifications (correct dimensions and proportions, accurate details on drawings and pattern pieces ) and communication-based
technologies.
● Designers communicate their ideas through drawings and sketches as they provide a clear method of illustrating and communicating
design ideas.
● There are two major methods of drawing to communicate design ideas; objective drawing and fashion drawing.
→ object drawing; object drawing: views of items from different perspectives, including orthogonal (2D) and pictorial (3D) representations
● Objective drawing views items from different perspectives. This type of drawing is suitable for illustrating furnishings, some
fashion and costumes, jewellery and accessories, textile arts and some non-apparel.
● There are two categories of objective drawing:
○ pictorial drawing
■ isometric
■ oblique
○ perspective
■ orthogonal drawing
● Orthogonal drawing is a 2-dimensional method that is mainly used for manufacturing purposes.
● These drawings are very accurate, each face of the product is drawn individually and to scale. A view
from the front, the top, the side and if necessary, the base.
● Product or presentation drawings are detailed and of realistic proportions. They are the final product of design development.
Product drawings show front and back views, construction lines and decorative details. They are accompanied by descriptive notes,
or labelling, and or fabric swatches.
● Production drawings are flat, technically correct drawings specifying all structural and decorative details such as fabric
names and fibre content, construction lines,
fastenings and embellishment.
● Production drawings are drawn in black fine
point pen without rendering indicating colour
and fabric by labelling. The sketch is drawn flat
and not on a body figure.
● Production sketches are drawn to scale in
accurate proportion and feature front and back
views. They provide all the details and
information necessary to manufacture the textile
item, including measurements. They are used
by patternmakers, graders, cutters and
manufacturers.
→ communication-based technologies
● Computer aided drawing (CAD) involves the use of computer technology to generate images and can be used both for fashion
drawing and objective drawing, pattern making and digital printing.
● Computer aided drawing assists in the development and presentation of design ideas.
→ verbal; criteria for effective communication: audience, purpose, context and language.
→ audience
● This involves the tailoring of language and technical details based on the audience’s demographic.
→ purpose
● This involves clearly defining the goal of the communication, such as explaining design choices, fabric behaviour, or construction
techniques.
→ context
● This involves consideration of the setting, to adjust tone and level of detail.
→ language
● This involves using precise, accessible, and industry-specific terminology to ensure clarity, avoiding jargon when necessary to
prevent misunderstandings.
→ written; criteria for effective communication: appropriate text type and font, use of space, audience, purpose and context.
● This involves selecting clear, readable fonts and text formats suited to the message and audience.
→ use of space
● This involves organising content with sufficient white space, headings, and paragraphs to enhance readability and flow.
→ audience
● This involves the adaptation to the level of detail and terminology based on the audience of the text.
→ purpose
● This involves clearly conveying the intent, such as describing design concepts, providing instructions, or sharing technical details.
→ context
● This involves writing with the specific project, format or setting in mind.
Manufacturing Methods
→ production techniques and machinery skills, including; seams, seam finishes, opening and closure treatments and other appropriate
manufacturing techniques, those appropriate to fabrics, using woven, non-woven and knit materials with light, medium and heavy weight
fabrics, those appropriate to pattern modification – interpreting, using and modifying patterns.
→ seams, seam finishes, opening and closure treatments and other appropriate manufacturing techniques
● This involves selecting appropriate seams to ensure the garment’s strength and longevity, durability, aesthetic appeal and prevent
fraying.
● Opening and closure treatments, including buttons, snaps, and zippers, should be chosen based on functionality and fabric type to
provide secure fastening and ease of use.
→ those appropriate to fabrics, using woven, non-woven and knit materials with light, medium and heavy weight fabrics
● Manufacturing techniques must align with fabric type and weight, as lighter fabrics like chiffon may require delicate seams, while
heavy fabrics like denim need stronger stitching and reinforcements.
● Knit materials benefit from stretch-friendly seams, while non-woven fabrics require techniques that prevent tearing or distortion.
● Techniques for pattern modification include adding darts, adjusting ease, or changing the seam placement to enhance fit, style, or
functionality.
● These modifications ensure that the garment suits the intended design while maintaining structural integrity.
● Proper interpretation of patterns involves understanding symbols and instructions to accurately cut and construct garments.
● Modifying patterns requires knowledge of grading, adjusting proportions, and customising details to achieve the desired fit and style
for various body shapes and garment purposes.
Properties and Performance of Textiles
Fabric Structure
● Yarns are continuous strands made by twisting fibres together. Yarns can be smooth or hairy, shiny or dull and firm or loose.
● Yarns spun from short fibres are known as spun yarn and yarn spun from longer fibres are known as filaments.
● Filament yarn is made by chemical spinning (with the exception of silk), creating a polymer solution that is extruded through a
spinneret, solidified in fibre form and then brought together with or without a slight twist.
→ woven; warp, weft, selvedge
→ warp
● Yarns which run the length of the fabric are known as warp yarns.
→ weft
● Yarns which run across the width of the fabric are known as weft yarns, filling yarns or picks.
→ selvedge
● A selvage or selvedge is a self-finished edge of a piece of fabric which keeps it from unravelling and fraying.
→ knitted; course, wale
→ course
● Course refers to a horizontal row of loops or stitches that run across the fabric.
● Each course is created as the yarn is fed through the needles, forming loops that interlock with those in the row below.
● It is the knitting equivalent of a "weft" in weaving. The number and tightness of course affect the fabric's stretch, density, and overall
texture.
→ wale
● Wale refers to a vertical column of loops or stitches that run lengthwise through the fabric.
● It is the knitting equivalent of a "warp" in weaving, and the number of wales affects the fabric's stability, texture, and stretch.
→ non-woven
→ woven, including plain, twill, satin, Jacquard, crepe and pile weaves
Weave
Weaving Process
→ plain
● The plain weave is formed by yarns at right angles passing alternately over and under each other. Each warp yarn interlaces
with each filling yarn to form the maximum number of
interlacings. It is described as a 1/1 weave.
● Plain weave fabrics have no technical face or back due to
the weave – hence the uninteresting surface makes it
useful for printed designs and finishes.
● Plain-weave fabrics tend to wrinkle easily and be less
absorbent than other weaves, because of the high
quantity of interlacings per square inch, however this
lessens the probability of ravelling. They are sturdy unless
produced with a low thread count.
● Plain weave fabric soils more readily than the other
weaves because they have a more porous structure which traps particles of soil.
● Variations of plain weave are ribbed or corded weave and basket weave.
● Basket weave fabrics are constructed with two or more weft yarns interlacing two or more warp yarns. These fabrics are looser,
softer and more textured than normal plain weave.
● Ribbed or corded weave fabrics, such as poplin, are constructed with thicker than normal weft yarns giving a weft ribbed effect.
→ twill
● In a twill weave, each warp or filling yarn floats across one or more filling or warp yarns with a progression of interlacings by
one to the right or left, forming a distinct diagonal line, or wale.
● A float is the portion of a yarn that crosses over two or more yarns from
the opposite direction.
● Even sided twills, such as a 2/2 twill, are recognised by the twills showing
on both sides of the fabric. Each weft yarn passes over and under the
same number of warp yarns.
● Uneven twills, such as 2/1, have twills on the front but not on the back of
the fabric.
● Twill weave is durable, dense and non-porous because the yarns can be
closely packed together. This contributes to its excellent resistance to soiling and wind. Some of the more pronounced twills have a
tendency to snag.
● Twill weave may be either right or left handed. Left hand twills have a diagonal that runs from the upper left to the lower right hand
direction. Right hand twills have the diagonal that runs from the upper right to the lower left hand side.
● Twills can be woven in light, medium and heavy weights such as surah, gabardine and serge.
● Coloured patterns can be produced by using coloured yarns. Only the very light weights are printed.
● The direction of the twill may be varied to produce a herringbone or houndstooth effect.
→ satin
● Satin weave floats extend over four or more yarns and under one. There is a progression of two yarns to the right or left in
the previous yarn. Satin is described as a 4/1 weave.
● Satin weave produces a smooth and lustrous surface which is created by the long warp floats.
● Sateen weave may be considered as the opposite to satin weave because the long weft floats. Sateen is described as a 1/4 weave.
● Satin and sateen weaves have a right and wrong side. The right side is lustrous and the wrong side is dull. Satin fabrics have
smooth, soft surfaces with low to high lustre and are found in a variety of weights from lightweight lingerie satins to heavy duchess
satins.
● Sateens, depending on fibre content, can have a low lustre or sheen or a completely matte finish. Many of the satin and sateen fabric
properties are attributed to long floats.
● Most notably is the lustre which occurs because the light reflects off the even fabric surface. The long floats also permit yarns to be
packed very closely together, creating a high yarn count fabric and good wind resistance. A tendency to snag results from the long
floats and fray due to the reduced number of interlacings.
● Satin weave is often imitated by plain weave, using highly lustrous fibres, such as polyester. This is a much cheaper way of
producing satin like fabrics.
→ Dobby
● A dobby loom creates small, geometric patterns that can be woven into a fabric on a loom with an attachment which
controls the harnesses. The yarns forming the woven pattern are interlaced differently from the yarns in the background weave.
● More harnesses are needed to increase the number of interlacings. Yarns for the pattern are controlled by; punch cards that are
laced together in a continuous strip and 2 computer discs.
● Fabrics made by the dobby loom include; bird’s eye, waffle cloth and huck-a-back.
● Bird’s eye fabrics have an all-over small diamond shaped pattern with a dot in the centre and are often used in the lining of men’s
suit jackets.
● Huck-a-back fabrics have a pebbly surface produced by weft floats and are often used for roller hand towels.
● Waffle cloth has a honeycomb pattern and is mostly used for towels and similar products.
→ jacquard
● Through varying the basic weaves within a fabric construction very intricate patterns can be formed to produce a Jacquard
weave.
● To obtain the intricate patterns each warp thread is controlled independently by; punch cards that are laced together in a continuous
strip and computer discs.
● Jacquard weaves are highly decorative. Where there are long floats the fabric will be prone to snagging and fray easily. Jacquard
fabrics often have one way designs and in the case of tapestry
form a complete picture which may not be repeated.
● Fabrics made on a Jacquard loom include; damask, brocade
and tapestry.
● Damask fabrics are double sided and have a design of satin
floats on a sateen background on one side. The floats in the
design run in the opposite direction to those of the background,
few colours are used.
● Brocade fabrics have a design of satin floats on a plain, ribbed
or satin background. The floats are of greatly varying length
and there are often several colours.
● Tapestry fabrics are intricately woven pictures, in many different
colours. There are two or more sets of warp yarns and two or
more sets of weft yarns. They are interlaced so that the warp
yarns are not woven into the back and the back weft yarns do
not show on the correct side of the fabrics.
→ crepe
Overview
● Crêpe fabrics have a crinkled surface and were originally made from crêpe yarns, which have a very high degree of twist,
using a plain weave.
● Crêpe fabrics, however, can be produced using methods such as:
○ Weaving
■ plain weave, using high twist crêpe yarns or textured yarns
■ crêpe weave
■ slack-tension weave
○ Finishes
■ chemical
■ mechanical.
Plain Weave
● Plain weave fabrics woven with high twist yarns crêpe yarns produce are considered
true crêpe fabric. The high twist crêpe yarn can run in the warp, weft or both directions.
● True crêpe fabrics have a permanent crinkle; however, they will flatten during use. They have
good drapes, stretch moderately and are not prone to wrinkling. However, they are prone to
shrinkage when washed and so it is best to dry-clean these fabrics.
● French crêpe, crêpe de chine and georgette are examples of true crêpe fabrics.
Crêpe Weave
● Crêpe, or momie, weave fabrics do not use a distinctive basic weave. The fabric has irregular floats
and interlacings which result in crêpe weave fabrics appearing to be sprinkled with small spots.
● Crêpe weave fabrics have poor drape, have poor stretch and the crinkle effect does not flatten.
● Fabrics can be made with either a dobby attachment or as a variation of satin weave. They can use
regular, high twist or textured yarns.
● Moss crêpe is a combination of high twist yarns and crêpe weave.
Slack-Tension Weave
Chemical Finishes
● A chemical is applied in a striped pattern to a plain woven fabric. The chemical shrinks the fabric giving a regular pucker to the
untreated fabric surface. This finish gives a permanent crêpe appearance. Plissé fabrics are an example of this method.
● Mechanical indentations may be embossed with a roller onto plain weave fabrics to achieve a puckered effect.
Textured Yarns
● A synthetic yarn for the weft is textured and used to create a crêpe effect – unlike true crêpes, the yarns
do not have a high twist.
● During the wet finishing of the fabric the textured yarn will shrink to form the crinkled effect. These fabrics
perform well, drape well and do not need to be ironed.
→ pile weaves
● Pile weave fabrics are those which have another set of yarns woven into the ground
yarns or backing fabric to give the fabric a three-dimensional structure. This third set of
yarns may be cut or uncut/looped.
● Pile weaves may be weft pile or warp pile. Weft pile weave include corduroy and velveteen.
Warp pile included velvet and velour.
● In a weft pile weave two sets of weft yarns and one set of warp yarns is used. The pile is
created by cutting the floats on the surface after weaving. After weaving the fabric surface is
brushed to raise the pile and open up the yarns. The surface is then singed and waxed to
ensure it is even.
● In a warp pile weave two sets of warp yarns and one set of weft yarns are used. There are a number of methods for producing warp
pile weaves; the double cloth method, the open wire method and the slack-tension pile method.
● Pile weave may be varied by; pile height, cut or uncut loops, fabric count, yarn twist, areas of pile on a flat surface, sculpturing and
curling and crushing.
● Pile fabrics are highly flammable as air is trapped between the fibres helping the
fabric to burn rapidly. The trapped air allows for extra warmth to be retained.
● Most pile fabrics have a nap which can be determined by running a hand up and
down the fabric.
● Pile weave fabrics such as velvet, velveteen and corduroy have a low lustre and
soft feel. Towellings and carpet fabrics can be slightly stiffer and harsher.
→ knitted, including single knit, double knit, tricot knit, pile knit, lace and net.
Overview
● Knitting is a fabrication process in which needles are used to form a series of interlocking loops from one or more yarns to
form a set of yarns. Knit fabrics are recognised by their loop formation.
● Loops can be formed:
○ horizontally, using a single yarn, producing weft knit fabric
○ vertically, using a separate needle for each yarn, producing warp knit fabric. The loops that run across the fabric create a
course. The loop that runs down the fabric to create a wale.
● Weft knit fabrics are knitted on weft knitting machines and warp knit fabrics are knitted on warp knitting machines.
Knitting Machines
● Knitting takes place on knitting machines which are engineered to specific usage and are not interchangeable. Although there are a
variety of weft and warp knitting machines the most common are:
● Weft knitting machines can be:
○ flat-bed with their needles arranged on a flat needle bed, or
○ circular with their needle bed arranged on a circular rotating cylinder.
● Flat machines can have one straight horizontal needle bed. Specific diameter circular machines are used for items such as singlets
and hosiery.
● Knitted fabrics vary in:
○ gauge refers to the fineness of stitches in the fabric. The finer the gauge the finer the needles and the finer the yarns used,
the greater the number of needles required. The coarser the gauge the thicker the needles and the thicker the yarns used,
the fewer the number of needles required.
○ stitch variety accounts for the many patterns and textures in knitted fabrics, examples of stitches are plain, tuck, cardigan
and purl.
○ width is determined by the width of the needle bed on flat bed machines which vary between 75 cm and 200 cm. Circular
machines knit to the dimensions required for the end product.
● In filling knitting a single yarn travels across the fabric. Hand knitting is a form of weft knitting. If a fabric resembles a smaller version
of a hand knit it is probably a weft knit.
● Weft knits can be classified as:
○ single knits - single or plain jersey, laid-in jersey, weft pile knit , Jacquard knit, purl knit
○ double knits - rib knit, interlock, double knit jersey
○ hosiery
○ fully fashioned knits.
→ single knit
Overview
● Extra yarns can be inserted to give strength, comfort or decorative effects. The yarns are laid in the loops as they are being
formed.
● Examples of laid-in, or weft-insertion, yarns include; elastic yarns and low twist yarns.
● Extra yarns can be inserted to form pile fabrics such as terry cloth and velour.
Jacquard Jersey
● A Jacquard mechanism can be fitted to the jersey knitting machine to allow intricate patterns and
colours to be knitted into the fabric.
Purl Knit
● Purl stitches are recognised by course on both sides of the fabric. Both sides of the fabric look like the wrong side of the jersey.
It is the slowest and least economical form of knitting but is very versatile.
● Purl knit fabric has good elasticity but more stretch in the lengthwise direction. It does not curl like single jersey
● The purl knitting machine can produce plain, purl and rib structures. It can also be used to knit lace.
● Purl knit is used for bulky knits such as cable knit jumpers, fancy knit hosiery and thick socks.
→ double knit
Overview
● Double knit is a term for fabrics which have been knitted by two sets of needles inserted into a V-bed machine. The needles
face each other at right angles, in an upside down V formation, with a space between them through which the fabric falls.
● Fabrics made in this way include rib knits, interlock and double knit jersey.
Rib Knit
● A rib knit structure consists of face wales and back wales. In hand knitting ribs are made by alternating plain and purl stitches. If
every other stitch alternates from front to back it is called a 1 x 1 rib. If every two stitches alternate it is called a 2 x 2 rib.
● The larger the number of stitches which alternate the more pronounced the rib. Ribs which are 1 x 1 may be fine enough that they
appear to be single knit on either side.
