Unit VI

Compensators and Controllers

 Realization of basic compensators,
cascade compensation in time
domain and frequency domain,
feedback compensation ‐ Design of
lag, lead, lag-lead series
compensator (using Bode plot), P,
PI and PID controllers in frequency
domain.
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Introduction

Open loop system Closed loop system

unstable system Stable system

Closed loop system with compensator

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 Definition
 A compensator is an additional component or circuit that is
inserted into a control system to compensate for a deficient
performance of the overall system.

 A compensator is a form of controller designed to alter

certain characteristics such as gain/phase of a system.

 Compensators are designed to suit plant characteristics

such as gain and phase margins

 Compensating devices are may be in the form of electrical,

mechanical, hydraulic etc

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 Need for a compensator
 To obtain the desired performance of the system.
Compensating networks are applied to the system in the
form of feed forward path gain adjustment.

 Compensate a unstable system to make it stable.

 To minimize overshoot.

 Improves the transient response

 To increase the steady state accuracy of the system.

 Introduces poles and zeros in the system thereby causing

changes in the transfer function of the system. Due to this,
performance specifications of the system change.
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 Methods of Compensation
 Series compensation

 Feedback compensation.

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 Types of Compensators
Lag compensators

Lead compensators

Lag-lead compensators

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Lag compensators
 A system which has one zero and one dominating
pole (the pole which is closer to origin than all other
poles is known as dominating pole) is known as lag
network.

 All poles and zeros of the transfer function of the

network must lie in the - ve real axis interlacing
each other with a pole located on the nearest to the
origin.

 Phase lag compensator is essentially a low pass

filter
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Effects of Phase Lag Compensation
 Large improvement in steady state
performance.
 Gain crossover frequency increases.
 Bandwidth decreases.
 Phase margin will be increase.
 Transient response will be slower before due
to decreasing bandwidth, the rise time and
the settling time become larger.
 Allows low frequencies and attenuate high
frequencies
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 Determination of Transfer function
 From the circuit diagram,

 Taking Laplace transform,

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 Contd…

 Let,

T and β are respectively the time constant and DC gain

 Hence, the transfer function is

 1/ β is the attenuation. It can be eliminated by cascading an

amplifier with gain β.
 Therefore,

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 Contd…
 The pole zero plot is,

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 Frequency response of the lag compensator
 Let,

 Let s = jω,

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 Contd…
 a

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 Contd…

 The Bode plot is given by,

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 Contd…
 For maximum phase lag,

 To determine ωm and φm.

 Differentiate,

 When

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 Contd…

 Solving for ωm we get the frequency corresponding

to maximum phase lag,

 Maximum phase angle φm and β can be calculated

from ωm. We have,

 Take tan on both sides,

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 Contd…

 When ω = ωm φ = φm and β can be calculated from

ωm,

 Maximum lag angle is therefore,

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 Contd…
 To find β from φm.
 From the triangle,

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Lead compensators
 This system has one pole and one dominating zero
(the zero which is closer to the origin than all over
zeros is known as dominating zero) is known as lead
network.

 The basic requirement of the phase lead network is

that all poles and zeros of the transfer function of the
network must lie on -ve real axis interlacing each
other with a zero located at the origin of nearest
origin.

 Phase lead compensator is essentially a high pass

filter
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Effects of Phase Lead Compensation
 The velocity constant Kv increases.
 The slope of the magnitude plot reduces at the
gain crossover frequency so that relative
stability improves and error decrease as error is
directly proportional to the slope.
 Phase margin increases.
 The speed of the system increases because it
shifts gain crossover frequency to a higher
value.
 Maximum overshoot of the system decreases.
 Steady state error is not improved.
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 Determination of Transfer function
 From the circuit diagram,

 Equating above expression of I we get,

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 Contd…
 Taking Laplace transform on both sides

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 Contd…
 The general form of lead compensator is

