ADIWES INTERNATIONAL IN MATHEMATICS AL J. Lonvwaren Consulting Editor SERIES A COURSE OF Higher Mathematics VOLUME I Y. L SMIRNOV Translated by D. E. BROWN oe Translation edited and ‘edditions made by I. N. SNEDDON Profesor in Matematic Uninerity of lego PERGAMON PRESS ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. READING, MASSACHUSETTS. PALO ALTO: LONDON 1964Copyright © 1908 PERGAMON PRESS LTD. U.S.A, Baltion ditributed by ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. ‘eading, Masmchuse » Pale Alo » Lowden CONTENTS emovceno™ PERGAMON PRESS Interim Serine of Menegraphs in PUREAND APPLIED MATHEMATICS i Livrary of Congres Catalog Catd No, 6810194 Panraces 20 Biome sep Sieznon Rosstas Forrioss FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS AND THEE THEORY OF LIMITS Variables 1 Magni and ies meauoroment. 2 Number. 3 Constanta wn Worinblo 4 Interval. See toneapt of funeton. 6. The snalstle Tnethod! of ropreentingfonetional relationships fap anes {lone Tho fllr sneha. The grephial inated of roprces. ing numbers 18, Coordinates. I. Craps. The equation of» curve, 12 Liner fonetons 1. Increment. The base propor of «linear fEtsetion: H: Graph of torn motion, 1. Espinal forme. 16 Perebela ofthe tecund degree 1%. Parola of th third doses. 18 ‘The law of inven proportionality 19. Power fantion, 20 tnvere fmetions, 21 Mony valued functions. 32. Exponential and loge ‘lic funetions 8, Trgonometrie funtion. 24 ewer tone: Inet, or eel, funtion, 25. Ordered vorlble, 26 afin, 22 The nt of variable 438. Docke theese. 29 finial lange magnstades. 80. Monotone ‘evnbls, 31 Gacy at forthe existence of «init. 32 Simul Yancans vevition of ue vesilee, connected by a fnetional rele tionship. 38: Exunps 34 Contin of fonctions 38-'The propor {eof continua finctons 6, Comperison of intinitesinals and of Intiattty lane magnitudes 32- Eseries, 88 Tho number 8 39. Unproved hspotheaee 40. Real ninbore. 1. The operations | Gn tel numbers 42. The stit Bounds of momoreal et. Testa for the exstonon of lit. 43. Propersin of continvoas Functions 4 Coninsts of elementary faneions. lhe Sixteonth (revind) Raman Buin of 'V. I. Simos boo, ype mur amenarn (Kure rye toch) a DIFFERENTIATION. THEORY AND APPLICATIONS Dasivatives and i of the ft order 45, The concept of derivative. 46 Geometrical gion of tho Aervative A Desivatives of ome spl functions 8, Derivatives woof funitons of function and of averse function. 4,Tabe of ety Siver, and exemplin 30,The oncape of differnt. 81 Sonne ferential equations. $2. Eatimation of oor. ghee 58, Dtivativer of higher ardar. 5. Moana sgifioance ofthe ‘cond dvietive, 85. Diferontats of higher oder. 56. Fini di 86 an 4 57 Teste for inorosing and decreaing functions 5. Mason and ‘nine of fanotions. 39. Curve tang. 0; The gestae ad leet Wales of fonction. 61, Fora’ theorem. 62. Rolls thors 1. Lagrange fornia. 64 Cay’ formula 68: Beataating nde terminate for. 6, Other indeterminate forme Fanetins of two vasiablee (67. Basi conoopt. 68 To partial derivatives and total ferential ‘ fonaion of two Independent varisles. 68. Derivatives offs ons of efeacton and of imple fenetions, Some geometrical applications of the dferenialealeslon ‘Te. The dfrentia of ar. 1. Concavity, conventy, and urva- ture. 72 Asyiptotas, TS Carvetracing, 74. Tho paras of © fare 78, Van der Waals uation. 16 Singular pointe of carves, ‘Tt. Blomont of curv. 78, Tho eaanary. 7%. Ti pelos A Bp ‘ye and hypocyeoid. tl Invalate of ciel, 62. Curvon in polar ‘coordinates. 8, Spiral 84. Tho imagen nnd rare 8, Css ‘vals and the lomaieste. Exmcies Basie problems af the integral calelus. The inline integral {6.Tacenopt ofan indie igral. 7. The deft integral asthe Tint ofa sn, 08 Th rlationbotween dhe dainite sad indefinite Intngrals49.Propartier of ndeinco inegale98:Tab of linontary Intograls 9, Integration by pasta 92. Rule for change of variate, Braroplen, 99. Exaunpee of ifesntal equations ofthe fet order. Proper of the definite integral ‘94: Bane proportion f eh definite inoprl 98. Xan vale theorem 96. Kxitanoa of the priv 9. Discontent ata 98 Infinite lint 98. Coange of variable or dani inagrele, 100. Tntogzation by pert ats 8 410, Appictions of definite integrals 303. Calculation of urea. 102Aren of secor. 10. Length of are. 304, Caloultion of the vluwes of woida of given cromessetion: 10S, Veluie of coli of rovolutlon, 106. Surface nron oe nd of evolution. 10%, Determination of centre of gravity. Gala YBoorern 108. Approsinete evaluation of definite intagel. Rec tence und erepeabi formulae. 108-Tangont formule, ad Ponce Female. 10. Sirpaons fers. 10- valuation of dest ntarae With variable pper limi. 112. Graphical methods. 113. Area dee opp onilacing curves S511, Farther remark on detiniteSntegrale 114, Proiminaryconecpta 18. Darbous’s tooo, 116. Fanetions Invograble In Roman’ sonen 10%-Properdee of intorabe fame: Exerc SERIES, APPLICATIONS 10 APPROXIMATE EVALUATIONS 812 Basie theory of infinite weriee 1. Ininite sre, 38.Daate proportion of ifn srin. 120. Boi with positive terms, Torte for converpenco. 121. Cauchy" and Ualenber’e tate, 128 Cauchy's intra tert for convergence. 123-Alvernating cori. 14, Alwoltely convergent soion 125. Gens. 1513, Taylor's formal and he appletions | 186, Taylor's formals, 12%. Diflrent forme of Taylors form 124. Taylor and Meclarin sven 129. Expansion of 390, xpen- ‘on of rin z aad von x. Ials Newtons binomial expansion. 182, [Bspansion of lg (1-2) 133. Expansion of are tan a. 184, Approx lant forales 135-Sfaxina, minis and pont of inflexion. 138. valuation of indetenninae forms {814 Farther remarks on the theery of eset ABT Properties of absolutely convergent soe. 138, Multiplication of stoclualy convergent sernn 139, Kummer’ tert, 140. Coun {sot 14 Hypargoometrie vrs 4. Double series 148 Saree wth ‘evablo trun, Unfors convergent vere, 144 Viformly conver [pent sequanon of fonction. 1s. Propertin of uniformly convergent Sequencis. 146, Propertioe of uniformly convergent saree 14%. ‘Tots forunlfonn convergence, 148, Power sors. Radius of cone [ration of power wes Exmnoiet on us515, Devivaivee $16. Tay [FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES. iene 15, Basis concept, 152. Paming 0 limit. 153, Pasta deivativor ‘od total efforts f theft order Stele’ theorem. 