AAP 64 (2000): Swahili Forum VII • 127-143

BEYOND THE UTENZI:

NARRATIV E POEMS BY THEOBALD MVUNGI 1

ELENA BERTONCINI-ZUBK OVA

Some time ago I came across a tiny collection of poems called Chungu tamu 2 by Theobald
Mvungi. The author was born in Mwanga province (Kilimanjaro) probably in the Fifties, as
he graduated from the University of Dar es Salaam in 1975 and gained his M.Ed. degree in
Nigeria (Ibadan) in 1978. He published his first collection ofpoems, Raha karaha, in 1982
and his third one, Mashairiya Chekacheka, in 1995 .

All Mwangi' s poems deal with social problems, but only those of the second collection are
formally innovative . Five of the twenty poems of this collection tell a story and I am going to
investigate three of them3

It is striking and quite unusual in Swahili poetry to present the narration itself as another
stoty . However, it is not the fiist time that it occurs in modern Swahili poetty . In fact, for
instance Kezilahabi's poem Hadithiya kitoto (from the collection Kichomi, 1974) opens with
the scene of the narrator - the grandfather - sitting close to a fire with his grandchildren
who want to be told a story, while roasting birds and potatoes. The last two strophes contain
grandfather's comment, i . e . a moral message4 Thus the narrative act itself is represented, as it
often happens in prose fiction. But whereas in Kezilahabi it only opens or frames the main
story, in Mvungi the narrator's interferences are intermingled with the main story to such an
extent that in fact two parallel stories are narrated. I will call them the frame story and the
main story

1
Paper presented at the 12th Swahili-Kolloquium, Bayreuth, 14-15 May 1999.
2
Theobald Mvungi. Chungu tamu. 1985 Dar es Salarun: Tanzania Publishing House .
3
The remaining two, Thomas na Doto and Fikiru za Waungwana, do not present the main features I will discuss
here. (The former, situated in colonial times, is a love story of the son of a colonial officer and a black nurse; the
latter is centred on the claim of a wife to have two husbands and it is the only narrative poem in regular shairi
metre.)
4
Similarly another Kezilahabi's poem, Hadithi ya mzee, opens with a prologue, but this time there is no
epilogue
128 ELENA BERTONCINl-ZUBKOVA

Chatu na kuku employs the animal fable as the vehicle for an extended satire on human
oppression. It narrates about the friendship of the python and the chicken, which lasts until the
death of mama Kuku . Afterwards the python family manages to kill one of the two young
chickens and to enslave the other This story is narrated by babu to the young 1'' person
narrator, both sitting by the fue and roasting potatoes . From time to time the main story is
interrupted while the poet turns to the fr·arne story, mostly describing the reactions of the
young listener. See, for instance, the fust interruption after the death of mama Kuku.

15 Babu akavunja kiazi,

Tukaanza kukitafuna,
Kiazi kitamu sana,
Nikamwangalia babu akimeza.
Niliuliza •· "Kuku alizikwaje?"
Ati kuku walichimba kwa midomo na kwa kucha,
Chatu alitumia meno yake,
Hayal

Kwisha kumeza mafunda kadhaa,

Babu alinitumia maji ya kunywa,
Nikayaleta,
Twala twanywa,
Raha tupu

Another interruption follows the python's decision to seize the young chickens Piku and
Paku .

2.. Nilipumua kwa woga,

Babu kiazi akakimega,
Mdomoni akakitumbukiza,
Niliona kana akiumiza,
Mithili yule chatu anavyomeza

Nilimuliza babu tena,

"Hadithiya kweli? ",
Babu akamezafunda la kiazi na maji,
Mzee h11:yu alikuwa na kipaji,
Cha huu usimuliaji,
"Itakuwaje chatu azungumze na kuku,
Ningekuwa kuku si ningepaa?,
Nikamwacha chatu akilaani.. "

5
Numbering of the strophes is mine
 NARRATIVE POEMS BY THEOBALD MVUNGI 129

2a Babu hakujali swali langu,

Akaendelea kunipasha habari,
Piku alimezwa huku analia,
Dua akawaombea chatu wote,
Mabaya yawafike,
Wapi kuku akamezeka,
Paku akafungwa,
Pangoni akafikishwa

Paku is forced to lay and brood eggs as a food supply for the pythons

3. Nilimuuliza babu,
Kuku huyu wa tabu,
Naona alikuwa koo,
Alitagaje bilajogoo ?,
Akasema ati si ajabu

Finaiiy, the last strophe closes the frame story and the whole poem. At this moment the young
listener (the grandson) reveals himself as being the author:

4.. Basi babu akatua,

Funda akajimezea,
Mimi tama nimejishikia,
Huzuni imenisaliti,
Kwa Chatu kukosa dhati,
Ndipo nikapanga hizi beti,
Ziwe kama ndiyo hati,
Ukumbusho wa huyu dhulumati.

