Institute Name

Sub code: COMPUTER NETWORKS

A Laboratory Manual

Submitted to

Submitted by
The Computer Networks laboratory works and methodical guidelines are designed
to help students to acquire knowledge about computer network technologies, net-
work equipment, network design principles, configuration and troubleshooting
tasks.
 Contents

Laboratory task 1
Computer Networks, Communication Technologies and
Topologies
Laboratory task 2
Design of Local Area Computer Network
Laboratory task 3
Investigation of Internet Protocol (IP) Addressing
Laboratory task 4
Application of Windows OS Built-in Networks Diagnostic
Tools
 Laboratory task 1

Computer Networks, Communication Technologies and

Topologies

Objectives
The aim of the laboratory work is to get acquainted with com-
puter network topologies, cables, connectors and wireless technolo-
gies. Analyse their main characteristics, advantages and disadvan-
tages.

Basic knowledge and theory

Computer network – interconnected computers using the
appro- priate hardware and software capable of exchanging the
information contained therein.

Fig. 1.1. Computer network

According to the size, computer networks can be divided into:

 Local Area Network – LAN;
 Metropolitian Area Network – MAN, or regional;
 Wide Area Network – WAN.
 Local Area Network – closed network, serving users of one or-
ganisation in a small area (up to several kilometers) connected via
telephone, cable, optical or wireless communication lines.
Metropolitian Area Network – connecting computer users in a
large area (region, city) via various communication lines.
Wide Area Network – a set of smaller networks connected via
communication lines positioned in a large geographic location.
Networks are one-level (peer-to-peer) or with a distinguished
management server (client-server).
One-level network has no central computer. Some of the hard-
ware equipment (hard disks, CD-ROMs, printers), connected to in-
dividual computers can be used together. Each network user can
specify access rights to resources of his/her computer to other us-
ers.
In a network with a managing server stands out a central
network computer – the server connected to user computers – cli-
ents. Such network is also called a client-server network. Users
can use server resources. Network is managed and peripheral de-
vices are monitored by network software – networking operating
system.
Computer networking method is called topology. The term to-
pology in the context of networks defines a way in which the hosts
are interconnected in a network. Topology is described as the lay-
out of lines and switching elements and defines the data transmis-
sion paths, which can be used between any pair of hosts.
There are physical and logical topologies. The physical topol-
ogy describes the ways of physical connections between network
hosts, while a logical topology describes the data flow between
network hosts. For example, a logical ring topology is realized in
a physical star topology. In many cases, the physical and logical
topologies coincide. We are going to discuss the physical computer
network topologies.
Local Area Network topologies
Bus topology is shown in Figure 1.2. Until the year 2000 it was
a widely applied local network topology type.
Bus topology advantages:
 low-cost cable system;
 hosts can communi-
cate without additional
switching devices.
Bus topology disadvantag-
es:
 in case of cable failure, Fig. 1.2. Bus topology
the whole network is out of service;
 low performance – only one host at a time can send
informa- tion;
 when connecting a new host to a network, it is necessary to
stop operation of the network.
In a network with a Star topology switch equipment (hub or
switch) is in the centre of the network (Fig. 1.3). The purpose of
switching devices is to transmit information to one (switch) or all
(hub) network hosts.
Star topology advantages:
 in case of cable failure only one
host is out of service and it does
not affect the others;
 host connection to a network
is simple, because the connec-
tion is performed only with the
switching device; Fig. 1.3. Star topology
 more advanced switching de-
vices can filter out the transmitted data packets.
Star topology disadvantages:
 the network price is higher than the bus topology, because
the switching device must be used;
  if the switching device is not geographically in the centre
of the network, a host connection can be expensive and dif-
ficult;
 network performance and scalability depend on the switch-
ing device performance and switching port numbers;
 in case of the switching device failure the network becomes
unavailable.
Existing networks are usually designed by the star topology,
the hierarchical connected hubs or switches, located in network
centres. The combination of several star topology networks to one
makes a tree-like network topology.
Network topology in which
the central switching unit
(upper level of the hierarchy) is
con- nected to one or more
second- level switching devices
and the latter with a third-level
devices etc. is called a Tree
topology (Fig. 1.4). Advantages
and dis-
advantages of the tree topology Fig. 1.4. Tree topology
are adequate to the star topolo-
gy’s advantages and
disadvantages.
When all the hosts on the network are connected to the ring,
the network topology is called the Ring topology (Fig. 1.5). Data
is transmitted sequentially from one
host to another, usually in one direc-
tion. If the host detects its data, it
cop- ies them into its buffer.
Ring topology advantages:
 high data transfer reliability –
the sender can control the
data acquisition because the
data
must come back to him;
Fig. 1.5. Ring topology
  not restrictions for the size of the ring, there are just the dis-
tance restrictions between the hosts;
 greater reliability in comparison with the star and bus topology,
in case of ring disruption in one place the connection remains.
Ring topology disadvantages:
 data transfer time increases in proportion to the number of
stations;
 special measures are necessary to ensure that the ring works
in case of the cable or host failure or when connecting a new
host to the ring.
When all the host on the network
are connected with each other in sepa-
rate communication lines, the network
topology is called the Mesh topology
(Fig. 1.6). In practice, usually only
par- tial mesh network topology is
applied, where not all but a few
particularly
relevant to the network hosts are con-
nected by separate lines. Fig. 1.6. Mesh topology
Mesh topology advantage:
 ensures a reliable and fast data transfer – upon failure of one
communication line the data can be transmitted through oth-
ers communication lines.
Mesh topology disadvantages:
 it is not cost-effective, because it requires a large amount of
connections on each host;
 applied only to a small networks.

