Analog Circuits and Digital Circuits

Typical Electronic System

A majority of applications of electronics are in the field of communication. So, let us

take and example of a simple communication system and see what a typical
electronics system looks like.

The system of discussion is the Public Addressing System. If the speaker wants to
address a large set of audience like in an auditorium or a concert stadium, he (or
she) speaks in front of a device called Microphone or simply Mic.

Microphone is a device that converts sound waves from the speaker into electrical
signals. But the energy (or the amplitude) of the electrical signals from the
microphone is very small. If we send this small amplitude signal over large
distances, it loses its strength due to various losses and cannot drive the loud
speaker.

So, before transmitting the electrical signals from the microphone to the
loudspeaker, they must be amplified in amplitude. An Amplifier is an electronic
system or device, which takes in a small electrical signal and boasts its amplitude by
a huge margin and produces a high amplitude electrical signal.
The amplified signal can now be fed to loudspeakers in order to drive them.

Representation of Signals

The main motivation of designing and building an Electronic Circuit or a System is to

process information or energy. Amplifier, Radios, Computers etc. are examples of
typical electronic systems which process the information as seen in the previous
Public Address System example.

In general, processing information includes the following functions:

 Information Translation
 Information Storage
 Information Manipulation or Computation
The other purpose of electronic system is to process power as in case of the
complex power supplies or the simple light bulb. Irrespective of the purpose i.e. to
process information or energy, these physical quantities are represented as signals
or electrical signals in an electronic circuit, to be specific.

These electrical signals can be either current or voltage and a network of electronic
circuit will process these signals.

Analog Signals and Digital Signals

Almost all the signals in the World are analog i.e. they are continuously varying
values. There are lot of continuously variable signals or simply analog signals in
nature like light, motion, sound, temperature, pressure etc.

The following image shows a typical analog signals.

Digital Signals vary in discrete levels, in contrast to the continuous representation of
analog signals. Generally, the discrete levels in a digital signal are just two values:
ON and OFF. Even though all the physical signals of the nature are continuous
analog signals, representing signals as discrete values has its own advantages.
Traditionally and historically, all electronic devices processed analog information
only. But the developments in technology has led to using digital signals for easy
processing and such techniques are called Digital Signal Processing.

What is PULSE

A pulse is a burst of current, voltage, or electromagnetic-field energy. In

practical electronic and computer systems, a pulse may last from a fraction of
a nanosecond up to several seconds or even minutes. In digital systems,
pulses comprise brief bursts of DC (direct current) voltage, with each burst
having an abrupt beginning (or rise) and an abrupt ending (or decay).
In digital circuits, pulses can make the voltage either more positive or more
negative. Usually, the more positive voltage is called the high state and the
more negative voltage is called the low state. The length of time between the
rise and the decay of a single pulse is called the pulse duration or pulse width.
Multiple pulses often occur in a sequence called a pulse train, where the
length of time from the beginning of one pulse to the beginning of the next is
called the pulse interval.

Classification of Electronic Circuits and

Systems

Signal Processing can be implemented using a variety of semiconductor electronic

devices like PN Junction Diodes, Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT), Field Effect
Transistors (FET) etc. in combination with passive components like resistors and
capacitors.

The interconnection of many such circuits, where each circuit performs a specific
task, results in a complete Electronic System or device. The design of electronic
circuits can be undertaken in two ways based on the above understanding of Analog
and Digital Signals. They are:

 Analog Circuits
 Digital Circuits
Analog Circuits and Digital Circuits is a classic way of differentiating between two
types of electronic circuits based on the signals they process. To put it in simple
words, Analog Circuits deals with continuous analog signals whereas Digital Circuits
deals with discrete digital signals.

Now, let us see each of these types with simple examples.

Analog Circuits

As mentioned earlier, an Analog Circuit is a type of Electronic Circuit which

processes analog data using analog components like resistors, capacitors, diodes,
transistors etc.

Analog Circuits can be quite simple like a combination of resistors to form a voltage
divider or a combination of Op-amps (which internally contain transistors), resistors,
diodes etc. to form an amplifier.