 Substitute the α = R2/(R1 +R2) and T = R1C

 Hence,

 where

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Pole – zero plot

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 Frequency response of the lead compensator
 Consider the transfer function in time constant form

 Let s = jω

 When ω = 0, Gc(jω) = α and when ω = ∞, Gc(jω) = 1

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 Contd…
 The corner frequencies are

 Convert the magnitude in db

 At low frequencies,

 At frequencies from ωC1 to ωC2,

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 Contd…
 At high frequencies,

 Let

 Frequency at maximum
phase lead is

Bode plot
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 To determine αm, ωm and φm
 The phase of G(jω) is

 At maximum, dφ/dt = 0. Hence,

 and

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 Lag-Lead compensators
 Lag-Lead compensator is a combination of both the lag
and the lead compensators.
 It is an electrical network which produces phase lag at
one frequency region and phase lead at other frequency
region.
 Single lag or lead compensation may not satisfied
design specifications. For an unstable uncompensated
system, lead compensation provides fast response but
does not provide enough phase margin whereas lag
compensation stabilize the system but does not provide
enough bandwidth. So we need multiple compensators
in cascade.
 It is essentially a band reject filter
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 Effects of Lag-Lead Compensation
 Pole is more dominating than the zero. Hence, it
introduces positive phase angle to the system
when connected in series.
 The speed of the system increases because it
shifts gain crossover frequency to a higher
value.
 accuracy of the system is improved.

 It has increased complexity, and hence cost.

The general transfer function is

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 Determination of Transfer function
 From the circuit diagram,

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 Contd…
 Divide by R1R2C1C2 and expand the denominator

 TF of the lag-lead compensator is

 On comparison
T1 = R1C1, T2 = R2C2, R1R2C1C2 = αβT1T2
and

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 Contd…
 Lag-lead compensator does not allow independent
choice of α and β. Hence, for all practical cases we
let α = 1/β with β ˃ 1 and α ˂ 1.

 Pole-zero plot

-1/αT2

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 Frequency response of lag-lead compensator
 Consider the transfer function

 Let s = jω

 Corner frequencies are

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 Bode plot of the compensator
 a

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 Design procedure of lag compensator
1. Choose K for the uncompensated system to meet the
steady state requirement.
2. Sketch the Bode plot of the uncompensated system.
3. Determine the phase margin from the Bode plot of the
uncompensated system. If the phase margin does not
satisfy the requirement, lag compensation is required.
4. Choose required phase margin for the compensated
system.
 Let the desired phase margin as in specifications be γd.
 Let the phase margin of the compensated system be γn.
 Now
 ∈ is the additional phase lag to compensate for shift in gain
crossover frequency. Let initial ∈ = 5o.
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 Contd…
5. S

6. A

7. a

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 Contd…

8. Determine the transfer function of the compensated

system. Insert a gain 1/β to nullify the effect of gain
introduced by the compensator.
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 Contd…
9. The open loop TF is

10.a

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 Example 1
 The open loop TF of unity feedback system is G(s) =
K/s(1 + 2s). Design a suitable lag compensator so that
the phase margin is 40o and the steady state error for
ramp input is ≤ 0.2

 Solution.
1. Calculation of gain K

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 Contd…

 Bode plot of the uncompensated system

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 Contd…

 Phase angles

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Contd…

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 Contd…
 Find the phase margin from the Bode plot of the
uncompensated system.

 A

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 Contd…
(from the Bode plot)
 A

 A

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 Contd…
 A

 TF of the compensator is

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 Contd…
 Determine the open loop TF of the compensated system

``

 Determine actual phase margin

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 Example 2
 The open loop TF of unity feedback system is
G(s) = K/s(s + 4)(s + 80). Design a suitable lag
compensator so that the phase margin is 33o
and the velocity error constant is 30 sec-1
 Solution.
1. Calculation of gain K

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 Contd…
 A

 Draw Bode plot

 a
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 Contd…
 A

 Phase angle

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 Contd…
 A

 Phase margin of uncompensated system

 The result concludes that, lag compensation is

required.
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Contd…

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 Contd…
 Phase margin of compensated system

 a

 Determine β

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 Contd…
 TF of Lag compensator

 So, Pole

 Hence,

 Determine the open loop transfer function of

the compensated system.