155. Pasta! devivetiver of higher order, 186, Dilfretile of highor nde, 354, plist fuetion BQ. Baap, 189. Eetence of inp funetons, 160, Curves in apace and sures forme, Maaime snd minima of fanetions of sere vasa 16), Bxtonsion of Tasos formule to functions of soveral iodo pendent variables 162. Neoowary coniions for maxima ond ‘nisin of fanstons 163-Tovestigaion ofthe waxina and minim St fanotion of two indopendent variables. 164, Exarplo. 168. ‘Additional sorts on finding the maxiia nd rina of ane. ‘Gon. 168, grestost ad la value ofa fnetion 1, Contin rine and into. 368 Sepplerentaryeenarks 169. Exanypee. xenonee (COMPLEX NUMBERS. THE FOUNDATIONS OF HIGHER ALGEBRA. INTEGRATION OF VARIOUS FUNCTIONS 27, Compler numbers 110. Compexnusnbors 171. Addition and subtraction of complex nutnors 172. Sfltipintion of complex numbers. 178. Division of complox numbars. 174 Rolsing tow powee 13, Bxstaction of rota 176. Exponential unstions, 17, Trigonomotio and ypebolc| ‘Senctioue. 17s Tho catonary-179-Lopuriteae100Sinorida antl {ion and votordiegrams 351 Example. 182; Carvin Uo complex fora. 162. Hoprovntation of arionie owillsions In sampler evaluation o he weres of 104. Algebraic equations, 185. Factoration of polymcmile 186, afltipe sero, 187 Tees rule 108 ihe commen Fete. 19, Real pyncmiat 298, The svlatonsip batworn tho roots of fn oqustion and is cotilotn 191 Equations of th third degre 198 Tha trigonomnetse fran felon of eis cation 198: The nsthod. of auecomive approximations. 194 Newtons othe 195, The method of simple interpolation {43% Integration of vations famelone ow 196. eduction of rational frtious to part fractions. 197. ntegr tion of retinal fasion, 198 Integration of exprosona containing dear 199. Invogeela of tho type” j Be, amy beh) 4300, Tatograla of to frm {sin e000 2) da, 20) Tnvgras ofthe form oP) eon be + Ole) sn a] avewmns 520 tse oonINTRODUCTION “Tans ie the first volume ofa five-volume course of higher mathemation which as been studied by Soviet mathomaticians, physicste and engineers for forty years. Ia the first two edition (1924, 1927), which ‘were practically identical, this first volume was veritten jointly by J.D, Tamarkin and V. I, Smienov, but on the title page of lator ‘editions, prepared without the late Profesaor Tamarkin’s cognizance ‘snd deviating from the to eaelier editions in many respects, Professor Smimor’s name appears alone, ‘Professor Tamarkin’scareor and his contributions to both Russin ‘and American mathematics are wll known to British end American readers, but the achievements of Professor Smienov are known to Ione restricted circle. Viadimie Tvanoviteh Smirnov, who was bora ‘in 1887, has had a distinguished care in rosoarch and teaching which fite im ideally for the writing ofa comprehensive work of extensive | | proportions. His rorareh has boon mainly in the theory of functions } nd of differential equations but he has made valuable contributions | to applied mathematics and, in particular, to thooretieal seismology ‘and al his work has hoon characterized by a broad scientific outlook ‘and he has done more than any other Soviet mathomatician to main- tin and strengthen the connections between mathematics and physics His pupils, among whom are numbered S. L. Sobolev, N, E. Kochin and 1. A. Lappo-Danilovskil have maintained ths tradition of work: ing n both pure and applied mathematics, tradition which Smimow inherited from his teachor V. A. Steklov. | ‘Professor Smiraov's teaching experionce in the old Institute of ‘Transport, in a technical high school, in the Physies Department of the Mathematics and Physics Faculty of the University of Lanin- grad, and ae Director of the Thooretial Section of the Institute of Seimology, Moscow, lod him to study tho dosign of a special course of higher mathematics for physicists and engineers, a project in the ‘course of which he received the ectnsel of his many physicist friends particularly V. A. Fock end T V, Kravets, The five-volume sot of ‘which the present volume isthe First isthe outeomo of that study. Te Js, of court, designed aa first course for pure mathematicians in thetopics considered e8 well na for studonts and rosearch workers whose suai interest ios in the applications of mathomatics. "The whole work is notable not only forthe wealth ofthe illustrations it draws from physies and technology’ to laminate points in pure mathematics, but also for the clarity of the exposition, Tis has a: ready boon recognized in the Soviet Union by the esteom by which the author's work is held by academic teachers, by the award in 1047 of the State Prize (previously eallod the Stalin Prize) to the author for this work, and it sto be hoped that through Mr. Brown's translation its merité will become just as well known in the English-speaking world, ‘Tho present volume is an introduction to ealelus and to the pri ciples of mathomatical analysis including some introductory materia on functions of several variables as well as on functions of & single variable. As woll as providing the material necassary for the wnder- standing of the methods of mathematical physics it it an excellent intreduction to these subjects for students of pare mathematies. I. N. Sxepox PREFACE TO THE EIGHTH RUSSIAN EDITION ‘Tux present edition differs very considerably from the last. The raterial relating to analytic geometry has boen excluded, and the remaining material has been rearranged as a result. In particular, ‘applications of the differential caloulus to geometry are now to be found collected in §7 (Chapter I). A chapter has been added which ‘was previously the first of Volume II, dealing with complex numbers, the basic properties of integral polynomials, and the systematic integration of functions. Further substantial additions mast be montionod, apart ffom the various minor additions and modifications to the text, In view of the fact that quite aubtlo and dificult problems of higher analysis fare cnevuntered in later volumes, It was thought useful to give the theory of irrational numbers, end its use in proving tests for the ‘existonce of limits and the propertias of continuous fanetions, at the fend of §2 (Chapter I) after tho theory of limits. A rigorous definition fand study of the propertios of tho clementary function is also to be