The following is an example of a simple Analog Circuit.

This is a simple amplifier circuit implemented using Op-amp, resistors and

capacitors. By selecting appropriate values for resistors and capacitors, you can
achieve a significant gain at the output.
Old-school Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is an Analog Device that can detect ad
analyse analog signals.

Digital Circuits

On the contrary, a Digital Circuit is also a type of an electronic circuit that is

predominantly built using Digital electronic components to process digital signals. At
low level, the digital circuits consist of a combination of transistors, logic gates (AND,
NAND, NOT etc.) and at high level, microcontrollers and processors.

All Digital circuits work on the binary digital signalling i.e. using only two voltage
levels to represent the status signal i.e. ON or OFF. For performing various digital
signal processing, all digital circuits incorporate fast switching devices like diodes
and transistors and some of the important functions of digital circuits are
multiplexing, demultiplexing, memory, combinational logic, sequential logic, etc.

The following is an example of a simple digital circuit built using CD4017 Counter IC.
This might not be clear but if you take a look at the internal structure of the CD4017
IC, you will see that it is essentially constructed using AND Gates, NOR Gates,
Inverters, Flip-flops and buffers.
All the modern computers work in digital realm even though they are built using
analog electronic components. Since most of the physical world is analog, the
analog signals must be converted to digital signals before the computers can
perform any operations.

Differences between Analog Circuits and Digital

Circuits

At this point, the differences between Analog Circuits and Digital Circuits might be
clear but as an aid for easy understanding, we have tabulated the differences.

Analog Circuits Digital Circuits

Analog circuits operate on continuously Digital Circuits operate on discretely
variable signals also known as Analog variable signals or Digital signals i.e. the
Signals. signal exists only in two levels: 0 and 1
(binary digital signalling).

Depending the efficiency and precision, it Digital Circuits are relatively easy to
is quite difficult to design Analog Circuits. design with many automated tools
available for various stages of design and
analysis.

When interacting with the physical world, If a digital circuit has to acquire data from
analog circuits can directly accept the physical world, the analog signals must be
signals from outside as the data is already converted to digital signals first.
analog.

As there is no need for data conversion, During the process of converting analog
there is ideally no loss of information. signals to digital signals, there might a
significant amount of data loss, which can
result in loss of information.

If precision and accuracy are not a Even with simple design techniques and at
criterion, then analog circuits can be simple low cost, the digital circuits can provide
and inexpensive. good accuracy and precision.

Due to the lack of skilled engineers and the Advanced Integrated Circuits technologies
complexity of the designs, analog circuits and many other factors help the digital
can turnout to be quite expensive. circuits to be reliable, lower in cost and
smaller in size.

Boolean logic
A digital system is more precise in its representation of a signal, as it
uses binary to represent the signal. Since the binary system is the
process of expressing any number or value (alphabets and special
characters) in the form of a combination of 0 and 1, this representation of
logic in the form of 0 and 1 is known as Boolean logic. This makes the
digital circuit more scalable, as the storage of information becomes much
more natural than in an analog system.
A digital circuit is usually constructed from small electronic circuits
called logic gates. A logic gate is generally created from one or more
electronically controlled switches, which are traditionally transistors.
The output of logic can then feed and run other logic gates. These logics
can be used to represent all forms of logical representation, which leads
to the creation of combinational logic. Combinational logic is the
combination of various simple logics to achieve an objective. Each logic
gate is designed to perform a specific logical function. The application of
digital electronics is very versatile, and almost all the electronic
components you use today are based on some form of a digital electronic
model.

Analog Electronics
Most of the fundamental electronic components -- resistors, capacitors,
inductors, diodes, transistors, and operational amplifiers -- are all inherently
analog. Circuits built with a combination of solely these components are
usually analog.