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 Contd…
 A
 Determine the actual phase margin

 Therefore;

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 Contd…
 Result
 Compensator

 Overall OLTF

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 Design procedure of lead compensator
1. Find K for the uncompensated system to meet the
steady state requirement.
2. Sketch the Bode plot of the uncompensated system.
3. Determine the phase margin from the Bode plot of the
uncompensated system. If the phase margin does not
satisfy the requirement, lead compensation is required.
4. Find the amount of phase angle to be contributed by
the lead network.

 Let the desired phase margin as in specifications be γd.

 Let the phase margin of the uncompensated system be γ.
 ∈ is the additional phase lead to compensate for shift in gain
crossover frequency. Let initial ∈ = 5o.
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 Contd…
5. A

6. Find the transfer function of the open loop system

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 Contd…

7. Verify the design

Draw the Bode plot again and verify whether it
satisfies the given specifications.
If satisfies, stop. If the phase margin is less, repeat steps 4
– 7 by letting ∈ = 5o.

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 Example 1
 The open loop TF of unity feedback system is G(s) =
K/s(s + 1). Design a suitable lead compensator so that
the (i) phase margin is ≥ 45o (ii) the steady state error
for ramp input is ≤ 1/15 and (iii) gain crossover
frequency must be < 7.5 rad/sec.

 Solution.
1. Calculation of gain K

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 Contd…
2. Draw the Bode plot of the uncompensated system

 Magnitude plot

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 Contd…
 A

3. Phase angles

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 Contd…

4. Find the phase margin of the uncompensated system

 The required phase margin is 45o, hence a lead

compensator must be used.
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Contd…

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 Contd…
 Find ϕm.

5. Determine the transfer function of the lead compensator

 From the Bode plot, ωm corresponding to – 6 db is

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 Contd…
 A

6. TF of the compensated system is

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 Contd…
7. Draw a new Bode plot to verify the design
 Let s = jω;

 To draw magnitude plot

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 Contd…
 a

``

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 Contd…
 A

 Phase plot

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 Contd…
 From the Bode plot of the compensated system

 Result, TF of the compensator is

 TF of the compensated system is

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 Example 2
 The open loop TF of unity feedback system is
G(s) = K/s(s + 1)(s + 5). Design a suitable lead
compensator so that the phase margin is ≥ 20o
and the velocity error constant is ≥ 50 sec-1

Solution.
1. Calculation of gain K

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 Contd…
2. Draw Bode plot

 Let s = jω

 Corner frequencies are

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 Contd…
 a

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 Contd…
 A

 Phase angle

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 Contd…
 A

3. Phase margin of uncompensated system

 The result concludes that, lead compensation is

required.
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Contd…
 a

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 Contd…
4. Find ϕm,

5. Determine the TF of lead compensator

 From the Bode plot

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 Contd…

 TF of Lag compensator

Gc(s)

 Determine the open loop transfer function of

the compensated system.

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 Contd…
 A

 Draw the Bode plot of the compensated system

 Let s = jω

 To draw magnitude plot.

 Corner frequencies are

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 Contd…
 Let

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 Contd…
 a

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 Contd…
 A

 To draw phase plot

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 Contd…
 From the Bode plot of the compensated system,

 Therefore
 Result
 TF of compensator is

 TF of compensated system is

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 Introduction
 A device which compares the actual value
of plant output with the desired value and
generates a suitable control signal to drive
the plant is called as Controller.
 It determines the deviation of the system
output and produces the control signal that
reduces the deviation to 0 or small value.
 The manner in which the controller
produces the control signal is called the
control action.
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 Contd…
 A simple industrial controlled system

 Elements of the industrial controller

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 Classification
 ON - OFF controller

 Proportional controller (P)

 Integral controller (I)

 Proportional + Integral controller (PI)

 Proportional + Derivative Controller (PD)

 Proportional + Integral + Derivative Controller

(PID)
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 Proportional Control
 In this controller, there is a continuous relationship between
the output of the controller (M) and Actuating Error Signal E.