find there. "The proof ofthe existence of impliit function Is included jn Chapter V, dealing with functions of soveral variablos. "The text ie arranged ao thatthe large typ can bo read independently. “The small type sections contain examples, some additional particular problems, ell the theoretieal materlal refereed to abowo, and the final Section of Chapter IV, which deals with theory of « more difficult kind, ‘My sincere thanks are duc to Professor G. M, Fikhtengolte for s number of valuable suggestions regarding the text, which T have incorporated during the final revision of the book. PREFACE TO THE SIXTEENTH RUSSIAN EDITION ‘Tax basie text and plan of the book have remained unchanged in the present edition, though there are a number of alterations due to the requitemente of accuracy ard complotanoss. This refers especially to applications of the differential and integral calculus to geometry V. SuroCHAPTER FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS AND THE THEORY OF LIMITS § 1. Variables Le Magaitude and its measurement, Mathomatial analysis has fundamental importance for exact acionco; unlike the other sciences, tach of which bas an interest only in some Tinted aspect of the ‘world around us mathesoties is concornod with the mest general | propertice inherent in all phonomens that ane open to sckntfi Jnentigation. ‘One of the fundamental conopts i that of magnitude and ito mensuroment. Tis characteristic of « magnitude thet H oan be mews. | Gd,tevitcan be compared in one way or another with wome specific [magnitude of tho sort which is accoptd sth anit of monnwrement ‘Tho proces of eorparson elf pend on the nature of themagnitade in question and is called smearsroment. Measurement results in am | abate member boing obtained, expesing the ratio of the obvrved magnitude to tho magaitwde accepted as the unit of measurement THrery law of nature gives a a corrolation botween magnus, cor mor emutly, between numbers expressing these magnitudes ese prcaly the object of mathematics to study numbers and the {rious corlatons Between tein, indeyendetly of the conrete ature of tho magaitndos and laws which lad us to these numbers fd coelations. "th, avers magnitude ie related by st measurement to am abtract nunber, This number depends essentially, however, on the unit {eeumed for the measurement, oF on the seal. On ineressing this tit, the number teasiting a given magnitude doorese, and con- J eral, the numer increases on decreasing the uni "The chole of sale is governed by the character ofthe magibude concomed and by the circumstances in which the measurements are Cervod out, The eof tho wl ind for measuring one ad the same2 _rovonosat nets sso 28 YauoRY oF MES e magnitude can vary within the wiost poasiblo limits — for instance, {in measuring length in accurute optical studies the accopted unit of length ie an Angstrom (one ten-nillionth of « millimetre, 10-¥m); ‘whereas use ia mado in astronomy of a unit of length ealed a Tight- year, ie. the distance travelled by light in the course of « year (ight ‘travels approximately 300,000 km in one second). 2, Number. The nuiber whichis obtained ag result of measurement nay be intepral (i the unit goes an integral number of times into the magnitude eoncemed), fractional (ifanotber unitexists, which goes an integral numberof times both into the measured magnitude and into the unit previously chosen — oF in short, when the measured magni- ‘tude is commenturable with the unit of measurement) and finally, ‘rational (when no such common measure exist, i. the given magni- ‘ude proves incommeneurable with the unit of measurement). Tes shown in elementary geometry, for instance, that the diagonal cof « square is incommensurshle with ite side, co that, if wo measure the diagonal of « square using the length of side as unit, the number 2 obtained by measurement is irrational. The number = is similarly Srrational, obtained on moasuring the ciroumferencs of a eile, the diameter of which it taken as unit. ‘Reference can usefully bo mado to docimal fractions, in order to imderstand the idea of iational numbers. As js known from arith- metic, every rational number ean be represented in the form of either ‘finite or en infinite decimal fraction, the infinite faction being peri- ‘odie in the latter eate (simple periodic or ccmpound periodic). For Instance, om earrying out division of the mumorstor by the denominator Jn accordance with the rule for division into decimal fructions, we ‘obtain: = O15), 2(0 Conversely, a3 ix known from arithmetic, every periodic decimal fraction exprostes a rational number Tin measuring « magnitude, ineommensurable with the unit taken, ‘we can first reckon how many times a fll unit goes into the measured magnitude, thon how many times « tenth of a tnit goos into tho re- rainderobtained, thenhow many times hundredth of a unit goes into the now remainder and so on. Measurement of a magnitude, incommen- a wont 3 ssurable with the unit, will thus load to the formation of an infinite rnon-periodie decimal fraction. An infinite fraction of this sort corto ponds to every irrational number, and conversely, to every infinite non-periodie decimal fraction there corresponds a certain irrational umber. If only a few of the fist decimal pluocs are retained In this infinite decimal fraction, an approximate value is obtained helow the jerational number mpresented by this fraction. Thus, for example, ‘on extracting the square root in accordance with the wsusl rule to ‘the third decimal place, we obtain Veena. ‘The numbers 1.414 end 1.415 are approximate values of JF with ‘an necumey of ene-thousandth, below and above. Decimal places ean be used for comparing the sizes of irrational ‘numbers with each other, and with rational numbers. Magnitudes of diferent signs, positive and negative, have to be ‘considered in many eases (temperatures above and below 0°, postive andl nogative velocities of daplacement along a line, ad wo on). Such aagaitudes are exprossod by corresponding postive and nogutive numbers. Ifa and b are positive numbers and @ —b, and any posit number, including zoro, is greater than any negative umber. ‘Allrational and rational numbers are arrenged in «certain definite corder, according to thoir magnitudes. All these