Cables used at Local Area Networks

Cables that are used for computer networks are standardized.
Standards describe and evaluate a number of parameters, such as
signal suppression, active resistance, impedances, the capacity of
the electromagnetic field surrounding the wire strength and so on.
 The following cable standards are presently used:
 American EIA/TIA-568A;
 International ISO/EIC11801;
 European EN50173.
There are three main groups of cables:
a) Coaxial cable:
 thin;
 thick.
b) Twisted pair cable:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair – UTP;
 Shielded Twisted Pair – STP;
 Foiled Twisted Pair – FTP.
c) Fiber optic cable:
 Single Mode Fiber – SMF;
 Multi Mode Fiber – MMF.
Coaxial cable. The thicker the cable and the better the shield-
ing, the less attenuated the signal. Cables with reduced attenuation
are more suitable for large transmission speeds with low class
equip- ment, and under the same conditions can transmit a signal
over a greater distance.
Base of the cable is a copper wire in the center of the cable,
and a metal mesh separated by a dielectric insulator – the shield
(Fig. 1.7).
Twisted pair cables. The
simplest twisted pair is two
copper wires twisted with
each other and separated
with a dielectric. This
allows
reducing electromagnetic in- Fig. 1.7. Coaxial cable
teraction of several twisted nearby pairs. Twisted pair can be used
for both analog and digital data transmission.
Unshielded twisted pair cable consists of pairs of insulated
conductors twisted together. One conductor of the pair is called a
Ring (in coloured marking – one-coloured), the other a Tip (two-
coloured). All pairs are also numbered Ring1, Tip1, Ring2, Tip2,
etc. Pairs have their numbers in accordance with colour marking:
Blue/White – 1 pair, Orange/White – 2 pair, Green/White – 3 pair,
Brown/White – 4 pair.
In the environment with very strong electromagnetic fields it is
recommended to use a shielded twisted-pair cable.
This type of cable can have two types of shields: foil and metal
mesh. Foil is used more frequently due to smaller weight and price.
Shield of this cable must be grounded.
Shielded twisted pair (STP) cable each twisted pair is shield-
ed (Fig. 1.8), while in Foiled Twisted Pair (FTP) type of cable the
shield is the same to all twisted pairs (Fig. 1.9).
For laying the cable outside a twisted pair cable with special
double insulation is used. If the cable is installed between two
build- ings (runs above the ground), it is convenient to use a special
cable with steel messenger (Fig. 1.10).

Fig. 1.8. STP cable Fig. 1.9. FTP cable

Fig. 1.10. Twisted pair outdoor cable with steel messenger

 For final connection (e.g. between the wall socket and the
computer) more flexible patch cable with stranded wires is used
(Fig. 1.11).

