8 Marks Questions

1. Transmission Impairment
○ Transmission impairment occurs when a signal deteriorates during
transmission, affecting the quality and accuracy of the received data.
○ Types of Transmission Impairment:
■ Attenuation: Loss of signal strength over distance. For example,
the signal strength decreases as it travels through a long cable.
■ Distortion: Changes in the signal's shape or form. For instance,
different frequencies travel at different speeds in a medium,
causing the signal to distort.
■ Noise: Unwanted signals that interfere with the original signal.
For example, electromagnetic interference from other devices can
add noise to the transmission.
○ Examples: Poor telephone line quality, weak Wi-Fi signals, or static in
radio transmissions.
2. Guided and Unguided Media
○ Guided Media: Transmission media that guide the signal along a specific
path.
■ Examples: Twisted pair cables (used in telephony), coaxial cables
(used in cable TV), and optical fiber cables (used in high-speed
internet).
○ Unguided Media: Transmission media where the signal is broadcast
through the air or space.
■ Examples: Radio waves (used in broadcasting), microwaves (used in
satellite communication), and infrared waves (used in remote
controls).
○ Comparison: Guided media is typically used for short-distance
communication with controlled environments, while unguided media is used
for long-distance communication and when physical wiring is impractical.
3. Multiplexing
○ Multiplexing is a technique that combines multiple signals for transmission
over a single communication channel.
○ Types of Multiplexing:
 ■ Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): Different signals are
transmitted simultaneously on different frequencies. For example,
FM radio stations use different frequency bands.
■ Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Multiple signals share the same
channel by dividing the time into slots. For example, digital
telephony uses TDM to transmit multiple phone calls over the
same line.
■ Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM): Used in fiber optics,
different wavelengths (colors) of light carry different signals. For
example, internet data is transmitted over optical fibers using
WDM.
○ Example: Cable television uses FDM to transmit multiple TV channels
over a single cable.

5 Marks Questions

1. Analog and Digital Signal

○ Analog Signal: Continuous signals that vary over time. They can take any
value within a range.
■ Example: Human voice is an analog signal because it varies
continuously in amplitude and frequency.
○ Digital Signal: Discrete signals that have only a finite number of values,
typically represented by 0s and 1s.
■ Example: Computer data is digital because it is represented in
binary form (0s and 1s).
○ Comparison: Analog signals are susceptible to noise and distortion, while
digital signals are more robust and can be easily processed and stored.
2. Transmission Mode
○ Transmission mode refers to the way data is transmitted between two
devices.
■ Simplex Mode: Data is transmitted in one direction only.
■ Example: Television broadcasting.
■ Half-Duplex Mode: Data can be transmitted in both directions,
but not simultaneously.
■ Example: Walkie-talkies.
■ Full-Duplex Mode: Data can be transmitted in both directions
simultaneously.
 ■ Example: Telephone conversation.
○ Example: A telephone call uses full-duplex mode, allowing both parties to
speak and listen at the same time.
3. Noiseless and Noisy Channel (Shannon Capacity)
○ Noiseless Channel: An ideal channel with no noise, allowing perfect data
transmission.
■ Example: Hypothetical scenario for theoretical analysis.
○ Noisy Channel: A real-world channel with noise, which affects data
transmission.
■ Shannon Capacity: The maximum data rate that can be achieved
over a noisy channel without errors, given by the Shannon-Hartley
theorem.
■ Formula: C=Blog⁡2(1+SN)C = B \log_2(1 + \frac{S}{N})
■ Where CC is the channel capacity, BB is the bandwidth, SS
is the signal power, and NN is the noise power.
■ Example: Calculating the maximum data rate for a given
bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio in a communication system.

1. Telephone Network
○ A telephone network is a system of interconnected devices that allows
voice communication over distances.
○ It consists of several components like telephones, switches, transmission
lines, and signaling systems.
○ Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN): A global network of
circuit-switched telephone networks operated by national, regional, and
local telephony operators.
○ Key Functions:
■ Call Routing: Directing calls from the originating point to the
destination.
■ Signaling: Managing the setup, control, and release of calls.
■ Transmission: Carrying voice signals over different media like
copper wires, fiber optics, and satellites.
○ Example: Making a phone call from New York to Tokyo involves multiple
switches and transmission lines that route the call through the PSTN.
 2. LATA (Local Access and Transport Area)
○ LATA is a geographic region defined for telephone service within the
United States, established by the Modified Final Judgment (MFJ) that
broke up AT&T.
○ Functions:
■ Differentiates between local and long-distance services.
■ Local Exchange Carriers (LECs) provide services within a LATA.
■ Interexchange Carriers (IXCs) handle communications between
LATAs.
○ Example: Calls within a LATA, such as from one city to another nearby
city, are considered local. Calls between LATAs, such as from New York
to California, are long-distance.
3. Circuit Switching
○ Circuit switching is a method of communication where a dedicated
communication path is established between two nodes for the duration of
a transmission session.
○ Characteristics:
■ Establishment Phase: A dedicated path is set up before
communication starts.
■ Data Transfer Phase: Continuous and stable data transfer occurs.
■ Teardown Phase: The path is released after the session ends.
○ Example: Traditional telephone networks use circuit switching, where a
dedicated line is established for a phone call, ensuring a continuous
connection.
4. Packet Switching
○ Packet switching is a method of communication where data is broken into
smaller packets before being sent over a network.
○ Characteristics:
■ Packets: Small units of data that travel independently across the
network.
■ Routers: Devices that direct packets to their destination.
■ Reassembly: Packets are reassembled into the original message at
the destination.
○ Example: The internet uses packet switching, where emails, web pages,
and other data are transmitted as packets.