● Rib knits are often used in the cuff, waist and neckline of garments. They are used at the top of socks and for heavier weight
jumpers.
Interlock
● Interlock is composed of an intermeshed 1 x 1 rib. The fabric is reversible with both sides resembling the right side of a single
jersey. To identify interlock stitches look at the looped edge and the stitches will be opposite each other.
● Interlock is less extensible than single knit, is firmer, thicker, more insulating and does not curl at the edges.
● Interlock fabrics have a regular, even surface suitable for printing. They are used for T-shirts, outerwear, sportswear and piece goods.
● Double knit jersey is knitted with rib structures intermeshed together. Where interlock shows each stitch opposite each other,
double knit jersey stitches alternate from the front to the back row. They are usually knitted with thicker yarn than single knit or
interlock resulting in a heavier fabric.
● Double knit jersey fabrics are more dimensionally stable than other weft knits, do not run or curl and are easy to cut and sew.
● Double knits are used for tailored knitwear items and upholstery.
Hosiery
● Socks, stockings and pantyhose are known as hosiery. They are knitted on small diameter single bed, circular weft knitting
machines.
○ Socks
■ Various stitches can be used to knit socks including single jersey, 1x1 rib, various rib structures, half cardigan
stitch.
■ The foot section is often a single jersey and the top is usually a rib to keep the socks up.
■ Spun yarn of any fibre content can be used. Often nylon is used to reinforce the toes and elastomeric yarn laid in
at the top.
○ Pantyhose
■ Fine, textured multifilament yarn is knitted usually in a single jersey stitch.
■ A thicker yarn is used for the panty and toe sections.
○ Fully fashioned knitting
■ A unique advantage of knitting is that complete products such as sweaters and hosiery can be produced or
fashioned directly on the knitting machine.
■ Fully fashioning is a method of shaping knitted garments during the knitting process. Just as in hand knitting,
stitches are increased or decreased on the area to be shaped.
■ A selvedge is formed on the edge of the piece.
→ warp knit
● Warp knitting provides the fastest means of making fabric from yarns.
● Warp knit fabrics tend to be less resilient and lighter in weight than filling knits. Depending on their structure, they can be stable in
both fabric directions or exhibit stretch.
● Warp knitting is constructed on straight warp knitting machines with many yarns that form loops simultaneously in the lengthwise,
that is the warp, direction. Each yarn is controlled by its own needle, and interlocks with its neighbouring yarns in a zig-zag manner.
● There are a number of different warp knit fabrics including:
○ Tricot knits – plain tricot, brushed tricot, satin tricot, tricot net
○ Raschel knits – thermal cloth, Raschel, net, Raschel crochet, Raschel lace.
● Apparel end uses for warp knits include lingerie, underwear, sportswear, and outerwear. Warp knits are used in contract-grade
carpet, upholstery, drapery, and casement fabrics and for face fabrics in wall partitions. Technical end uses include fabrics for sun
and light protection, controlling rock falls, grass collection, snow barriers, and dam reinforcement. They are also used for medical
implants such as artificial veins and tissue-support fabrics.
→ tricot knit
Overview
● Tricot fabrics account for the largest quantity of warp knit fabrics produced and are the fastest way of producing fabric from
yarns.
● Variations can be made in stitch and pattern by altering the number of yarns being fed to the needles, changing the gauge, altering
the loop formation and laying-in yarns.
● Tricot fabrics include chamois, suede cloth, velour and satin.
Plain Tricot
● Plain tricot fabrics are recognised by fine lengthwise wales on the right
side and crosswise ribs on the back.
● Plain tricot can be knitted as one-bar, two-bar, three-bar or four-bar,
according to the number of guide bars, and yarns, which are used in their
construction. The more bars the heavier and more dimensionally stable the
fabric. A one-bar tricot is very unstable and so seldom used, except as a
backing fabric.
● Tricot fabrics can be sheer, plain, patterned or lace-like. They have high tear
strength, good dimensional stability, are run proof and do not curl or travel.
● Tricot knit fabrics are very versatile and are used for lingerie, sleepwear,
men’s shirts, backing fabrics, uniforms and upholstery and curtains.
● Tricot machines use a very fine gauge, 11–14 needles to the centimetre, and
knit fine, multifilament yarns.
Brushed Tricot
Satin Tricot
● These fabrics are made in a similar manner to velour but the floats are left to reflect light.
● It is softer and more elastic than woven satin.
Tricot Net
→ pile knit
● In a pile knit, loops of yarn are knitted into the fabric to create the pile. This involves interlocking loops of yarn, allowing for
stretch and flexibility.
● Pile knits tend to be softer, more flexible, and stretchy compared to pile weaves. The knitted structure can give the fabric a more
relaxed drape.
● Terry cloth and velour are examples of pile knit fabrics. They’re commonly used in garments where stretch and comfort are key, such
as leisurewear or baby clothes.
● Raschel knit fabric structures come in a variety of forms, ranging from sheer nets to very heavy carpets.
● They are used in a variety of women’s apparel and for men’s suits. They are also used industrially in laundry bags, fish nets, safety
nets and swimming pool covers.
● Due to their variety and versatility they are very hard to classify.
Thermal Cloth
● Thermal cloth is knitted with pockets to trap heat from the body.
● It is used for winter underwear and thermal blankets.
Raschel Net
Raschel Crochet
Raschel Lace
Overview
● Fiberweb or non woven structures include all textile-sheet structures made from fibrous webs, bonded by mechanical fibre
entanglement, by resin, by thermal fusion, or by forming chemical complexes.
● Fibres are the fundamental units of structure, arranged into a web and bonded so that the distances between the fibres are several
times greater than the fibre diameter.
● The properties of nonwovens are controlled by the arrangement of the fibres in the web, the properties of the fibres used in the web,
and the properties of the binders used.
● Fiberweb fabrics include:
○ staple and filament webs mechanically or chemically bonded together, for example nonwoven interfacing
○ entangled fibrewebs, for example felt
○ multiplex structures, for example quilted fabrics
○ films extruded from polymer solutions, for example vinyl
○ yarns that are neither woven or knitted together, for example laces and braids
● Nonwovens are generally inexpensive to manufacture and are often made into disposable products such as nappies and sponges.
● The technology of fiberweb fabric production now enables fabrics to be engineered with specific properties for specific end-uses.
This has resulted in the rapid growth in the application of nonwoven textiles.
● Filaments are strong staple fibres are used for strength and durability; cellulosics are used for absorbency; thermoplastics
are used for spunbonded webs.
● Five techniques are used to form the web; dry-laid, wet-laid, spun-bonded, spun-lace and melt blown.
● Fibre orientation controls web characteristics and describes both fibres that are parallel in the web and with machine direction, the
direction in which the supporting conveyor belt moves.
● Oriented webs have fibres parallel to each other. Webs in which the fibres are highly parallel to each other and to the machine
direction are orientated in the lengthwise direction.
● Random webs have fibres that are not parallel to each other. Lengthwise oriented webs have grain.
● Fibres may be laid parallel to each other, cross laid or randomly laid. The process of producing non-woven fibre webs involves:
1. opening bales of fibres
2. feeding the fibres onto a conveyor belt
3. laying the fibres down to make a web.
4. bonding the web together to make form a fabric
5. winding the fabric up.
● Natural or manufactured staple fibres webs may be formed by;
○ brushing in parallel formation into a thin fibre web,
○ blowing into random formation to form the web, or
○ mixing with water into a slurry, then extracting to leave a random fibre web.
● Fibre webs may be bonded:
○ mechanically - fibre to fibre friction
■ needle punching
■ stitch bonding
○ chemically - adhesive bonded
■ spun bonded
■ hydroentangled
■ melt blown
→ felt and webs
Mechanical Bonding
● True felt is a mat or web of wool fibres held together by the interlocking of the wool scales.
● In modern factories layers of wool or wool blends are built up until the desired thickness is attained and then heat, soap, and
vibration are used to mat the fibres together.
● The external scale structure of wool is responsible for felting. Wool scales are directed to the fibre top. Small movement of the fibre
occurs in the direction of the root, a phenomenon known as the ‘directional friction effect’. This causes the scales to interlock
irreversibly and create a dense fabric structure known as felt.
● True felts are used for acoustics, shock absorption, packing, hats, slippers, toys and thermal insulation.
● Hair fibres such as rabbit and beaver fur, or blends, make denser, firmer felts and are used for accessories such as hats.
● Felts do not have grain and do not ravel. They are stiff, less pliable, and weaker than
other structures. The quality of felt depends on the quality of the fibres used.
● Felt has many technical and some apparel uses. It is used for padding, soundproofing,
insulation, filtering, polishing and wicking.
● Felt is not used for fitted apparel because it lacks the flexibility and elasticity of fabrics
made from yarns. However, it is widely used in products such as hats, slippers, applied
design, and pendants.
Needle Punching
● Needle punching is used to produce needle felts and fibre batts. Bonding is
achieved by the mechanical action which results from the penetration of barbed
needles into a web or webs of fibres. As the needles move up and down through the
web the barbs catch the fibres entangling them mechanically.
● This process is a relatively inexpensive way to produce blankets and carpeting. Fibre
denier, fibre type, and product loft vary.
● Indoor/outdoor olefin needle punched carpeting is used for patios, porches, and pools
because it is impervious to moisture.
Chemical Bonding
Adhesive Bonding
● Adhesive bonding is a versatile and inexpensive method of manufacturing
non-woven fabrics.
● Non-woven fabrics can be produced by spraying adhesive onto a fibre web.
If the fabrics are filled with adhesive they tend to be very stiff and board-like.
● To produce a fabric with a softer hand adhesives are printed onto the web
roller. The roller prints a predetermined pattern of adhesive onto the web of
fibres while leaving some areas without.
● Fabric uses include, wiping cloths, facing fabrics for disposable nappies,
sanitary napkins and underpads, hospital surgical dressings, filters, disposable apparel, fabric backings, interfacings and carpet
backings.
Spun Bonding
● Melt-blown fibre webs are made by extruding the polymer through a single orifice into a high velocity heated-air stream that
breaks the ultrafine fibre into short pieces.
● The amount of extruded fibre will determine the fabric weight. This is a versatile process which allows the fabric weight to be varied
according to particular end-use requirements.
● The spun melt process combines spun-bonded and melt-blown technology for applications where bicomponent webs are needed
for barrier and filtration applications.
● The fibre pieces are collected as a web on a moving conveyor belt and held together by fibre interlacing and thermal bonding. Olefin
and polyester are used to produce medical products and sanitary applications.
● Melt blown non-woven fabrics are used to make filter cloths that are water repellent yet air permeable, as well as include nappies
and sanitary napkin covers, battery separators and tenting materials.
● The collection of fibres may be controlled to create open and lofty fabrics capable of trapping air, in turn providing insulation –
proving useful as thermal insulation materials, used in anoraks and sleeping bags.
Multiplex Structures
● A multiplex fabric is one that combines two or more structures, at least one of
which is a recognised textile structure, into a single structure.
● These include; quilted fabrics, laminated fabrics, coated fabrics, tufted pile fabrics and
locked pile fabrics.
Quilted Fabrics
● Laminates are fabrics in which two layers of fabric are combined into one with an adhesive. They are used in apparel, interiors,
shoes and technical products.
● Laminating gives warmth without weight, and does not hold sharp creases.
● Random nonwovens or acetate or nylon tricot are used as the backing fabric for knits because they give when the face fabric is
stretched, and they are low cost.
Poromeric Fabrics
● Lace is an openwork fabric with complex patterns or figures, handmade or machine made using several fabrication
methods.
● Lace has intricate intermeshed patterns held by thread bars, created through yarns being twisted around each other to create open
areas.
● The Leavers lace machine consists of warp yarns and bobbins of yarns used to form the lace patterns. The bobbins swing and twist
around each adjacent warp yarn.
● Laces can come in all-over designs in fabric form or as edgings, insertions and medallions.
● It is difficult to differentiate the way in which the various machine-made laces are manufactured. The only true non-woven laces
would be those made on the Leavers lace machine.
→ films
● Films act as a moisture resistant barrier conducting liquid into the pulp layer below while staying
dry against the body of the wearer.
● Films are made directly from a polymer solution by meltextrusion or by casting the solution onto
a hot drum. Most apparel and interior textile films are made from vinyl or polyurethane solutions.
● The film prevents the dressings from adhering to the wound surface which could be pulled away
when the dressing is removed.
Fabric and Fibre Properties and Testing
→ using a range of functional and aesthetic tests, record and evaluate results; aesthetic (including lustre, drape), durability (including
abrasion resistance, strength), comfort (including absorbency, thermal properties, elasticity), dimensional stability and care (including the
effect of chemicals, sun resistance, colour fastness, shrink resistance).
● Lustre refers to the shine of an object. Reflection of light results in high lustre. Absorption of light results in low lustre.
● The fibre, yarn, fabric structure and texture influences the amount of light reflected and absorbed and as a result the degree of lustre.
Smooth, regular surfaces reflect light and appear lustrous. Rough, irregular surfaces absorb light and appear dull.
● High twist yarns will have higher lustres than low twist yarns. However, no twist, multifilament yarns will have a high lustre due to
their smooth, regular surface.
● Satin fabrics will have a greater lustre than plain weave fabrics because light is reflected from the yarns, which float over the surface
of the fabric. Knitted fabrics with less regular surfaces absorb light and appear dull.
● Drape refers to how a textile item falls when it is hung, how it bends under its own weight.
● If a fabric falls close to an object it has a good drape. If a fabric stands away from an object it has poor drape.
● Flexibility and weight of the fibre and yarn, the size of the yarn and, in particular, the fabric structure affects the drape of a textile.
● Many woven fabrics cut on the bias, or diagonal direction, have good drape. Lightweight satin fabrics, cut on the straight grain, also
have good drape because the long floats in their construction make the fabrics softer and more flexible.
● Many knitted fabrics have good drape due to the flexibility of the loop construction.
→ aesthetic, including hand.
● Hand refers to the feel of a textile item. Textile fabrics can feel soft, stiff, harsh, smooth, furry, thin, thick, cool, warm or
slippery.
● The composition of fibres, the structure of yarns, the construction of the fabrics all contributes to the hand of a material.
● The type of fibres will also determine how closely fibres will align during the spinning process. Fibres such as wool have a crimp or
● wave, which prevents close alignment during spinning. These yarns will have more loft than multifilament yarns, which align closely
during spinning.
→ durability (ability to withstand wear and tear), including abrasion resistance, strength
● Abrasion is the wearing away of any part of a textile item by rubbing the surface. The ability of a textile item to resist
abrasion is determined by the dimensions of the fibre, the structure of the yarn, the fabric structure and any finishing
processes.
● Loosely twisted yarns abrade and snag more easily than highly twisted yarns and are more likely to pill.
● Pilling, caused by light abrasion, is the tangling of fibres on the surface of a textile item, forming unsightly balls in areas of wear and
friction, such as under the arms. It detracts from the appearance and durability of a textile item.
● Natural fibres will break away, shedding the pills, while synthetic fibres are so strong that they will not break away from the fabric
resulting in firmly attached pills. Tightly spun yarns are less likely to form pills than loosely spun yarns.
● In general, knitted fabric structures are less resistant to abrasion than woven fabric structures.
● Tensile strength typically refers to the strength and elongation properties of the textile.
● Strong fibres, yarns and fabrics result in strong end products. Strong yarns and fabric structures will compensate for a weak fibre.
Likewise the stretch of a knit fabric will put less strain on a weak fibre and loose yarn structure.
● The blending of a strong fibre can overcome the deficiencies of a weaker one.
● Flexible fabrics will bend and drape easily. Some fibres such as wool are highly flexible while others, such as glass are rigid.
● Flexibility can be moderated by the twist in a yarn, the compactness of a weave or the gauge of a knit fabric.
● Absorbency refers to the amount of moisture a textile can hold. Fibre composition, type of yarn and fabric structure affects
absorbency.
● Textiles which are absorbent, like wool, cotton and rayon are hydrophilic, which attract moisture but are prone to soil and stain.
● Natural fibres, such as cotton, and regenerated fibres, like rayon, are very absorbent which permits perspiration to move away from
the body. Loosely twisted, thick yarns and knit fabrics also permit moisture to pass through the fabric, preventing the build up which
would result in a clammy and uncomfortable feeling.
● Textiles that are not absorbent are hydrophobic, and tend to build up static electricity. The characteristic ‘static cling’ which results
from a statically charged garment is uncomfortable, looks bad and attracts oil based stains.
● Poor absorbency is more often attributed to textiles made from synthetic fibres however, tightly spun yarns and woven fabrics may
also develop static if the environmental conditions are dry.
→ comfort, including thermal properties
● Elongation or extensibility is the ability of a textile fibre, yarn or fabric to extend marginally under tension.
● It allows slightly greater comfort and decreases seamstress. This property should be gauged together with elastic recovery, as
textiles that elongate and do not have good elastic recovery tend to have poor dimensional stability and loose shape and distort.
With the exception of elastomeric, which stretch from 400 per cent to 700 per cent, most fibres elongate between 2-45%.
● Weft knit fabrics structures also elongate as they stretch, unlike woven fabrics structures.
● Fibres such as wool and rayon are extensible but only wool has good elastic recovery. Textured yarns, which include polyurethane,
such as Lycra, are both extensible and have good to excellent elastic recovery.
→ appearance (the ongoing appeal of a textile item during use), including resilience
● Resilience is the ability of the textile to recover from bending, crushing or compressing.
● Wrinkles dramatically decrease the appeal of a textile item. Recovery from wrinkling and creasing is dependent on the resilience of a
textile.