The second narrative poem is Dakitari Askari, situated dUiing the war· of Tanzania with
Uganda . The 1" person narrator Adarn Kiende is a military smgeon; in a battle he is taken
prisoner by the Ugandan army and while working in the enemy hospital he meets his former
sweetheart Eva, now a surgeon of the Ugandan army. In another battle it is the Tanzanian
army that gains a victory: now Dr. Adam is liberated and Dr.. Eva imprisoned. In Tanzania,
however, the two may marry.

Dr. Adarn is the hero of the story, and at the same time the narrator. He teiis his own story,
but also offers his comments. This time there is no real frame story, only an introduction, told
impersonaily, about the beginning of the war with Uganda in 1978 . After five strophes, the
style changes as the story formaily starts with the traditional formula Paukwa, foiiowed by
130 ELENA BERTONCINI-ZUBKOVA

short, crisp sentences injuxtaposition, most of them two-word constructions:

5.. Basi sikiliza ..... Paukwa . .!,

Vita vikaja,
Damu zikavuja,
Watu wakatoweka,
Maiti zikanuka,
Mali zikatimka,
Raha ikaaga,
Vijiji vikawa mbuga,
Pema pakawa alama ya uovu,
Mabomu yaliacha makovu.

The narrator addresses his listeners, or rather a listener, as his address is always in singular .

5a Hadithi hii haidai kiitikio,

Wewe sikiliza tu,
Kaziyo kufongua sikio,
Ukipenda, shika tama,
Lakini tama halikusaidii,
Utaonekana kama kinyago cha kuchonga,
Ati hadithi?!
Sijui
Labda ni maelezo au taarifa ya vita,
Lakini haikutiwa chumvi mitaani

If we may bonow a term from the analysis of the novel, this is a rather obtrusive narrator who
interrupts continually his story with comments, questions, addresses to the listeners etc .

5b Huo mwaka sabini na nane,

Mie tayari ni Kapteni wa jeshi,
Lakini mimi ni askari dakitari,
Umeshituka!,
Mtu mmoja kuwa muuaji na pia mponyaji,
Kama ulifikiri haiwezekani, basiyawezekana

Acha na kasumba potofu,

Hujasikia wezi wakiomba Mungu,
Kablaya kwenda huko waendako?
Au unajikiri askari husali au huswali huko vitani?

While in the strophe 5a he questions the geme ofthis composition (Ati hadithi?l Sijui.. Labda
ni maelezo au taarifa ya vita), in the next one he disagrees with the use of the wrong form
mponyeshaji:
 NARRATIVE POEMS BY THEOBALD MVUNGI 131

6.. Basi mie ni mponyaji,

Wasemaje?,
Aa aa sio mponyeshaji la hasha,
Mie naponya,
Kwa hiyo ni mponyaji,
Mponyeshaji ni yule anayenifanya mimi niponye,
Jifimze Kiswahiliyahel,
Si kitu,
Mimi ni askari dakitari,
Kapteni,
Ninapigiwa saluti,
Usinionee wivu,
Ukitaka, nawejiunge nasi,
Lakini usikubali raha tu,
Kumbuka na karaha

At this point he remembers the past - Haya yanikumbusha zamani - and in a flashback tells
about his attempt, with some other schoolboys, to become piiest, as they have seen their
teachers in a catholic school eat much better food than that given to the pupils. Nevertheless,
very soon they realize that life in a seminary is hard to endure.

7 Lahaula!,
Miaka miwili,
Magotiyameota sugu,
Msichana akipita kushoto uangalie kulia,
Vitabu usome vingi na sana,
Padiri akisema usibishe,
Tuliyeyuka kama siagijuani,
Wazo la mikate na mayai likapaa,
Seminari ikatukosa,
Au si:Si tukaikosa .