 Produces an output proportional to error signal.

 Apply Laplace transform on both the sides

 KP is the proportional constant

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 Integral Controller
 Produces an output, which is integral of the error signal

 Apply Laplace transform on both the sides

 KI is the integral constant

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 Derivative Controller
 Produces the rate of change of the error signal at the
output.

 Apply Laplace transform on both the sides

KD is the derivative constant

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 Proportional Integral (PI) Controller
 produces an output, which is the combination of outputs of the
proportional and integral controllers.

 Apply Laplace transform on both the sides

 PI controller is used to decrease the steady state error without affecting

the stability of the control system.

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 Proportional Derivative (PD) Controller
 Produces an output, which is the combination of the outputs of
proportional and derivative controllers.

 Apply Laplace transform on both the sides

 PD controller is used to improve the stability of control system

without affecting the steady state error.

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 Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) Controller
 Produces an output, which is the combination of the outputs of
proportional, integral and derivative controllers.

 Apply Laplace transform on both the sides

 PD controller is used to improve the stability of the control system

and to decrease steady state error.

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Block diagram of a servo motor PID control system

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Schematic of a servo motor PID control system

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 Advantages
 Proportional (P): Speed controlled (Increase gain)

 Proportional – Integral (PI): Offset is zero (because of

Integration), No steady state error

 Proportional – Derivative (PD): Maximum overshoot

decreases, Rise time, settling time is reduced, Bandwidth is
increased.

 Proportional – Integral – Derivative (PID): Decreases rise

time (KP), Eliminates steady state error (KI), Decreases
overshoot and settling time ( KD).
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 Disadvantages
 Proportional (P): Offset issue

 Proportional – Integral (PI): Fast transient and

slow steady state response, may lead to instability

 Proportional – Derivative (PD): Offset, Steady

state error

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 Signal Filtration
 Proportional (P): Linear network (No filtration)

 Proportional – Integrated (PI): Low pass filter

 Proportional – Differential (PD): High pass filter

 Proportional – Integrated – Differential (PID):

Band pass or Band reject depending on gain
values

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 Design of PI and PID controllers
 Controllers are designed to satisfy specified gain
margin and error constant
 Let ω1 = gain crossover frequency with series controller
 A
 A
 A
 A
 θ = Angle to be contributed by the controller at gain crossover
frequency ω1 to achieve a phase margin of γd.
 a

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 Contd…
 A

 Let

 At ωgc = ω1,

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 Contd…
 Hence, and

 We have
 Equating both

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 Contd…
 Equating the real parts

 Equating the imaginary parts

 While designing a PD controller, let Ki = 0

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 Contd…
 While designing a PI controller, let Kd = 0.

 While designing a PID controller, determine constant Ki

to satisfy the specified error constant, then calculate Kd
and Kp.

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 Procedure for design of PI and PID controllers
 The given specifications are desired phase margin γd at the
given gain crossover frequency ωgc.

1. Determine the magnitude and phase of the uncompensated

open loop sinusoidal transfer function.

2. Determine the phase margin of uncompensated system and

the angle contributed by the controller to achieve the
desired phase margin.

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 Contd…
3. Determine
the transfer
function of
the controller

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 Contd…
Determine constant Ki to satisfy the specified error constant, then
calculate Kd and Kp.

and

4. Determine the open loop TF of the compensated system

5. Verify the design by calculating the phase margin of the

compensated system.