● Natural, cellulosic fibres are likely to wrinkle and crease, requiring the application of heat for removal. Synthetic fibres and wool do
not wrinkle and crease easily and recover quickly. Therefore, synthetics and wool can be regarded as highly resilient fibres.
● Tightly spun yarns are more likely to wrinkle than loosely spun yarns. Woven fabric structures are more likely to wrinkle than knitted
fabric structures.
● The properties of a woollen knitted fabric with loosely spun yarn will result in a fabric with a high resistance to wrinkling. Whereas, a
cotton woven fabric with a tightly spun yarn will wrinkle and crease easily and require a high temperature iron.
● Elastic recovery refers to the degree to which a textile can return to its original size after elongation. Textile items with poor
elastic recovery stretch out of shape while those with good elastic recovery retain their shape.
● The elastic recovery of a textile depends upon the chemical composition of the fibre, the degree of twist in a yarn and the fabric
construction.
● Synthetic and wool fibres and high twist yarns have good elastic recovery.
● A woollen plain weave fabric made from high twist yarns will have greater elastic recovery than a cotton plain weave fabric made
from low twist yarns. A polyester weft knit fabric made from high twist yarns will have greater elastic recovery than a viscose weft
knit made from low twist yarns.
→ appearance, including dimensional stability
● Dimensional stability is the ability of a textile item to retain its size and shape. Dimensional stability depends upon the nature of
the fibre, strength and elastic recovery of the yarn and fabric structure.
● Loosely twisted yarns are less dimensionally stable than high twist yarns.
● Woven fabrics may shrink if they are not treated. This is a result of the fabrics being held under tension during the weaving process –
when they are washed they relax and shrink.
● Certain knit fabrics are not considered dimensionally stable as they stretch out of shape. This is particularly so with some weft knit
fabrics, which sag at the point of stretch and cease to be of use.
● Fibres such as wool and rayon are not dimensionally stable. Wool can shrink and feel and viscose can distort if laundered
inappropriately.
● To improve the performance of these fabric structures they may be treated with a chemical finish or heat set.
● Care refers to the washing, drying, ironing, dry cleaning, stain removal, and storage of textile items. These factors assist in the
preservation of textiles.
● Chemicals in textile care can aid cleaning but may cause fading or fibre damage if not used appropriately.
● The way fibres react to water; chemicals and heat will determine the methods used to maintain them.
● A fabric's ability to withstand prolonged exposure to sunlight without degrading, fading, or losing strength.
● Some fibres have low dry heat resistance and will scorch, burn or melt when heat is applied.
● Wool will scorch at low to medium ironing temperatures while cotton and linen will tolerate much more heat. Synthetic fibres, which
are thermoplastic, will soften and melt when even moderate heat is applied.
● Thermoplasticity can be used to advantage when permanently pleating fabric, placing permanent creases into trousers or heat
setting fabric to ensure dimensional stability.
● A textile item's ability to retain its colour is related to dye and fibre properties. There are many conditions which influence the
performance of colour in a textile. Colour change can be attributed to:
○ exposure to ultraviolet light, such as being hung in the sun to dry
○ abrasive action, such as rubbing at collar and cuffs
○ colour bleeding in water
○ acid, prevalent in sweat
○ alkali, found in detergent chemicals in dry cleaning and
○ spot cleaning agents.
● The fibres ability to absorb dye and to bond chemically will determine the colour fastness of a particular textile.
→ care, including shrink resistance
● A textile item’s ability to resist shrinkage depends on its reaction to water, agitation and heat. Shrinkage can occur in textile
items during laundering.
● Many textile fibres, yarns and fabrics are given shrink resistant finishes but care must be maintained to ensure that the textile item
remains attractive and usable. Shrinkage of up to 3 per cent is considered acceptable but anything over will decrease the size.
● While the agitation during washing can cause matting or felting of fibres, some fabrics will ‘grow’ or stretch out of shape. Knitted or
loosely woven fabrics can distort during laundering and need less agitation. If hand washed they should not be pulled from the water,
as the extra weight will extend them. These items should be laid flat to dry and not hung on a line.
Yarn Structure
● A yarn is a continuous strand of textile fibres, filaments, or materials in a form suitable for knitting, weaving or otherwise
intertwining to form a textile fabric. Yarns contribute significantly to fabric and product performance. Their selection affects the
fabric’s hand, appearance, drape, durability, comfort and many other areas of performance.
Yarn Classification
Simple Yarns
● Yarn regularity describes the degree of uniformity of the yarn throughout its
length. Yarns can be; simple, composite or novelty.
● Single and ply yarns have a similar structure throughout the length of the yarn.
● Single yarns consist of:
○ staple fibres, usually held together by twist
○ monofilament and multifilament yarns, often slightly twisted, which may be
regular or textured.
● Ply yarns have two or more single yarns twisted together in the opposite directions
from which they are spun. Plying increases the diameter, strength, uniformity and
quality of the yarn. If ply yarns undergo a third twisting operation the resulting
structure is called a cord.
Composite Yarns
● Composite or compound yarns are made up of several components while maintaining regularity along their length. This
category includes covered yarns and core-spun yarns.
● Covered yarns have a core yarn covered by another yarn – either a spun yarn or a filament yarn. There are two types of covered
yarns, single covered and double covered.
○ Single covered yarns have a single yarn wrapped around them and are lighter, more resilient and more economical to
manufacture than double covered yarns.
○ Double covered yarns have two yarns wrapped around them, they are heavier and more durable than single spun yarns.
● Core-spun yarns have a central yarn which is completely covered by a sheath of staple fibres. The core is stretched while the
covering is spun around it.
● Core-spun yarns are used in comfort stretch fabrics requiring low recovery such as swimwear, woven and knitted outwear, elastic
shirring thread and stretch denim. Core-spun yarns give woven fabrics the elasticity of knit fabrics.
→ spun staple; including carded and combed, woollen and worsted yarns
● A spun yarn is composed of short staple fibres that are twisted together resulting in
a fuzzy yarn with protruding fibre ends. Better quality and more expensive spun yarns
are produced from longer staple fibres.
● Spun yarns, also referred to as staple yarns, are made from staple fibres. They include all
natural fibres and manufactured fibres which are cut into staple lengths. They are
recognised by the protruding fibre ends.
● Spun yarns made from natural fibres and generally require more preparatory steps prior to
spinning.
● The preparation and converting of fibres into yarn involves a series of steps in a
continuously moving system.
● There are a number of methods for manufacturing spun yarns, which vary depending on the type of
● fibre and the required characteristics. However, all follow the same basic principles:
1. opening, cleaning and blending (optional) of natural fibres
2. carding
3. drawing
4. spinning
→ carded
● Carded yarns are produced by untangling and cleaning raw fibres, resulting in a yarn with a slightly uneven texture and more bulk.
● Fabrics made from carded cotton yarn are soft and pliable. This process is often used for creating softer, more textured fabrics with a
more natural appearance.
● More yarn is produced with the carded cotton system than the combed cotton system because shorter fibres are not removed, the
yarn is not twisted as much and has more fibre ends protruding from the surface of the yarn.
● They include lawn, gingham, calico, flannelette and denim.
→ combed
● Combed yarns are made from carded fibres that have been further processed to remove shorter fibres and impurities, creating a
smoother, stronger, and more uniform yarn.
● Fabrics made from combed cotton yarn are firmer and less pliable. This process is typically used for higher-quality fabrics with a finer
finish and greater strength.
● Less yarn is produced with the combed cotton system because shorter fibres are removed. The yarn is given a higher twist, has
fewer fibre ends protruding from the surface of the yarn and is firmer and finer than carded yarn.
● They include batiste, percale and some voile.
→ woollen
● Woollen yarns use short fibres spun from carded wool and have a more irregular, fuzzy texture due to the shorter fibres and less
intensive processing.
● Woollen yarn is soft, bulky and pliable. They are often used for warmer, more textured fabrics like sweaters and blankets.
● The yarn has protruding ends on the surface of the as a result of fibres being less parallel.
● Fabrics made from woollen yarns include tweed, woollen crêpe, woollen gabardine and flannel.
→ worsted
● Worsted yarns use long, fine fibres spun from combed wool, resulting in a smooth, even texture with fewer loose fibres.
● Worsted yarn is smooth, firm and less pliable. This yarn is used for garments that require a finer, more refined appearance and
strength, such as tailored suits or dress fabrics.
● The combing process ensures that the fibres are parallel and that short fibres have been removed. The resulting yarn is more tightly
spun, has fewer protruding ends and is firmer and finer than woollen yarns.
Overview
● A filament yarn is composed of long fibres grouped together or slightly twisted together.
● Smooth filament yarns have straight almost parallel fibres. Uniformly bulky yarns are called textured-bulk yarns.
● Filament yarns are made from long, continuous strands of fibre. They are made from manufactured fibres with the exception of silk.
● Filament yarns may be:
○ monofilament – yarns are made from a single filament. They are a
stiff, harsh and fairly inflexible fibre unsuited to apparel and
furnishings and have limited uses, such as toothbrushes and some
industrial applications, like fishing nets and lines.
○ multifilament – yarns are made up of many fine filaments. They
make up the majority of filament yarns.
● Filaments go through the following spinning stages:
1. extrusion – polymer solution pumped through a spinneret
2. solidification - strands of solution hardened or coagulate
3. drawing – strands of filament stretched to improve properties
4. winding – filaments wound onto bobbins.
● Filament begins as polymer chips which are melted into a viscous solution.
Methods of Spinning
● Manufactured filaments are produced by one of three methods; melt spinning, dry spinning or wet spinning.
Melt Spinning The solution is pumped through a spinneret into an air stream
where the fibre solidifies as it cools. The filament is drawn to
improve the properties of the fibre by aligning the polymer
chains.
Dry Spinning The polymer chips are mixed with a solvent to produce a
viscous solution. The solution is pumped through a spinneret
into warm air where the fibre solidifies with the evaporation of
the solvent. The filament is drawn to align the polymer chains
and improve the properties of the fibre.
● The hundreds of filaments are collected into a rope called filament tow. Filament yarns are smooth unless they undergo an additional
process known as texturing. Texturing changes the properties of the filament yarn.
→ smooth yarn
● Smooth filament yarns are strong, even and often have little twist.
● The smooth surface of these yarns results in a high lustre – often a delustering agent is added to the fibre solution, before extrusion
to decrease the lustre.
● Smooth filament yarns are made from continuous fibres that are smooth and uniform, resulting in a sleek and polished fabric surface.
● These yarns are often used in high-quality textiles, as they provide a smooth drape and a refined appearance.
● The smooth surface of these yarns, which has maximum contact with the skin, results in poor comfort as the hand is harsh and
absorption poor, making the material uncomfortable to wear against the skin. For this reason, filament yarns are given texture by
altering their surface contour.
● Fabrics made from smooth filament yarns are generally smooth, soft and light. They include satin, taffeta, brocade, surah and velvet.
→ textured yarn
Overview
● Textured filament yarns can be mechanically or chemically textured into durable crimps, coils, loops and other distortions along their
length. This results in less contact with the skin than smooth filaments.
● Characteristics of textured filament yarn include:
○ increased volume and cover,
○ increase stretch and/or bulk of varying degrees,
○ increased breathability, absorption and dye ability,
○ better insulation than smooth filament yarns,
○ soft and dry hand,
○ spun yarn-like qualities without pilling,
○ reduction in the build up of static electricity, and
○ more likely to sag than smooth filament yarns.
● These yarns are commonly used in garments and textiles where a more dynamic and tactile surface is desired.
Texturing Processes
● In order to be textured, filament yarns generally need to be thermoplastic. Polyester and nylon, the melt spun synthetics, are mainly
used because of their ability to tolerate heat setting temperatures.
● Acrylics would deteriorate at the required temperatures so other methods are used for bulking acrylic.
● Popular texturing processes include:
○ Mechanical texturing – false twist, stuffer box, edge crimp, gear crimp, knit-de-knit, air jet.
○ Chemical texturing – hi-bulking, bi-component fibres.
Stuffer Box ● Straight filament yarns are stuffed into one end of a heated box and withdrawn at the other
end. More yarn is fed into the box than is withdrawn causing it to crimp.
● Yarns produced by this method have a random, wavy, zigzag crimp, giving them a soft
bulky handle with increased moisture absorbency. This method can
● produce a 200% increase in volume and give some elasticity.
● Stuffer box textured yarns are used for jumpers, underwear, sportswear, gloves and
carpeting.
Edge Crimp ● In edge-crimping filament yarns are heated and drawn over a knife edge at an acute angle
flattening one side of the filament causing the outer side to be stretched or strained.
● Yarns produced by this method form a curly structure which is low cost, non-snarl, very
elastic and has good wrinkle resistance.
● Edge crimped textured yarns used mainly for hosiery and some carpets.
Gear Crimp ● Filament yarn is passed between two heated gears which touch as they rotate, setting the
yarn into a new zig-zag shape. The bends in the fibres are angular in contrast to the natural
curves of the wool crimp. When used on thermoplastic yarns the crimp is permanent.
● This process produces a yarn that does not have a tendency to rotate when hanging freely.
● The number of crimps per centimetre can be controlled by the size of the gears used.
● Gear crimped textured yarns are used for bulked carpets and for tricot lingerie.
Knit-De-Knit ● In knit-de-knit the multifilament nylon or polyester yarn is knitted into a plain knitted fabric
and heat set. When unravelled it has a wave like crimp. Knitting treated yarn into fabric
produces a crêpe like effect.
● This process is a more expensive method of texturing yarns.
● Knit-de-knit textured yarns are used in outer apparel, swimwear and upholstery.
Air Jet ● The conventional yarn is fed over a jet of air which forces some of the filaments into tiny
loops as it is drawn off at a slower rate than it is fed to the air jet. The size of the loops
varies depending on the velocity of the air blasts. Air jet yarns maintain their size and bulk
under tension because the straight section of this fibre bears the strain and allows the loops
to remain relatively unaffected.
● This process produces yarns which have little elasticity and resemble staple spun yarns.
● They are stronger than equivalent yarns, have a uniform diameter, greater bulk, less
tendency to pill, and greater moisture absorbency.
Chemical Hi-Bulking ● Hi-bulk yarns are composed of regular and highly stretched filaments combined together.
The combined filaments are heated causing the stretched filament to relax or shrink to form
a core. The regular filament distorts and curls around the core producing a crimped or
textured effect.
● The ability of stretched filaments to return to their pre-stretched shape is known as
shrinkage memory.
● Hi-bulk yarns are often cut to staple length.
Bi-Component ● Bi-component yarns are the result of two separate polymers being combined within a single
Fibres fibre.
● Wool is a natural bi-component fibre. The cortical cells on either side of the fibre react
differently to heat and moisture. This results in the fibre’s crimp. By imitating the
characteristics of the wool structure it is possible to create a fibre which has a crimp very
similar to wool.
● Synthetic bi-component fibres are composed of two filaments of differing composition
being spun together. When exposed to heat one side shrinks causing a helical crimp similar
to wool. When laundered the crimp will straighten and when drying the crimp will return.
● Uses for bulked acrylic yarns include knitwear, baby wear and socks.
● Bi-component filament may be either bilateral, core-sheath or matrix-fibril.
● Textured filament yarns have much better comfort properties than smooth filament yarns
because the texturing process adds lofts. This improves the absorbency and extensibility of
the yarn.
● Textured filaments are still very strong with few protruding fibre ends. They can create bulk
without weight, give better insulation and elasticity than non- textured yarns.
→ twist level; including low and high twist levels
Overview
● Twist is the spiral arrangement of the fibres around the yarn’s axis, produced by rotating one end of a fibre strand while
holding the other end stationary.
● The number of twists affects yarn and product performance and yarn cost.
● Twist is inserted into yarns to hold fibres together, as it causes fibres to spiral about each other, increasing inter-fibre friction and
making them cohere, that is, cling together.
Twist Level
● The amount of twist in a yarn is expressed as turns per inch (tpi) or turns per metre (tpm).
● As the number of twists or turns increase, greater strength is achieved. However, overtwisting produces a weaker yarn, as the fibres
become so strained that they break.
● The level of twist – soft (low), medium (average) or hard (high) – affects most yarn properties.
Direction of Twist
● Soft or low-spun yarns have a low twist level (2–12 tpi). This twist is given to staple spun yarns.
● Soft-spun yarns tend to be soft, fuzzy, and thick, giving good insulation, warm hand, and good absorbency, however they are duller
and less durable than hard-spun yarns.
● They are less compact, have more air spaces between fibres and fibre ends and can more readily project above the yarn surface.
● The yarns are weaker and less elastic than hard-spun yarns but are more wrinkle resistant as fibres are freer to move and return to
their original position.
● Soft-spun yarns are used for knitting yarns and often used for fabrics that will be given a brushed or napped surface.
● Weft yarns are usually softer spun as they undergo less tension in weaving and a soft twist (1–2 tpi) can be used on multifilament
yarns to hold them together.
● The most common and durable twist is the medium twist (20–25 tpi) given to staple spun yarns.
● This degree of twist can be given to both long and short staple fibres and is used for fabrics such as lawn, percale and calico.
→ high twist levels
● Hard or high-spun yarns have a high twist level (25–35 tpi) giving a compact yarn as the fibres spiral closely together.
● Hard-spun yarns are stronger and more elastic but less wrinkle resistant than soft-spun yarns, as the fibres are held firmly in position.
They are harder, smoother, finer, more lustrous, and more durable than soft-spun yarns.