Fig. 1.11. Flexible patch cable

Fiber optic cable is different from copper cables, because the

signal is transmitted using light pulses. Single mode fiber optic ca-
bles are composed of a core surrounded by a cladding. The
cladding is surrounded by a coating, dielectric strengthening
material, and finally an outer jacket (sheath) (Fig. 1.12). The
cladding provides a lower refractive index to cause reflection
within the core so that light waves can be transmitted through the
fiber.

Dielectric
Outer jacket strengthening
material Fiber core

Coating
Cladding

Fig. 1.12. Single mode fiber optic cable

Fiber optic cables are used for high-speed networks. It is com-

mon that light pulsation is logic one and absence of light is logic
zero.
 Signal, which travels via a cable, is reflected from the
cladding. According to the refractive index and the core width, the
cables are divided into:

a) Single Mode Fiber;

b) Multi Mode Fiber cable with a rapidly changing refractive
index;
c) Multi Mode Fiber cable with smoothly changing refractive
index.

Several fiber optic cable connections are given below:

 ST (Straight Tip) – circular connection;

 SC (Subscriber Connector or Square Connector) – rectan-

gular connection;

 FC (Ferrule Connector or Fiber Channel) – circular

connec- tion.
Twisted pair cable categories
Twisted pair cables are divided into the following categories:
 Category 1 – a telephone cable, which transmits voice, not
suitable for data transmission. Maximum transmitted signal
frequency 1 MHz;
 Category 2 – a cable that can transmit data up to 4 Mbps
rate and is composed of four twisted pairs;
 Category 3 – a cable capable of transmitting a signal up to
10 Mbps. Used in networks, operating in accordance with
an Ethernet 10Base-T technology standard. Maximum
transmit- ted signal frequency – 16 MHz;
 Category 4 – a cable that can transmit data up to 16 Mbps
and consists of four twisted pairs. Used in Token Ring net-
works. Maximum transmitted signal frequency – 20 MHz;
 Category 5 – a cable that can transmit data up to 100 Mbps
and consists of four twisted pairs. Used in networks, oper-
ating in Ethernet 100Base-TX standard technology, as well
as other network technologies such as ATM, Token Ring,
100Base-T, 10Base-T. Maximum transmitted signal
frequen- cy – 100 MHz. Cables in this category are: UTP,
FTP, STP types;
 Category 5e (the letter “e” means ‘enhanced’) – this cable is
suitable for 1000Base-T. Can be shielded or unshielded.
The twisting degree of twisted pairs varies depending on the
category. The higher the category, the higher twisting degree.
Twisted pair cable categories are defined in EIA/TIA 568 A and
EIA/TIA 568 B standards.
Category 5e, UTP cable. Its cross-section is shown in
Figure 1.13.
 1

Fig. 1.13. Category 5e, UTP cable and its cross-section: 1 – jacket,
2 – solid twisted pair

Category 5e, FTP cable. Its cross-section is shown in Figure 1.14.

Fig. 1.14. Category 5e, FTP cable and its cross-section: 1 – jacket,
2 – shield foil, 3 – solid twisted pair, 4 – drain wire, 5 – rip-cord

Category 5e, S/FTP cable. Its cross-section is shown in

Figure 1.15.

Fig. 1.15. Category 5e, S/FTP cable and its cross-section: 1 – jacket,
2 – shield-braid, 3 – drain wire, 4 – shield foil, 5 – stranded twisted pair
  Category 6 – a cable that can transmit data up to 600 Mbps.
Used in networks, operating in Ethernet 1000Base-T
standard technology, as well as other network technologies
such as 10BaseT Ethernet, 100BaseTX Fast Ethernet,
1000BaseTX, 155 MBit ATM, 622 MBit ATM, 1.2 GBit
ATM. Category 6, UTP cable and its cross-section is shown
in Figure 1.16.

Fig. 1.16. Category 6, UTP cable and its cross-section: 1 – jacket, 2 – sol-
id twisted pair, 3 – spacer

 Category 7 – Transmitted signal frequency – 600 MHz.

Category 7 cable is different from other categories because
it has be fully shielded, so it is thicker and less flexible.
Used in networks, operating in Ethernet 1000Base-TX and
10GBase-T standard technologies. Category 7, SSTP cable
and its cross-section is shown in Figure 1.17.

