Subject: ICT Fundamentals

Computer Fundamentals
What is information system?
A set of interrelated components that collect (or retrieve), process, store, and distribute
information to support decision making and control in an organization.

Describe different types of computers.

1. Analog computer: The comp which can process analog quantities , is called analog
comp. Used to solve differential equations.
2. Digital computer: The comp which can process Digital quantities , is called Digital
comp.
3. Hybrid computer: it is a combination of digital and analog cop. Used in medical field.
Computers Based on Size
1. Supercomputers...are used to process very large amounts of information including
processing information to predict hurricanes, satellite images and navigation, and
process military war scenarios.
2. Mainframes...are used by government and businesses to process very large amounts
of information.
3. Mini-Computers...are similar to mainframes...they are used by business and
government to process large amounts of information.
4. Personal Computers (PC)…
Describe the organization of a computer.
i. Input
Each sensor transmits its information in the form of voltage signals.
ii. Processing
Input voltage signals received by a computer are processed through a series of electronic
logic circuits maintained in its programmed instructions.
iii. Storage
Computers have two types of memory: permanent and temporary. Permanent memory
is called read-only memory (ROM) because the computer can only read the contents. This
data is retained even when power to the computer is shut off.
iv. Output
After the computer has processed the input signals, it sends voltage signals or commands to
other devices in the system to output the result.

Describe the various layers in a computer system.

1. Hardware
2. System Software
3. Application Software
4. User
Describe five input devices briefly.
An input device is any hardware device that sends data to the computer, without any input
devices, a computer would only be a display device and not allow users to interact with it,
much like a TV.
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Tracker ball
• Microphone
• Touch screen
• Scanner
• Touch pad
Describe five output devices briefly.
Computer output devices get information out of the computer, delivering data that has
been processed by the computer to you, the user. Output devices produce data in different
forms including audio, visual and hard copy. Computer output devices are all peripheral
hardware connected to a computer using cables or wireless networking.
• Monitor
• Printer
• Plotter
• Speaker
• Headphone
• CD, DVD (both input and output)
• Modem (both input and output)
What is software? Describe various types of software.
Software is a set of instruction that tells computer what to do and how to do that. Computer
software is divided into two basic types.
1. System software: Operating System is the base program on a computer is
considered system software. It tells the computer how to work or operate. The
operating system also allows you to load other programs that do specialized tasks on
to your computer. Examples: Windows, DOS, Linux, Unix etc.
2. Application software: Application software allows you to accomplish one or more
specific (non-computer related) tasks. Such as computer games for entertainment or
Microsoft Word for typing. Examples: MS Word, MS Excel, MS PowerPoint, Adobe
Photoshop, QuarkXPress, 3D Max, AutoCAD etc.
Describe the computer memory.
Memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs or data on a temporary or
permanent basis for use in a computer or other digital electronic device.
a. Primary memory (volatile)
Primary memory, often called main memory, constitutes that device, or group of
devices, that holds instructions and data for rapid and direct access by the computer's
central processing unit (CPU).
1. RAM
2. ROM
b. Secondary memory (storage)
Secondary memory, also called auxiliary memory or mass storage, consists of devices
not directly accessible by the CPU.
• Hard disk
• CD
• DVD
• Pen Drive
• Floppy disk
• Magnetic tape
Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM is the main 'working' memory used by the computer. When the
operating system loads from disk when you first switch on the
computer, it is copied into RAM. As a rough rule, a Microsoft
Windows based computer will operate faster if you install more
RAM. Data and programs stored in RAM are volatile (i.e. the
information is lost when you switch off the computer)
Read Only Memory (ROM)
Read Only Memory (ROM) as the name suggests is a special type of memory chip that holds
software that can be read but not written to. A good example is the ROM-BIOS chip, which
contains read-only software. Often network cards and video cards also contain ROM chips.
 Networking Fundamentals
What is computer network?
• A collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a single technology.
• Computer Network is a collection of computers, printers, routers, switches, and
other devices that are able to communicate with each other over some transmission
medium.
• In other words a network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order
to share resources (such as printers and CD-ROMs), exchange files, or allow
electronic communications.
Describe the elements of a computer network.
1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. It can consist
of text, numbers, pictures, sound, or video - or any combination of these.
2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can-be a computer,
workstation, server, telephone handset, mobile phone, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, mobile phone, television, and so on.
4. Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver. It could be a twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber optic
cable, or radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications. It represents
an agreement between the communicating devices. Two devices may be connected
but cannot communicate without a protocol.