Analog circuits are usually complex combinations of op amps, resistors,

caps, and other foundational electronic components. This is an example of
a class B analog audio amplifier.
Analog circuits can be very elegant designs with many components, or they
can be very simple, like two resistors combining to make a voltage divider.
In general, though, analog circuits are much more difficult to design than
those which accomplish the same task digitally. It takes a special kind of
analog circuit wizard to design an analog radio receiver, or an analog
battery charger; digital components exist to make those
designs much simpler.
Analog circuits are usually much more susceptible to noise (small,
undesired variations in voltage). Small changes in the voltage level of an
analog signal may produce significant errors when being processed.

Digital Electronics
Digital circuits operate using digital, discrete signals. These circuits are
usually made of a combination of transistors and logic gates and, at higher
levels, microcontrollers or other computing chips. Most processors, whether
they're big beefy processors in your computer, or tiny little microcontrollers,
operate in the digital realm.

Digital circuits make use of components like logic gates, or more

complicated digital ICs (usually represented by rectangles with labeled pins
extending from them).
Digital circuits usually use a binary scheme for digital signaling. These
systems assign two different voltages as two different logic levels -- a high
voltage (usually 5V, 3.3V, or 1.8V) represents one value and a low voltage
(usually 0V) represents the other.
Although digital circuits are generally easier to design, they do tend to be a
bit more expensive than an equally tasked analog circuit.
BASIC Components of analog circuit
The basic components of analog circuits are wires, resistors, capacitors,
inductors, diodes, and transistors. Analog circuits are very commonly
represented in schematic diagrams, in which wires are shown as lines, and
each component has a unique symbol. Analog circuit analysis
employs Kirchhoff's circuit laws: all the currents at a node (a place where
wires meet), and the voltage around a closed loop of wires is 0. Wires are
usually treated as ideal zero-voltage interconnections; any resistance or
reactance is captured by explicitly adding a parasitic element, such as a
discrete resistor or inductor. Active components such as transistors are often
treated as controlled current or voltage sources: for example, a field-effect
transistor can be modeled as a current source from the source to the drain,
with the current controlled by the gate-source voltage.
Electronic Components and Their
Function
1. Capacitors: Function of this Basic Electronic Components is to store
electrical charge in an electrical field.
2. Diodes: Components that conduct electricity in only one direction.
3. Integrated Circuits or ICs: A microelectronic computer electronic circuit
incorporated into a chip or semiconductor; a whole system rather than a
single component.
4. Magnetic or Inductive Components: These are Electrical
components that use magnetism.
5. Network Components: Components that use more than 1 type of
Passive Component.
6. Piezoelectric devices, crystals, resonators: Passive components
that use piezoelectric. effect.
7. Resistors: Components used to resist current.
8. Semiconductors: Electronic control components with no moving parts.
9. Switches: Components that may be made to either conduct (closed) or not
(open).
10. Terminals and Connectors: Components to make electrical
connection.
11. Transistors: A semiconductor device capable of amplification.
Logic circuits-
1. Decision making circuit
2. memory circuit

Advantages of digital electronics –

1.cost effective
2. ic formation –lsi, msi, vlsi, vvlsi, ulsi
3. small size – 1000 diode or transistor =>ic
No of componets are replacsed with one ic
4. low weight
5 reliability

Logic gates
Logic gates or basic decision making circuits which have one or more input
but only one output.
Why do we use gates in circuits?
A logic gate is a device that acts as a building block for digital circuits.
They perform basic logical functions that are fundamental to digital circuits.
Most electronic devices we use today will have some form of logic gates in
them.

Logic gate
A logic gate is an idealized or physical device implementing
a Boolean function, a logical operation performed on one or
more binary inputs that produces a single binary output. Depending
on the context, the term may refer to an ideal logic gate, one that
has for instance zero rise time and unlimited fan-out, or it may refer
to a non-ideal physical device (see Ideal and real op-amps for
[1]

comparison).
Logic gates are primarily implemented
using diodes or transistors acting as electronic switches, but can
also be constructed using vacuum tubes,
electromagnetic relays (relay logic), fluidic logic, pneumatic
logic, optics, molecules, or even mechanical elements. Now, most
logic gates are made from MOSFETs (metal–oxide–
semiconductor field-effect transistors).
With amplification, logic gates can be cascaded in the same way
that Boolean functions can be composed, allowing the construction
of a physical model of all of Boolean logic, and therefore, all of the
algorithms and mathematics that can be described with Boolean
logic.
Logic circuits include such devices
as multiplexers, registers, arithmetic logic units (ALUs),
and computer memory, all the way up through
complete microprocessors, which may contain more than 100 million
logic gates.
Compound logic gates AND-OR-Invert (AOI) and OR-AND-Invert
(OAI) are often employed in circuit design because their construction
using MOSFETs is simpler and more efficient than the sum of the
individual gates.[2]