The last poem I will discuss, Manzese mpaka Ostabei, is the most interesting for our purpose .
Here the I" person narrator is a storyteller, telling the story of other people, whose comments
have an important role in building the poem.

While in the first poem the characters of the frame story were two - the grandfather and his
grandson - and in Dakitari Askari there is no frame story, but an obtrusive narrator
commenting to his listener both on his story and on the very act of narrating, Manzese mpaka
Ostabei features a storyteller and his audience . Even if the listeners ar·e reflected only in the
storytellers replies, they have their characteristics: they may be defined as poor male
132 ELENA BERTONCINI-ZUBKOVA

inhabitants ofDar es Salaam, who have not enough money to pay for an entertaimnent

The opening is traditional- Hadithi njoo:

8.. Hadithi njoo, uende Manzese,

Upite Kariakoo,
Mwisho wako Ostabei,
Mjini Bandarisalama,
Wengine wameliita Jiji,
Kuliita Jiji la salama,
Yumkini,
Lakini a!,
Sijui,
Je iyo harufu ya dhuluma,
Je vishindo rya majambazi,
Jejeje ..... fe nyingi,
Jiji salama,
Watuhadaa,
Yayumkinika labda .

It seems that the listeners have lost their traditional culture, as they are unable to respond
(kuitikia properly:

9.. Hadithi kavu isiyo na mwitikiaji,

Wasemaje?
Hadithi za kisasa ?,
Basi na vituko ryake pia,
Wengine hamtaki kuitikia,
Wengine mwaitikia kizungu,
Sijuiyaah yaah .
Ni mamoja kwangu,
Lakini sikilizeni,
Kwanza hamna pakwenda,
Hadithi mtasikiliza,
Walevi hamna fedha,
Kwa hiyo baa marufuku,
Kwanza bia imepanda bei,
Labda mjifunze kunywa gongo

9a Wapenda densi sijui dansa,

Siku hizi nifitjo na unyang'anyi,
Wanyang'anywa msichana, hata mkeo,
Pia wakuibiafedha,
Barabara zote giza,
Taa zawaka kwa maringo,
Jiji lasema hali ngumu.
 NARRAT IVE POEMS BY THEOBALD MVUNGI 133

9b Watu wanasema hali halisi,

Kaa usikilize hadithi,
Maana huna pakwenda,
Kasuruali kako,
Bei yake mshahara wa mwezi,
Kakivuliwa,
Utalia kwa lugha ya kwenu,
Kizungu, Kiswahili wapi,
Utakuwa majinuni zuge,
Kaa usikilize kisa cha Manzese,
Na Ostabei Jijini Daa.

The storyteller comments on the difficult situation in Tanzania: rising prices, increasing
criminality, poor conditions of life in Dar es Salaam. Only at this point the main story struts to
unfold. It begins in 1956 with a poor couple, Kitwana and Mtumwa, but the stmyteller
interrupts continually his nrumtion addressing the audience

The hero of the main stmy is the eldest son of the couple, Mashaka

I 0. Ala ala! Hampendi,

lvfwataka hadithi ya vigori tu,
Za madume hamtaki,
Basi nendeni huko baa,
Au kwenye densi,
Mnazo hela?,
Densi wanakwenda,
Wale wenye masurufu,
Au wale maarufu,
Kama sarafo,
Na noti elfu,
Au, tena au,
Walewezi,
Maana ndio wenye senti

At this point begins a long insert about different kinds of thieves .

11. Wengine wezi wa sinzia,

Baadhi wezi wa silaha,
Wale wasiofanya mzaha,
Kuua kwao si karaha,
Halafu, tena halafo,
Kuna wezi mikono-laini,
Mwawaita wezi sijui karatasi,
Ennhee umesema,
134 ELENA BERTONClNl-ZUBKOVA

Wezi wa kalamu,
Basi huko densini,
Wezi wa kalamu na wenzao,
Wanafanya karamu,
Unaonaje karamu ya majizi?