5 Marks Questions
1. Dial-up Modem
○ A dial-up modem is a device that allows a computer to connect to the
internet over a telephone line.
○ Function:
■ Converts digital data from a computer into analog signals for
transmission over the telephone line.
■ Converts received analog signals back into digital data for the
computer.
○ Example: Early internet connections used dial-up modems, producing
characteristic dial tones and connection noises.
2. Cable TV Network
○ A cable TV network is a system that delivers television programming via
coaxial or fiber-optic cables.
○ Components:
■ Headend: Central location where TV signals are received,
processed, and transmitted.
■ Distribution Network: Cables and amplifiers that carry signals to
subscribers.
■ Set-Top Box: Device that decodes signals for the TV.
○ Example: Companies like Comcast provide cable TV services, offering a
variety of channels delivered via coaxial or fiber-optic cables.
3. Virtual Circuit Network
○ A virtual circuit network establishes a logical connection between source
and destination nodes before transmitting data.
○ Characteristics:
■ Connection-Oriented: A virtual path is set up before data
transfer starts.
■ Consistency: All packets follow the same path, ensuring ordered
delivery.
○ Example: Frame Relay and ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) are
examples of virtual circuit networks, used for reliable data transfer in
telecommunications.
1. Stop-and-Wait ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request)
○ Definition: A protocol for error control in data transmission where the
sender sends one frame and waits for an acknowledgment (ACK) before
sending the next frame.
○ Example: If a frame is lost or corrupted, the sender will retransmit the
frame after a timeout.
○ Process:
■ Sender transmits a frame.
■ Waits for an ACK from the receiver.
■ If ACK is received, send the next frame.
■ If no ACK is received within a timeout period, retransmit the
frame.
2. Selective Repeat ARQ
○ Definition: A protocol for error control where only erroneous or lost
frames are retransmitted, rather than all frames from the last ACK
received.
○ Example: If frames 1, 2, and 4 are received correctly, but frame 3 is
lost, only frame 3 is retransmitted.
○ Process:
■ Sender transmits multiple frames before needing an ACK.
■ Receiver sends ACK for correctly received frames.
■ Sender retransmits only the frames for which no ACK was
received.
3. Go-Back-N ARQ
○ Definition: A protocol for error control where the sender can send
several frames before needing an ACK for the first frame, but must go
back and retransmit all frames after a lost or corrupted frame.
○ Example: If frames 1, 2, 3 are sent and frame 2 is lost, the sender
retransmits frames 2 and 3.
○ Process:
■ Sender transmits multiple frames up to a window size.
■ Receiver sends ACK for the last correctly received frame.
■ If a frame is lost or corrupted, the sender retransmits that
frame and all subsequent frames.
4. Standard Ethernet
 ○ Definition: A family of networking technologies for local area networks
(LANs) defined by IEEE 802.3 standards.
○ Example: 10BASE-T, using twisted pair cables and delivering 10 Mbps.
○ Characteristics:
■ Uses CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection) for access control.
■ Supports multiple speeds and media types.
■ Provides reliable and high-speed data transfer within a LAN.
5. Gigabit Ethernet
○ Definition: An extension of Ethernet technology that supports data
transfer rates of 1 Gbps (Gigabit per second).
○ Example: 1000BASE-T, using twisted pair cables and delivering 1 Gbps.
○ Characteristics:
■ Backward compatible with 10 and 100 Mbps Ethernet.
■ Uses CSMA/CD for access control.
■ Provides high-speed data transfer for bandwidth-intensive
applications.