Describe the advantages of computer network.

• Speedy
• Cost Saving
• Secured
• Centralized Software Management
• Resource Sharing
• Electronic Mail
 • Flexible Access
• Workgroup Computing
What is communication media? Describe various communications media briefly.
• Guided media
In Guided media the messages flow through the physical media like twisted pair-wire,
coaxial cable fiber optic cables, the media guided is the signal.
• Unguided media
In Radiated media messages is broadcast through the air such as infrared, microwave, or
satellite.
Guided media
1. Open wire
Open Wire is traditionally used to describe the electrical wire strung along power poles.
There is a single wire strung between poles. No shielding or protection from noise
interference is used.

2. Twisted-pair cable
The wires in Twisted Pair cabling are twisted together in pairs. Each pair would consist of
a wire used for the +ve data signal and a wire used for the -ve data signal.

3. Coaxial cable
Coaxial Cable consists of 2 conductors. The inner conductor is held inside an insulator
with the other conductor woven around it providing a shield. An insulating protective
coating called a jacket covers the outer conductor. The outer shield protects the inner
conductor from outside electrical signals.

4. Fiber-optic cables
 Optical Fiber consists of thin glass fibers that can carry information at frequencies in the
visible light spectrum and beyond. The typical optical fiber consists of a very narrow
strand of glass called the Core. Around the Core is a concentric layer of glass called the
Cladding. A typical Core diameter is 62.5 microns (1 micron = 10-6 meters). Typically
Cladding has a diameter of 125 microns. Coating the cladding is a protective coating
consisting of plastic, it is called the Jacket.

Unguided Media
a. Radio
The frequency spectrum operates from 0 Hz (DC) to Gamma Rays (1019 Hz).

b. Microwave
Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The Transmit station must be in
visible contact with the receive station. This sets a limit on the distance between
stations depending on the local geography. Typically the line of sight due to the Earth's
curvature is only 50 km to the horizon! Repeater stations must be placed so the data
signal can hop, skip and jump across the country.

Microwaves operate at high operating frequencies of 3 to 10 GHz. This allows them to

carry large quantities of data due to the large bandwidth.
 c. Satellites
Satellites are transponders that are set in a geostationary orbit directly over the equator.
A transponder is a unit that receives on one frequency and retransmits on another. The
geostationary orbit is 36,000 km from the Earth's surface. At this point, the gravitational
pull of the Earth and the centrifugal force of Earths rotation are balanced and cancel
each other out.