Type of logic gates

1. Basic gates
I. AND (7408)
II. OR (7432)
III. NOT (7404)
IV.
2. Universal gates
I. NAND (7400)
 II. NOR(7402)
3. Ex-gate
a. Ex-OR
b. Ex-NOR

A logic gate is an electronic device which is performing logical

operations. The inputs of the logic gates having in binary form(0,1)
and get the output in the binary form. Logic gates are specially
implemented using diodes or thyristors behaving as electronic
switches. With amplification, logic gates are often cascaded in
an equivalent way that Boolean functions are often composed,
allowing the event of a physical model of all of the Boolean logic,
and hence all of the logarithms and arithmetic which will be
described with boolean logic. There are seven sorts of logic gates
present in electronic devices they are NOT, OR, AND, NAND,
NOR, XOR, X-NOR gates. Altogether seven sorts of gates, there
are basic gates, universal gates, and exclusive gates. Now, I will
discuss the types of logic gates.

Basic Gates
There are three types of basic gates present in the digital
electronics they are NOT, OR, AND gates. Each gate has its own
working functionality. These basic gates are used for basic
functions here the working of these gates.
01. NOT Gate
In digital electronics, we call NOT gate as an inverter. Because
NOT gate gives the output an inversion to input. The IC number of
NOT Gate is 7404.

Symbol of NOT gate

Input=(A) Output=(Not A)
 0 1
1 0
Truth table of NOT gate
An inverter circuit output representing the inversion to its input. Its
major purpose is to invert the input signal applied. If the given
input is low value then the output comes as high-value vice versa.
The construction of NOT gate is very easy and it requires few
devices to design a NOT gate. Hence, limited power is needed to
operate the NOT gate.
02. OR Gate
An OR Gate is a basic gate used in digital electronics. It gives the
output as the addition of two inputs. The IC number of OR Gate is
7432.
Symbol of OR gate

Inputs
AB Output =A+B
00 0
01 1
10 1
11 1
Truth table of OR gate
The OR gate is a digital logic gate that combines both inputs and
offers unique output. If one of the inputs of the OR gate is high
then the output is also high. If two inputs are low then the output is
low and if two inputs are high then the output also high. This is the
total logical operation of the OR gate.
03. AND Gate
An AND gate is a fundamental digital logic gate. It gives the
output by multiplying both inputs. The IC number of AND Gate is
7408.
Symbol of AND gate

Inputs
AB Output= A.B
00 0
01 0
10 0
11 1
Truth table of AND gate
AND gate having two inputs and one output. If one of the inputs in
the AND gate is low then the output is low. If the inputs are high
then the output is high.
Universal Gates
There are two types of universal gates present in the digital
electronics they are NAND and NOR gates. The reason for calling
these gates as the universal gate is that by using universal gates we
can implement any gates it may be basic gates or exclusive gates.
Each universal gate has its own logical function. Here the working
functionality of universal gates. Universal gates come under types
of logic gates.
NAND gate is designed by the combination of AND, & NOT gate.
Bubbled OR gate is called a NAND gate. The IC number of
NAND Gate is 7400.