5 Marks Questions

1. Checksum
○ Definition: An error-detection method where a value is computed from
the data and sent along with it. The receiver recalculates the value to
verify data integrity.
○ Example: Internet checksum used in IP, TCP, and UDP protocols.
○ Process:
■ Sender calculates the checksum value from the data.
■ The checksum is sent along with the data.
■ Receiver recalculates the checksum and compares it with the sent
value.
2. Flow and Error Control
○ Definition: Techniques to ensure reliable data transfer between sender
and receiver.
○ Flow Control: Manages the pace of data transmission to prevent
overwhelming the receiver (e.g., Stop-and-Wait, Sliding Window).
○ Error Control: Detects and corrects errors in transmitted data (e.g.,
ARQ protocols, Checksums).
3. Types of Errors
○ Single-bit Error: Only one bit in the data unit is changed.
○ Burst Error: Two or more bits in the data unit are changed.
○ Example:
■ Single-bit error in the sequence "1101" becoming "1001".
■ Burst error in the sequence "1101" becoming "0011".
4. Fast Ethernet
○ Definition: A version of Ethernet that supports data transfer rates of
100 Mbps.
○ Example: 100BASE-TX, using twisted pair cables.
○ Characteristics:
■ Provides higher data transfer rates than standard Ethernet.
■ Commonly used for faster LAN connections.
5. Function of MAC and LLC Layer
○ MAC (Media Access Control) Layer: Controls how devices on the network
gain access to the medium and permission to transmit data.
○ LLC (Logical Link Control) Layer: Provides error detection and control,
and manages frame synchronization and flow control.
○ Example: MAC layer uses CSMA/CD in Ethernet, while LLC provides
error-checking mechanisms.
6. Modem
○ Definition: A device that modulates digital data into analog signals for
transmission over telephone lines and demodulates incoming analog signals
back into digital data.
○ Example: Dial-up modems used for early internet connections.
○ Function: Enables digital devices to communicate over analog transmission
mediums.
7. Hamming Distance
○ Definition: A measure of the difference between two strings of equal
length, calculated by counting the number of differing bits.
○ Example: Hamming distance between "1011101" and "1001001" is 2.
○ Application: Used in error detection and correction codes.
1. Satellite Network
○ Definition: A satellite network uses satellites in Earth's orbit to
facilitate communication and broadcasting services.
○ Components:
■ Satellites: Geostationary (fixed position relative to Earth),
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO), and Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
■ Ground Stations: Control and monitor satellites, and act as
gateways between the satellite and terrestrial networks.
○ Uses:
■ Global broadcasting, navigation (GPS), weather forecasting, and
internet access in remote areas.
○ Example: Direct-to-home (DTH) television services use satellite
networks to deliver TV signals directly to homes.
2. Bluetooth
○ Definition: Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging
data over short distances using UHF radio waves.
○ Features:
■ Operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
■ Supports point-to-point and point-to-multipoint communication.
■ Provides secure and low-power communication.
○ Applications:
■ Wireless peripherals (mouse, keyboard), audio devices (headsets,
speakers), and data transfer between devices.
○ Example: Connecting a smartphone to a wireless headset for hands-free
calls.
3. DNS (Domain Name System)
○ Definition: DNS translates human-readable domain names (like
www.example.com) into IP addresses (like 192.0.2.1) that computers use
to identify each other on the network.
○ Components:
■ Domain Name: The readable name (e.g., example.com).
■ IP Address: The numerical address (e.g., 192.0.2.1).
■ DNS Servers: Hierarchical system of servers that perform the
translation.
○ Example: When you enter a web address in your browser, DNS
translates it into the corresponding IP address of the web server.
 4. IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4)
○ Definition: IPv4 is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol, which is
used to identify devices on a network using an addressing system.
○ Address Format: 32-bit address divided into four octets, written in
decimal (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
○ Characteristics:
■ Limited to approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses.
■ Uses classes (A, B, C, D, E) to organize address space.
○ Example: A typical IPv4 address might look like 192.168.0.1.
5. IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6)
○ Definition: IPv6 is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol,
designed to replace IPv4 and address its limitations.
○ Address Format: 128-bit address, written in hexadecimal (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
○ Characteristics:
■ Provides a vastly larger address space.
■ Improved security features and simplified header format.
○ Example: A typical IPv6 address might look like
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334.

5 Marks Questions

1. IEEE 802.11 Architecture

○ Definition: The IEEE 802.11 standard defines wireless local area
network (WLAN) architecture and protocols.
○ Components:
■ Basic Service Set (BSS): The fundamental building block of a
WLAN.
■ Access Point (AP): Connects wireless devices to a wired network.
■ Distribution System (DS): Connects multiple APs to form an
extended service set (ESS).
○ Example: Home Wi-Fi networks use 802.11 standards for wireless
connectivity.
2. Backbone Network
○ Definition: A backbone network connects multiple LANs and provides a
path for the exchange of information between different subnetworks.
○ Features:
 ■ High-speed data transmission.
■ Connects diverse networks within an organization or multiple
organizations.
○ Example: A company's internal backbone network connects various
departments' LANs to enable communication and data exchange.
3. User Datagram (UDP)
○ Definition: UDP is a connectionless transport protocol used in the
Internet Protocol suite, providing a direct way to send and receive
datagrams.
○ Characteristics:
■ No guarantee of delivery, order, or duplicate protection.
■ Lower overhead compared to TCP.
○ Applications:
■ Suitable for applications where speed is more critical than
reliability (e.g., online gaming, streaming).
○ Example: DNS queries often use UDP because it is faster and the
application can handle retransmissions if needed.