6. The magnitude of Ao = 1 and γo should satisfy the specifications

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 Example 1
 Design a PI controller such that the phase margin is 60o
at a frequency of 0.5 rad/sec. Given;

 Solution
Find magnitude and phase
Given

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 Contd…
 Let s = jω

 Given gain cross over frequency ω1 = 0.5 rad/sec

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 Contd…
 A

 S

 TF of PI controller

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 Contd…
 A

 Transfer function

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 Contd…
 Verify the system design
Let s = jω in the transfer function

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 Contd…
 At ωgc = ω1

 Phase of the compensated system is

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 Example 2
 Design a PID controller such that the phase margin is
45o at a frequency of 4 rad/sec and the steady state
error for ramp input is 0.6. Given;

Solution
 Find magnitude and phase
Given

Let s = jω

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 Contd…
 A

 Given ω1 = 4 rad/sec.

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 Contd…
 A

 A

 and

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 Contd…
 A

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 Contd…
 Verify the design

 Let

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 Contd…

 Phase margin is
 Result

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Unit VII
State Space Analysis
 Concepts of state variable and
state model, Solution of state
equation, State space to transfer
function conversion,
Controllability, Observability,
Pole placement control
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 Introduction
 The classical control theory and methods that we have been using
in class to date are based on a simple input-output description of
the plant, usually expressed as a transfer function. These methods
do not use any knowledge of the interior structure of the plant, and
limit to single-input single-output (SISO) systems, and as we have
seen, it allows only limited control of the closed-loop behaviour
when feedback control is used.

 Modern control theory solves many of the limitations by using a

much “richer” description of the plant dynamics.

 State-space description provide the dynamics as a set of coupled

first-order differential equations in a set of internal variables known
as state variables, together with a set of algebraic equations that
combine the state variables into physical output variables.

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 Contd…
 A state space representation is a mathematical model
of a physical system, as a set of input, output and
state variables related by first order differential
equations.

 The state space representation (also known as the

"time-domain approach") provides a convenient and
compact way to model and analyze systems with
multiple inputs and outputs.

 The use of the state space representation is not limited

to systems with linear components and zero initial
conditions.
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 Definition of System State
 The state of a dynamic system refers to a minimum set
of variables, known as state variables, that fully
describe the system and its response/behaviour to any
given set of inputs.

 A mathematical description of the system in terms of a

minimum set of variables xi(t), i = 1, . . . , n, together with
knowledge of those variables at an initial time to and the
system inputs for time t ≥ to, are sufficient to predict the
future system state and outputs for all time t > to.

 The dynamic behaviour of a state determined system is

completely characterized by the response of the set of n
variables xi(t), where „n‟ is the order of the system.
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 Contd…
 The system shown in figure has „r‟ inputs u1(t),…,ur(t), and m
output variables y1(t), . . . , ym(t).
 If the system is state-determined, the knowledge of its state
variables ( x1(to), x2(to), . . . , xn(to)) at an initial time to, and the inputs
u1(t),…, ur(t) for t ≥ to are sufficient to determine all the future
behaviour of the system.
 The state variables are an internal description of the system which
completely characterize the system state at any time t, and from
which any output variable yi(t) may be computed.

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 State Equations
 Mathematical description of the system is expressed as a set
of n coupled first-order ordinary differential equations (ODE)
known as the state equations.

 The time derivative of each state variable is expressed in

terms of the state variables x1(t), . . . , xn(t) and the system
inputs u1(t), . . . , ur(t).

 In general, the form of n state equations is given by,

where 𝒙𝒊 = dxi /dt and fi (x, u, t), (i = 1 … n)

may be a general nonlinear, time varying
function of state variables, system inputs
and time.
 … (1)
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 Contd…
 The state equations are expressed in vector
form, in which the set of n state variables is
written as a state vector.
x(t) = [x1(t), x2(t), . . . , xn(t)].
 The set of r inputs is written as an input vector
u(t) = [u1(t), u2(t), . . . , ur(t)].
 Each state variable is a time varying component
of the column vector x(t).
 For linear time invariant systems, (1) can be
expressed as a set of n coupled first-order linear
differential equations with constant coefficients
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 Contd…