d. Bluetooth
e. Infrared
Explain various types of network.
• Local Area Network (LAN)
A computer network that spans a relatively small area is termed as LAN. Most LANs are
confined to a single building or group of buildings.
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
It is a network that spans a metropolitan area. Generally, a MAN spans a larger geographic
area than a LAN, but a smaller geographic area than a WAN.
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
One LAN can be connected to other LANs over any distance via telephone lines and radio
waves. A system of LANs connected in this way is called a wide-area network (WAN).
What is VPN? Why does a company use VPN?
A network that is constructed by using public network to connect nodes. Benefits of VPN
are:
• Extend geographic connectivity.
• Improve security where data lines have not been ciphered.
• Reduce operational costs in compared with traditional WAN.
• Reduce transit time and transportation costs for remote users.
• Simplify network topology in certain scenarios.
• Provide global networking opportunities.
Describe intranet, extranet, and internet.
 a. Internet
The Internet (also known simply as the Net) can be briefly understood as "a network of
networks". Internet is a global network connecting millions of computers. Almost all
countries are linked into exchanges of data, news and opinions. Specifically, it is the
worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer networks that transmit
data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP). It consists of millions of
smaller domestic, academic, business, and governmental networks, which together carry
various information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer, and the
interlinked Web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web.
b. Intranet
A network based on TCP/IP protocols (an internet) belonging to an organization, usually a
corporation, accessible only by the organization's members, employees, or others with
authorization (proper permissions and passwords). An intranet's Web sites look and act just
like any other Web sites, but the firewall surrounding an intranet fends off unauthorized
access. Like the Internet itself, intranets are used to share information. Secure intranets are
now the fastest-growing segment of the Internet because they are much less expensive to
build and manage than private networks based on proprietary protocols.
c. Extranet
A buzzword that refers to an intranet that is partially accessible to authorized outsiders.
Whereas an intranet resides behind a firewall and is accessible only to people who are
members of the same company or organization, an extranet provides various levels of
accessibility to outsiders. You can access an extranet only if you have a valid username and
password, and your identity determines which parts of the extranet you can view.
What is server? Enumerate the name of servers.
A server is typically a high-powered PC that is really no different than a typical desktop
computer. Most servers have a low-end video card and usually no sound card but boast
some advanced management options.
i. Web server
A computer, including software package, that provides a specific kind of service to client
software running on other computers.
ii. Mail server
A computer devoted to sending, receiving, and storing mail. The network computer which
stores and distributes electronic mail messages.
iii. Proxy server
A server that acts as an intermediary between a workstation user and the Internet so that
the enterprise can ensure security, administrative control, and caching service. A proxy
server is associated with or part of a gateway server that separates the enterprise network
from the outside network and a firewall server that protects the enterprise network from
outside intrusion.
iv. File server
A networked computer used to store files for access by other client computers on the
network.
 v. Application server
An application server is a software platform that delivers content to the Web. This means
that an application server interprets site traffic and constructs pages based on a dynamic
content repository.
vi. Print server
A thin server that connects a printer to a network and allows users to share the printer. It
may be a separate unit or a plug-in card in the printer.
Describe five network devices briefly.
• Network Interface Card(NIC)
A network interface card (NIC) is a computer circuit board or card that is installed in a
computer so that it can be connected to a network. Network interface cards provide a
dedicated, full-time connection to a network.
• Modem
Short for modulator/demodulator. A communications device that converts one form of a
signal to another that is suitable for
transmission over communication circuits,
typically from digital to analog and then from
analog to digital.

• Repeater
Repeaters are physical hardware devices that have a primary
function to regenerate the electrical signal by: reshaping the waveform, amplifying the
waveform, or retiming the signal.
• Hub
Hubs are also called Multiport Repeaters or Concentrators. They are physical hardware
devices. Some Hubs are basic hubs with minimum intelligence - no microprocessors.
• Bridge
The purposes of a Bridge are: isolates networks by MAC addresses, manages network
traffic by filtering packets and translate from one protocol to another.
• Switch
Switches configure themselves automatically. They listen to traffic on each Ethernet port
and discover to which port each attached device is connected.
Switches are used to link physical segments of a network together and allow data to
move between these segments.
• Router
Routers are hardware and software devices. They can be cards that plug into a collapsed
backbone, stand-alone devices (rack mount or desktop) or software that would run on a
file server with 2 NICs.
Short notes:
• Bandwidth
The maximum amount of data that can be carried over a specific transmission media in a
fixed amount of time.
• Frequency
The number of cycle a signal completes in one second. Frequency is a general
measurement of the rate of change of a signal with respect to time. If the value of a
signal changes over very short span of time, its frequency is high. If it changes over a
long span of time, its frequency is low.
• Topology
The physical structure of a network. The physical topology refers to how the computers
in a network are actually connected and arranged. The overall appearance includes the
types of cables that are used to connect the network, as well as how the computers are
physically configured to communicate with other computers in the network.
• Protocol
The set of rules of communication over a network. Protocol - a set of communication
rules to make sure that everyone speaks the same language.
• Domain Name
The English-like name of a Web site. Domain names serve as humanly-memorable
names for Internet participants, like computers, networks, and services. An important
function of domain names is to provide easily recognizable and memorizable names to
numerically addressed Internet resources. For example, the domain name microsoft.com
represents about a dozen IP addresses.
• VoIP
VoIP is an acronym for Voice over Internet Protocol, or in more common terms phone
service over the Internet. If you have a reasonable quality Internet connection you can
get phone service delivered through your Internet connection instead of from your local
phone company. So VoIP is the process of using Internet backbone for voice
communication as phone.
• Web 2.0
The new version of the Web site that allows users to share, create, edit contents on the
Web.
Web 1.0 Web 2.0
DoubleClick --> Google AdSense
Ofoto --> Flickr
Akamai --> BitTorrent
mp3.com --> Napster
Britannica Online --> Wikipedia
personal websites --> Blogging
evite --> upcoming.org and EVDB
domain name speculation --> search engine optimization
page views --> cost per click
screen scraping --> web services
publishing --> Participation
content management systems --> Wikis
directories (taxonomy) --> tagging ("folksonomy")
stickiness --> Syndication
 • URL
Uniform (Universal) Resource Locator (URL) shows the location of Web page with its
name.