● This results in a yarn where there are few air spaces and the fibres tend not to project above the yarn surface.
● Warp yarns are usually harder spun than weft yarns as warp yarns endure more strain and stress during weaving.
● Stiff fabrics are made from high twist yarns, usually (30–40 tpi).
● Novelty yarns are made primarily for appearance and differ from simple and composite yarns in that their structure is
characterised by irregularities.
● There are a number or types of novelty yarns including:
○ simple novelty – made from single yarns, including tweed and slub yarns.
○ complex novelty – made from plied yarns, including boucle, spiral, knot and ratine.
● Tweed yarn has flecks of coloured short fibres twisted into the yarn at intervals.
● Slub yarns have thick soft twisted portions at irregular intervals resulting in a fabric with an uneven appearance in its weave, adding
texture and a soft look to the fabric. The yarn is made by varying the level of twist at intervals along the yarn.
● Complex novelty yarns have deliberate variations introduced to their structure for a
decorative effect.
● Complex novelty yarns have three basic parts:
○ core yarn – the ground yarn onto which the effect yarn is wound
○ binder yarn – a stabilising yarn which holds the effect yarn onto the core
○ fancy or effect yarn – the decorative yarn.
Types of Complex Novelty Yarns
Bouclé Bouclé yarns have large loops at irregular intervals formed by the effect
yarn. This effect is achieved by allowing one of the plies to remain slack
during the spinning operation causing it to twist on itself and form a loop.
Spiral Spiral or corkscrew yarns are spun using two plies differing in size or
twist.
Knot Knot, spot, nub or knop yarns are made by twisting the effect yarn
in the same place. Different colours may be applied with the ply yarns
causing alternating coloured spots. The binder is added during twisting.
Ratine Ratiné yarns are formed by the spiral arrangement of the effect yarn
around the ground yarn. Loops are formed at intervals and are held by the
binder yarn.
Yarn Properties
→ aesthetic
Lustre
● The degree of yarn twist will also affect yarn lustre. Hard-spun staple yarn may have fair lustre, for example, those used for
worsted wool gabardine. Soft-spun twist staple yarns will have a poor lustre, for example those used in wool tweed.
● Staple yarns made from natural fibres, for example, cotton spun yarn used for denim, have a very poor lustre. Textured filament or
textured staple yarns have poor lustre as light is not reflected evenly by the rough surface.
● Smooth filament yarns made from synthetic fibres usually have a very good lustre.
● Novelty yarns will decrease lustre.
Drape
● Yarn twist and yarn size contribute to drapability. The looser the twist the more flexible the yarn contributes to better drape.
The tighter the twist the less flexible the yarn and poorer drape.
● Modification of drape can occur if high twist yarns are used in a loose weave, for example, chiffon, or in an open knit Raschel which
have very good drape.
● High count yarns usually have a low twist resulting in a structure which is full, loose and soft. This will add to drapability, for example,
the yarns used in knitting yarn.
● Low count yarns usually have a high twist resulting in structure that is stronger, firmer and harsher. This will add stiffness, for
example the yarns used in organza.
Hand
● Yarns which have a low twist have a softer hand than yarns which have a high twist and feel a little harsher.
● Yarns which have a soft hand are those described as having loft. Loft will result if the yarn is loosely spun and / or textured.
● Staple yarns will have a softer hand than filament yarns because the protruding fibre ends.
● Regular filament yarns will feel smoother and cooler than textured and spun yarns.
● Novelty yarns have a rougher hand as a result of the uneven surface texture and areas of low twist
→ appearance
Resilience
Elastic Recovery
Dimensional Stability
Strength
● Twist and fibre diameter affect yarn strength. Yarns made from thicker fibres will usually be weaker than yarns from thinner fibres.
This is because the yarn of finer fibres has more fibres per yarn cross section and, therefore, more fibre cohesion exists.
● Yarns made from longer fibre are stronger than yarns from shorter fibres. On twisting the longer fibres will spiral around each other to
a greater extent resulting in better cohesion.
● The strength of a yarn is influenced by the nature of the fibre. Synthetic fibres and cellulosic fibres are very strong. Protein fibres and
most regenerated fibres are weak.
● The degree of twist can reduce or increase the strength of the yarn. Generally the less twist the weaker the yarn, the more twist the
stronger the yarn.
● By incorporating high twist, and ensuring the fibres are long and parallel, the strength of yarns made from weak fibres will improve.
As a result worsted yarns, made from longer, more parallel fibres and given a high twist are stronger than woollen yarns, made from
shorter, less parallel fibres and given a soft twist.
● Plying adds strength and durability to a yarn, for example yarns used as sewing threads. Sewing threads need to withstand the
pressures of machining and to last the life of the textile item being sewn. Therefore, sewing threads are highly twisted, plied and
finished with lubricants to improve sewability.
Resistance to Abrasion
● The abrasion resistance of a fibre affects the abrasion resistance of the resulting yarn. Synthetic fibres are highly resistant,
cellulosic fibres are moderately resistant and protein fibres and regenerated fibres have a low resistance to abrasion.
● Low twist yarns snag more easily than high twist yarns as they come in contact with abrading surfaces more often. In addition, low
twist yarns leave fibres protruding from the yarn surface to catch as well as pill.
● Filament yarns have few protruding ends and so are more resistant to abrasion than spun staple yarns.
● Resistance to abrasion and pilling will be high in the yarns in which the fibres are parallel and tightly spun. Worsted yarns have a
greater resistance to pilling than woollen yarns.
● Yarns which have fewer protruding fibre ends will also be more resistant to abrasion. Therefore, smooth filament yarns are more
resistant to pilling than textured yarns, which are more resistant to pilling than spun staple yarns. Novelty yarns will abrade and snag
easily.
Flexibility
● The flexibility of yarn is dependent upon the fibre composition of the yarn, the loft resulting from the size of the yarn and the
degree of twist.
● High yarn count results in a thicker yarn with greater loft. Thicker yarns are given lower twist resulting in a weaker but flexible yarn.
● Low yarn count results in a thinner yarn with lesser loft. Thin yarns are given higher twist resulting in a strong but less flexible yarn.
→ comfort
Moisture Absorbency
● The absorbency of a fibre affects the absorbency of the resulting yarn. Synthetic fibres are not absorbent, cellulosic fibres,
protein fibres and regenerated fibres are absorbent.
● The amount of twist can influence the absorbency of a yarn.
● Generally the softer the twist the more absorbent the yarn, the harder the twist the less absorbent the yarn.
● Tightly spun, smooth yarns are less absorbent than low twist, textured yarns because of less yarn and fibre surface available for
moisture intake. Worsted yarns are less absorbent than woollen yarns. However, they are more absorbent than filament yarns.
Heat Conductivity
● The property of conductivity is related to the fibre composition, yarn count and fabric structure. Wool, silk and synthetics are
poor conductors of heat. Cotton, linen and rayon are good conductors of heat.
● Thick yarns are poorer conductors of heat than thin yarns. Soft-spun, staple yarns will allow body heat to escape. Hard-spun staple
yarns and filament yarns allow less body heat to escape.
● Closely woven or knitted fabrics hold heat in. Loosely woven or knitted fabrics allow heat to escape. Some novelty yarns add warmth
to a fabric. This is due to the extra weight and air trapped between the components of the yarn.
● A soft-spun, medium count wool, loosely knitted fabric will be cooler to wear than a hard-spun, medium count wool, firmly woven
fabric. This is because the knit structure allows more body heat to escape.
● A polyester medium twist spun yarn, plain weave fabric will be cooler to wear than a polyester filament soft-spun yarn, plain weave
fabric.
Elongation
→ care
Shape Retention
● Shape retention is largely dependent upon the fibre composition of the yarn and the structure of the fabric.
● Untreated natural fibres can shrink and loosely woven and knitted fabrics can distort when washed.
● The degree of yarn twist can affect shape retention.
● Soft-spun yarns are more likely to elongate and become disarranged than hard-spun yarns. Soft-spun yarns need more care in
washing and drying.
Resistant to Chemicals
● The chemical resistance of a fibre affects the chemical resistance of the resulting yarn.
● Synthetic fibres are highly resistant, cellulosic fibres are moderately resistant and protein fibres and regenerated fibres have a low
resistance to chemicals.
● Hard-spun, smooth yarns are more resistant to chemicals than soft-spun, textured yarns.
● Worsted yarns are more resistant to chemicals than woollen yarns. However, they are less resistant to chemicals than filament yarn.
Fibre Structure
● Textile fibres can be classified into two main groups; natural and manufactured fibres.
● The arrangement of the polymers within the fibre influences properties such as drape, hand, strength, absorbency, elongation and
elastic recovery.
● Amorphous regions are the areas where the polymer chains are randomly arranged, whereas crystalline regions are areas
within a fibre that have the polymers parallel to each other.
→ monomer
Molecular Structure
● The molecular structure refers to the chemical structure of a fibre. The molecular structure of a fibre includes the:
○ chemical composition of molecules
○ length of the polymer chain
○ interpolymer forces of attraction
○ arrangement of the polymers chains.
Chemical Composition
● Monomers join together to form long, straight polymer chains through the process of polymerisation.
● The number of monomers in a polymer chain determines the length of the polymer. The degree of polymerisation for each fibre
varies greatly, for example, from 175 for viscose rayon to 18,000 for flax.
● Many polymer chains combine together to form a fibre. The degree of polymerisation is important for fibre formation.
● Fibre polymer chains need to be very long. Long polymer chains tend to result in strong fibres as there is a longer path of break for
the polymers to slip past each other. Shorter polymer chains tend to result in weaker fibres as there is a short path of break.
● Interpolymer forces of attraction join or link polymers together to form the fibres.
● The type and number of these interpolymer forces of attraction will influence a range of
properties particularly the strength, absorbency and elongation of a fibre.
● The ability of polymers to link or bond is influenced by the arrangement of the polymer
chain. Polymer chains may be long or short, straight or branched. This arrangement will
determine the type and number of forces of attraction which will form and how effective
they will be.
● Long, straight polymer chains generally lie very closely together and allow a maximum
number of forces of attraction to form. When polymers are close together these forces of
attraction are very effective, and as a result, the fibre is very strong.
● Short, branched polymers do not lie closely together. As a result few forces of attraction
form and those that do are far apart and not very effective. The resulting fibre is very
weak.
→ morphological, including surface characteristics and cross sectional appearance, staple fibre, filament, multifilament
Morphological Structure
● The morphological structure refers to the physical structure of a fibre. When viewed under a microscope fibres, generally, have
distinct shapes and configurations.
● The morphological structure includes the:
○ External Structure
■ Length and Diameter,
■ Longitudinal Appearance
■ Cross Sectional Shape,
■ Colour Translucency
○ Internal Structure
● Fibres vary in length and diameter. Fibre length affects cohesiveness and the degree of twist that can be inserted during
spinning.
● To be suitable for spinning fibres need to be a minimum of 1.5 cm long. The longer the fibre the smoother and stronger the yarn. The
shorter the fibre the rougher and weaker the yarn.
● Fibre diameter can affect the hand and resilience. Larger diameter fibres tend to be crisper and resist crushing. Fine fibres tend to be
softer and more flexible. Fibres which are too fine in diameter are too delicate and fragile for spinning. Fibres which are too thick are
too uncomfortable and rigid to wear in apparel.
● Small diameter fibres pack closely together into fine yarns and fabrics. Large diameter fibres do not pack as closely together
resulting in bulkier yarns and bulkier fabrics.
Internal Structure
● The internal structure affects fibre growth and shape which determines properties.
● The morphological structure of a fibre influences the performance characteristics of aesthetics, appearance, durability and
comfort.
The Effect of the Molecular Structure on Fibre Properties
● The molecular structure of a fibre influences the performance characteristics of aesthetics, appearance, durability, comfort
and care.
● Staple fibres exhibit a varied and uneven surface morphology due to the short, irregular fibre lengths, with a higher surface porosity
and visible gaps between fibres – contributing to a more textured appearance. This means it has higher surface roughness, resulting
in a less smooth, more tactile feel.
● Filaments feature a smooth and uniform surface morphology due to the continuous, long fibres with a low surface porosity and
dense, compact structure – creating a sleek appearance.
● Multifilaments display a relatively smooth surface morphology with minor texture variations from multiple fine filaments. They have a
low surface porosity, with a tightly packed structure that provides a refined texture and has a balance between smoothness and
subtle texture.
→ cross sectional appearance
Longitudinal Appearance
● The longitudinal section, that is the length, can show uniform smoothness, nodes at intervals, surface scales, convolutions,
crimps and striations.
● Natural fibres have surface features dictated by nature.
● Surface irregularities contribute to the comfort of the fibre resulting from irregular contact with the skin.
● Manufactured fibres vary from round for some nylons and polyesters, to dog-bone for acrylic and spandex, trilobal for polyesters
needing ‘silky’ properties and round serrated for viscose. They can also be kidney bean shaped, Y-shaped and also contain hollow
centres.
● The cross sectional and longitudinal appearance of fibres is used for identification.
Colour and Translucency
Overview
● Natural fibres are those that come from natural sources. There are two main classes of natural fibres, cellulosic and protein.
Cellulosic fibres come from plant sources, and protein fibres come from animal sources.
→ cellulosic (cotton)
Cellulosic Fibres
● Cellulosic fibres come from the seeds, stems, leaves and fruit of
various plants.
● Cotton is a short staple fibre with a length of between 10 mm to 65 mm, depending on the quality, The longer the fibre the better
the quality as it is easier to spin into a smooth, strong yarn. Cotton is a fine fibre, with a length to breadth ratio of 6000:1.
○ Sea Island cotton is the longest and finest variety ranging from 35mm to 65 mm, it is used mainly for high quality combed
cotton goods.
○ Egyptian cotton is similar to the Sea Island variety but not quite as long or fine.
○ American cotton averages 25 mm to 35 mm and represents the bulk of all cotton produced, including cotton grown in
Australia, it is used for a range of average to good quality goods.
○ Indian cotton is the coarsest ranging from 10 mm to 25 mm in length, it is used for poor to average quality goods.
● The cross section of raw cotton has a bean shape and the longitudinal section shows a flat tube with convolutions or twists.
● Convolutions make the fibre more cohesive during spinning.
● Fine fibres have about 100 convolutions per centimetre and coarser fibres have about 50 per centimetre.
● Cotton is an opaque fibre due to its complex microstructure, but the colour and quality largely depend on the environment
and climatic conditions.
● Cotton colours range from the near white of the Sea Island variety through slightly creamy Egyptian and off-white to cream American,
to cream to light tan for the Indian variety.
Internal Structure
● Cotton consists of a:
○ Cuticle: A waxy outer layer which protects the fibre against
chemicals.
○ Primary Wall: A thin layer of fibrils (fine threads of cellulose).
○ Secondary Wall: The bulk of the fibre, consisting of
concentric layers of spiralling fibrils. The fibrils and
molecular chains lie at 20° to 30° angle to the fibre axis. The
fibrils change direction along the fibre causing the
convolutions.
○ Lumen: A central canal which carries the sap of the fibre
before the ball bursts.
Molecular Structure of Cotton
Cotton Aesthetic
● Raw cotton has a matt, or low lustre, appearance because light is unevenly reflected from the convoluted surface of the fibre. A
slight lustre can be achieved by mercerisation, a finish given to cotton, which alters the shape of the fibre from bean-shaped to
round.
● Fabrics made from cotton will have fair drape depending on the length and fineness of the fibre. Long, fine fibres will drape more
than short, thick ones.
● Long, fine fibres have a soft hand. Short thick fibres have a crisp hand.
Cotton Appearance
● Cotton has very poor resistance to wrinkling because of the high crystalline polymer arrangement and the strength of the
interpolymer bonding. The large number of hydrogen bonds hold together well but when broken under the strain of wear do not
reform in the same place, resulting in wrinkles. Considerable heat is required to remove the wrinkles.
● The elastic recovery of cotton is moderate, about 75 per cent. Cotton stays stretched out of shape in stress areas.
● The dimensional stability of cotton is moderate. This is due to the poor elastic recovery of cotton and a tendency to shrink.
Cotton Durability
● Cotton is a very strong fibre. Its tenacity is due to the long, well aligned crystalline polymer system, the large number of hydrogen
bonds between the polymers and the spiralling fibrils in the primary and secondary walls. The strength of cotton will increase by 5%
when wet. Cotton has a high wet strength because water causes the shape of the fibre to change and the convolutions to straighten
slightly, hence strengthening the hydrogen bonds.
● Cotton has poor to moderate resistance to abrasion. Abrasion will tear fibre cell walls, crack fibres and break fibre tips. However,
fabrics made from cotton are resistant to pilling. This is because when abraded cotton structures are broken off by the abrasive
action. Cotton fabrics tend to lose lint.
● Cotton has fair flexibility depending on the length and diameter of the fibre. Long, fine fibres are more flexible than short, coarse
fibres.
Cotton Comfort
● Cotton is very hydrophilic and so is a highly absorbent fibre. This is due to the polarity of the polymer system which attracts polar
water molecules, the amorphous regions and the shape of the fibre. In dry conditions cotton absorbs water vapour emitted from the
body so the skin does not become wet. This makes cotton very comfortable to wear.
● Cotton is a good heat conductor, making it suitable for apparel in hot climates. Cotton can be made into warmer fabrics but not for
extremely cold weather conditions.
● Cotton is not extensible because of the strength of the interpolymer forces of attraction within the fibres polymer system. There is
slightly more elongation when cotton is wet because water allows movement of the hydrogen bonds.