Symbol of NAND gate

Inputs
AB Output=(A.B)’
 00 1
01 1
10 1
11 0
Truth table of NAND gate

One of the inputs in the NAND gate is low then the output is high.
If the two inputs of the NAND gate are high then the output is low.
The output of the AND gate is a compliment to the NAND gate.
NAND gate is the universal gate so, by using of one NAND gate
we implement one NOT gate, by using two NAND gates we
implement one AND gate, by using of three NAND gates we
implement one OR gate, by using of four NAND gates we can
implement one NOR, X-OR gates and by using of five NAND
gates we implement one X-NOR gate.
Implementation of gates by using NAND gate
05. NOR Gate
NOR gate designed by the combination of NOT, & OR gate.
Bubbled AND is called the NOR gate. The IC number of NOR
Gate is 7402.
Symbol of NOR gate

Inputs
AB Output=(A+B)’
00 1
 01 0
10 0
11 0
Truth table of NOR gate
If one of the inputs in the NOR gate is high then the output of the
NOR gate is low. If both the inputs are low then the output is high.
The output of the OR gate is a compliment to the NOR gate. NOR
gate is the universal gate so, by using of one NOR gate we
implement one NOT gate, by using two NOR gates we implement
one OR gate, by using of three NOR gates we implement one AND
gate, by using of four NOR gates we can implement one NAND,
X-NOR gates and by using of five NOR gates we implement one
XOR gate.
Implementation of gates by using NOR gate
Exclusive Gate

There are two types of exclusive gates that exist in the digital
electronics they are X-OR and X-NOR gates. The exclusive gate
will also come under types of logic gates.
06. X-OR Gate
X-OR gate we generally call it Ex-OR and exclusive OR in digital
electronics. The IC number of X-OR Gate is 7486.
Symbol of XOR gate

Inputs
AB Output={A (X-OR) B}
00 0
01 1
10 1
11 0
Truth table of XOR gate
If the inputs of the X-OR gate have odd numbers of ones then the
output of the X-OR gate is high. If both inputs are the same value
then the output is low. We can design the X-OR gate by using
universal gates and basic gates because sometimes the X-OR gates
are not available. So, a circuit that implements the same function
can be designed from other available gates.
07. X-NOR Gate
The X-NOR gate is generally we call as Ex-NOR and the
Exclusive NOR gate.
 Inputs
AB Output={A(X-NOR)B}
00 1
01 0
10 0
11 1
Truth table of X-NOR gate
If the inputs of the X-NOR gate have an odd number of ones then
the output is low. If both inputs of the X-NOR gate have the same
then the output is high. If there is no availability of an X-NOR gate
then there is a chance to implementing the X-NOR gate by using
basic and universal gates.

These are the logic gates present in digital electronics. For every
logic gate has its own logic function. Mainly the logic gates are
used to determine the logical operations for complicated circuits
and to understand each logic gate function in a better manner
Seven Basic Logic Gates

Fig. 2.1.1 ANSI & IEC Gate Symbols

Digital electronics relies on the actions of just seven types of logic gates,
called AND, OR, NAND (Not AND), NOR (Not OR), XOR (Exclusive OR)
XNOR (Exclusive NOR) and NOT.

Fig. 2.1.1 illustrates a selection of the basic logic gates that are available
from a number of manufacturers in standard families of integrated circuits.
Each logic family is designed so that gates and other logic ICs within that
family (and other related families) can be easily combined, and built into
larger logic circuits to carry out complex functions with the minimum of
additional components.

In binary logic there are only two states allowed, 1 and 0 or ‘on and off’.
the word NOT in the world of binary logic therefore means ‘the opposite
of’. If something is not 1 it must be 0, if it is not on, it must be off. So
NAND (not AND) simply means that a NAND gate performs the opposite
function to an AND gate.
A logic gate is a small transistor circuit, basically a type of amplifier, which
is implemented in different forms within an integrated circuit. Each type of
gate has one or more (most often two) inputs and one output.

The principle of operation is that the circuit operates on just two voltage
levels, called logic 0 and logic 1. These values are represented by two
different voltage levels. In 5 volt logic, 1 is ideally represented by 5V and
0 by 0V, and in 3.3V logic 1 is ideally represented by 3.3V and logic 0 by
0V. When either of these voltage levels is applied to the inputs, the output
of the gate responds by assuming a 1 or a 0 level, depending on the
particular logic of the gate. The logic rules for each type of gate can be
described in different ways; by a written description of the action, by a
truth table, or by a Boolean algebra statement.