numbers form the aggregate of real members ‘Wo shall note one circumstance in connection with the repnesen- tation of real numbers by decimal fractions, We can waite an infinite ‘decimal fraction with nino recurring in plaoo of any given finite decimal faction, For example: 3.16 = 3.1500... Tf finite decimal fractions are not ued, an accurate one-to-one correspondence is then obtained between real numbers and infinite decimal factions, i.e. to every real number, except zero, there corespends a definite infinive decimal fection and to every infinite decimal fraction there corresponds & ‘finite roal number: Negative numbers ean bo associated with cor responding infinite decimal fractions with the minus sign in front. "Tho four primary operations ean be caied out im the domain of real numbers, exoept division hy 200. The root of odd degree of any given real number always has one spedfie value. The root of even degree ‘ofa postive number has two value, which differ ony in sign. The rootsocsmmenrerm : + tas no meaningin th domain oven degre of «mega rea abe i 1 ae oh gurus theory of ol mumbors and he pen 8 ‘on them is given later in small type in [40] . a oe epg on mop incall arith elite hen smite wi the nT acto ale of chao by the somes ayo in te ae ere he number ays dented by the sel [a | The swe haves |= aif posi mumbo, [ofS tee begat mumbo. oral seal Be shown thatthe abt alte ofthe wn [+ eo mtb eente aie of the yt [e+ (8 sa a har th eames ote, ee, tha wre have laroi le — 18h on the assumption that Ja | > [| equal Ihe eclute alo ofthe produce of any numberof factor equ so the pdt of tho abuse ales of those ators and the west ne ton neal tothe quotient ofthe awalute values TDumertor and denominator, be. ate jal -elel ana — ig Constants and variables, Tho magnitudes studi in mathomstios asdelded Into to clames:conlants and striate. vb * eitadfecaloda constant won it etain tho same inet even Inveetigation; « magnitde is a variable whe, for rae eguther, enn ane diferent values ima given inet ton tent fom thee definons that the omen of ent aon! ease te lagly tater of convention and depend 0 he Rasa which the given phenomenon is sted, A magn 4 marae 5 that may be considered asa constent under certain conditions ean be- come a variable under different eonditicns, and conversely TFor instance, itis important to know, when measuring the weights ‘of bodies, whethor tho weighing operations are cagrid out st the same point ofthe earth's surface, or at diferent points: if the measurements ‘4 fre made at the same point, the aceoleration die to gravity, on which the weight: depends, will remain constant, and differences in weight between different bodies will depend cmly on their mass. On the | other hand, if the moasuremente are made at diferent points on the warth’s surface, the acceleration due to gravity cannot he looked on ‘4 constant, since the centrifugal fore due to the rotation of the earth must be considered. A a result of this factor, the same Dod will wefgh loss at the equator than at the poles, ean be ob { sorved if « spring-balance is wed, instead ofa lever balance Simularly, the longth of tho rods used in the construction of some technical device ean be looked on as invariable for the purposes of |} Tough calculation, When greater accuracy is needed, so that gard is taken ofthe effect of tomperature on the measurement, the length of ‘rod becomes variable, with the natural result that all caleulations Decome more complex 4. Toterval. The character of the change of a variable can be ex: ‘tremely diverse. A variable can aagume either all possi real vales, without limits (time f, for example, calculated from some definite | initial moment, can assume all possible values, both positive and negative), oF ite values aro limited by cortain inequalities (absolute temperatire 7°, for example, must be greater than —278° C); or finally, a variable can assume only eertain, and not all possible, typos ‘of value (only integral, in the case ofthe population figure fora given |. year or for the number of molecules in a given volume of gas, oF only | commensursble with a given unit and to on, We shall note some of the most common ways in which variables 1 change in thoory end practice If the variable x ean assume every roal value permitted by the condition @ Pointe d and Bare defined on axes X°X and Y'Y; knowing 4 ond 2, {ho ean consiruet the point Mas the intersection of lines parallel to the axes and passing through A and B. To each pair of values y, tere corresponds 0 single flly defined positon of the point M on the plone of the figure “Contra, to each point AE of the plane there corresponds a fully Adefinad pat of sales of = y, corcepanding to the points at whieh tivee through the point Af parallel to the axcs fnteret the axes WX and YY". With the divctions ofthe axes shown in Fig. 8, x is to he reckoned postive or nogative, depending on whether A Tis tothe right or let Bf point 0, similarly, y is postive oF negative, depending on whether B lies shove oF below, point 0. ‘The mapnituden 2,9 defining the position of point AI in the plone, ened defined in tr by point BE, are cated the coordinates of 3. The see °K, YY ave called the enordinate aes, the plane of the figure {athe plane of eooninates XOY., ond the point O is the origin of co- ordinates, "Magnitude x i called the absesaa, and y tke ordinate, ofthe point 3 Wo shall epecify the point 3 by its coordinates by writing: Mx) ‘This method of representation ie called the method of rectangular coordinate 4 napus aux xacaros oY 4 cones w ‘The sign of the coordinates of the point A when situated in difer. ent quadrants of the axes (I-IV) (Fig. 3) oan be shown in a table: | ele \+ It is obvious that the coordinates 2, y of Af are equal to the Aisances of from the coordinate axes, associated with the corre sponding signs. 