TM255: Communication and

information technologies
Session 4
1
Block 1 - Part 2: An Introduction to
Radio Transmission
Introduction
• A century ago, Guglielmo Marconi demonstrated to an
amazed London audience how a message could be
transmitted wirelessly across a room.
• Marconi’s message was a code produced by the simple on–off
tapping of a telegraph key.
• The technology of wireless communication has developed
significantly since then, allowing us to send and receive far
more complex messages, but the basic principles of wireless
communication using radio waves remain unchanged.

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2.1: Radio Waves and the Radio Spectrum
2.1.1 The Frequency Of A Radio Wave
• Radio waves are usually represented as a sinusoidal waveform
• This waveform repeats at regular time intervals, called a periodic
waveform.
• The number of complete cycles of the wave that occur in one second is
the frequency of the wave.
• The more cycles that occur in one second, the higher the frequency of
the wave.
• The unit of measurement of frequency is the Hertz (Hz) which means
cycles per second.
• The period of the waveform (T) is the time taken for one complete cycle
so this is equal to: T = 1/f
• The wave illustrated in Figure 2.2 has twice the frequency of that in
Figure 2.1.

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2.1.1 The Frequency of a Radio Wave –
Cont.
Activity 2.1
Calculate the period and the frequency of the waveform shown in Figure
2.3. On the horizontal axis, ‘time (ms)’ indicates that time is measured in
milliseconds.
There are 4 full cycles of the waveform completed in 0.1 ms.
Period=0.1 x 10-3 s/4 = 0.000025 seconds
Frequency = 1/T = 1/0.000025 s = 40 kHz

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2.1.2 The Radio Spectrum
• Radio waves created for the purposes of wireless communication are
referred to as radio signals.
• Radio waves are a particular group of electromagnetic wave.
• The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies (the
spectrum) of electromagnetic radiation and their respective
wavelengths and photon energies.
• Radio waves sit at the lower frequency end of the electromagnetic
spectrum (EM spectrum) with frequencies from about 3 Hz up to
around 300 GHz, although commercial use starts at around 3 kHz.

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2.1.2 The Radio Spectrum – Cont.
• Radio waves occur naturally in the environment; for
example, those caused by cosmic radiation.
• But, for communication purposes, radio waves are created
using electronic circuitry and launched into the
atmosphere via a radio transmitter and antenna.
• These signals can propagate from their source in all
directions, becoming weaker (attenuated) the further they
travel.
• If they are transmitted using different frequencies, many
radio signals can exist in the same space at the same time
without interfering with each other as radio receivers are
designed just to operate with signals at the intended 6
frequency.
2.1.2 The Radio Spectrum – Cont.
• The properties and propagation characteristics of radio
waves vary drastically and are classified into sub-bands:
• The Very High Frequency (VHF) band.
• The communication systems covered in this module
typically use frequencies that lie in the Ultra High
Frequency band (UHF) from 300 MHz to 3 GHz and the
Super High Frequency band (SHF) from 3 to 30 GHz
• The Extremely High Frequency Band (EHF) from 30 to
300 GHz, also known as the millimetre band due to the
wavelength of these waves.
• There has been a lot of interest in these frequencies
recently and they are currently being explored for 7
next-generation mobile networks.
2.1.2 The Radio Spectrum – Cont.
• Low frequency waves
• can travel long distances
• used for purposes such as navigation and long-range
broadcasting.
• As frequencies increase:
• waves tend to become weaker and quicker
• limited to shorter range, line-of-sight applications.
• can handle much more traffic.

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2.1.2 The Radio Spectrum – Cont.
• The wavelength is the distance between two consecutive
peaks of a wave.
• The general relationship between frequency (f) and
wavelength (λ):
c=fλ
where c is the speed of light in free space and is usually
quoted as 3 × 108 metres per second (m/s).

• Activity 2.2
• Calculate the frequency and period of a radio wave that has a
wavelength of 30 mm.
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• Frequency: f = c/λ = (3 × 108)/(30 × 10−3) = 10 GHz.
• Period: T = 1/f = 1/(10 × 109) = 0.1 x 10-9 seconds= 0.1 x 10-9 x 109 ns
 2.2: Radio Wave Propagation
• Radio signals are subject to many phenomena which result in signal
power continually being lost along its path between transmitter and
receiver.
• Factors that can influence the performance of a radio system:
1. The design of the equipment is one, as this determines the initial
transmission
2. Power – that is the power in the signal to begin with, and the receiver
3. Sensitivity – the minimum signal power that can be received for the
desired
4. Output signal to be recovered accurately.
5. The nature of radio waves and
6. The path between transmitter and receiver.
7. The frequency of the wave,
8. The distance between transmitter, receiver and objects in between them.
9. Susceptible to interference from other radio signals in the vicinity that 10
might be operating on, or producing signals around, similar frequencies
 2.2.1 Signal Power Spreading
• As a radio wave is launched from a transmitter the power in the wave
spreads out over a larger and larger area as it travels ➔ the power
detected at e the receiver is located is much less than left the
transmitter.
• Received power is a function of the transmitted power and the distance
between the transmitter and receiver, described using the inverse-
square law:
p = P/(4π r2)
where P is the power output of the source (transmitted power).
• The inverse-square law applies to signals transmitted in:
• free space (e.g. from a satellite) and,
• for terrestrial signals (i.e. those transmitted on Earth) when the
distance between transmitter and receiver is up to about 90 m.
• At distances greater than 90 m the effect of waves reflected off 11
the ground, and other objects, need also to be taken into
account.
2.2.1 Signal Power Spreading – Cont.
• Example: If the power output at a ground based transmitter was 5 W
and the distance to a mobile radio receiver was 50 m then the power
received at the mobile:
p = 5/(4π × 502) = 1.6 × 10-4 W/m2 or 0.16 mW/m2
• Activity 2.3: A GPS satellite develops a fault whereby it moves into an
orbit 19 500 km above the Earth’s surface and also emits a weak
signal whose power is only 24 W. What will be the power per square
metre of the signal received on the Earth’s surface?
The received signal power is given by: p = P/(4π r2)
= 24/(4π × 19 500 0002) = 5 × 10−15 W/m2.
• For transmitters on Earth covering larger distances, the
inverse-square law no longer applies
• Other effects, such as interference from waves reflected off the
ground or other large objects, are significant. 12
• Here, another approximation applies: inverse-fourth power.
2.2.1 Signal Power Spreading – Cont.
• Example: Compare signal strengths at two different distances from
a transmitter.
• The larger distance is 5 times as great as the smaller distance.
• The fourth power of 5 or 54 is 625. So the signal is approximately 625
times as strong at 2 km as it is at 10 km.
• Alternatively, the signal at 10 km is 1/625 = 0.0016 times as strong as
the signal at 2 km.