Cotton Care
● All cotton will shrink unless it is given a shrink resistant treatment. Untreated cotton will shrink more when washed in hot water and
dried in a hot drier. They will shrink less in cold water.
● Cotton can withstand high temperatures, however, excessive dry heat will cause cotton to scorch and burn rapidly as it is highly
flammable.
● Cotton is a very easy fibres to dye and print due to the polarity of the polymer system. Unfortunately, cotton will fade easily in
sunlight. Colour can run depending on the type of the dye used.
● Cotton is highly resistant to alkali such as that used in laundry detergents. Acid which is present in perspiration will weaken and
destroy the fibre, which is evident as a yellowing of the fabric. Bleach will generally not affect cotton. However, excess bleaching will
weaken the fibre.
● Cotton has good resistance to sunlight. Prolonged exposure to sunlight causes cotton to weaken.
● Cotton can be damaged by mildew and bacteria in hot, humid conditions. This can happen when cotton goods are left damp. A bad
odour, staining and weakening of the fibre occurs. Cotton needs to be dried very carefully before storage to prevent biological attack.
Structure of Flax
Flax Aesthetic
● Flax has a high natural lustre that is softened by its irregular fibre bundles. Its lustre can be increased by flattening yarns with
pressure during finishing.
Flax Durability
● Flax is stronger for a natural fibre. It has a breaking tenacity of 3.5 to 5g/d when dry that increases to 6.5g/d when wet. Flax has a
very low elongation of about 7%.
● Elasticity is poor with a 65% recovery at only 2% elongation. Flax is also a stiffer fibre. With poor elongation, elasticity and stiffness,
repeatedly folding a linen item in the same place will cause the fabric to break.
● The nodes contribute greatly to flexibility, but they are also the weakest part of the fibre.
● Flax has good flat abrasion resistance for a natural fibre because of its high orientation and crystallinity.
Flax Comfort
● Flax has a high moisture regain of 12% and it is a good conductor of electricity with no static build up.
● It is a good conductor of heat, making it useful for warm-weather wear.
● Flax has the same high specific gravity (1.52) as cotton.
Flax Care
→ protein (wool)
Protein Fibres
Wool
● Wool varies in length and fineness from 6 cm to 12 cm in some Merinos to 10 cm in crossbreeds and 30 cm in Lincolns.
● The diameter for wool ranges from 16 to 17 microns (μm) for the finest fibres to 40 microns in shorter fibres. The finer the fibre the
better the quality. The longer the fibre the more spinnable it is and the less likely to pill.
● Wool consists of a:
○ Cuticle: A layer of overlapping scales on the surface of the wool pointing towards the tip of the fibre. The scales account
for the felting properties of wool.
○ Cortex: The core of the fibre made up of countless spindle shaped cortical cells, consisting of spiralling protofibrils
containing helical chains. The cortex has two distinctly different sections – the ortho-cortex and the para-cortex – which
have different growth and absorption rates which accounts for the crimp formation along the fibre. The ortho-cortex is
found on the outside of the fibre, it develops last and is more absorbent than the para- cortex. The para-cortex is on the
inside of the fibre, it develops and hardens first and is not very absorbent.
○ Medulla: A central canal of cell debris present in poor quality wool fibres.
● Wool is made up of amino acid molecules, which form keratin chains. The
relaxed state of the wool polymer is a helical, or spiral, configuration.
● The degree of polymerisation, that is the number of amino acid molecules that
make up the keratin polymer, is up to 700.
● The main forces of attraction within the wool polymer system include hydrogen
bonds, ionic bonds, and covalent bonds. Some van der Waals forces are present
but they are not in sufficient numbers to be significant.
● The hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds contribute to the fibres strength and
absorbency. However, because the polymer system is highly amorphous these
bonds are not of optimum strength and as a result wool is a very weak fibre. The
covalent bonds result in this fibres excellent resilience.
● Wool has linear polymer chains with short side groups. The polymer system is
predominantly amorphous, 70-75%, and about 25-30% is crystalline and of low
orientation. The polymers spiral around each other in a helical configuration.
Wool Aesthetic
● Wool fibres have a very low lustre because light is diffused from the scaly surface of the fibre.
● Wool is a medium weight fibre. Fabrics made from wool have a medium drape, depending on the type of yarn and fabric structure.
● Fine, high quality wool will have a pleasant and soft hand. This is due to the crimp and the absorbent nature of the fibre. Coarse, low
quality wool may feel prickly and itchy against the skin.
Wool Appearance
● Wool has high resilience and tends to be wrinkle resistant due to the covalent bonds acting like springs and bringing the wool fibre
back into shape.
● The crimp of the wool fibre allows good elongation and elastic recovery.
● Wool has poor dimensional stability, and repeated stretching deforms the fibre’s shape.
Wool Durability
● Wool is a weak fibre and is weaker when wet. This is due to low crystallinity and poor orientation within the polymer system. The high
amorphous nature of the polymer system results in the formation of few bonds.
● The resistance to abrasion is fair to good because of fibres crimp and fibril structure.
● Fabrics made from wool tend to pill, but the pills don’t tend to accumulate because they break off easily.
● The high amorphous structure results in less rigidity and the fibre crimp contributes to good flexibility.
Wool Comfort
● Wool is a highly absorbent fibre due to the polarity of the bonds and the high percentage of amorphous regions in the fibres polymer
system which allows water and dye to penetrate easily.
● Wool will absorb 30% of its own weight before feeling damp.
● Wool gives off heat when wet, as it converts outside moisture to energy. This ability makes wool very suitable for apparel in cold wet
climates as wet wool will make the wearer feel warm.
● Wool is a poor conductor of heat due to the keratin composition of the fibre being a non-conductor. Wool textiles trap air in air
pockets, created by the crimp of the fibres, adding to warmth retention, making it a good insulator.
● Wool is extensible because of the fibres crimp and the helical arrangement of the molecular system, enabling elongation up to 30%.
Wool Care
● Wool will become 20% weaker when wet because of the molecular structure swelling laterally and the bonding system becoming
disrupted.
● Wool textiles should be laundered in luke-warm water with a gentle action and using a special wool wash with a neutral pH.
● Wool has a low resistance to dry heat, but is a highly flame retardant fibre as it smoulders rather than burns and when wool is
removed from the flame it will self extinguish – making it suitable for flame resistance like in theatre curtains and industrial carpets.
● Wool is easy to dye because of the polarity and amorphous nature of the polymer system.
● Wool is weakened and destroyed by bacteria and mildew, although it is more resistant to mildew than cotton. It is also vulnerable to
moth larvae and carpet beetles as they eat wool because its polymer system contains sulphur.
● Wool fibres have a very low resistance to alkali, such as that present in laundry detergent. Alkali will weaken and destroy wool, but it
is highly resistant to acids.
● Prolonged exposure to sunlight will yellow, weaken and destroy wool.
Silk
● Silk is a natural protein fibre. It is similar to wool in that it is composed of amino acids arranged in a polypeptide chain, but has no
cross links.
● Silk has a combination of properties not possessed by any other fibre: it has a dry tactile hand, unique natural lustre, good moisture
absorption, lively subtleness and draping qualities, and high strength.
● Silk is the only natural filament fibre. It is a solid fibre, smooth but irregular in diameter along the shaft. The filaments are triangular in
cross section, with rounded corners. Silk fibres are very fine – 1.25 denier/filament (dpf).
Silk Aesthetics
Silk Durability
Silk Comfort
● Silk has moderate resistance to wrinkling, but because silk’s recovery from elongation is low, it does not resist wrinkling as well as
other fibres.
● Silk fibres do not shrink as the molecular chains are not easily distorted, silk only swells a small amount when wet.
Silk Care
● Dry cleaning is recommended for silk items because of yarn types, dyes with poor fastness to water or the fabric construction
method.
● Washable silk can be laundered in mild detergent with gentle agitation.
→ regenerated including; viscose rayon
Regenerated Fibres
● Regenerated fibres do not occur naturally as fibres. They are produced from natural polymers and need processing to
convert them into fibre form.
● They may have a cellulosic or protein base but cellulose regenerated fibres are more commonly used.
Rayon
● The rayon fibres were the first manufactured cellulosic fibres and originally
made to imitate silk.
● There are a number of different types of rayon including:
○ viscose rayon
○ cuprammonium rayon
○ polynosic rayon.
Viscose Rayon
● Viscose is a regenerated cellulosic fibre extracted from wood. Viscose is wet spun into an acid bath which helps to coagulate
the filament.
● The viscose solution comes from the spinneret in liquid form, before becoming plastic and then solid.
● Slight drawing takes place in the plastic stage and assists in orienting the molecular chains.
● The length and thickness of viscose is determined by how the fibre is engineered. It is a fine regular filament or staple fibre. The
length of the staple fibre depends on the requirements of the end-use.
Morphological External Structure of Viscose Rayon: Longitudinal and Cross Sectional Appearance
● The exterior of the viscose filament coagulates faster than the interior two components, this results in the skin having a fine crystallite
structure and the core having a coarse crystalline structure.
● Viscose has a very high lustre because the incident light is reflected with considerable intensity from the fibres regular surface. To
prevent the harsh, bright lustre a delustering agent is added to the fibres spinning solution. The degree of lustre can, therefore, be
controlled.
● Viscose has a very good drape, it is soft and fluid. This is due to the low crystalline areas of low orientation.
● Viscose staple has a medium hand but viscose filament is softer and smoother.
● Viscose has very poor resilience and wrinkles badly. This is because the polymers are short and poorly aligned. Very few bonds form
in the amorphous regions so if the fibre is stretched or distorted it will remain in this configuration, which is seen as a wrinkle.
● Viscose has poor elastic recovery, like cotton the hydrogen bonds do not recover into their original position.
● Since viscose elongates and has poor elastic recovery it has fair dimensional stability.
● Viscose is a very weak fibre because of the large percentage of amorphous regions – hence when wet, the fibre swells and receives
damage.
● Viscose has a very low resistance to abrasion and is resistant to pilling.
● The percentage of amorphous areas and low orientation make viscose a very flexible fibre.
● Viscose is 25-40% weaker when wet. Untreated viscose fabrics are subject to progressive shrinkage where the material shrinks each
time it is washed. This means that viscose fabrics need to be dry cleaned or washed carefully by hand.
● Viscose can withstand high temperatures, however, excessive heat will cause rayon fibres to scorch and burn rapidly since they are
highly flammable.
● Viscose is very easy to colour due to the polarity of the polymer system and the low crystallinity of the fibre.
● Viscose is subject to biological attack and is easily damaged by silverfish and mildew.
● The short polymers of viscose make it susceptible to damage by acid and bleach, but it has good resistance to alkali (prolonged
exposure causes yellowing).
● Dry cleaning and appropriate spot cleaning agents do not adversely affect viscose, however it has poor resistance to sunlight.
● The major difference between manufactured regenerated fibres and manufactured synthetic fibres is the raw materials from
which they are formed.
● Regenerated fibres are produced from naturally occurring polymers. The polymers for synthetic fibres are synthesised or made from
small simple molecules. The fibre forming compounds used to produce synthetic fibres are made from petroleum-based chemicals
or petrochemicals. These are polymerised or connected into an extremely long linear polymer.
→ polyester
Overview
● Polyester is melt spun and the filaments made either into multifilament yarn or collected as tow to be cut or broken into
staple lengths.
● The properties of polyester may be altered during the drawing stage. For example, polyester for use as a high tenacity fibre is drawn
more making it more crystalline and, therefore, stronger but the hand, absorbency and elongation poorer.
● Changing the cross sectional shape of the fibre or texturing the fibre will further modify properties.
● Polyester is manufactured as a continuous filament which can be cut into staple length.
● The length of the fibre is dependent upon its intended use.
● The cross sectional shape of polyester varies according to the shape of the spinneret holes through which the molten fibre
is extruded.
● The shape of the cross section is round resulting in a smooth longitudinal appearance.
● The fibre can have a speckled appearance which is due to the addition of a delustering agent.
● The shape of the fibre can be changed for specific end usages.
● Hollow fibres can be used to trap more air and eliminate weight, whereas triangular shaped fibres can be used to give a silkier look
and feel to polyester fabric.
Morphological External Structure of Polyester: Colour and Transparency
● Polyester tends to be slightly off-white. It is a translucent fibre and has a round, smooth appearance.
Polyester Aesthetic
● Polyester has a harsh, bright lustre resulting from light reflecting on the smooth circular surface.
● Changing the shape of the fibre can reduce the degree of light reflected as well as the addition of a delustering agent.
● When used in blends, for example polyester/cotton, the lustre of polyester would be adjusted to conform with the low lustre of
cotton.
● Polyester tends to have poor to fair drape as the highly oriented crystalline polymers result in rigidity. However, when polyester is
extruded as a very fine fibre, for example microfibre, it results in good drape.
● Polyester has a firm and stiff hand due to the crystallinity of the fibres polymer system. The hand may be improved by changing the
shape of the fibre. A triangular fibre shape will give polyester a hand similar to that of silk. Texturing the fibre will also improve the
hand of polyester, resulting in more loft.
Polyester Appearance
● Polyester has high wrinkle recovery due to the crystallinity of the polymer system. This means polyester fabrics are easy to care for.
● The highly crystalline polymer system assists stability by preventing elongation and wrinkling.
● The dimensional stability of polyester is very good due to its highly crystalline molecular and low elongation.
Polyester Durability
● Polyester is very strong because of the highly oriented crystalline polymer system resulting in the formation of large numbers of very
effective Van der Waals forces.
● Polyester filaments have high resistance to abrasion due to the highly oriented polymer system.
● Polyester fabrics which are made entirely from staple length fibres, or those blended with other fibres are susceptible to pilling. The
pills, once formed, do not break off and accumulate on the fibres surface. This is due to the high tenacity of the fibre.
● Highly oriented crystalline structure polyester can lack flexibility, but texturing polyester can produce a more flexible fibre. For
example, a polyester fabric, made from multifilament yarn, used for umbrellas will be less flexible than a polyester fabric made from
textured filament yarn used for clothing fabric.
Polyester Comfort
● Polyester is a hydrophobic fibre, so has poor absorbency. The poor absorbency is due to the highly crystalline polymer system which
does not allow water or dye molecules to penetrate the polymer system.
● The hydrophobic nature of polyester is a barrier to the absorption of dyes. A class of dyes called disperse dyes allows polyester to
be dyed.
● Absorbency can be increased by texturing which allows moisture to wick, that is travel along the fibre in the air spaces resulting from
the textured surface.
● The poor absorbency of polyester results in the material being prone to the build-up of static electricity. This is unattractive,
uncomfortable and increases the attraction of airborne dust and dirt particles to the textile item.
● Polyester is a poor heat conductor and, together with poor moisture absorbency, it is clammy to wear in warm weather. Texturing
slightly improves heat conductivity by providing air pockets when the fibre is spun and less contact with the skin.
● Polyester has low extensibility because of the number of interpolymer forces of attraction within the fibres polymer system. This
makes it suitable for blends to support the structure of other fibres
Polyester Care
● Hydrophobic fibres tend to be oleophilic, meaning the polymer system is attractive to fats, grease and oils. This presents a problem
during laundering, as polyester attracts airborne dust and grease particles and releases oils from its surface with difficulty, resulting
in unsightly stains.
● Polyester is a thermoplastic fibre which means that it can be shaped or deformed by heat – hence it should only be laundered at cool
to medium temperatures.
● Little ironing is necessary with polyester. Only warm heat should be used when ironing as polyester will melt at moderate
temperatures. Polyester is highly flammable.
● Polyester is highly resistant to all forms of biological attack. Mould on shower curtains is the result of soap residue acting as a food
source for microorganisms.
● Polyester has a good to high resistance to alkalis and acids. However, some acids can rupture the bonds between the ester
molecular groups.
● Polyesters are dry cleanable and appropriate spot cleaners can be used.
● Polyester has high light resistance making it particularly suitable for curtains and drapes.
→ nylon
Overview
● Nylon is melt spun. The properties of nylon may be altered during the drawing stage.
● Nylon is a continuous filament which can be cut into short staple fibre.
● The shape of the cross section is round resulting in a smooth longitudinal appearance.
● The cross section of nylons can vary according to the shape of the spinneret hole through which the molten fibre is extruded.
● Hollow fibres provide warmth without weight. Trilobular shapes result in less compactness and skin contact and, therefore, more
comfort in wearing.
● Nylon has a harsh, bright lustre. A delustering agent, such as titanium dioxide, is often added to the molten solution to reduce the
lustre. The fine powder scatters the light reducing the reflection from the surface of the fibre.
● When used in blends the lustre of nylon would be adjusted to conform with the low lustre of the other fibre.
● The highly crystalline polymer system of nylon allows for little drape, but fine filaments and texturing will assist drapability.
● Nylon has a hard and firm hand. This is due to the crystallinity of the fibres polymer system.
● Texturing the fibre can improve the hand of nylon, resulting in more loft.
Nylon Appearance
● The high resilience of nylon results in its ability to recover from wrinkles. This is due to the crystallinity of the polymer system and the
hydrogen bonds, which prevent distortion.
● Nylon has a hard, firm hand and a high aesthetic appearance and although it has a low elongation, nylon's elastic recovery is good.
● Nylon has good dimensional stability due to its high crystalline structure, low elongation and good elastic recovery.
Nylon Durability
● Nylon is very strong because the highly crystalline polymer system results in the formation of large numbers of very effective
hydrogen bonds, however there is a slight loss of strength when nylon is wet.