11, Graphs, The equation of acurve, We turn to x and y, represent. ing the point M. Let 2 and y be eonnceted by «fanetional relationship ‘This means that, on varying = (ory) axbitearily, «corresponding value cof y (or 2) can be found each time. Hvery such pair of values 2 and y corresponds to a definite position of the point AF on the plane XOY’ when the values vary, the point A moves over the plane and thus ‘races outa cetain entve (Fig. 4), which i called a graphical represen ation (or simply a graph ot diagram) Of the functional lationship con- cerned. TT the relationship is given analy T ‘cally as equation nexplielt form + he x y= Sel, “HH beta ‘or in impliet form: Fay) = 0, ve al this he epution of he re, whist the eve the graph of tie emuation. Acaree and its equation ae simply dient expressions of the sams functional atop all pots, the nda of ‘ih ny the ution of ere, lion then and omsray, ihe conden ofall pints Tying onthe care aly a cquation Uceqatin of ctw gn het lane ciated amore oles orurately on abeet of graph per (mone set, any dhsied number of plate tying on the cuive can be constricted) ‘he one pint ate akon, the moe event becomes Ge hee a he curve: Thin method i cled plating cert6 ort RALATHSE AAD ER THEORY OF EDETE a ‘The choice of seule is important in plotting curves. Different sosles ‘can be chown for 2 and The plane is taken as a sheet of papes, Siled inte ajuarca or rectangles, depending on whether the scales of rand y are the sane oF different. Its assumed below thot the seals of 2 and y are the same. ‘The weader is recommended ot this point to plot some curves of iplefmetions, and to vary the scales of = and y. “The concepts introduoed above of the coordinates of point, 3 of the equation ofa enrve and the graph af an equation, establish an atimate connection between algebra and geometry, On the one hand, vrtan represent and study an analytic relationship by a visual, Trometricel method, on the other hand; it beoomes possible to solve ‘Rometrial problems with purely algebraic operations, including Fore the fundamental work of analytic geometry, first undertaken by Desoartes. ‘Te view of its extreme importance, we shall formulate again the ate that fe at the basis of analytic geometry. If we mark out two ‘ordinate axes in a plane, every point of the plane corresponds fo a Spr of real numbers the abscissa and ordinate ofthe point, and comer. Bay, cory pair of mumbers corresponds 1 « definite point ofthe plone, ie fret nvmber being its dlocesa and the send ita ordinate. A curve ton the plane corresponds 10 @ factional relationship beeen = and y. ‘ht in to an equation containing 2 andy which is aatisfod if, amd onl if, wy can be replaced by the coordinates of some point of the cur. Conversely, an equation containing eo warables 2 and y Bas @ corre SJonding uve, made up of the points of the plane whove coordinates, fohen evbslitated for x and y, satisfy the equation. ‘We now tum to the study of the graphs of simple funetions. We ‘again note that if we have a Funetional relationship given by an equa tion in explicit or imple form: y= Sle), oF Fe) =. ‘then the curve in the plane of axce XX, YY corresponding to this ‘uation sealed the graph of he equation the graph ofthe function ‘Tetined by the equation. The absciasae and ordinates of points of this fourve give mutvally corresponding values of the variables 2 andy toonnected by the fimetional relationship. eco ue for seample, barometsic pear hus re drown automaticaly in recoding doviees the vectble # “SE eho mmgnltd, the variation of which with te i arograph) o> emperat® » rossan reser n (Gnemagenph). The Indlator which records the solatonship Between the lume and prooure of the gar enclosed in @ ater or uw engine le worth 12, Linear fonctions, The simplest funtion, which t the same tne thus extremely important applications, is the polyoma ofthe fiat degre: yards, e where aand Bar given constant numbers, We shall ae thatthe graph DF this fnetion ik staight line. Ie ix called © linear faction. Weshalfis consider the ca of bea tovero.The function thems the form: yeas ° ‘This expromes the fact that the vatiable y is diretly proportional to the variable the constant cociient a being called the ooeficen of peo- portional. "Turning tothe gure (Fig. 8), we see that equation (3) expreser the following geometsi property of the mph in question: whatever point A we tale omit, the rato ofthe ondinate y= Nat ofthis point to ite absclte « = ON ia equal tothe ‘constant. Sino, onthe other hand, thin rato is equa to the tangent ofthe angle a"betwocn the segment Oi and the axie OX, it i evident thatthe geometrical locus of A is @ straight line, posing through the origin of coordinates O at an angle a (oF = +) to the axia OR. “Angle ae reekoned counter-clocoive from the dieston OX ‘The geometrical importance of the ccfTicent «in equation (8) is | slultanconny rewealed:« is the tangent of the angle a between the fxis OX and the straight line corresponding to this equation, being ‘herfore called the slope ofthe stright line. It may be noted that f-a is a negative. amber, the angle a is obtuse, and the cor ‘esponting ine is at shown in Fig, 6 Tt ws now retum to the general ease of linear funetion, ve, to feqation (2) "The ordinate y ofthe graph of thin equation dif from corresponding ordinate of the graph of equation (3) by the constant fount b. Thus, we numeditaly obtein the graph of equation 2 ‘the graph of equation (3) shown in Fig 5 (for a> 0) i displaced Pro 66 esr MLAS A HR THEORY OF TE oo perallel to the axia OF through a distance b; upwards for postive, downwards for & negative. We obtain a straight line, parallel to the Initial ine, and cutting offa segment OAL, = b on the axis OY (Fig. 7). "Thus, the graph of function (2) is a straight line, the cofficient @ ‘being equal tothe tangent of the angle that the Kine make with the ais (OX, andthe constant term equal tthe acgment cutoff bythe line on the ‘axis OY, mensural from the origin 0. Conversely, given any straight line Z, not parallel to the axis OY, its equation can easly be written in the form (2). In accordance ‘vith the above, i is sufficient to take the coefficient @ equal to the tangent of the angle of inclination of this line to the axis OX, and 5 ‘equal to the segment that it eu off on the axis OY. ‘We shall note a particular ease, which prevents a well-known pect liasity. Let a = 0. Equation (2) gives for all =: yah, @ i.e. a “function” of x ie obtained, auch that ita valve b remains the ame forall value of = It is obvious that the graph of equation (2) i a straight line, parallel to the axis OX and displaced ftom it by a distance 2 | (upwards for } > 0, and downwards for b < 0)-To avoid special