Fig. 1.17. Category 7, SSTP cable and its cross-section: 1 – jacket,

2 – shield-braid 3 – solid twisted pair with shield foil
 Twisted-pair cables are connected to network devices using
various types of connectors. Modular connectors Modular Jacks
(sockets) and Modular Plugs are the most common in connections
of 1, 2, 3 and 4 pairs of category 3–6 cables. Plugs are better
known as RJ-11 (4 wires) or RJ-45 (8 wires). The correct name of
this type of network sockets is Jack Modular 8P8C, of plugs –
Modular Plug 8P8C, here 8P indicates a link connector (8
positions) and 8C the number of contacts used (in this case 8).
For telephone cables it is used in 6P4C (6 positions, 4-pin)
configuration. Other markings, e.g., P-6-4 – six-positions 4-pin
plug, PS-8-8 – eight positions 8-pin shielded plug are also known.
6-position plugs can be plugged into sockets of 8 positions but not
vice versa.
Structure of sockets of the fifth and higher categories and
meth- od of wiring connection differ from the sockets of category
3. Here the socket is mounted on a printed board on which S110 or
Krone type contacts are attached. In addition, reactive elements are
printed on the board combining reactive impedances. These
elements help to reduce signal reflections from contacts in high-
speed (100 Mbps or more) networks. Various types of sockets are

shown in Figure 1.18.

a) b)

c) d)
 Fig. 1.18. Various types of sockets: a) phone line socket; b) category 6
socket; c) category 5e not shielded socket; d) category 5e shielded socket
 Figure 1.19 shows the RJ-45 connection for a twisted pair 8-
wire cable connected to a computer network, while the similar RJ-
11 is used to connect phone lines to modem and telephone sets and
has only 4 wires.

a) b)

Fig. 1.19. Twisted pair cable’s plugs: a) RJ-45, b) RJ-11

Network switching patch panels are used for convenience.

They are mounted in the racks or cabinets. On the one side of the
patch panel there is an RJ-45 connection block, and on the other
side there is an S110 or Krone type contacts to which network
cables from dif- ferent locations are connected (Fig. 1.20).

Fig. 1.20. Patch panel

 Twisted-pair cable wires are of different colours and
connected according to a diagram provided in the TIA/EIA-568A
or TIA/EIA- 568B standards (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1. Cable wiring schemes

RJ-45 pin
EIA/TIA-568A EIA/TIA-568B
number
1 White/Green White/Orange
2 Green Orange
3 White/Orange White/Green
4 Blue Blue
5 White/Blue White/Blue
6 Orange Green
7 White/Brown White/Brown
8 Brown Brown

Connection also depends on the purpose of network devices

connected with a cable. Direct cable connection is used for
connect- ing a computer to the hub or switch when connection
diagrams of RJ-45 plugs at both ends of the cable are the same, i.e.
only TIA/ EIA 568B or TIA/EIA 568A cable wiring scheme is
used.
For connection of two computers or switches a crossover ca-
ble is used when at one end a plug is placed in accordance with
TIA/EIA 568B diagram, and at the other end in accordance with
TIA/EIA 568A. It should be noted that modern network equip-
ment has the ability to automatically recognize what connection
cable is connected and can work with both direct connection and
crossover cables.
1.1. Connect two computers using twisted pair cable. (Write wire
colours in the table)
Com- Com-
puter 1 RJ-45 RJ-45 puter 2
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8

1.2. Connect a computer and a switch using twisted pair cable.

(Write wire colours in the table)
Com-
RJ-45 RJ-45 Switch
puter
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
 Laboratory task 2

Design of Local Area Computer Network

Objectives
The aim of the laboratory work is to get acquainted with
design principles of local networks and to design local area
computer net- work. Base the decision by which specific
technologies and equip- ment were selected.