… (2)
 In matrix form,

… (3)

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 Contd…
 This equation is of the form

𝒙 = 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒖 … (4)

 where the state vector x is a column vector of

length n,

 the input vector u is a column vector of length r,

 A is a n × n square matrix of the constant

coefficients aij, and B is a n × r matrix of the
coefficients bij that weight the inputs.
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 Output Equations
 A system output is defined to be any variable of interest.
 An arbitrary output variable in a system of size n with r
inputs may be written as;

… (5)
 where the ci and di are constants. If a total of m system
variables are defined as outputs, the m such equations
may be written as:

… (6)
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 Contd…
 In matrix form

… (7)
 In compact form
… (8)
 where y is a column vector of the output variables yi(t).
 C is a m × n matrix of the constant coefficients cij that
weight the state variables.
 D is a m × r matrix of the constant coefficients dij that
weight the system inputs.
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 Contd…
 For many physical systems, the matrix D is a null
matrix. Hence, the output equation reduces to a
simple weighted combination of the state variables:
… (9)
 State Model
 The complete system model for a linear time-invariant system
consists of (i) a set of n state equations, defined in terms of the
matrices A and B, and (ii) a set of output equations that relate
any output variables of interest to the state variables and
inputs, and expressed in terms of the C and D matrices.

… (10)

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 Contd…
 The matrices A and B are properties of the
system and are determined by the system
structure and elements.
 The matrices C and D are determined by the
particular choice of output variables.
 Block Diagram Representation

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 Example 1
 Write the state and output equations in phase variable
form, for a system with the differential equation;

 Solution
The state equation is

The output equation is

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 Exercise 1
 Obtain the matrices A, B, C and D for the state space
model of a dynamic system represented by the
following differential equation.

where
 Answer

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 Exercise 2
 The transfer function of a flexible beam is given by

Obtain the state space model

 Answer

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 Exercise 3
 Find the state space model of a system described
by the following transfer function.

 Answer

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 Example 2
 Obtain the state space model of the electrical circuit
shown in figure.

 Solution
 Input: voltage source = u(t)
 System state: capacitor voltages = v1(t), v2(t)
 Output: current through resistor R1 = y(t)

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 Contd…
 Write the nodal equations

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 Contd…
 The state equation is given by

 The output equation is given by

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 Exercise 4
 Obtain the state model of the medium power
transmission line shown in figure. Assume that the
load is 25R.

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 Example 1
 Construct the state model of the mechanical system
shown in figure.
Solution.

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 Contd…
 Consider 4 state variables and substitute

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 Contd…
 A

 State equations consolidated

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 Contd…
 State equations in matrix form

 Let y1 and y2 are the outputs. As seen,

 Output equation is

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 Exercise 1
 Construct the state model of the mechanical system
shown in figure.

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 Example 2
 Construct the state model of the armature controlled dc
motor shown in figure.

Solution.
Write the governing equations.

For the electrical circuit,

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 Contd…
 For the mechanical system,

 and

 From the equation of electrical circuit an the ,

 From the equation of mechanical system

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 Contd…
 Let Ia, ω and θ are respectively x1, x2 and x3 be the
state variables.

 Let the input voltage Va = U. On substitution,

 We have,
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 Contd…
 Differentiate,

 Consolidating the state equations,

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 Contd…
 State equations in matrix form,

 Let Ia, ω and θ are the desired outputs

 With respect to the state variables,

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 Contd…
 The output equation is,

 Block diagram representation

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 Exercise 2
 Construct the state model of the field controlled dc
motor shown in figure.

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 State space to transfer function conversion
 Find the transfer function and a single first-order differential
equation relating the output y(t) to the input u(t) for a system
described by the first-order linear state and output
equations.