Database Management Systems (DBMS)

What is database and database management systems (DBMS)?
• Database
A physical repository of centralized data of a particular organization. Importantly, it is
permanent, self-descriptive store of interrelated data items that can be processed by one or
more business applications.
• What is DBMS?
DBMS is the combination of the following:
 Collection of interrelated data (database)
 Set of programs to access and process the data
 An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use
Describe the limitations of paper-based file system.
• Duplication of data
• Data integrity problem
• Limited data sharing
• Lengthy processing time
• Data redundancy and inconsistency
• Difficulty in accessing data
• Data isolation — multiple files and formats
• Integrity problems
• Atomicity of updates
• Concurrent access by multiple users
• It might be heavy to carry around.
• There will be possibility of losing it easily.
• It might get grammar and spelling mistake
Explain advantages of DBMS.
• Flexibility
• Fast response to information requests
• Multiple access
• Lower user training costs
• Less storage
• Data is integrated
• Data duplication is reduced
• Data is easy to understand
• Data Validity
• Data Security
• Data is program independent
Describe the applications of DBMS.
• Banking: all transactions
• Airlines: reservations, schedules
• Universities: registration, grades
• Sales: customers, products, purchases
• Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations
• Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
• Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
• And many more…
Who are the users of a HR database?
Employees
a. Managers (DBA)
b. Analysts (power users)
c. Technicians (HRIS expert)
d. Clerical employees
e. Employee self-service
Non-employees
a. Job seekers
b. Partner organizations
Describe the responsibilities of a database administrator.
Database Administrator is the coordinator of all the activities of the database system; the
database administrator has a good understanding of the enterprise’s information resources
and needs. The specific responsibilities of a database administrator are:
• Schema definition
• Storage structure and access method definition
• Schema and physical organization modification
• Granting user authority to access the database
• Specifying integrity constraints
• Acting as liaison with users
• Monitoring performance and responding to changes in requirements
Explain the operations in a database.
• Insert (Adding a row)
• Retrieve (Query)
• Update (Modifying a column value)
• Delete (Deleting a row)
Short note:
• Primary key
Column values of a table that cannot be duplicate.
• Foreign key
 Primary key of another table.
• Entity
An object that can be attributed values.
• Attribute
Column name of a table.
• Field
Column of a table.
• Record
Row of a table.
• Null Value
A null is a value that is unavailable, unassigned, unknown, or inapplicable. A null is not
the same as zero or a space. Zero is a number, and a space is a character.
• Query
Operation in database to find any specific information.
• Form
Web page with data input facility.
• Report
Any search result performed on a database.

Management Information Systems (MIS)