Boolean Statements

Fig. 2.1.2 Boolean Symbols for Gates

The actions of any of these gates can also be described using Boolean
statements. These use letters from the beginning of the alphabet, such as
A, B, C etc. to indicate inputs, and letters from the second half of the
alphabet, very commonly X or Y (and sometimes Q or P) to label an
output. The letters have no meaning in themselves, other than just to
label the various points in the circuit. The letters are then linked by a
Boolean symbol indicating the logical action of the gate.

The • symbol indicates AND although in many cases the • may be

omitted. (A•B may also be written as AB or A.B)

+ indicates OR

⊕ indicates XOR (Exclusive OR)

Although the symbols • and + are the same as those used in normal
algebra to indicate product (multiplication) and sum (addition)
respectively, in binary logic the + symbol does not exactly correspond to
sum. In digital logic 1 + (OR) 1 = 1, but the binary sum of 1 + 1 = 10 2,
therefore in digital logic + must always be considered as OR.

Three further types of logic gate give an output that is an inverted version
of the three basic gate functions listed above, and these are indicated by
a bar drawn above a statement using the AND, OR, or XOR symbols to
indicate NAND, NOR and XNOR.

A•B means A AND B but A•B means A NAND B

The action of any of the gates can therefor be described by using its
Boolean equation.

For example, an AND gate gives an output of logic 1 when input A AND
input B are at logic 1, but a NAND gate would give a logic 0 output for the
same input conditions. Also where the AND gate gives a logic zero for a
particular input combination, the NAND gate would give a logic 1. The ‘N’
in the gate’s name, or the bar above the Boolean expression therefore
indicates that the output logic is ‘inverted’. In digital logic NAND is ‘NOT’
AND, or the opposite of AND. Similarly NOR is ‘NOT’ OR, and XNOR is
‘NOT’ XOR.

Describing the Action of Logic Gates

Alternatively the action of any of the 7 types of logic gate can be

described using a written description of its logic function.
  The AND gate output is at logic 1 when, & only when all its inputs are at logic 1,
otherwise the output is at logic 0.
 The OR gate output is ate logic 1 when one or more of its inputs are at logic 1. If all its
inputs are at logic 1 , the output is at logic 0.
 The NAND gate output is at logic 0 when & only when all its inputs are at logic 1.
Otherwise the output is at logic 0.
 The NOR gate output is at logic 0 when one or more of its inputs are at logic 1. If all of its
inputs are at logic 0, the output is at logic 1.
 The XOR gate output is at logic 1 when and only one of its inputs is at logic 1. Otherwise
the output is at logic 0.
 The XNOR gate output is at logic 0 when one and only one of its inputs is at logic 1
Otherwise the output is at logic 1. (It is therefore similar to the XOR gate, but its output is
inverted).
 The NOT gate output is at logic 0 when its only input is at logic 1, and at logic 1 when its
only input is at logic 0. For this reason it is often called an INVERTER.

Fig. 2.1.3 Truth Tables

Truth Tables

Another useful way to describe the action of a digital gate (or a whole
digital cicuit ) is to use a truth table. Each table consists of two or more
columns, one column for each input or output; the number of lines in the
column will be enough to record all possible logic states for that input or
output. Fig.2.1.3 illustrates two typical truth tables for ciruits of different
levels of complexity.
 The top table is for a simple two input and gate. This has two inputs
labelled A and B and one column (X) for the output. Comparing the truth
table with the written description in "Describing the Action of Logic Gates"
(above) it can be seen that the truth table follows the written description
by showing that output X is at logic 1 only when inputs A and B are at
logic 1, otherwise (where the three upper lines are 00, 01 and 10) the
output is logic 0.

The second table in Fig.2.1.3 describes a more complex circuit (of five
NAND gates mimicing a XOR gate). Notice that now the truth table is
expanded to illustrate the logic levels at four further inputs or outputs in
addition to inputs A and B before the final output X is illustrated in the
right hand column. Such complex tables can be of great value in both
digital circuit design or fault finding.