Solution.
Laplace transform of the state equation is
or
Divide by (s − a), solve for the state variable

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 Contd…
 Laplace transform of output equation Y(s) = cX(s) + dU(s)

 Transfer function is

 Cross multiply

 The differential equation is

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 Exercise 3
 Use Laplace transform method to derive a single
differential equation for the capacitor voltage vC in the
series R-L-C electric circuit shown in figure.

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 Solution of Homogeneous State Equations
 Consider the vector differential equation,
ẋ = Ax,
where A is a n x n constant matrix
 Let the state equation is,

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 Contd…
 In matrix form,

 Let the state variables be,

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 Contd…
Consider the equation,

Differentiating with respect to t, we get,

Substituting this in the state equation, we get,

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 Contd…
Equating coefficients of equal powers of 't',

Similarly,

Substituting t = 0 in
state variables, we get

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 Contd…
Summing up all the results, we get

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 Contd…
 Replacing a0, b0, … with x1(0), x2(0), … we get,

 If we assume,

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 Contd…
 the solution x(t) can be written as,

 The expression above the brace is an n x n matrix.

 similar to the infinite power series and is called matrix
exponential and rewritten as

 Thus, the solution is

 where, ϕ(t) is called the 'State Transition Matrix'

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 Example 1
 Determine the matrix exponential, and hence the state
transition matrix. Also obtain the homogeneous
response to the initial conditions x1(0) = 2, x2(0) = 3 of
the system with state equations;

 Solution,

The system matrix is

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 Contd…
 the matrix exponential or the state transition matrix is

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 Contd…
Simplified state transition matrix is

 Homogeneous response to the initial conditions x1(0) =

2, x2(0) = 3
We know
Substitute in state transition matrix

For the given initial conditions, the response is,

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 Solution of Non-Homogeneous State Equations
 Consider

 Multiply both sides by an integrating factor e−at,

 Integrate both sides

 After rearranging the state variable response is,

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 Contd…
 If the state equation is ẋ = Ax + Bu

 Integrate

 As e−A0 = I and [e−At]−1 = eAt the complete state vector

response is

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 Example 2
 Find the response of the system in example 1 having
two state variables to a constant input u(t) = 5 for t > 0,
if x1(0) = 0, and x2 = 0.

Solution
 The state transition matrix as in example 1 is

 With zero initial conditions, the forced response is

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 Contd…
 Matrix integration gives

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 Properties of State Transition Matrix
 For the time invariant system, ẋ = Ax
ϕ(t) = eAt

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 Alternate Methods of Computation of Matrix
Exponential – eAt
 Matrix exponential can be computed by
 Numerical Methods
 Analytic Methods

 Numerical Methods
 If matrix A is given with all elements in numerical values,
MATLAB provides a simple way to compute eAT , where T is a
constant.

 Analytic Methods
 Laplace Transformation Approach
 Diagonal Transformation
 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
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 Laplace Transformation Approach


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 Contd…
 Compute the matrix exponential (state transition matrix)
for the given matrix;

 Solution

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 General
 Controllability deals with the possibility of forcing the
system to a particular state by application of a control
input.

 If a state is uncontrollable then no input will be able to

control that state.

 If a state is not observable or measurable, then the

controller will not be able to determine its behaviour
from the system output and hence not be able to use
that state to stabilize the system.

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 Controllability
Definition 1
Consider a dynamic system

(1)

Complete State Controllability

 A system represented by the given state equation is
said to be completely state controllable or simply state
controllable if for any initial state x(0) and any final state
x(N), there exists an input sequence u(k), k = 0, 1, 2, ・
・ ・ ,N, which transfers x(0) to x(N) for some finite N.
Otherwise the state equation is state uncontrollable.
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 Contd…
Definition 2

Complete Output Controllability

 The system given in equation (1) is said to be completely
output controllable or simply output controllable if any
final output y(N) can be reached from any initial state x(0)
by applying an unconstrained input sequence u(k), k = 0,
1, 2, ・ ・ ・ ,N, for some finite N. Otherwise (1) is not
output controllable.