Differentiate between Information Systems (IS) and Management Information Systems
(MIS)?
Management Information Systems (MIS)
• Management Information Systems is the management of Information System for
supporting organizations. MIS is less about IT and more about management. MIS is
the collaboration of management, technology, and organization.
• The MIS is defined as a system which provides information support for decision
making in the organization.
• The MIS is defined as an integrated system of man and machine for providing the
information to support the operations, the management and the decision making
function in the organization.
• The MIS is defined as a system based on the database of the organization evolved for
the purpose of providing information to the people in the organization.
Difference
Information system is the system consisting of hardware, software, and network. On the
other hand, MIS is the system consisting of information system, management, and
organization. That is MIS is more about business than technology.
Describe the objectives of MIS implementation.
MIS uses computers and communications technology to deal with these points of supreme
importance:
• Handling of a voluminous data.
• Confirmation of the validity of data and transaction.
 • Complex processing of data and multidimensional analysis.
• Quick search and retrieval.
• Mass storage.
• Communication of the information system to the user on time.
• Fulfilling the changing needs of the information.
In short, the objective of MIS is to deliver right information, to the right people, in right
time, in right form, at right cost.
Explain the challenges management faces to implement MIS.
MIS imposes some challenges to management. MIS implementation is not possible without
top management support. The major challenges are:
• Design competitive and effective systems
• Understand system requirements of global business environment
• Create information architecture that supports organization’s goal
• Determine business value of information systems
• Design systems people can control, understand and use in a socially, ethically
responsible manner
• Empower and connect people
• Manage and deliver information
• Integrate and adapt processes
• Run and optimize IT
• Consolidate and govern IT
Describe how information system is transforming businesses.
Four powerful worldwide changes that have altered the business environment:
1. Emergence of Global Economy
• Management and control in a global marketplace
• Competition in world markets
• Global work groups
• Global delivery systems
2. Transformation of Industrial Economies
• Knowledge- and information-based economies
• Shorter product life
• Productivity
• New products and services
• Time-based competition
• Turbulent environment
• Knowledge: a central productive and strategic asset
 • Limited employee knowledge base
3. Transformation of the Business Enterprise
• Flattening
• Decentralization
• Flexibility
• Location independence
• Low transaction and coordination costs
• Empowerment
• Collaborative work and teamwork
4. The Emergence of Digital Firm
• Digitally-enabled relationships with customers, suppliers, and employees
• Core business processes accomplished via digital networks
• Digital management of key corporate assets
• Rapid sensing and responding to environmental changes
What is digital firm? Describe the specialties of a digital firm.
A digital firm is one in which nearly all of the organization's significant business relationships
with customers, suppliers, and employees are digitally enabled and mediate. Core business
processes are accomplished through digital networks spanning the entire organization or
linking multiple organizations.
• Round-the-clock service: Web sites available to consumers 24 hours a day.
• Extended distribution channels: Outlets created for attracting customers who
otherwise would not patronize.
• Reduced transaction costs: Costs of searching for buyers, sellers, etc. reduced.
• Flattening organizations
• Separating work from location
• Reorganizing work-flows
• Increasing flexibility
• Redefining organizational boundaries
Describe the enterprise applications briefly.
Enterprise Applications are systems that can coordinate activities, decisions, and knowledge
across many different functions, levels, and business units in a firm. The four main
enterprise applications help organizations organize their all activities and relationships with
inside and outside customers.
1. Enterprise Systems
Enterprise systems can integrate the key business processes of an entire firm into a single
software system that allow information to flow seamlessly throughout the organization.
These systems focus primarily on internal processes but may include transactions with
customers and vendors.
 2. Supply Chain Management Systems (SCMS)
• Close linkage and coordination of activities involved in buying, making, and moving a
product.
• Integrates supplier, manufacturer, distributor, and customer logistics time.
• Reduces time, redundant effort, and inventory costs.
• Helps in procurement of materials, transformation of raw materials into
intermediate and finished products.
3. Customer Relationship Management Systems
• Manages all ways used by firms to deal with existing and potential new customers
and uses information system to coordinate entire business processes of a firm.
• Provides end-to-end customer care and provides a unified view of customer across
the company.
• Consolidates customer data from multiple sources and provides analytical tools for
answering questions.
• Identifies the most profitable customers by calculating customer life time value.
4. Knowledge Management Systems (KMS)
Knowledge management systems refer to any kind of IT system that stores and retrieves
knowledge, improves collaboration, locates knowledge sources, mines repositories for
hidden knowledge, captures and uses knowledge, or in some other way enhances the KM
process.
• Creating knowledge
• Discovering and codifying knowledge
• Storing knowledge
• Sharing knowledge
• Distributing knowledge
“The Internet not only reshapes the existing businesses but also helps start ever new
businesses” - elaborate the statement with examples.
Business model Description Example

Virtual storefront Sells goods, services on-line amazon.com

Information brokers Provide info on products, pricing, etc. realtor.com

Transaction brokers Buyers view rates, terms from various etrade.com
sources
Online marketplace Concentrates information from several eBay.com
providers
Content provider Creates revenue through providing client WSJ.com
for a fee, and advertising
Social network Website for staying connected with facebook.com
others
Portal Initial point of entry to Web, specialized yahoo.com
content, services
Online Service Provides service, support for hardware, Salesforce.com
provider software products
Virtual community Chat room, on-line meeting place iVillage.com
Syndicator Aggregate information from several
sources sold to other companies
Auction Electronic clearinghouse products, prices, Cellbazaar.com
change in response to demand