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2.2.1 Signal Power Spreading – Cont.
• It’s also possible to perform similar calculations to compare the
signal strengths from two different transmitters at a single
point, provided both transmitters are transmitting at the same
power.
• Example: Suppose a receiver is 4 km from one transmitter and 2 km
from a second transmitter as shown in Figure 2.6. Assuming both
transmitters are emitting signals of the same strength, how much
stronger is the signal from the nearer base station?
• Solution: The larger distance is twice as great as the smaller
one. The fourth power of 2 or 24 is 16 ➔ So the signal from the
nearer base station is 16 times as strong as the signal from the
further base station.

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2.2.2 Attenuation through Absorption
• Attenuation: the gradual loss of signal power as it travels
through a medium.
• All type of signals suffer attenuation (radio, electrical, light).
• Absorption is one of the main causes of attenuation in radio
signals.
• As radio waves travel they are absorbed by the atmosphere, or
other materials in between the receiver and transmitter.
• The amount of absorption is frequency dependent.
• The increase in absorption as frequency increases is not linear
• Frequencies around 60 GHz are particularly susceptible to
absorption but absorption losses reduce between 70 and 120 GHz,
peaking again around 200 GHz.
• This means careful planning is needed to ensure suitable 15
frequency bands are allocated for different circumstances.
 2.2.3 Multipath and Interference
• In enclosed areas, such as buildings, some objects will absorb radio
signals (particularly those at the higher frequencies) while others, such
as metal filing cabinets and certain wall coverings, can act like mirrors
and reflect radio signals, causing them to take multiple paths to the
receiver.
• Reflected signals reach the receiver at a slightly different time to the
dominant line-of-sight signal due to the fact they have travelled further.
• The reflected signals can act as interference, which attenuates
(weakens) the signal. This is an effect known as multipath fading.
• The overall effect of the multipath environment depends on
• number of reflective surfaces
• distance from the transmitter to the receiver
• equipment design
• radio technologies used.
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2.2.3 Multipath and Interference – Cont.
• How Interference is created?
• It occurs when delayed versions of a radio wave interfere with the
wave itself!.
• Radio waves from other communications systems that might be
operating in the same geographical area can also create
interference (having the same frequency).
• When two separate radio waves combine, they can either
reinforce (constructive) each other or cancel each other
out (destructive).

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2.2.4 Antennas

• An antenna is the piece of equipment that is used at both

of transmitter and receiver to launch and collect radio
waves respectively.
• Antenna is a conductor of a specific shape that can
convert an electrical signal in a wire to an
electromagnetic wave outside the wire or vice versa.
• The use of multiple antennas at the transmitter and
receiver have become an important method for
increasing the data rates of radio links in recent systems

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2.2.4 Antennas – Cont.
• The size of an antenna is related to the wavelength (and
therefore also the frequency) of the radio wave it is
designed to receive.
• One simple and very common antenna is the dipole.
• A dipole antenna simply comprises two conductors that
are connected at their centre.
• The most common dipole has a length that is half the
wavelength of the signal it is transmitting or receiving.
➢So if the frequency of the signal was around 1 GHz, the
relationship c = f λ would mean a wavelength around
30 cm and antenna size around 15 cm.
➢So higher frequencies means shorter wavelengths and 19
smaller antenna.
2.2.4 Antennas – Cont.
• An example of some of the antennas on a typical mobile
cellular base station, or cell tower.
• Around the top of the tower are many ‘panel’ antennas:
• Each of these comprises a dipole behind a flat panel reflector
which focuses the direction of the signal angled in the directions
that the base station is aiming to serve.
• In addition to these are microwave antennas or dishes
• Highly directional pointing at another similar antenna on another
tower – providing a line-of-sight microwave link.
• Used to provide a backhaul link – that is a link from the tower to
the core network.
• In smaller radio communications equipment (laptop
computers, mobile devices or phones, and routers)
the antenna are often hidden and embedded inside 20
the device or the device casing.