Basic knowledge and theory

Active computer network equipment is powered from the main
power grid and transmits information via network cables in the
form of electrical signals. Active network equipment varies
according to their roles and the layer of the OSI model (more
details about OSI model is provided in Laboratory work 3, theory
section), which data units it processes.
A Hub (also known as concentrator, repeater) is the simplest
form of communication equipment used in star topology networks.
A hub functions at the physical (1st) layer of the OSI model. Every
computer is connected to the hub by a separate cable. A signal that
came to one port is also transmitted (repeated) to all other ports.
Hubs have different number of ports, for a twisted pair RJ-45 con-
nectors are used and for optical cable – ST connectors. 10 Mbps or
100 Mbps speed hubs are used in Ethernet networks.
Up to four hubs can be connected with each other (this logic is
called rule 3-4-5). Since all hubs are interconnected and are repeat-
ing the received signal, all devices connected to them are on the
same collision domain – a single physical network segment where
the packets can “collide”. The more computers are in the same col-
lision domain, the less the network efficiency is, because while a
single computer is sending data all the other computers must wait.
For the same reasons, the switches can not be connected using a
ring topology.
Passive hubs also exist, which are realized using precise resis-
tors or diodes. They allow up to three computers to be connected
and do not use electricity.
A Bridge is used to amplify network signals and to combine
two computer network segments. These segments can be
implemented using different topologies and technologies. The
bridge operates at the data link layer and transmits a signal only if
the recipient is on a network segment that is on the other side of the
bridge. The bridge has two ports and network segments that are
connected to them are in different collision domains. The bridge
can be viewed as a two- port switch.
A Switch is the main network device in a star topology which
may have different number of ports. Modern switches often have
5, 8, 16, 24 or 48 ports. When sending data, a switch toggles spe-
cific ports which depend on the sender and receiver, and does this
in full duplex mode. This means that one switch can be used to
inde- pendently transmit different data flows in a duplex mode. A
switch operates in OSI model data link layer (2nd) and determines
which computer is connected to a specific port by its MAC (Media
Access Control) address.
Switches can be implemented as independent devices or be
modular, which can be installed in a router or a special chassis. It is
appropriate to install switches in racks, so they usually have certain
width and height. Modern switches often have several slots to
insert GBIC (Gigabit Interface Converter), and special ports for
connecting together a number of switches. Switches can be
connected with each other using Ethernet ports, but the use of
specific ports allows higher transfer rates and lets you control the
interconnected switches as one. Some switches support VLAN
(Virtual Local Area Network), which allows a single physical
switch to be split into multiple logi-
cal switches, thus isolating separate network parts.
 Switches can not be connected in a ring topology. That means
there can be no more than one route, unless the switch supports
STP (Spanning Tree Protocol), which selects the best routes and
uses them, and if their termination occurs, it selects other paths thus
in- creasing the reliability of the network.
Some of the switches are able to process packets header infor-
mation transmitted by the network layer. Those types of switches
are called third level. They add flexibility in managing network
traffic and have full or partial routing capabilities.
Switches, according to their use in a network, can be divided
into access (end users are connected to them, they have a lot of
ports, user filtering capabilities), transport (they are involved in
transmit- ting large data streams and should be very fast) and core
(used in Internet supplier network core and data centers, must be
very fast and reliable).
A Router is a device that connects computer networks and per-
forms data routing function, i.e. formation of network route maps
and tables. A router is a device that connects networks or subnets
to a local area network. So if the network is continuous and there
are no subnets, the router is a device after which the network
adminis- trator’s control and responsibility ends. In this case, the
router is a gateway through which all local network computers
indicated by the default route reach other networks (mostly
internet). Router routes, indicating how to access other networks
may be set by the adminis- trator (static routing table entries) or by
a dynamic router protocol (then the routing table entries are formed
automatically according to the routing protocol algorithm). The
router is usually implemented as a separate unit, although a
personal computer with two network cards can also do its
functions. The router shows its functionality when used in global
networks.
The router is an OSI model network (3rd) layer device that di-
rects IP packets to a designated route according to the IP address.
Network firewall functions can be realized inside a router. In home
networks routers with integrated switches (Small Office/Home
Office – SOHO) are widely used.
Converter allows connecting two different transmission media.
Recently optical transmitters became widespread and popular,
which allow attaching an optical fiber to a copper twisted pair.
Converters can be autonomous, realized in a separate enclosure
(Fig. 2.1a) or modular, realized as, for example, a Gigabit Interface
Converter – GBIC (Fig. 2.1b).

a) b)

Fig. 2.1. Media converters: a) autonomous; b) GBIC

A Wireless Access Point is a device that allows other wireless

devices to communicate with him and, if the setting permits it, with
each other. Local networks mostly use connections that use the Wi-
Fi standards set. The device allows authorized devices to connect,
ensures access and data security by using dedicated security proto-
cols (for example WEP, WPA, WPA2).
Wireless networks devices for home users or offices often have
integrated routers and switches.
A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a physical interface be-
tween the computer and data transmission media, which, along
with network drivers, performs protocol functions. Usually a
network card is inserted into the computer’s PCI (Peripheral
Component Interconnect) slots, integrated into the motherboard
or connected to the USB port (usually wireless). The speed of the
network card
depends on the type of interface (for example, 100 Mbps). Simple
network cards use CPU resources, while more advanced may have
additional features (for example, hardware encryption).
Network card has an assigned manufacturer’s hardware MAC
address, which can be changed by the card driver.