reservations, we shall sometimes aay ehat equation (2) also defines function of = 13. Increment, The atic property of a Unear fanetion. We shall cstablish one important new coneept, with which we shall often beeon- ‘omed in the study of fanetional relationships The difference betwen the final and intial value ofthe independent seariable on transition from the initial value 2, 10 the final ealue 2, 13 sour rt scale th increment of 2 equal to x, —2y The difference beeen the inal and initial val uen of he func i) ie called the corresponding 4 inerement of the function ‘ wea = flay fla). @) ‘These inoremente are often denoted by: drow a= ay dy ae It may be noted here thet the inerement can be either po fo negative, and that the magnitude reeciving the “inerement” not necessarily inerese, ‘It must be pointed out that the aymbol dr has to be regarded as J a single entity in denoting the increment of x ‘We shall consider the ease of a linear function, when ‘docs il $e en bond yma +b 4] Subrsting term by term, we have i Y= ak =) o a dyad, ‘This equality shows that the linear function y= az - 5 has the property that the inerement of the fanetion (yz — y) is proportional tothe inewement of the indepe dent variable (2; ~ 2), the coef: ficient of proportionality being equal to @, he. to the slope of the graph ofthe function ‘Turing to the graph itself (ig. 8, corresponding to the ine fremont of the independent va sable webave the segment A z= 2; —%, and correspond- Ing to the Increment of the fune- tion, PA, — dy = yy — ysi and formula (4) follows at once from considering the triangle MPM, ‘We shall now assume that a certain fanotion has the shove property of proportionality of the inerements of the independent variable and» resenoyst: RELATOR AND THE HORE OF TE as of the function, expressed by (4). TE fllows from this formula that: wees — a) tm 4 = am + (ay — 02) ‘We shal take the initial values of the vaviables 2, and yj a com- pletely defined, and denote the difference (y, — ax) by the single letter moan $b. Since we can take any final values ofthe variables znd y, we can simply write in place of the letters, and y, the letlers and y, and rewrite the sbove equality in the form: yoarth, ice exery function having the above property of proportionality of the increments is a Hnear function y ~ ax 4b, where a i the coefficient of proportionality. Atinear fiction and its graph, a straight ine, an thus serve to represent any natural law in which the increments of the magnitudes caneered are proportional, as is very often the cae. aie "This a one ofthe most important appli tions, which gista a mechanical interpevation of the equation of « sight line and it ecient. Uf the polnt P mover alg a certain path iajec= tory) ite postin in flly din Wy the distance, measured from athe side ‘ong the tojestory from ayiven point oP to th point P. This distance, Tethe AP, ip eallad the path trverod, and ia donot by the Inte ‘tn be both postive and aapaive, lex Yates on one ade of the inital pont being reckoned pov, anda tho eter ale, negative, 6) ono: rosa a ‘The path #travreed io ceiain function of time taking tie as the indepenint variable. we can dros « graph of the maton, La. graph of the fonetonal relation (Pi. f05 ‘hin is not tobe conned with the trajectory ial. "Tha chotion i elled unjorm Mf the path trovered by point in any {interval of tine in propertonal to thi interval, in ote wor, i te rao poss 9 y 2 ofthe path taverma in the Imterval fom, to 40 the thon of thin interval fe conn In dante by Itielearffom tho shove ‘hat th epation ofthe graph cof unifomcotion athe nites he graph dtl io @ atraight line he slope of "which in qua foe saucy eit the Sal write nthe init fn of the poh» traere, Sethe var of #0 ‘gute IO shows the graph of tho moton of « pint P, moving with com stant volo, in 2 postive dvction fom the iatant tothe instant fF tecutoangle with asx off), then sith higher onstamt voll Inthe ume etion (largcr cit ngle) 40 the inetant ty en with nogetive ‘constant valacity ey tin the opponte divecton, obaan angle) bac to ite Initial pontion. In ihe case of never pint, ail moving in the samme tee Joctery’ (for instance, when making up schedule of the movernont of tine ‘oe trams) the graphic method ix parila ella ae» Practiced means ‘of dterining the encounters Of the, moving point, and tn general fr reviewing tha, movements ona whale (Fg. 1). 15, Empisial formulae. Tho simplaty of constructing « stmizht tne and of thu exprening ¢ law of proportionality bebwoen the inrement of 1 function and that cf tho indepen variable takes sesh ine aah fo xirmaly convenient none of aciving at en empiial lw, a 006 following dintly fromm the experimental date, witbout Apcialtheoreticl‘We erent graphically on het of iinet paper the tbl of oxen cv ee hms w sr of nt we wiht Sa “aint sido str tonya anton elatinhip in {Erma nati, tn a9 iwi do 25, Im hou alte pln ven (ooh of eure fe amet wes Ti Rfoattg io made See ft to pe inten Ce pita in sath {URPSfr ar nary he tan heer of points te pote appear On one SIDERUO Ton the otter athe psn tringYomonsbt slows to or tteory, and einervation tet, soy mare acarate way of devine {heise enlonds a se for jogs the dopo err aring wth ech os aa sn approximation In Its accurate investigations, however, sch a in tet log, the dwwing ofthe amp line ene simply eartod oxt bythe nut string” mtd, he nature of the method belng evident from the tte. Hoving obtained the lin, we uso dzet meararement to dstereine preety which gives the rogue empiial formula, When obtaining thin formula TNe must not loo wight of the fact at diferent acl aro very often in se Tor the mngituden = andy, fina with the ame slope on the ee OX OY, may ripreent diferent muabere. In thin ase, the saps @ wil ot be cual te the tangent of the angle batwean the ine and the axis OX, but SH air ftom tie by # fator numerially equal to the ratio ofthe units Urlength we in rpreonting magnitudes = and Ye Bzomple (ig sm) me aso] aio «olson aso] cant) ee] eae 6) esas ov 2m eto omnes 3 0858 + 865 (Fer, and stonquenty, the sign ~ denotes approximately equa ta.) 16, Parabola of the second degree. The linear function yor tb fsa particular ease of an integral function of the n-th degree or & poly nomial of the n-th degree: YR GPE bop et dy ‘the