● Nylon is unsurpassed in abrasion resistance, due to the highly aligned polymer system and strong hydrogen bonds.
● Nylon fabrics which are made entirely from filament length are very resistant to pilling, but nylon fabrics which are made entirely from
staple length fibres, or those blended with other fibres are very susceptible to pilling. The pills, once formed, do not break off and
accumulate on the fibres surface. This is due to the high tenacity of the fibre.
● Due to the highly oriented crystalline structure nylon can lack flexibility. Texturing and changing the cross sectional shape can alter
nylon to be a more flexible fibre.
Nylon Comfort
● Nylon is hydrophobic and hence has very poor absorbency. This is due to the highly crystalline polymer arrangement and the lack of
space for water molecules in the polymer system.
● Nylon has good dimensional stability and has high abrasion resistance.
● The high degree of crystallinity makes the fibre difficult to dye as there are few sites for the dye molecule to enter the polymer system
and bond to the fibre. The use of acid and disperse dyes allows nylon to be dyed.
● Absorbency can be increased by texturing which allows moisture to wick, that is travel along the fibre in the air spaces resulting from
the textured surface.
● The poor absorbency of nylon results in the material being prone to the build-up of static electricity. An anti-static agent may be
added to the spinning solution of the fibre to minimise the build-up of static electricity and reduce cling.
● Nylon is a poor heat conductor. Textile items tend to feel very uncomfortable to wear as the smooth filament lies flat on the surface of
the skin. This does not allow body heat or water vapour to escape through the fabric. This moisture builds up and results in a
clammy feel. Texturing will slightly improve heat conductivity by providing air space for transmission of body heat.
● Nylon has low elongation because of the strength of the interpolymer forces of attraction within the fibres polymer system.
Nylon Care
● Nylon tends to be oleophilic, attracting fats and oils. Extra care is needed during laundering as nylon attracts grease particles and
releases oils from its surface with difficulty.
● Nylon is a thermoplastic fibre which means it softens with application of heat and can be shaped or deformed. Nylon should be
washed in cool to warm water, not hot water. Nylon retains its shape during laundering.
● Nylon textile items need little ironing and only at low temperatures as nylon will melt at medium temperatures as it is highly
flammable.
● Nylon textile materials may be permanently heat set either flat or into pleats.
● Nylon has fair to good wash and light fastness when appropriate dyes are used, but it is difficult to dye because of the high
crystallinity of the polymer system.
● Coloured nylon can become dull and white nylon yellows after over use of alkalis, but overall has a good resistance to alkalis.
Therefore it has low resistance to acids and bleaches. Acids damage the amide groups of the fibre weakening the polymer system.
● Nylon has a poor resistance to ultraviolet light which breaks the amide link resulting in yellowing.
→ elastomeric
Overview
● Lycra is a trade name under which companies produce elastomeric fibres known by the generic name of elastane.
Elastomeric, made of polyurethane polymers, repeatedly stretch to at least twice their length. They were produced to imitate
rubber and in the USA elastomeric fibres are known as spandex.
● Elastane is wet or dry spun into monofilaments or multifilaments. Melt spinning is unsuitable as heat will damage the fibre. The
filaments can be produced in a variety of deniers ranging from 20 denier in light weight support hosiery to 1,500 denier for swimwear
and foundation garments.
● Elastane is seldom used on its own and is usually used in conjunction with other fibres. Other fibres, therefore, have a significant
impact on the performance of textiles manufactured with elastane fibres.
Elastomeric Aesthetic
● Elastane is usually manufactured with a dull lustre to resemble a white rubber yarn. A delustering agent is added to the spinning
solution of the fibre. As elastane is rarely used alone the lustre will be affected by the covering fibre of the composite yarn.
● A knitted swimwear fabric made from cotton/Lycra will be of very low lustre while a knitted swimwear fabric made from
polyester/Lycra will exhibit a high lustre.
● Elastane is an extremely lightweight fibre. Its drape is very much determined by the nature of the composite yarn and the structure of
the fabric. For example, a polyester/Lycra knitted fabric will drape a lot more than woven fabric of the same fibre composition.
● Elastane does not possess a good hand and feels similar to that of a rubber band. However, the hand can be influenced by the
covering fibre.
Elastomeric Appearance
● Elastane is highly resistant to wrinkling. The fibres excellent resistance is imparted to most fabric structures which have elastane fibre
blended into the yarn.
● Comfort stretch elastane, used to assist body movement, has low elongation and low elastic recovery. These stretch fabrics recover
at much the same rate as the equivalent fabric without the elastane, for example denim and stretch denim.
● Power stretch elastane, used for foundation garments and surgical support garments, are engineered to have high elongation and
high elastic recovery.
● Its high elastic recovery makes elastane dimensionally stable.
● Fabrics with an elastane content depend upon the dimensional stability of the other fibre/s used in the yarn and the fabric structure.
Elastomeric Durability
● Elastane is a very weak fibre, however, the excellent elasticity of the fibre compensates for this deficiency. The strength of the fibre is
not affected by being wet because it is a very hydrophobic fibre.
● Elastane has only a fair resistance to abrasion. Although pilling is not a problem with elastane fibres it often pulls away from the seam
and the fibre ends protrude above the fabric surface.
● The medium to high elongation and elastic recovery of elastane fibres allow for a very good flexibility.
Elastomeric Comfort
● Elastane fibres do not attract water, despite the fact that there are amorphous regions in the flexible segments. The flexible segments
● do not have any polar or water attracting groups. The rigid segments contain some polar groups but are too well aligned to permit
the entry of water molecules.
● The fibre’s lack of absorbency and light weight results in elastane being particularly suitable for swimwear.
● The poor absorbency of elastane results in the material being prone to the build-up of static electricity. This is unattractive,
uncomfortable and increases the attraction of airborne dust and grease particles to the textile item. An anti-static agent may be
added to the spinning solution of the fibre to minimise the build-up of static electricity.
● Elastane is a poor heat conductor.
● Elastane is highly extensible because of the rigid and flexible folded segments within the polymer system of the fibre.
● Comfort stretch elastane fibres elongate up to 15 per cent to 20 per cent while power stretch elastane elongates up to 200 per cent.
Elastomeric Care
● Elastane by itself does not shrink but associated fibres may do so. Spandex tends to be oleophilic, that is the polymer system is
attracted to fats, grease and oils. This property presents a problem during laundering, as elastane attracts airborne dust and grease
particles and releases oils from its surface with difficulty.
● Elastane is heat sensitive and laundering should take place in cool to warm water to prevent dulling or yellowing of colours. Rinsing
● in cold water is essential to maintaining colour. Should pressing be necessary a cool to warm temperature
● should not be exceeded. Although elastane is thermoplastic it can’t be heat set as heat will rupture the polymer system and affect
elastic performance.
● Cotton/Elastane is form fitting, flexible and comfortable in jeans
● Elastane is strong with high stretch
● Elastane is easy care
● Elastane is a difficult fibre to dye and has only a fair resistance to light and wash fastness. Drying in the shade will assist in colour
preservation.
● Elastane is highly resistant to all forms of biological attack. Yarns containing elastane can be subject to attack depending on the
content of the other fibres.
● Elastane is highly resistant to acids but has a moderate resistance to chlorine bleach and alkali.
● The hydrophobic nature of elastane makes the fibre resistant to damaging chemicals, however, the amorphous regions which are
present permit some damage. Damage is evident as a yellowing of white or a dulling of coloured elastane material.
● Elastane is dry cleanable and appropriate spot cleaning agents can be used.
● Elastane has good resistance to ultraviolet light.
→ acrylic
Overview
Modacrylics
● Modacrylics can be wet or dry spun.
● Although the properties of modacrylics and acrylics are similar, the main difference lies with modacrylics being inherently flame
retardant. Modacrylics are difficult to ignite, self-extinguishing and do not drip. This makes modacrylics suited to children’s
sleepwear, draperies, fake furs, industrial clothing and wigs.
● Acrylic fibre is extruded as a filament which is usually cut into staple length.
● The diameter of the fibre is 15 µm (microns) to 25 µm depending on end use. The length to breadth ratio of acrylic is in excess of
200:1
● Wet spinning results in a near circular or kidney bean cross section and a fairly smooth even longitudinal appearance.
● Dry spinning results in a dog bone or flatter cross section with faint indentations along the length of the fibre.
● Acrylics are made from at least 85% polyacrylonitrile and a copolymer. A copolymer is necessary as 100% polyacrylonitrile would
not absorb resulting in a very uncomfortable, non-dyeable product.
● Acrylic is a linear polymer with a degree of polymerisation of about 2000, about 500 nm (nanometres) long. Acrylic is one of the
longest manufactured fibres.
● Van der Waals forces and some hydrogen bonds are accredited with bonding acrylic polymers.
● Acrylic is a very crystalline fibre, 70-80% crystalline, with polymer chains highly oriented, and the remaining 20-30% of acrylic being
amorphous.
Acrylics Aesthetic
Acrylic Appearance
● Acrylic polymers slip and displace causing wrinkling when the fibre is bent or crushed. But the elastic recovery is fair and wrinkles
will fall out over a period of time.
● Acrylic has fair dimensional stability. The type of yarn and fabric construction will modify stability.
● Staple acrylic fibres given a medium to high twist and woven into a plain weave will produce a dimensionally stable fabric.
● Staple acrylic fibres given a low to medium twist and knitted into a fabric will produce a material of lower dimensional stability.
Acrylic Durability
● The highly oriented polymer system makes acrylic a strong fibre. It is stronger than wool but not as strong as cotton.
● Acrylic has fair resistance to abrasion depending on the nature of the yarn it is made into. A high twist acrylic yarn will abrade less
than a low twist yarn.
● Acrylic staple yarn has a tendency to pill because the polymers system slips and displaces.
Acrylic Comfort
Acrylic Care
Fibre Blends
Conventional
Intimate
● Intimate fibre blends are those where the fibres are uniformly
distributed throughout the yarn.
● This is the most common type of blend.
Non-Intimate
● Non-intimate fibre blends are those where one fibre type may
form the sheath and the other may form the core.
● This results in a yarn which is softer, less crisp and more
flexible.
Labels
● The fibre must be listed in the order of the predominance of weight. For example, in a polyester/cotton blend there is more polyester
in the blend than cotton by weight. If a fibre represents less than 5% of the weight of the item it need not be listed unless it has a
definite function.
→ cotton/polyester
→ nylon/elastomeric
● Nylon imparts the properties of high strength, abrasion resistance thermoplasticity and wind resistance to the fibre blend. When
spandex is added to a fibre blend it will impart the properties of excellent extensibility and elasticity.
● The nylon/spandex blend will be strong and elastic. This fibre blend is popular for lingerie apparel items, such as pantihose.
→ microfiber
● Microfibers are ultra-fine fibre size less than 1 decitex. They are made primarily from nylon, polyester and acrylic and less so from
rayon fibres.
● Microfibre fibre is used primarily for two reasons:
○ the fibre has a more luxurious nature with soft hand and improved drape for aesthetics or,
○ for improved comfort and breathability, whilst providing waterproof and windproof properties.
● One of the important characteristics of microfiber fabrics is that they can be woven so tightly that the fabric can't be penetrated by
wind, rain, or cold, hence suitable for. out- door clothing and raincoats. Microfibers also have a wicking ability, which allows
perspiration to pass through the fabric for increased comfort.
● Microfibers are comfortable to wear as they are more absorbent, than the conventional fibre in normal size, due to greater surface
area of the ultra-fine fibre This greater surface area also absorbs roughly four times the dye of a standard fibre, hence making them
dye in vibrant colour, but subsequently far more expensive to produce.
● Microfibre may also be produced to replicate a silk-like appearance and fine softness of touch without the exorbitant cost or special
care required of silk. Microfibre also can replicate a sueded appearance of faux suede at a far cheaper cost than true animal suede
hide, whilst also being cruelty free suitable for vegans (who do not use animal products). Faux suede is also easier to care for than
true suede
● Microfiber properties include being:
○ ultra-fine (less than 1.0 dpf), finer than the most delicate silk,
○ extremely drapable,
○ very soft, luxurious hand with a silken or suede touch,
○ washable, dry cleanable,
○ shrink-resistant,
○ high strength,
○ excellent pleat retention as thermoplastic, and
○ insulates well against wind, rain and cold,
Australian Textile, Clothing, Footwear and Allied Industries
Industry Overview
→ an overview of the development of the textiles industry with particular reference to; the role of textiles in everyday lives, sectors of the
Australian Textile, Clothing, Footwear and Allied Industries, training and career opportunities, issues affecting the industry (including
environmental sustainability, work health and safety legislation, technological changes, trends and opportunities in the industry) and the
contribution of textiles to local and global market.
● The textiles, clothing and footwear (TCF) manufacturing industries are diverse and cover a range of different products including
ready-for-use textiles, clothing, carpet, footwear and technical (non-aesthetic) textiles for automotive applications, medical purposes,
agricultural use and industrial purposes.
● The ATCFAI can be broken down into 4 sectors, each with their own sub-sectors.
● The four main divisions include textiles, apparel, allied industry and footwear.
→ training and career opportunities
Training Opportunities
● TAFE Courses
● University
● Private Colleges
Career Opportunities
→ issues affecting the industry; including environmental sustainability, work health and safety legislation, technological changes, trends
and opportunities in the industry
Environmental Sustainability
● Environmental sustainability may be defined as meeting the resource and services needs of current and future generations
without compromising the health of the ecosystems that provide them.
● Environmental sustainability more specifically relates to a condition of balance, resilience, and interconnectedness that allows human
society to satisfy its needs while neither exceeding the capacity of its supporting ecosystems to continue to regenerate the services
necessary to meet those needs nor by our actions diminishing biological diversity. This requires responsible resource consumption
and waste management.
● The textiles industry impacts the environment by:
○ consuming large quantities of energy during the production and processing of fibres,
○ air, land and water pollution caused through plant emissions,
○ exposure to dangerous chemicals used in manufacturing,
○ noise pollution caused by plant equipment, and
○ disposal of waste, like hazardous materials and dangerous chemicals.
● Sustainability may be encouraged by harvesting renewable resources that can be continued indefinitely, minimising pollution creation
of air, water and land and minimising waste, and avoiding non-renewable resources.
○ Energy consumption can be reduced through the use of efficient machinery such as heating and lighting systems designed
to take advantage of the location, and air circulation equipment that makes use of natural convection currents.
○ Processes which conserve energy and water need adopting, such as Siroscour and Cold pad patch dyeing.
■ Siroscour turns the single phase process of scouring wool into a multiphase process. This process uses less
water, recycles water, has a more concentrated scouring liquor and a biodegradable detergent. The system uses
3L rather than 7L of water per kg of wool.
■ Cold pad patch dyeing in addition to using 33% less water, it uses 48% less energy. It also has a 95% fixation
rate, which means there is only 5% dye run-off that is not captured into the fabric.
○ Another solution to better manage resource consumption is through the production of environmentally friendly fibres, for
example:
■ Lyocell, a regenerated fibre made from the wood pulp of trees grown on plantation farms, so they are constantly
replanted. Tencel is the first commercially available fibre of the new generic class Lyocell. The fibre is produced
via a solvent spinning process using a non-toxic solvent that is 99% recoverable. No harmful gases are released
into the atmosphere.
■ Ecospun, a fibre produced from recycled plastic bottles. Plastic bottles are melted down and turned into pellets
that are then spun into a fibre, through a spinneret. This fibre is usually blended with cotton before being
manufactured into textile items. For every kg of Ecospun approximately twenty PET bottles are reclaimed from
landfill.
■ Hemp is an organic fast growing fibre that requires no pesticides or fertilisers and considerably less water than
cotton. Hemp impacts far less on the environment as it is also biodegradable unlike synthetic fibre. Hemp is
naturally resistant to fungus and insects. As such, it does not require any pesticides during its cultivation like
cotton.
● Legislation and policies exist to regulate textile operations to create an industry which is environmentally sustainable. The Protection
of Environment Operations Act 1997 regulates; water, air, noise and land (waste).
○ Emission limits for pollutants that may be discharged by industrial and other premises are regulated under the Act.
○ Regulations control the release of exhaust gases and particulate matter into the atmosphere. Air emissions control
technologies such as precipitators and filters trap harmful combustion products.
○ The legislation has fixed a maximum level of acceptable noise. Noise levels can be reduced through maintenance and
replacement programs for machinery.
○ Under the Act waste water must be treated before discharge to remove or reduce contaminants and effluent monitored to
ensure that the upper limits for various substances are not exceeded.
● The textile industry is implementing a range of programs to eliminate or reduce waste emissions including:
○ growing of organic crops, such as organic cotton to reduce pesticide use.
○ using biological controls such as predatory insects that eat pests that degrade cotton.
○ engineering crops, like BT cotton genetically modified to produce its own insecticide producing environmentally friendly
crops, such as hemp, which requires less water, pesticides and is quick growing.
○ turning waste into resources, for example processing wool waxes to make into lanolin, residual sludges to create soil
fertiliser and recycling water.
○ recycling and reusing waste fibre as a feedstock, for other operations such as cleaning, dye absorption, quilting,
non-woven, insulation and geotextiles.
● The Workplace Health and Safety (WHS) Act 2011 requires organisations to ensure the health, safety and welfare of staff in their
place of work by reducing the incidence rate of injuries and disease – placing responsibility on both the employer and employee.
● This requires employers to maintain the machinery and systems of work as well as make arrangements to ensure the safety and
absence of risks, provide information, instruction, training and supervision to employees.
● This requires employees to cooperate with their employer, wear safety and protective gear and follow workplace procedures to
maintain safety.