Local area computer network design principles

Determine how many computers and other network devices
need to be connected with each other and leave an opportunity for
the network to grow.
Select the network topology. It depends on the amount of net-
work equipment, minimum network speed. The most common
local area network topology is a star and tree.
Set up user’s computers. Leave an opportunity to connect
shared printers, scanners and so on.
Select and setup the active network equipment. Network
equip- ment must have an appropriate number of ports and the
required speed. It is appropriate to place the network equipment in
the geo- metric center of the user’s computer collections. Foresee
how the active network equipment will be connected to one
another, since linking them also takes up ports. Although when a
local computer network is being setup, cabling and other passive
network equip- ment require most of the work and resources, the
amount of active network equipment must also be optimal. Not all
network devices can be placed at the desired location, sometimes
the location is de- termined by prior conditions (for example,
network input place).
Plan the cable-laying places. Consider the maximum cable
length. The cable from the switch to the computer consists of three
parts:
1. Cable from the switch to the commutation panel. A commuta-
tion cable is used, with the length no more than 1 m;
2. Cable from the commutation panel to the wall socket length
should not exceed 90 m;
3. Commutation cable from the wall socket to the computer
should be no longer than 10 m.
Such cable dividing provides a network with the necessary
flex- ibility when being used and if rearrangement is required, and
allows using more expensive flexible cables with stranded wires
for com- mutation cables and cheaper solid wires for the long parts
of the network. It is convenient when drilling is not required, for
example, laying out the cable above a suspended ceiling. Network
wall socket should be 30 cm from the ground. Cable, if necessary,
can be laid out on the floor using special plastic or aluminum
channels.
Let’s discuss other important practical nuances when design-
ing a local area network, which will not be taken into consideration
while doing this laboratory work. Distance must be maintained
from the power cables. If voltage of the power cables is up to 2.5
KV, the distance should be at least 12 cm, if the voltage is higher –
more than 25 cm. The network cable should not be bent at an acute
angle; even for copper cables the recommended radius is more than
5 cm, optical cable are even more susceptible to bending. Shielded
twisted pair at one end must be grounded. The most convenient
way to do it is by grounding the commutation rack. Sockets and
commutation panel ports must be marked otherwise the use of the
network becomes particularly difficult.
 Laboratory task 3

Investigation of Internet Protocol (IP) Addressing

Objectives
To become acquainted with the Open System Interconnection
(OSI) model and Transfer Control Protocol and Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) stack.
Basic knowledge and theory
A computer network is an intricate complex of hardware and
software components. The entire software-hardware complex of the
network can be described by a multilayer model. Such description
of the complex enables standardisation of the characteristics of its
various layers. Standardisation allows interconnection of networks
employing various technologies, us-
ing hardware and software of different
manufacturers.
Considering this, International
OrganizationforStandardization (ISO)
has developed an Open System
Interconnection (OSI) model in the
early 80-ties.
OSI model provides communi-
cation layers between systems, their
names and functions. The model con- Fig. 3.1. OSI model layers
sists of seven layers (Fig. 3.1). The
lay-
ers were established according to the following basic principles:
1. a layer is established when a new layer of abstraction is neces-
sary;
2. each layer executes its closely specified functions;
3. functions of each layer have to be chosen considering the
inter- national protocol standards;
4. information flow between the interfaces of various layers has to
be minimised;
5. number of layers has to be sufficient to prevent unnecessary
in- stances of different functions occurring at the same layer,
and small enough that the entire architecture does not become
cum- bersome.
OSI model does not specify exact services and protocols which
have to be used at each layer. It only describes what each layer should
do.