Naam,
Itakuwa karamu kabambe,
Au hata kamambe,
Mazungumzo yao,
Yale maelezo ya mbinu za wizi,
Lakini karamu mbali,
Je mkutano wa chama cha wezi,
Usinichekeshe, Ati mwenyekiti
Atakuwa wa Yilaha, wa sinzia,
Au wa mikono-laini?

The disquisition goes on, but then the storyteller notices that he is boring his listeners .

12.. Aaa lakini hii Yi hadithi ya wezi,

Taabu ni nyie,
Mnapiga miayo,
Eti nav.;acho.sha,
Ni lipi lisilochosha,
Muda wenyewe mrefu,
Na nyie hamna hela,
Burudani shurti utikise, mhela,
Ule mti unaotaga hela,
Mti huo makwenu hauoti,
Achilia mbali kustawi,
Basi hadithi hii nawapa bure,
Taabuya vitu rya bure,
Havina thamani,
Ningekuwa nawauzia,
Mngenisikiliza na kukariri,
Maana nisemayo si haba,
Japo hayajai kibaba,
fliryo, bure haina mahaba

Finally the main story continues: Mashaka, even if very poor, is a good student, so he enters
high schooL He is in the same class with Dora, the daughter of a minister (the very rich and
important Jonathan Shibe}. Here the two stories meet, as the listeners are supposed to know
the minister He is described ironically, with the use of hyperbole:
 NARRATIVE POEMS BY THEOBALD MVUNGI 135

13.. Jamaa mnamkumbuka Shibe?,

Tumbo lake kubwa kama pipa,
Kichwa kidogo kama cha chatu,
Uso ulimjaa kurutu,
Puafupi lakini pana,
Mweusi kama kiatu chajeshi,
Mdomo wake wajuu haukuonekana,
Sharubu za kambare zilistawi,
Ukiziona sharubu utamfikiria spekta wa polisi,
Maana wale hawaruhusiwi ndevu,
Kwa hiyo ni sharubu za hamu tu, .

The love story between Mashaka and Dora continues even after they have finished high
schooL The rich parents try by all means to prevent their maniage, but in vain . Before ending
his story, the narrator intenupts himself for the last time .

14. Hadithi yakimbilia ukingoni,

Nimesema sana,
Hata soda hamwezi kuninunulia? !,
Mwanisikiliza,
Mwameza mate,
Mkitajwa binti mwafumbua macho,
Eboo - namna gani?,
Basi.
Namalizia, msinisumbue na maswali
Walioana hawakuoana? !,
Kwanza hakuna kuoana!,
Hakuna
Bwanaaoa,
Hakuna kuoana
Maana mke haoi kamwe.

The story has a happy end: thanks to a grandchild, Dora' s parents accept finally her husband

Formal features
Mvungi's narrative poems ar·e cast in free verse, or rather in a sort of irregular· metr·e . In fact,
in the collection Chungu tamu, besides poems with a regular· metr·e and those in free verse,
there ar·e many mixed forms, where the speech is not patterned enough to be a metr·e, but still
deliberate enough to be rhythmic6, and where the rhyme is not removed 7

6
Cf Roger Fowler, ed.: A Dictionary of Modern Critical Terms, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London and New
York, !973, p.102
136 ELENA BERTONCINI-ZUBKOVA

In some modern poets, like Mulokozi and Kahigi, the passage from traditional to modern
poetry is still visible, whereas e.g. in Kezilahabi the process of creating a substitute form of an
accepted prosody is accomplished. Mvungi is closer to the former two poets .

In Mvungi's poems there is a great variation in line-length and in the length of the strophes .
Thus Chatu na kuku consists of eight pages containing 47 strophes of unequal length- from
four lines up to 12; Dakitari Askari is 15 pages long and has 32 strophes of even more
unequal length: from 3-4 lines to some strophes stretching over 1-2 pages; finally Manzese
mpaka Ostabei consists of 12 pages, with strophes from 4-5 lines up to one page .

The rhyme occurs quite often; it is the irregular· rhyme of fr·ee verse, a crucial structural
device, suited to captme the heterogeneousness of modern experience See, for instance, in )1'

the strophe 2: kwa woga - akakimega, akakitumbukiza - akiumiza - anavyomeza; maji-

kipaji- usimuliaji. Strophe 3: babu- tabu, koo -jogoo. Str·ophe 4: imenisaliti- dhati-
beti- hati- dhulumati Strophe 9: halisi- hadithi.. Strophe 10: masurufu- maarufu-
sarafu - elfo. Strophe 11: silaha - mzaha - karaha Strophe 12: haba - kibaba -
mahaba .