AND Gate

NAND Gate

OR Gate

NOR Gate

XOR Gate

XNOR Gate
NOT Gate

Fig.2.1.4 Logic Gate Animations (Click any gate)

Logic Gate Animations

In Fig 2.1.4 you can check out the operation of the basic logic gates for
yourself. The gate animations allow you to choose any one of the 7 basic
gates and see a new page with an animated image of the gate in
operation. Use the animation to become familiar with the operation of
each of the gates. To return to this page, just close the page showing the
animation.

To easily understand more complex digital circuits it is important to

develop a good mental picture of the expected output from each gate for
any possible input.

The animations available in Fig.2.1.4 also show how the seven basic logic
functions can be described using a ‘truth table’ to show the relationship
between the output (X) and all possible input combinations for inputs A
and B, shown as a four value binary count from 00 to 11. Each animated
diagram shows the input and output conditions for one of the seven logic
functions in its two input form. Some types of gate however, are also
available with more (e.g. 3 to 13) inputs. For these gates the truth tables
would need to be extended to include all possible input conditions.

Universal Gates

Because gates are manufactured in IC form, typically containing two to six

gates of the same type, it is often uneconomical to use a complete IC of
six gates to perform a particular logic function. A better solution may be to
use just a single type of gate to perform any of the logic operations
required. Two types of gate, NAND and NOR are often used to perform
the functions of any of the other standard gates, by connecting a number
of either of these ‘universal’ gates in a combinational circuit. Although it
may not seem efficient to use several universal gates to perform the
function of a single gate, if there are a number of unused gates in one or
more NAND and NOR ICs, these can be used to perform other functions
such as AND or OR rather than using extra ICs to perform that function.
This technique is especially useful in the design of complex ICs where
whole circuits within the IC can be fabricated using a single type of gate.

Fig. 2.1.5 a to g shows how NAND gates can be used to obtain any of the
standard functions, using only this single gate type.

Fig 2.1.5 Creating any Logic Function Using NAND Gates

NOT Function
a. Connecting the inputs of the NAND gate together creates a NOT
function.
b. Alternatively the NOT function can be achieved by using only 1 input
and connecting the other input permanently to logic 1.

AND Function
c. Adding the NOT function (an inverter) to the output of a NAND gate
creates an AND function.

OR Function
d. Inverting the inputs to a NAND gate creates an OR function.

NOR Function
e. Using a NOT function to invert the output of an OR function creates a
NOR function.

XOR function
f. Four NAND gates (a single IC) connected as shown creates an XOR
function (and a Quad NAND IC is about 15% cheaper than a Quad XOR
IC).

XNOR Function
g. Inverting the output of the XOR function creates an XNOR function.

Similar conversions can be achieved using NOR gates, but as NAND

gates are generally the least expensive ICs, the conversions shown in
Fig. 2.1.5 are more frequently used. The reason for such conversions is
usually cost. This may not seem very useful since none of the basic 74
series ICs are expensive, but when several thousand units of a particular
circuit are to be manufactured, the small savings in cost and space on
printed circuit boards by maximising the use of otherwise unused gates in
multi gate ICs can become very important.
Logic ICs
Typically, standard logic gates are available in 14 pin or 16 pin DIL (dual
in line) chips. The number of gates per IC varies depending on the
number of inputs per gate. Two−input gates are common, but if only a
single input is required, such as in the 7404 NOT(or inverter) gates, a 14
pin IC can accommodate 6 (or Hex) gates. The greatest number of inputs
on a single gate is on the 74133 13 input NAND gate, which is
accommodated in a 16 pin package.

Data Sheets

7400 Quad 2 input NAND gates

7402 Quad 2 input NOR gates

7404 Hex NOT gates (Inverters)

7408 Quad 2 input AND gates

7432 Quad 2 input OR gates

7486 Quad 2 input XOR gates

747266 Quad 2 input XNOR gates

74133 Single 13 input NAND gate

Fig. 2.1.6 Logic Gates From the 74 series TTL IC Family