OSI model layers

Physical layer describes the physical medium of data transfer
(e.g., coaxial cable, twisted pair, optical cable, wireless
communica- tions). This layer ensures interaction between the
network host and the medium of data transfer. Series of bits are
transferred through the network channels at the physical layer.
Control at the physical layer means identification of the start and
end of the frame, which is carrying the data, also forming and
accepting of signals of a certain physical nature. Standards of the
physical layer describe mechanical, electrical, functional and
procedural characteristics necessary for es- tablishment, operation
and termination of physical communication.
The objective of the Data Link layer – checking of
accessibility of the transmission medium, error detection and
correction. Bits are grouped into frames at the data link layer,
checksum of the frame is calculated and added to the frame. If
checksums of the sent and re- ceived frame do no match, an error is
produced. The data exchange between the two objects at the data
link layer can be executed in three ways.
The directions of data exchange can be: simplex, half-duplex
and full-duplex.
Data can travel in a single direction in case of simplex transfer.
In half-duplex data transfer data is transferred in one direction or
the other at a certain time. Full-duplex enables sending data in both
directions at the same time.
Network layer ensures transfer of network packets between the
network nodes and is responsible for data addressing. The
following basic functions are implemented in this layer: packet
routing, frag- mentation and identification of transport layer
protocol.
The function of the Transport layer is to accept data from the
session layer, divide into smaller parts if necessary, transfer to the
network layer and ensure that all parts reach the destination cor-
rectly. All this must be done efficiently in a way to protect the upper
layers from the inevitable change of hardware.
The most popular connection of the transport layer is error-free
point-to-point channel which delivers messages or bytes in such
order in which they were sent. However one of the types of trans-
port services can be transmission of individual messages without
acknowledgement of delivery.
Several connections could be established simultaneously,
there- fore it is necessary to indicate which message belongs to
which con- nection. This is identified by a socket which is a pair of
the port and an IP address. A port is information of the transport
layer, related to the service supplied by the application layer.
The Session layer allows users of different computers to estab-
lish communication sessions with each other. This layer establishes
the beginning and the end of the communication session (normal or
emergency), the duration and mode of a session. Rights of the
object to contact another object are controlled when establishing
commu- nication sessions.
The Presentation layer describes methods of presentation of
transferred data (coding, compression, conversion) without chang-
ing the contents of information. The formats of data presentation
can differ by these characteristics:
 the ordering of bit sequence and the number of bits for en-
coding a symbol;
  ordering of byte sequence;
 presentation and coding of symbols;
 file structure and syntax.
The Application layer describes protocols which are used by
the applications. The application layer is a collection of protocols,
designed for user access to distributed resources – files, printers,
websites, etc. The most popular protocols of the application layer
are HTTP, FTP, DNS, SMTP, etc.
Every layer receives data from the upper layer and adds their
header thus creating a new data unit. The newly created data unit is
sent to the lower level. The data units of the application, presenta-
tion and session layers are called messages, units of the transport
layer – segments, network layer – packets, data link layer – frames,
and the physical layer – bits.
The data path from computer A to computer B is indicated in
Figure 3.2.

Fig. 3.2. The data path from computer A to computer B

The data sent by computer A have to pass all layers to reach the
lowest physical layer and will be sent to the switch. The switch
reads the data link layer header which indicates to which network
device the data is addressed. Further on, the data are transferred to
the router which transfers data to the recipient, in this case
computer B, accord- ing to the address (IP) in the network layer
header. Before reaching a computer B the user data pass the reverse
path, i.e. from physical to the application layer in which headers of
each layer are removed.
 OSI seven layer model describes general principles of data
trans- mission in a network. Protocols and interfaces are used to
describe the interconnection of software and hardware elements.
Protocol – a set of rules of interconnection between objects of a
single layer, de- scribing formats of data transferred between
objects.
The most frequently used protocol stack in computer networks
is TCP/IP.
The TCP/IP model is based on the TCP/IP stack. The compari-
son of this model and OSI model is presented in Figure 3.3. The
main difference – number of layers. The TCP/IP model has 4
layers. The application layer corresponds to the 3 upper layers of
the OSI model, and the data link – two lower layers of the OSI
model, other layers are the same. Note: different number of TCP/IP
stack layers is given in various sources: 4 or 5 layers. The
literature which indi- cates that the TCP/IP stack has 4 layers, the
data link and the physi- cal layers of the OSI model are usually
merged into one, and in case of 5 layers, the data link and the
physical layer are separated.
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is designed to link the ad-
dress of the network adapter (Media Access Control – MAC) with
the IP address.