In the strophe 13, besides the rhyme chatu- kurutu, this rhyme (-tu) is repeated two lines
later in kiatu, but not in the end position . The same patterning, i.e.. a sort of phonological
echo, occms in the strophell, kalamu- karamu:

Wezi wa kalamu na wenzao,

Wanafanya karamu,

and in the strophe 6, raha- karaha 8 :

Lakini us ikubali raha tu,

Kumbuka na karaha.

7
In fact, the most prominent feature in the traditional Swahili poetry is the metre - a fixed number of syllables
in a line and a fixed number of lines in a strophe - while the rhyme is less elaborated than that of Western
poetry. So the first traditional element that Swahili modem poets felt the need to do away with was the regular
metre, not the rhyme that is not considered to such an extent as a worn-out convention. Therefore there are many
free-verse poems without a fixed number of syllables in a line and with a varying number of lines in a strophe,
but which exhibit a regular (m almost regular) final rhyme, whereas there is, as far as I know, nothing similar to
the European blank ve'" with its regular metre and rhythm, but without rhymes.
8
Remember that Raha karaha is the title ofMvungi's fnst collection of poems .
 NARRATIV E POEMS BY THEOBALD MVUNGI 137

Mvungi's narration is not always linear; in Dakitari askari he shifts to the past inserting some
flashbacks into the main story. His language is simple, but varied: it features many
colloquialisms, broken Swahili of Uganda, codeswitching and a distinctively oral style
(kasuruali kako )..

The poet often uses short and simple sentences almost without punctuation. His graphological
style is similar to the Swahili convention of commas dividing two hemistichs of a shairi, ie .
having only a formal, visual role . In tact, Mvungi's commas and full-stops have no syntactic
function, but signal respectively the end of a line or of a strophe . Thus commas occur even
after a question mark and sometimes they are put in the middle of a phrase (mzee huyu
alikuwa na kipaji, cha huu usimuliaji; densi wanakwenda, wale wenye masurufu), or, on the
contrary, between two sentences . Full-stops very seldom occur in the middle of a strophe, not
even at the borderline between the frame story and the main story (which is somewhat
disturbing for the reader)..

2a. Babu hakujali swali langu,

Akaendelea kunipasha habari,
Piku alimezwa huku analia,

As the effect of using full stops is to emphasize the autonomy of each piece of information,
their absence may mean close interlinking of the two stories . When the full-stop does appear
in the middle of a strophe, its effect is of maximum force:

15.. Kukacha,
Landrova na lori,
Hukoo kunakoogopwa,
Wengine mwaita mstari wa mbele,
Wala hakuna cha mstari wala mchoro,
Ni mbuga, misitu na fojo,
Mauti

The voice of the poem as a whole is the author's, but in some places he accomplishes the
appropriation of the voice of his listeners, in order to better evoke their participation, or of his
characters, in order to present them more vividly or to condemn their world view (Midili skuli
of the minister Shibe).. This shift occurs, e.g, in the 6th and 9th strophes
138 ELENA BERTONCINI-ZUBKOVA

While the classical utenzi is punctuated by purely formal, "dummy" addresses to the listener,
such as sikia, fahamu etc . , Mvungi's address to the listeners/ readers, represented as a
dialogue of the storyteller with his audience, is an important part of his narxative poems . The
reactions of the audience ar·e discussed by the narrator, and sometimes (strophe11) a listener's
hint is reflected in the narrator's speech:

11.. Mwawaita wezi sijui karatasi,

Ennhee umesema,
Wezi wa kalamu,

The principle underlying all versification is foregrounding. Foregrounding may include all
salient linguistic phenomena that in some way cause the reader's attention to shift fiom 'what
is said' to 'how it is said', and above all, it includes rhetorical figures . A prominent poetic
device occuning in Mvungi's poetry is chiming. It is the device of connecting two words by
similarity of sound so that we ar·e made to think of their possible connections.. The
phonological bond is most striking when it is between words that ar·e grammatically paired
but contrast in reference and in associations . This bond may be alliterative, like siku ya soko,
or one of rhyme, such as utoto ni kito, wazuri - kiburi, or dunia mviringo wa maringo . In such
cases we speak about horizontal rhymes, as the words are in the same line .