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 Theorems on controllability
State Controllability:
 The state equation (1) or the pair (A,B) is state controllable if
and only if the n × nm state controllability matrix UC has rank
n, i.e., full row rank

 The state equation (1) is controllable if the n × n

controllability grammian matrix WC is non-singular for any
non-zero finite N

 If the system has a single input and the state model is in

controllable canonical form then the system is controllable.

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 Contd…
 When A has distinct eigenvalues, the state model is
controllable iff all the rows of B are non-zero.

Output Controllability:
 The system in equation (1) is completely output
controllable if and only if the p × (n + 1)m output
controllability matrix UOC has rank p, i.e., full row rank.

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 Controllability to the origin and Reachability
There exist three different definitions of state
controllability
 Input transfers one state to any state.

 Input transfers any state to zero state. This is called

controllability to the origin.
 Input transfers zero state to any state. This is referred
as controllability from the origin or reachability.

All definitions are equivalent for continuous time systems.

For discrete time systems, definitions (1) and (3) are
equivalent but not the second one.

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 Observability
Definition

 The state model (1) is said to be observable if

any initial state x(0) can be uniquely determined
from the knowledge of output y(k) and input
sequence u(k), for k = 0, 1, 2, ・ ・ ・ N, where
N is some finite time. Otherwise the state model
(1) is unobservable.

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 Theorems on observability
 The state model (1) or the pair (A,C) is observable if the np
× n observability matrix has rank n, i.e., full column rank.

 The state model (1) is observable if the n × n observability

grammian matrix is non-singular for any nonzero finite N.

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 Contd…
 If the state model is in observable canonical form then
the system is observable.

 When A has distinct eigenvalues and in Jordan/

Diagonal canonical form, the state model is observable
iff none of the columns of C contain zeros.

 When A has multiple order eigenvalues and in Jordan

canonical form, then the state model is observable iff
a. each Jordan block corresponds to one distinct
eigenvalue and
b. the elements of C that correspond to first column
of each Jordan block are not all zero.
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 Example 1
 Consider the system x(k + 1) = Ax(k) + Bu(k), y(k) =
Cx(k). Show if the system is controllable.

Solution: The controllability matrix is given by

 Determinant of UC = 0. Hence, UC has a rank 1 which is

less than the order of the matrix, i.e., 2.
 Thus the system is not controllable.
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 Example 2
 Show if the given system is observable

 Solution: The observability matrix is

 The determinant is of the resultant matrix is 0 and has a

rank 1 which implies that the state model is
unobservable.
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 Exercise
 Consider the following system. Check for observability

 Consider the following system. Check for controllability

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 Pole placement method
 Pole placement method is a controller design method
using state space approach in which the places of the
closed loop system poles on the complex plane are
determined by setting a controller gain K.

 Poles describe the behaviour of linear dynamical systems.

By the use of feedback, the behaviour is changed in a way
that is more favourable.

 Thus, one can decide on where the closed loop poles

should be, then force them to be there by designing a
feedback control system via pole placement method
where a controller gain K is chosen that places the poles
on their desired locations.
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 Where to put the closed-loop poles?
 Let s2 + 2ζωns + ωn2 = 0
 Use time-domain specifications to locate dominant
poles – roots.
 Then place rest of the poles so they are “much faster”
than the dominant 2nd order behaviour.
 Keep the same damped frequency ωd and then move
the real part to be 2 to 3 times faster than the real part of
dominant poles ζωn.
 Care must be taken while moving the closed poles too
far to the left of open loop poles because it takes a lot of
control effort.
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 Pole Placement Control Design
Assumptions

 The system is completely state controllable.

 The state variables are measurable and are
available for feedback.
 Control input is unconstrained.

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 Method 1 (low order systems, n ≤ 3)
 Check controllability
 Define
 Substitute this gain in the desired characteristic
equation.

 Solve for k1, k2, k3 by equating the like powers

on both sides

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 Method 2: Bass-Gura Approach


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