TCP/IP Stack
main protocols TCP/IP model OSI model
Application layer
HTTP, FTP,
Application layer Presentation layer
SMTP, POP
Session layer

TCP, UDP Transport layer Transport layer

IP, ICMP Network layer Network layer

Data Link layer

ARP Data Link layer
Physical layer
Fig. 3.3. TCP/IP stack and OSI mode comparison
 IP (Internet Protocol) is designed for sending packets and
rout- ing them between networks.
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is designed to send
packet transmission error reports.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is connection oriented.
This protocol is used by applications which need acknowledgement
of data reception.
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) does not guarantee transmis-
sion of packets. This protocol is widely applied for multimedia pro-
cesses, such as IP telephony, real time video conferencing, etc.
HTTP, FTP, SMTP, POP protocols ensure user access to net-
work resources.
 Laboratory work 4

Application of Windows OS Built-in Networks Diagnostic

Tools

Objectives
Get acquainted with Windows OS command-line network
diag- nostic, monitoring and management tools and their
application for network troubleshooting.

Basic knowledge and theory

When solving problems in computer networks, command-line
tools can be very useful. These tools allow you to quickly find and
resolve the problem. Next, we will look at the basic and most com-
monly used Windows operating system (OS) command-line tools
for computer network diagnostics.

Windows OS command-line tools

Windows OS command-line can be accessed in two ways.
First, the command-line can be called from the program list in
Start → All Programs → Accessories → Command Prompt.
The second method is faster and is suitable if the command button
Run… is present in the Start menu. When you press the Run…
command but- ton, a window will open where you must enter cmd,
and press the OK button.
If you want to adjust the command that was recently executed,
it is not necessary to re-enter it. It is enough to press the up ar-
row keyboard key and the command that was entered before will
be shown again. cls command clears the screen.
All command-line tools syntax is unified. For example, when
the parameter /? is used, it will always show support for a specific
tool. More detailed information about the tool can be found
through
the Windows OS support system (Start → Help and Support),
which will give you all the additional parameter explanations and
tool examples.
hostname – displays the computer name. Have no additional
parameters.
ipconfig – provides information about the network interface(s)
configuration, updates the settings, assigned by the Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP), and the Domain Name System
(DNS) server list.
If ipconfig command is entered with no parameters, the basic
net- work configuration is shown i.e. computer’s IP address, subnet
mask and gateway IP address. Ipconfig command entered with the
/all pa- rameter will show all the information about the network
settings.
getmac – displays the computer’s network adapters physical
(MAC) addresses. The MAC addresses can also be found by using
the command ipconfig /all. This address consists of two parts, each
containing 3 bytes. The first three bytes refer to the manufacturer,
and the remaining 3 bytes are assigned by the manufacturer.
arp – displays and allows modification of the Address Resolution
Protocol (ARP) entries table. This protocol is designed to identify
the physical network adapter address by using the computer IP ad-
dress. In local area networks, data transmission to the recipient is
not based on IP addresses, but on the MAC addresses.
ping TargetName – the main command, which is used to check
whether the network host in the local network can be accessed.
First at all, the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Echo
Request message is sent. If the recipient, for whom the message
was sent, can be reached, it responds with an Echo Reply mes-
sage. ICMP can be used in Denial of Service (DoS) attacks. For
security reasons, in many cases, ICMP Echo Request messages
that are sent via the ping command are blocked by the firewalls,
so checking if a computer that is in another network is reachable
becomes impossible. In addition, a computer that is on your net-
work also can not respond to ICMP Echo Request message if the
firewall prohibits the ICMP Echo Reply messages.
netstat – displays the active TCP connections, open ports, sent
and received packets statistics, the IP routing table. When netstat
command is executed with no parameters, the active TCP connec-
tions are shown.
tracert – displays the packet forwarding path to the recipient
and the duration of the trip.
nslookup – allows the user to send a query to the DNS name serv-
er and by using the sites name, find out its IP address and vice versa.
nbtstat – displays the computer’s NetBIOS names, active con-
nections, and records stored in the cache.
route – used to view your computer’s routing table, insert a
new route or remove an existing one.