Assonance (identity of vowel sounds) and alliteration (repetition of initial consonants) ar·e
combined, e . g., in mabomu yaliacha makovu in the strophe 5 .

Lexical repetition, one of the essential poetical devices, presents a simple emotion with force
by underlining rather than elaborating the message.. Free repetition, characterized by an
apparent haphazardness or disorderliness in the manner of repetition, has a deliberate
rhetorical effect: it is a fundamental device of intensification.

Both categories of free repetition - intermittent repetition (ploce), and immediate repetition
(epizeuxis)- occur in Mvungi's poems .

Repetition at a distance:

16. llimradi ni kivutio kisichoumiza fikra,

Hata fikra za masikini.
 NARRATIVE POEMS BY THEOBALD MVUNGI 139

Lakini vita,
Inayodai watoto wa nyumbani,
Si k:ivutio k:isichoumiza,
Kwanza si k:ivutio kwa raia wema,
Hasa raia masik:ini,
Sijui ni k:ivutio kwa nani,
Usiniulize.

Repetition in contact:

Mame Dora akaasa akaasa or Ati mchumba, mchumba asiye baraka .

When the repetition takes place within the framework of a pattern, we speak of verbal
parallelism. Mvungi makes mostly use of anaphora (initial repetition) and anadiplosis (the
immediate repetition of two terms, the first one situated at the end of a unit, the second one at
the beginning of the following unit)

17. Wote wawili wakaangua,

Kuku akapata vifi:zranga,
Vi(aranga wawili,
Chatu akapata vichatu,
Vichatu vinne. (Chatu na kuku)

18. Nikawaza maraisi wa maisha ni wengi,

Kuna waliojitangaza wazi,
Kuna wasiojitangaza, (Dak:itari askari)

19.. Wengine hamtak:i kuitik:ia,

Wengine mwaitik:ia kizungu, (Manzese . .)

On the whole, however, the author privileges Jiee repetitions that suggest spontaneity .

Syntactic parallelism:

The term "parallelism" is above all associated with syntactic repetition, like in the examples
20and2L

20.. Mtumwa akapungua ubichi,

Kitwana akachanua k:ichwani, (Manzese mpaka Ostabei)

21 Mwenzang u Manyai kapewa manesi watatu,

Na pori lake,
Mie wawili na vichaka vyangu, (Dak:itari Askari)
140 ELENA BERTONCINI-ZUBKOVA

In the following verses (from Chatu na kuku), both syntactic and lexical parallelism appear-
parallelism extends to both lexical and grammatical choices .

22.. Kuku ataga mayai,

Chatu atagayake,
Kuku akimkuta panya,
Anamkonyeza chatu,
Chatu apata kitoweo.

Chatu akikuta matunda,

Au hata punje za nafaka,
Amweleza kuku,
Kuku anafaidi .

Parallelism may be synonymic, like in the former examples, or antithetic, as e.g. in Dunia ni
raha na tabu, or in

5.. Vijiji vikawa mbuga

Pema pakawa alama ya uovu,

Among other examples of Mvungi's patteming are horizontal rhymes combined with an
antifhesis (mapenzi ni mashenzi; watu wakageuzwa vitu; kambi ikajaa vumbi), and the
chiasmus

8.. Jiji salama,

Watu hadaa,

Another interesting featwe is the antithesis linking the last line of a strophe (9a) with the first
line of the next one (9b):

Jiji lasema hali ngumu.

Watu wanasema hali halisi,

Normally these two lines should be pru:t ofthe same strophe, sepru:ated from what comes next,
ie. the direct address of the audience:

9b. Kaa usikilize hadithi,

Maana huna pakwenda,

This is a case of foregrounded iiregulru:ity, or in other words, of linguistic deviation.

 NARRATIV E POEMS BY THEOBALD MVUNGI 141

According to Fowl~r 9, it means the violation of rules and conventions, by which a poet
awakens the reader to a new perc~tivity.. In fact, as we have said above, the narrator
intermingles the main story with his comments (the fiame story), and this linking has been
made evident even by such formal devices as punctuation, the division in strophes and
rhymes .