Technological Changes
Weaving 7000 BC Hand Loom: Held warp yarns to form a base for weft yarns which were interlaced with a shuttle.
1733 Flying Shuttle: Propelled weft yarn through the shed, increasing production rate and decreasing the amount of
operators required.
Knitting 1589 Stocking Frame: Mechanically operated using a treadle and stimulated hand knitting with a beard needle.
1847 Circular Rib Knitting Attachment: Brought circular knitting machines into general use.
Spinning 1530 Saxony Wheel: Operated with a foot treadle, freeing the hands of the spinner to concentrate on feeding the fibres.
1764 Spinning Jenny: Spins 6 threads at once and enables a larger output of yarn, increasing production rates.
Trends and Opportunities in the Industry
● Within Australia there has been a shift in the demand for textiles. As incomes rise, tastes evolve and lifestyles change the demand for
clothing, footwear and household textiles shifts. An expanding array of consumer goods and services, such as computers and
electronic equipment, communications and entertainment has resulted in the ATCFAI products representing a shrinking proportion of
Australian household expenditure.
● Changing tastes for consumer products and resultant shifts in household expenditure patterns affect the production of textile goods
and the demand for fibres. Wool has lost its market share to synthetics and cotton.
● Developments in transportation and communication have led to the globalisation of many industries. This has brought products from
around the world to consumers, wherever they may be. This is increasing the competition with Australian businesses but is also
increasing opportunities for ATCFAI to expand into the global market.
● Globalisation also means the traditional organisational structure of industries is changing. The management of the textiles industry
needs to be very flexible and cooperative with other enterprises and industries.
● The ATCFAI competes with foreign producers in both the domestic and overseas markets.
● Due to major restructuring in the late 1980's the government announced a reduction in the level of industry support that it would
provide. Industry support is assistance in the form of tariffs and quotas.
● Tariffs are taxes/charges applied to imported goods in order to make locally produced and manufactured textiles more competitive.
Quotas restrict the volume of goods that are able to be imported, therefore reducing the availability of the goods. This means labour
intensive sectors have relocated off-shore to manufacture where the cost of labour and production is cheaper.
● Imports have increased due to the reduction of tariffs and quotas. The Federal government has gradually reduced tariffs since the
1980's, with significant reductions post 2010 occurring.
● Imports have expanded exponentially whilst exports have contracted. The labour intensive parts of the ATCFAI industry, particularly
clothing and footwear, continues to migrate to low labour cost countries, such as China, Indonesia, Philippines, Taiwan, Mexico,
India, Pakistan and Korea where the cost of manufacture is reduced.
● Australia typically imports more textiles than it exports. This is due to the high cost of labour in Australia making imports cheaper to
produce and purchase overseas. It is difficult for Australian businesses to compete globally without tariffs and subsidies. In 2013 one
hour of work in Australia was a minimum wage of $18.29 whilst in China it was only $0.80 and in India it was $0.28.
● Within these industry sectors the two largest occupational groups are Sewing Machinists and Clothing Trades Workers. For sewing
machinists there is predicted to be a decrease in employment numbers by 2024 of about 9%, while clothing trade workers is
predicted to slightly increase (less than 1%). The employment levels for textile and footwear production machine operators and
canvas and leather goods makers are predicted to decrease between 2019 and 2024, while fashion, industrial and jewellery
designers are projected to increase by just over 20%.
● The Textiles, Clothing and Footwear IRC's 2019 Skills Forecast identified the following skill development priorities over the next three
years as fashion business, including law and compliance and small business skills, use of new technologies and materials; ethical
sourcing and supply chain management and science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) skills.
● The top priority industry and occupation skills were identified as industrial sewing, and advanced clothing production and garment
alterations.
● The top five most important generic skills are listed as:
○ technology,
○ design mindset, thinking critically, systems thinking, solving problems skills,
○ communication / collaboration including virtual collaboration, social intelligence skills,
○ learning agility, information literacy, intellectual autonomy. self-management skills,
○ customer service and marketing skills.
● The workforce challenges and opportunities driving these skill development priorities predominantly are in relation to sustainability /
social licence to operate, technology and new materials.
→ an overview of the development of the textile industry through the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries with reference to social and economic
impact, employment and workforce issues and technological developments.
● Research and development relevant to the sector is being conducted at the Australian Future Fibres Research and Innovation Centre
(AFFRIC), a collaboration between Deakin University and CSIRO Materials Science and Engineering supported by the Australian and
Victorian governments. Current projects underway include:
○ Functional fibrous materials - intended for medical textiles, super hydrophobic textiles, protective garments and gloves,
and directional moisture management in fabrics and fibre-reinforced materials
○ Green natural fibres - environmentally friendly ways of processing natural fibres, such as cotton, silk, bamboo and hemp,
fibre and textile processing, properties and applications
● Prior to the above research, the CSIRO has developed SportWool, a bi-layer knit fabric used for high performance clothing for elite
athletes. The fabric is elastic, provides UV protection, does not retain odours and draws moisture to the outside of the fabric.
● Today's global economy, and specifically the TCLF sector, is characterised by geographically dispersed production and rapid
market-driven changes. Millions of jobs have been created in the TCLF sector in developing countries, especially for women, and
some countries have benefited greatly.
● The TCLF sector is shaped predominantly by large companies that decide what is produced, where and by whom, with production
moved quickly from one country or region to another. Public policies are therefore important, and governments can create a
conducive environment that enables TCLF growth, while ensuring a social framework that combines appropriate regulation, law
enforcement and capacity building for local companies.
● Australia in the past few decades has experienced increased competition from imports and commercial pressures from large
retailers. Responding to these pressures the industry has been making efforts to move towards higher value-added manufacturing
and specialisation and has increased its spending on research and development.
● TCF exports have also been declining as a proportion of total merchandise exports and imports have increased as a proportion of
total merchandise imports.
● Employment in the industry has also fallen between 1984 and 2014 by around 69%.
Quality of Textiles
→ influences on the quality of textiles and clothing, including; design, trademarks, fabric quality, legislation, quality assurance checks,
quality control measures and the role of the manufacturer and consumer in determining quality.
● The design of textiles impacts quality through the selection of materials, construction techniques, and functional purpose.
● High-quality designs often consider aesthetics and practicality, ensuring that the end product meets customer needs for durability
and style.
→ trademarks
→ fabric quality
● Fabric quality is influenced by factors like fibre content, weave or knit structure, and finishes.
● High-quality fabrics have consistent appearance, strength, and durability. They also exhibit superior texture, colorfastness, and
resistance to wear and tear.
● A certification trademark identifies goods or services that possess a particular standard or characteristic. Standards commonly
certified include quality, content, manufacturing method and geographic origin.
→ legislation
Overview
● Legislation ensures that textiles meet safety, environmental, and consumer protection standards. For example, regulations
around flammability, labelling, and chemical usage (such as in dyes and finishes) directly impact the overall quality of textiles in the
marketplace.
Care Labels
● Care labels are used by businesses to convey important information about clothing. This allows consumers to make informed
choices about the goods they are buying.
● Care labelling has the following guidelines:
○ Care instructions must contain information related to washing, drying, ironing and dry-cleaning.
○ Where an article can be laundered or dry-cleaned or both, care instructions for both treatments must appear on the label.
○ The care symbols denote the maximum permissible treatment without irreversible damage.
○ Each detachable or separate part of an article must have a care label, even if the care instructions are the same for all
parts.
● These checks involve tests and inspections to ensure that textiles meet predetermined standards before reaching
consumers.
● This includes testing for factors like shrinkage, colorfastness, tensile strength, and seam performance.
● Quality control is the inspection and checking of a product at various stages of the manufacturing process. These
inspections are used to evaluate the product as it evolves. Company standards are then determined and quality control
measures are put in place to check the specifications at particular points in the product evolution.
● These measures ensure that any defects in materials, construction, or finishing are identified and corrected, this includes zippers,
closure function, fabric colour fastness, dimensions stability of fabric components, as well as maintaining consistency of product
size and dimensions.
● Quality control is maintaining the standard of excellence. In industry quality control is very consumer focused.
● Quality control occurs at all stages in the production of textile items. It involves applying quality assurance checks at each stage to
ensure quality is maintained in the growing of natural fibres, the manufacturing of synthetic fibres, the spinning of yarns, the knitting,
weaving and manufacturing of fabrics, the finishing of fabrics and the manufacturing of textile articles.
● The manufacturer’s role is to implement good design and quality control practices, while the consumer’s role involves
making informed purchasing decisions based on product labels, brand reputation, and personal experience.
● Feedback from consumers also influences manufacturers to improve quality.
Value of Textiles
→ factors contributing to the value of textiles, including; perceived value (heirloom, handcrafted, unique, designer label, technologically
advanced), cultural value (religious and social significance), economic value (value adding to products for other industries, including
agricultural and industrial uses).
→ perceived value, including; heirloom, handcrafted, unique, designer label, technologically advanced
Overview
● Textiles with perceived value often have emotional or cultural significance, such as heirloom pieces or handcrafted items.
● Textiles carry meanings and messages, they group people together, set them apart, they convey status, give pleasure, are a medium
for self-expression and have an integral role in ritual and ceremony. Textiles help to bring cultures of the past into the future, through
traditional use and help to unite people of a common cultural identity. Within each culture textiles have shared meaning.
● Designer labels and unique, technologically advanced textiles are also seen as having higher value due to their innovation,
exclusivity, or brand association.
● Perceived value is the value that a buyer subjectively attaches to a textile item. It is personal taste or desire that drives the evaluation
of worth of a particular textile item. It is determined by social and economic class, age group, gender and religion. It can also be
defined by fashion, fad or fantasy and its value can change over time.
Heirloom
● Heirlooms express some aspect of a family's history, traditions and pride. Examples include wedding garments, prayer mats, and
ceremonial robes, such as those used during graduations.
● They are of value for their history, symbolism, the careful construction and the age of the item.
Handcrafted
● Often a textile item is valued because it is handcrafted. Handcrafted textiles are considered of great value because they are usually
not mass-produced. They may include embroidery, patchwork, beading and smocking. In addition to the time taken to make the
item the creator has had to develop skills which often takes many years. People have strong cultural links to hand crafted items.
● The traditional textiles of the Aboriginal people are highly valued because they typify the handcrafts and skills of this culture. These
skills are highly valued and are being passed on to younger generations. Handcrafted items include coiled baskets and mats.
Unique
● Textiles are often designed to meet very specific end requirements to express original ideas. Where a textile item is one of a kind it is
said to be unique.
● Many of the textiles produced by the Aboriginal people are valued because they are unique. For example, Aboriginal men in North
Queensland make an orchid basket with a crescent shaped base from split cane which is unique to the area. So that the baskets are
strong and rigid the lengths of cane are tapered and spiral around the inside and secured by lattice twined to the walls by a single
working element of split cane. They are decorated with bright colours of yellow, white, red and black. These baskets are used as
containers, to trap fish and as a sieve to wash berries and nuts because of the mesh structure.
● Across Australia, baskets were sometimes made by men or by women only - their design and use varying from group to group.
● Rigid, twined cane baskets such as this were made by men in the rainforests along the coast of north-eastern Australia.
● This basket would have been used to carry personal belongings and ceremonial items. The designs painted with ochres - pigments
from naturally coloured clay or earth - indicate the owner's kinship or clan identity.
Designer Label
● Designer labels are popular in contemporary textiles and collectors often search for labels from specific designers to complement or
add to their personal collections. Museums and galleries also tend towards collections that can be accumulated with a designer
profile and history.
● Designer labels are often more expensive than the lesser known equivalent and are marketed to appeal to particular people who are
prepared to pay extra to be identified as belonging to the group that is represented by the label.
● Designer label items identify the wearers financial status, social status and group identity.
● For example the Mambo label. There designs often convey controversial images and so wearers may be identified with the
nonconformist intentions of the designs, in addition to identifying the wearer as being part of the beach culture.
Technological
● Textiles are often valued because they are technologically advanced. Textiles are engineered to meet the needs of specific end use.
The end uses may require high strength, light weight or resistance to UV rays. Sports people gain many advantages by using
technologically advanced textiles.
● For example in cycling the textiles have been engineered so that they are extremely light weight and permit the perspiration to
quickly move from the skin. This is so the garments do not restrict the wearers speed and help to keep the wearer cool. Shimano
Wicktex moisture management technology transports moisture away from the skin to the garment's outer surface. Excess moisture
can cause the garment to become heavy and chafe the skin. A drier garment maintains moisture management in the heat and
prevents chilling in the cold.
Cultural
● Culture refers to a system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviours and artefacts that are unique and transmitted from
generation to generation. The cultural value of a textile item is determined by how it relates to the historical, social and contemporary
perspectives of a particular group of people.
● Cultural textiles express local identity and emphasise uniqueness may be worn to express a common religious spiritual belief. Such
textiles can define a sense of belonging and may be worn at events such as ceremonial occasions, celebrations, weddings, births,
funerals and at dance or other types of festivals. Cultural textiles may be worn to signify a national or regional identity.
Overview
● Textiles can hold cultural value, especially in contexts where fabrics are associated with religious or social ceremonies.
● For example, certain materials may be used in weddings, religious garments, or cultural celebrations, adding to their value beyond
the material itself.
Religious
● Religion is often a major influence on why people value textiles, often symbolising aspects of religious importance. This may identify
a person as belonging to a particular religion. For example Sikh men may be easily identified because they wear a turban and Muslim
women may be identified because they wear a hijab or head scarves.
● Textiles are used in religious ceremonies because of the symbolism. This is why many brides wear veils and Catholic priests wear
robes. Each religion has its own symbols, practices and ceremonies which often involve the use of textiles.
● A large number of the textiles made by Aboriginal people are used for ceremonial purposes. In northern Australia the textiles used for
ceremonies include sacred strings which incorporate parrot feathers, twined baskets decorated with feathers and tassels of feathers.
Orchid poles are often used which are decorated with feathered string and bunches of feathers. These are used for dance and in
mortuary ceremonies. Paper bark is bound with string and decorated to resemble totemic birds and animals. The costumes worn by
ceremonial dancers are also highly valued textiles.
Social
● Social significance refers to how we view textiles and textile products in relation to the changing values and attitudes in society –
reflecting the changing values and attitudes of different groups within society at any given time.
● Social significance can be related to religious, cultural, political, economic, historical and technological perspectives and the context
in which the item will be used or worn.
● What is appropriate to wear in contemporary society is often an unwritten dress code to which groups of people conform.
● Social significance can be seen in UV protection in swimwear and wearing hats in contemporary Australian society, highlighting the
concern for health and welfare from the harsh Australian sun.
● They are significant parts of ceremony, tradition and lifestyle.
→ economic value, including; value adding to products for other industries, including agricultural and industrial uses
● Textiles that are used in industries beyond fashion—such as in agriculture (for example, canvas or protective fabrics) or
industrial applications (such as geotextiles)—add economic value by providing functionality across sectors.
● The versatility of textile items boosts their worth in the marketplace.
● The economic value of textiles is determined by the market and how much people are willing to pay for goods or services. Value is
added at each stage of textile production and the product becomes more desirable to the consumer. An example of value adding is
the processing of raw cotton to produce a pair of jeans.
● The ATFAl is of economic importance to Australia through its business activities, for example as a source of employment, and its
export earnings.
● One way of increasing the value of industry sales and exports is value adding, that is, the processing of goods to increase their
selling price and therefore the profit.
Fabrics
Fabric Description
Arachne A non-woven, bulky, light weight fabric which consists of a fibrous web stitched through by a binder yarn carried
by a knitting needle.
Basket Weave Also known as monk’s cloth, friar’s cloth, Druid’ cloth, and mission cloth. They are usually brownish white or
oatmeal. Oxford is a 2 x 1 or a 3 x 2 basket weave. It may have a yarn-dyed warp and white filling and be called
an Oxford chambray. Oxford looks like a balanced fabric because the warp yarns are finer and have higher twist
than the filling. Because of soft yarns and loose weave, yarn slippage occurs at the seams and within the fabric
itself. Loose weave fabrics will snag and pill. Filling yarns have a little higher breaking strength than the warp.
Oxford fabrics are soft, porous, and lustrous. Like most cotton fabrics, Oxford is usually made of polyester/cotton
today.
Batiste Lightweight, fine, sometimes sheer fabric of wool, cotton or manmade fibre in plain weave. Used in blouses,
lingerie, linings, handkerchiefs.
Batting Made from new fibre and wadding from waste fibre.
Bouclé Wool or wool blend fabric of looped or knotted yarn, giving a nubby surface. The yarn by itself is also called
bouclé. Used for apparel, drapes and upholstery.
Broadcloth Wool broadcloth is a fine, twill weave fabric, generally dyed dark colours. Used for men’s suits. Cotton
broadcloth is fine lustrous cotton fabric similar to poplin, used for men’s shirts.
Brocade Rich Jacquard weave fabric with an all-over interwoven design. A tarnish-proof gold thread is sometimes
included in the weave. Used in formal, evening clothing and upholstery.
Broderie Anglaise Eyelet embroidery on cotton, generally white-on-white but obtainable in plain colours and prints. Available in
dress widths for blouses, dresses and in narrower widths, for trimming. It is sometimes called ‘broderie’, ‘cambric
lace’ or ‘eyelet lace’.
Buckram Stiff Open weave fabric used mainly for hat shaping, belt stiffening and interfacing.
Calico The generic name for lightweight, plain weave cotton with a smooth surface. Unbleached calico is cream with
dark specks. Bleaching removes both. Often used to make up a fitting shell before cutting an expensive fabric.