simplest caee of which, after the liner function, of the second degree (x the polynomial ya bebe ‘the graph of this function is called parabola of the send degre oF simply a parabola For the present, we shall consider omly the simplest case of pera ym ast o "This carve can cay be plotted. Figure 13 shows the curves y (a= 1) and y = —s* (@ = —1). The eurve corresponding to equation (6) is situated whelly above the axis OX for a > 0, and wholly below the axis OX for a < 0. The ordinate ofthis curve increases in abwolute value when x inereass in absolute value the inerease being the faster, the greater the absolute value ofa. Figure 1d shows a series of graphs of the fonction (6) for diferent values ofa, thege values being marked In the figure against the corresponding parabolas. “Equation (5) contains only 2, and hence docs not vary on changing to ~a; ic if» given point (z, » les on the parabola (9) the point (2, y) also les on it.The two points (2, y) and (—2, 9) are evidently symmetrical relative to the axis OY, ic. one of them isthe mirror image of the other relative to this axis. Thus, if the right-hand ‘partion of the plane is turned through 180° about the axis OY and combined with the left-hand portion, the part of the parabola. lying to the right of the axia OY wil colneide with the part ofthe parabola lying to the left of this axis, In other words, axis OY is on exie of aymsnatry of the parabola (5). ‘The origin of coordinates is the lowest point of the curve for a > 0, ‘and the highest point for @ < 0, and ie ealled the eertez ofthe parabola,4 rosonosiynazanaanto 1x0 SUR THBOSY OF LES us f AMA? ‘The eaffisant ie Gly dati Cone point My, of the parabola ln given, not st thn verte, wines ws ave then: o> that the equation ofthe parabola (6) now has the orn vew[ZT. ‘oof contracting any dized mae ‘own of pointe the parabola, geen ‘the were the ais of meet and fay pine fy of, not at the vere, ‘iv the baci ad ord rate of th given point fy into gual parte ig I6)and dew = pon ‘Slot nes fro. the orgin tothe points of lvinon of the ordinate "The ponte of intersection of those in Dunant oF a at ous » | nih i hgh he pn io teh aia OF wre pi of tha pel Tefc ve hovebycomraton ed se. from (6), the point Bf, (2,9) slo Hse on the parabola, The proof ix titaar for the. temaining pointe I've have two functions yom Lila) and y ~ fi) and their corresponding graphs, the coordinates of the pointe of {J intersetion ofthe geapis satisfy Both the equations, ie. the abucistac of the points of inter: section are solutions af the eqn tion Lie) = He) "This fact ean readily be wed solvea qudaraticequation approx imately. Having constructed as accurately as possible the graph of the parabols ca 6) ‘on a piceo of millimetre graph paper we ean now Find the Foot ofthe quadratic equation Bapeeg 0 as the abscisiae of the points of intertection of the parabola (6,) and | the straight line y = px +. Three eases are shown in Fig. 16, of ‘ovo points of intersection, af one point (tangent to the parabola), and of no point of intersection. | 17, Parabola of the third degree. The third degree polynomial yore Lhe ber td,™ hs a graph in the Form of curve called a parabola of he third degree ‘We aball consider the simplest case of this curv: yaa, or a positive, the signs of x and y are the they are diffrent. In the Text case, the curve lies in the frst and hind quadrants of the coordinate axes, and in the seoond ease, it ies 6 sane; for a negative, 2184 Miho M4 erunones os EE pe t Fi E : i. oy A | “| hy | Hl wy = ry 10.17 P10. 18 fn the socond and fourth quodrante, Figure 17 ilustrates the form of the curve for various values of a ‘irr and y change simultanconsdy to (—2) and (—y), both sides ‘of equation (8) change sign, and the equation is not esentially altered Jes it the point (2 y) lies on the curve (8), the point (—x, —) also Tics on this curve, The points (2, y) and (—2, —y) aze evidently eym- inetrical relative to the origin O, ic. the lin joining them is bisected CO. Tt follow from this that every chord of the curve (8) that pastes ‘hrouzh the origin of coordinates 0 ia bisected there. In other words: the origin of coordinates 0 is the centre of the cures (8). “s Farther particular case of a thind degree parabola will be met tioned “ yoarper 1 ‘4 Eaw oF svBuenFscroSTDSuEITY ” ‘The right-hand sie of this equation is the #um of two terms, and ‘consequently, to construct the curve, itis sufficient to draw the straight ine yoo (0) and take the suns of corresponding ordinates of grap (8) and (10) ‘irectly from the figure, Figure 18ilhateates the various forms that the ceurve (9) sseuimee (with a= 1, and variott¢) 4 the curve Sot concmrata mel Joan gr eally an equation of the third degrees mm ' Parte, of the curve jee eee FF As can 19), there may ‘bo one, two, oF Uhrae points of intersation, but thore rust be at laut one is. om epation of Be id de a hae tet on rl ogo et 1B. The law of inverse proportionality. The functional relationship: ay expresses the law of inverse proportionality between variables and y- 4 Variable y deereases by as many times as x increases. For m> 0, fzand y have the same eign, the graph i located inthe fits and {third quadrants ofthe coordinate axes; sist, the graph isin the second and fourth quadrants, for m <0. As x approaches zero, the ‘absolute value of the fraction mfr becomes very large. Conversely, Hor large absolute valves of x, the ratio m/z becomes small in bee val2 rongrona: maton aX Tl ORY OF Ms us Plotting this curve directly gives us Fig, 20, which shows curves (11) for various m, tho full-line curvos corresponding to m > 0, and the broken curves tom <0, the comesponding value of m being noted aguinst each curve, We see that each of the curves drawn, ealled retangular hyperbolas, has infiite branches, the points on a given branch approaching the coordinate axis OX or OY with indefinite increase of the abscsse + or the ordinate, respectively. ‘Thee lines sare ealled axymplotes to the hyperbols. be 99 ‘The oneftclnt m in equation (11) 1 completely defined If eey point tan 90 othe earv in qeston a given, gen no uation (11) can now be wrttn: wy a3) Hono follows a graphical method for obtaining any equized numberof points 6's sctangulat hyperbole, given ite asymptote end any tne point of }) Taking the seynptete an soordina exer we dew ah artery lines OF OP = foun th origin, ad sar off the point of inter ‘Wo draw new lines perliel 4o the axes throuzh each alt of points ‘of ntercetion Tying on a given line of the pon} the pointe of Sater: ») roren veers » section of those now lin are then pints of tha soctangalae hypebola (Fi Sn) Thin Gallows ftom the siallarty of teangl ORG, and OSPy a Fe, 4. the point (23) les on the curve (12) 19, Power functions, ‘The functions y = ax, y = azt, y 1 mife which we have studied above, are particular eases of a fune- on of the form: ” (3) where a and n ato any given oonstants, Funetion (13) is called in general « power function. We shall confine ourselves to drawing tho curves for positive aud a — 1, Figures 22 and 28 show tho graphs corresponding to various values of z gut Pie. 2 ‘The equation y = 2? gives y = 1 at 2 = 1 forall valos of m, i all ‘the eurves pass through the point (1,1). The curves rise form postive fand # > 1, the rate of vise inerasing with the size of m (Fig. 2 ‘The function y —~ 2" is equivalent toa fnetion for nogativo n (Fie, 23) Instead of y —a°* for instance, we ean write y = Ij. In these casos, the ondinate y diminishes with increase of "The curves coresponding to equation (18) arv sometimes refered to as polyropic. They are often encountered in thermodynamies* rooms MLATBseuus xD Tun THRORT OF TE 19) ‘Temay be noted here, that we take the value of the radical as posi= ‘ve, for fractional n; for example, we take as postive xt m V/. ‘The two contante and neppeating in oqution (13) at dined, provid teva points of tho eure yy fy) and Mey, 9) 10 en Im wh came on i ft gaiconny essen ft LS estas ‘Taking logarithms, we obtain w at logy, = oss , aes ‘ ‘having found n, 0 obtain fom either of equations (2). Figure at tiutateseyroplical method of Obtaining any requied number of points ofthe curve (13), given two of ia pointe (9) 84 BEY) ‘We draw two arbitrary lites through the polat 0 ot angles and 9 to nate OX and OY tespoctvely; wo thon take perpendiculars tothe ae from the fivon pointe Aff intrscting the arbitvary nee in points 88x) TT ‘nnd internting tho axa in points Q, Qu By, Ry, We ow dr FT through 4, parle to Ty, end 8, Q, Uh 8, parallel to 3, Q, Having finally “raw lines paral to th eorreponding axes thzoagh T anil Qy, th Inter “tion of thao gives ue the point fey gp) f the cure, Taking sins ‘tangles, we have: OR, _ OB, TB Ty, 09, 08, * “05, ~ 00, 2G, _ 08, e. 09, 20) emer roses a hone o 1 can be shown inexaetly the same way that (y's as the point (2,45) Hes on the curve (12), as wae segue to shown. Using (14), we fn 20, Inverse functions, We shall introduee a new concept, that of inverse function, in order to study further clementary functions ‘As was mentioned in [6], we are free to choote either x ory as inde ‘pendont variable in a fanetional relationship between them, the actual Aecision being made purely ax a matter of convenience. Let us take ‘certain function y = fle), with + aa independent variable ‘The function defined by the same functional relationship y ~ f(]- Dut having y as independent variable and = a8 the function et, ie called the inverse of the given funtion fe), thie later being often called the direct function ‘The notation for the variables isnot important in itself, so that, denoting the independent variable tn both eases by the letter 2, we ‘ean say that g(x) lt the inverse of fl). For example, if the dirvot functions are yaar thyat, ‘the inverae funetions are yale Finding the inverte function from the equation of the drvet function is called ersion. Let us take the graph of the direct fumetion y — fe). Tb can easily bbe seon that the samme graph can serve a « graph of the inverse fune- tion 2 = gt). Tn faet, both the equations y = f(2) and x= gly) give the sume ‘funetional relationship betweon xand y Suppose an arbitrary xis given jn the direct fonction. If we mark off an interval from the origin 0B POMOHONAE, REEAMONGHCES AND THE THROIY OF UES (= teeter tastaryate ects amar teak kate oe ered ace kons et epee eer hs, i pnt ha nm ai, Fiemechains tiny gommceneen Ce as el ok fie aay si tented moral ee ie Senne ay exe ratne roscrion 8 21, Many-valued functions, It is charactarstc ofall the graphs of clementary fimetions considered above, that porpendiculars to tho faxis OX cut the graph in not more than one, and for the most part none, point. This means that, given + in the function defined by the ‘graph, one comesponding value of y i defined. ‘function of this fortis sid to be single-valucd Tf perpendieulare to OX eut the graph in more than one point this means that, given 2, there are several corresponding ordinates of the graph, Le. several values of 4. Such fanetions are called many- valued; thoy have already been mentioned in (5) ‘Although thedirct function y=fla) I sngle-valued, ita inverse y= gt2) ean be many-valued. This is 6 ent, for instance, from Fig. 2 ‘We shall consider in detail one elementary case, The continuous courve of Fig. 13 4 the graph of the finetion y= 32. If the figure {i tumed throngh 180° about the bisector ofthe first quedrant of the farce the graph of the inverse function y = J is obtained (Pig. 20) Let us conser it in detail. For negative a (tothe left of axis OY), perpeniliculars to OX do aot intersect the graph, ie. the function | is not defined for x < 0. This coresponds to tho fact that ‘the square root of negative number haa no cal value. For postive , however, perpendicular to OX cut the graph in two points, Le. for a given poaitive = we have two ordinates of the graph: ALN and MAN, The First ordinate gives a certain postive y, the second a ‘negative value of the same absohute magnitude. This corresponds to the fact that the square root of » positive mumabor has two valu ‘equal in absolute magnitude nd opposite in sign. Tt is also evident from the figure that we have only ane value y = 0 for z= 0. Thus, the function y= YF, defined for 2 > 0, has two values for x > 0, and one valve for 2 = 0. ‘Te may be noted that our fenetion y= J% can be made single valued by taking only part of the graph of Vig. 20. Yor instance, Tet us teke only the putt in the fit quadrant of the axes (Fig. 2%) ‘This corresponds to taking only positive values of the square root Re. 2