Mvungi 's poems ar·e relatively poor in tropes, i.e.. in devices involving altemtion of the
normal meaning of an expression, such as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, simile etc .

He does use similes and metaphors, of course, but not to such an extent as other modem
poets . Some of his similes are tuliyeyuka kama siagi juani; nikawa nimekaribisha makofi
mithili ya mvua; alilia kama ng'ombe machinjoni; other examples of simile may be observed,
e g, in the description ofthe minister Shibe (s . l3):

13.. Tumbo lake kubwa kama pipa,

Kichwa kidogo kama cha chatu, .
Mweusi kama kiatu cha jeshi,

An example of metaphor occurs in the same poem (in the strophe 12) with mhela -the tree
on which grows money:

12. Burudani shurti utikise, mhela,

Ule mti unaotaga he/a,
Mti huo makwenu hauoti,
Achilia mbali kustawi,

In Dakitari askari the narrator compar·es military doctors following wounded soldiers to
vultures:

Mie nilivuka mpaka, Januari,

Ndege mla nyama,
Nafuata vitoweo,

In the same poem he "dismantles" a metaphor (in a strophe quoted earlier):

15.. Kukacha,
Landrova na fori,
Hukoo kunakoogopwa,
Wengine mwaita mstari wa mbele.
Wala hakuna cha mstari wala mchoro,
9 .
Op.cit, p 98
142 ELENA BERTONCINI-ZUBKOVA

Ni mbuga, misitu nafojo,

Mauti..

This example illustrates one characteristic ofMvungi's style- his fondness for playing with
language at various levels, from words to sentences . There are several instances of playing
with words in our poems, like Wapenda densi sijui dansa (9a), Seminari ikatukosa, I Au sisi
tukaikosa (7), or

14. Walioana hawakuoana?l,

Kwanza hakuna kuoanal,
Hakuna.
Bwana aoa,
Hakuna kuoana
Maana mke haoi kamwe

See also the discussion about mponyaji and mponyeshaji in the strophe 6..

A part oflanguage game is also Mvungi's manipulation ofproverbs:

Vita havina macho,

Vina miguu .

12.. Maana nisemayo si haba,

Japo hayajai kibaba

To the latter manipulated proverb, a new one is added by the means ofrhyme: (llivyo,) bure
haina mahaba

The trope Mvungi uses most is irony (as we have seen in the previous examples);

see, for instance, the irony in the description of the life in the seminary:

7.. Lahaulal,
Miaka miwili,
Magotiyameota sugu,
Msichana akipita kushoto uangalie kulia,
Vitabu usome vingi na sana,
Padiri aki:Sema usibishe,
Tul~yeyuka kama siagi juani,
Wazo la mikate na mayai likapaa,
Seminari ikatukosa,
Au sisi tukaikosa
 NARRATIVE POEMS BY THEOBALD MVUNGI 143

Conclusion
The author takes seriously his role as a poet, and thus as a critical analyst of his society. His
message is contained not only in the stories he tells, but also in narratorial comments . These
comments have such an important role that they may form a parallel story, which is tightly
linked to the main story even formally.

In all poems the role of narrator is crucial, but every time it is structured differently. In the
first poem, the listener (mjukuu) tells/ writes the story told by babu . In the second poem, the
narrator is the hero of the story that he tells to a listener. Finally, in the last poem the narrator,
or rather a storyteller, tells to his audience the story of other people .

While the first analysed poem, Chatu na kuku, is an allegorical accusation of oppression,
Dakitari askari is a direct and explicit condenmation of war, and Manzese mpaka Ostabei
provides the description of poor conditions of life in Dar· es Salaam . On the whole, Mvungi
presents subjects that ar·e normally tr·eated in prose . So he adopts an informal, down-to-earth
style; the poetical devices he uses most ar·e often those str·essing casualness - free repetition
and irony. To sum up, the force of the message is canied by a minimalist style .

References
Fowler, Roger (ed). 1973 A Dictionary ofModern Critical Terms, London and New York:
Routledge & Kegan PauL
Kezilahabi, Euphrase . 1974 KichomL Nairobi: Heinemann.
Mvungi, Theobald. 1985 . Chungu tamu, Dar· es Salaam: Tanzania Publishing House