The bleached fabric can be made with small print designs.
Canvas Heavy, strong, plain weave fabric usually made from cotton but sometimes from man-made fibres or blends.
Used to make blinds, chair seats and tents.
Calvary Twill Strong, 63° twill weave cloth traditionally used for riding breeches and uniforms. Also used for jackets, skirts and
pants.
Challis A light, supple, plain weave fabric of wool, rayon, cotton, synthetics or blends. Traditionally printed on dark
background with floral or Paisley design. Used in dresses and shirts.
Chambray Traditionally a plain weave cotton but now usually made from polyester/viscose or other man made fibres.
Usually made with a coloured warp and a white filler. Is available in plain colours, stripes and checks and can
resemble denim, although lighter in weight. Used in work clothes, sportswear, pyjamas and shirts.
Chamois A soft, pliable yellow coloured leather, usually with a slightly napped surface, named after the chamois goat from
which the skin is obtained. Other animal skins may be substituted, and synthetic imitations are also available.
Cheesecloth A plain, loosely woven fabric sometimes used for fashion clothing but more often for curtains and polishing
cloths formerly used in cheese making.
Chenille Soft yarn, with pile protruding on all sides, sometimes made from wool blends or more generally cotton. Used in
rugs, bedspreads, dressing gowns.
Chiffon Originally made from silk but today is generally made from manufactured fibres. Very lightweight, soft, sheer
fabric, printed or plain, noted for its draping ability. Used in formal wear.
China silk Lightweight, inexpensive silk used for lining and scarves. Synonymous with Jap silk. Has been almost completely
replaced by the use of manufactured fibres
Chiné When the warp threads of a fabric are printed then woven to produce a shadowy effect. Used to make dresses.
Chintz A closely woven, plain weave fabric printed with figures and birds but most often flowers. Usually has a glazed
finish. Used for soft furnishings, upholstery and curtains.
Corduroy Cotton weft pile fabric woven and shorn to produce ribs in the direction of the warp. It is available in various
widths of rib and in both printed and plain colours. Uncut cord has an all-over nap. Used in children’s clothing,
jackets, coats and slacks.
Crêpe The name applies to fabrics with a dull crinkled surface. Traditionally woven, but now produced in knits. Satin
backed crêpe is a double sided fabric, with satin finish on one side and crêpe on the other. Embossed crêpe is
also available. Used in blouses, dresses, evening wear.
Crêpe de Chine Fabric produced in plain weave by twisting silk in both directions of the weave. Now usually made from
manufactured fibres. Formal wear, blouses.
Polo Firm, reversible fabric of Jacquard weave, similar to brocade. Used to make home furnishings, and tablecloths.
Denim A strong, twill weave fabric traditionally made with coloured warp (usually blue) and white filler. The name is often
given to brushed (knit and plain) cloths which resemble it. Used in work clothes, jeans, jackets skirts and soft
furnishings.
Denim Dimity A strong, twill weave fabric traditionally made with coloured warp (usually blue) and white filler. The name is often
given to brushed (knit and plain) cloths which resemble it. Used in work clothes, jeans, jackets, skirts, soft
furnishings.
Dotted Swiss Traditional Swiss fabric is a fine sheer, cotton muslin with small dots woven in, flocked or sometimes printed on
the surface. Fine lawn or voile can also be used as the base cloth. Used in bridesmaids dresses and children’s
wear.
Drill Strong Twill weave cotton similar to denim, often dyed khaki. Used to make work clothes and small children’s pants.
Dry-laid Nonwoven A web delivered from the carding machine which has fibres oriented lengthwise. It can be cross-laid and does
not have grain.
Duck Heavy Tightly woven fabric of cotton or linen available in plain or ribbed weaves in various weights. The terms ‘duck’
and canvas are now synonymous. Used in aprons and artists’ canvas.
Duffel Cloth It is a thick, heavily napped wool fabric, usually in dark colours. Generally made up into medium length coats
referred to as duffle coats.
Faille A medium to heavy weight fabric with horizontal ribs. Generally used for evening wear.
Fake Fur Often a pile knit which may be finished by curling, shearing, sculpturing, or printing to resemble different kinds of
real fur.
Flannel Plain Twill weave fabric of soft (sometimes brushed) wool or wool blends. Used in suits, trousers and blazers.
Flannelette Napped cotton in plain weave, sometimes blended with manufactured fibres. Made in prints and plain colours.
Used in babies’ and children’s wear and men’s casual shirts.
Friezé An uncut pile fabric is an upholstery fabric usually made of mohair, nylon, or cotton with a cotton back. Durability
of friezé depends on the closeness of the weave.
Gabardine Strong, clear finished, medium to heavyweight warp-faced twill weave fabric made from many different fibres or
fibre blends. It is used for raincoats, sportswear, and pants.
Gauze Open weave, sheer fabric made from many different fibres. Used to make bandages and curtains.
Georgette Similar to, but heavier than chiffon and made from crêpe yarns. Available as single georgette and double
georgette. Used to make blouses and evening wear.
Gingham Plain Weave Formerly of cotton but now often made from blends of manufactured fibres. Made by dyeing yarns then weaving
Fabric them in checked or striped patterns. The checks (which come in a variety of sizes) make an excellent base for
cross stitch work. Used in dresses, blouses, children’s clothing, tablecloths and aprons.
Grosgrain Plain Weave Stiff fabric with heavy horizontal ribs. Used mainly for evening wear. In the ribbon it is known as Petersham.
Habutai Lightweight Made of silk or synthetic filaments. Used mainly for scarfs and linings
Plain Weave Fabric
Headcloth An inexpensive, coarsely woven fabric, generally of cotton. Used in children’s clothing and also as a base for
embroidery.
Herringbone Fabrics The twill line is reversed at regular intervals to give a design that resembles the backbone of a fish.
Hessian A coarse, heavy fabric made from jute, hemp or cotton. Synonymous with burlap. Used in curtains, wall
coverings and upholstery.
Hopsack Open 2/2 basket weave fabric used for coats, suits and upholstery.
Huck-a-back Refers to a weave of cotton, linen or man made fibres principally used for hand or dish towels. With its pattern of
small squares it makes an excellent base for embroidery.
Jersey The generic term for any weft knitted fabric. It is a light to medium weight fabric knitted on a circular jersey
machine and sold in tubular form or cut and sold as flat goods. Available in plain colours, stripes and prints.
Lamé Any woven or knitted fabric which has a metallic yarn combined with it to give either pattern or background a
glittery effect. Can also be fabric embroidered with metallic thread. Used for evening and formal wear.
Lawn Sheer, lightweight, plain weave fabric of cotton or cotton blends. Available in plain colours and printed designs.
Used in children's clothing and summer dresses.
Linen Made from fibres from the stalks of the flax plant now generally combined with synthetic fibres to improve crease
resistance and washability. Linen fabrics are available in various weights and strengths of weave. Dress and suit
fabrics are of medium weight. When used for tea towels a finer, more closely woven, lighter weight is used.
Handkerchief linen is a fine, semi-transparent fabric used for blouses and dresses. Bleached or natural (ecru)
linen is a popular base for embroidery. Regardless of weight, linen is a very strong, absorbent, smooth, crisp
quick drying fabric.
Lurex A metallic thread, but sometimes refers to fabric woven through with this thread.
Madras The fabrics should be fine, hand-loomed and imported from Madras in India. They are made in bright plaid
designs and should be hand washed separately as the colours run. They can be made into shirts and other
apparel.
Milanese A warp-knit fabric. It has a diagonal formation which shows up on the back of the cloth. The face has a very fine
rib. The fabric is run- proof and is used for gloves and lingerie.
Moleskin Thick, heavy cotton fabric napped and shorn to produce a suede-like finish. Tends to shrink but is very
hard-wearing. Used for pants, work clothing.
Moss Crêpe Woven with a mossy texture, giving a spongy handle. Can be made from any fibre, including polyester. Available
in plain colours and prints. Used to make blouses and dresses.
Muslin Fine, gauzy, inexpensive soft cotton of plain weave, made in various weights. Now often made from a blend of
cotton and manufactured fibres. True Indian muslin, however, is often woven with gold or silver thread and is an
expensive luxury. Muslin fluctuates in popularity as a dress or shirt fabric. It can also be used, like calico, to make
up a fitting shell before cutting an expensive fabric.
Novelty Knit Can range in appearance from sheer and lacy to heavy and coarse. The degree of stretch varies, depending on
the design and type of yarn used.
Organdie A fine, semi-sheer, lightweight, loose weave cotton, although now made from cotton blends to reduce wrinkling
and loss of crispness. Used for curtains, blouses, evening wear.
Organza A sheer, crisp fine weave fabric made from silk (very expensive fabric) or polyester.
Osnaburg Coarse, strong, plain weave cotton, used mainly for bags and industrial purposes.
Ottoman Heavy fabric with crosswise ribs of varying widths, originally made with a silk warp and wool weft. Once popular
for evening clothes, now used for coats, suits, academic gowns and upholstery.
Oxford Cloth wool fabric of basket weave with coloured (generally very dark grey) warp and white filling thread. Used in
men’s suits. The term 'Oxford' also refers to a shirting fabric of plain or basket weave.
Pile Knit Pile-knits look like woven piles but are more pliable and stretchy. The pile surface may consist of one or two cut
or uncut loops of yarn.
Piqué cotton Has small, raised, geometrically shaped patterns on a loom with a dobby attachment. It may be plain or printed
and made into sportswear.
Polished Cotton Also called 'satin cotton' cotton fabric which has had a sheen applied in the finishing process. It is less shiny
than glazed cotton and is used in dresses and soft furnishings.
Pongee Plain Weave Lightweight silk fabric with a slight slub effect. The terms honan and pongee are interchangeable today. Fabric
manufacturers tend to use the term pongee to describe a wide range of fabrics made from manufactured fibres
which resemble it in appearance or weight. Used in blouses and dresses.
Poodle Cloth Heavy, looped fabric once made from wool, now often from manufactured fibres. It is meant to resemble the coat
of a French poodle. Used in coats and jackets.
Poplin Tightly woven, hard-wearing fabric with a fine horizontal rib, usually of cotton but also cotton/manufactured fibre
blends. Used in summer dresses and children's clothing.
Sailcloth A generic name for fabrics used for making sails. The term, when used for dressmaking fabrics, refers to firmly
woven canvas style fabric.
Scrim An open, plain weave mesh fabric usually made from cotton, but also from nylon and other manufactured fibres.
Printed or plain colours and is used to make curtains.
Seersucker Lightweight cotton fabric with puckered look achieved in the weaving process. Made in many different qualities,
and in plain colours, stripes, plaids and prints. The effect is now imitated in knit fabrics. Used for blouses,
summer dresses and tablecloths.
Serge A 2/2 twill weave, smooth fabric formerly made from wool but now also made from manufactured fibres or
blends. It is used for tailored garments and uniforms. Cotton serge of fine yarn and high count is often given a
water-repellent finish and used for jackets, snowsuits and raincoats. Heavy-yarn cotton serge is used for work
pants.
Shantung Has a slubbed surface produced by irregular slubs in the yarn. It may be made in medium or suiting weight and
of various kinds of fibre.
Sharkskin Heavyweight, semi-crisp, fabric with a slight sheen. Made from acetate or triacetate as well as cotton and wool. It
is used for apparel and, when made from acetate or triacetate, for tennis dresses because of its stark whiteness
and suitability for permanent pleating. It can also be found in colours and is used for suiting.
Sheba The trade name for sheer, lightweight cotton used for linings and interfacings.
Simplex Knit A warp knit two-faced fabric somewhat like circular double knits. End-uses are gloves (traditional), swimwear and
dresses.
Single Knit Also known as single jersey, this fabric is characterised by flat vertical wales on the right side and horizontal
courses on the wrong side. The fabrics stretch horizontally but has lesser lengthwise stretch. When the horizontal
edge of a single-knit fabric is stretched, it curls to the right side of the fabric. This type of fabric is often used for
shirts, dresses, and lingerie.
Shot Silk Woven with the warp and weft in differing colours so that the fabric appears to change colour at different angles.
The effect can also be produced using other lustrous fibres. Used in evening and formal wear.
Stretch These are produced through the incorporation of an elastomeric fibre in the weave. Spandex and Lycra being the
most common additions. Due to the elastic nature of these cloths it is now possible to reduce the ease
allowances in the traditional garment made from a woven textile as the cloth will now stretch with body
movements. Garments made from these clothes can ‘hug the body’ while being comfortable to wear. The elastic
nature of the cloth also eliminates the potential for ‘seam slippage’ which can be common in garments cut with
too little ease. Spandex stretch wovens have become a staple for men’s and women’s wear, even appearing in
European couture collections. Typical wool suits such as tricotine, covert, serge and cavalry twills have also
moved into the stretch arena. Stretch woollens, not only worsteds, are currently being developed by the
International Wool Secretariat (IWS).
Stretch Velvet Has a brushed nap on the right side and smooth vertical ribs on the wrong side. The napped surface of stretch
velvet has a shinier appearance than velour. Stretch panne is a type of stretch velvet with a crushed appearance.
Placed right sides together, stretch velvets shift easily during stitching.
Suede Cloth Fabric napped and shorn to resemble suede, made from cotton, wool, manufactured fibres and blends. Used to
make tailored clothes.
Surah Soft twilled silk or polyester fabric with a sheen. It is often printed. Used to make dresses, blouses, ties and
scarves.
Sweatshirt Fleece Has flat vertical ribs on the right side and soft, brushed surface on the wrong side. It is usually stable, with little
stretch in either direction. Sweatshirt fleece is adaptable to a wide variety of simple designs and is most often
used for sweatshirts, sweat pants, and other sporty garments.
Sweater Knit This type of fabric ranges from smooth and lightweight to lofty and bulky. It is available by the yard and as
sweater bodies. It has a nap and may run. Sweater knit is most suitable for sweaters and loose fitting dresses
and skirts.
Swiss Cotton Lightweight, crisp, fine quality cotton, dotted, figured or in plain colours. Used to make summer dresses.
Taffeta Crisp, plain weave silk or polyester fabric with shiny surface and great deal of scroop (rustle). Available in a
variety of weights. Used in formal wear. Light weights used in linings.
Tarlatan Transparent, loosely woven, open mesh fabric, given a dressing to stiffen it. Mainly used, layer upon layer, for
theatrical costumes.
Tartan Wool twill weave fabric in woven plaid designs, each design belonging to a Scottish clan. Most clans simply have
one tartan, although where this is brightly coloured a low key pattern in dark greens called a hunting tartan are
used for everyday outdoor wear. In addition, some clans have dress tartans for more formal wear. For a tartan to
be authentic it has to be approved by the Lord Lyon King of Arms, who is responsible for all heraldic matters in
Scotland, but there are many imitation tartans available.
Terry Cloth Cotton fabric with loop pile on one side, noted for its ability to absorb moisture. Terry Towelling has the uncut
loop pile on both sides. Both are used mainly as towels but also for clothing such as beach coats. Stretch
towelling is available and used for such things as car seat covers and babies' crawling suits.
Thai Silk Silk with slight slub and in iridescent colours. Made in plain colours (sometimes shot), woven checks, and
characteristic print designs. A luxury fabric, made into dresses, shirts and blouses, cushion covers and curtains.
Tricot Tricot is a lightweight knit with vertical wales on the front and crosswise ribs on the back. It is highly run
resistant., has very little lengthwise stretch and slight stretch crosswise.
Tweed Woven fabric with a somewhat hairy surface, characterised by coloured slabs or yarn. It is firm, hard-wearing and
warm. Some tweeds are pure wool; others are of wool blends or other fibre combinations. Some well known
tweed types are; donegal (handwoven in County Donegal in Ireland. Can now mean any tweed with thick
coloured slubs), harns (hand woven from yarns spun by machine on the Outer Hebrides islands of Scotland. Very
warm and tough) and Irish (distinguished by a white warp and a coloured filling (Donegal is an Irish tweed)).
Two-way Stretch Knits This type of knits stretches both lengthwise and crosswise and has excellent recovery. Frequently used for
form-fitting garments such as swimwear, leotards, and leggings, two way stretch fabric may be used for a variety
of other garments.
Velour Has a thick, short pile. It has the lustrous look of velvet or velveteen and is often dyed in deep, rich colours.
Velvet Silk Also known as imitation silk fabric with short cut piles giving soft texture and lustrous,rich appearance. Skirts,
evening wear, tailored clothing, curtains, upholstery. Some common types of velvet are: ciselé (satin weave fabric
with a pattern of velvet on a sheer ground. Similar fabrics are made by flocking), crushed (pile is pressed flat in
one or several directions to give a shimmering appearance), panne (pile is flattened in one direction to give a
lustrous sheen. Is available with printed designs as well as in plain colours, and is both stretchable and
washable), uncut (pile is left in loop form) and nacré (woven with backing of one colour and pile of another, gives
fabric an iridescent appearance).
Velveteen Cotton or man-made fibre fabric produced in the same way as corduroy but with a short cut pile covering the
entire surface. Used to make skirts, dresses, pants, children’s clothing.
Vinyl A strong, woven or knit base fabric coated with the plastic polyvinyl chloride, commonly called PVC. This gives a
waterproof, slightly tacky surface, smooth or slightly textured. It is used in raincoats, apparel
Voile A plain weave, crisp, lightweight, sheer fabric of cotton or cotton blends, made with special high-twist or twist-on
twist yarns. It is made with printed designs or in plain colours and used for summer wear and curtains.