BJTs, as the turn-on and turn-off times of IGBTs are lower than those of power transistors (BJT),

thus the frequency can be increased in the converters using them. So, mostly self-commutated
devices of transistor family as described are being increasingly used in dc-dc converters.
Buck Converters (dc-dc)
A buck converter (dc-dc) is shown in Fig. 17.1a. Only a switch is shown, for which a device
as described earlier belonging to transistor family is used. Also a diode (termed as free wheeling)
is used to allow the load current to flow through it, when the switch (i.e., a device) is turned off.
The load is inductive (R-L) one. In some cases, a battery (or back emf) is connected in series
with the load (inductive). Due to the load inductance, the load current must be allowed a path,
which is provided by the diode; otherwise, i.e., in the absence of the above diode, the high
induced emf of the inductance, as the load current tends to decrease, may cause damage to the
switching device. If the switching device used is a thyristor, this circuit is called as a step-down
chopper, as the output voltage is normally lower than the input voltage. Similarly, this dc-dc
converter is termed as buck one, due to reason given later.

S Switch L
+
+ I0

L
Vs V0 O
DF A
D
-
-
Fig. 17.1(a): Buck converter (dc-dc)
v0 Vs
V0

TON

t
T TOFF

i0

t
Fig. 17.1(b): Output voltage and current waveforms

The output voltage and current waveforms of the circuit (Fig. 17.1a) are shown in Fig. 17.1b.
The output voltage is same as the input voltage, i.e., v0 = Vs , when the switch is ON, during the
period, TON ≥ t ≥ 0 . The switch is turned on at t = 0 , and then turned off at t = TON . This is
called ON period. During the next time interval, T ≥ t ≥ TON , the output voltage is zero, i.e.,
v0 = 0 , as the diode, D F now conducts. The OFF period is TOFF = T − TON , with the time period
being T = TON + TOFF . The frequency is f = 1 / T . With T kept as constant, the average value of
the output voltage is,
TON
⎛T ⎞
T
1 1
V0 = ∫
T 0
v0 dt =
T ∫V 0
s dt = Vs ⎜ ON ⎟ = k Vs
⎝ T ⎠
The duty ratio is k = (TON / T ) = [TON / (TON + TOFF )] , its range being 1.0 ≥ k ≥ 0.0 . Normally, due
to turn-on delay of the device used, the duty ratio (k) is not zero, but has some positive value.
Similarly, due to requirement of turn-off time of the device, the duty ratio (k) is less than 1.0. So,
the range of duty ratio is reduced. It may be noted that the output voltage is lower than the input
voltage. Also, the average output voltage increases, as the duty ratio is increased. So, a variable
dc output voltage is obtained from a constant dc input voltage. The load current is assumed to be
continuous as shown in Fig. 17.1b. The load current increases in the ON period, as the input
voltage appears across the load, and it (load current) decreases in the OFF period, as it flows in
the diode, but is positive at the end of the time period, T.
Boost Converters (dc-dc)
A boost converter (dc-dc) is shown in Fig. 17.2a. Only a switch is shown, for which a device
belonging to transistor family is generally used. Also, a diode is used in series with the load. The
load is of the same type as given earlier. The inductance of the load is small. An inductance, L is
assumed in series with the input supply. The position of the switch and diode in this circuit may
be noted, as compared to their position in the buck converter (Fig. 17.1a).

Is L D I0
+ +

L
S
Vs V0 O
A
D
Switch
- -
Fig. 17.2(a): Boost converter (dc-dc)

I2
I1

0 TON T 2T
TOFF

Fig. 17.2(b): Waveforms of source current (iS)

 The operation of the circuit is explained. Firstly, the switch, S (i.e., the device) is put ON
(or turned ON) during the period, TON ≥ t ≥ 0 , the ON period being TON . The output voltage is
zero ( v0 = 0 ), if no battery (back emf) is connected in series with the load, and also as stated
earlier, the load inductance is small. The current from the source ( i s ) flows in the inductance L.
The value of current increases linearly with time in this interval, with ( d i d t ) being positive. As
the current through L increases, the polarity of the induced emf is taken as say, positive, the left
hand side of L being +ve. The equation for the circuit is,
di d i s Vs
Vs = L s or, =
dt dt L
The switch, S is put OFF during the period, T ≥ t ≥ TON , the OFF period being
TOFF = T − TON . ( T = TON + TOFF ) is the time period. As the current through L decreases, with its
direction being in the same direction as shown (same as in the earlier case), the induced emf
reverses, the left hand side of L being -ve. So, the induced emf (taken as –ve in the equation
given later) is added with the supply voltage, being of the same polarity, thus, keeping the
current ( is = i0 ) in the same direction. The current ( is = i0 ) decreases linearly in the time interval,
TOFF , as the output voltage is assumed to be nearly constant at v0 ≈ V0 , with ( d i s d t ) being
negative, as Vs < V0 , which is derived later.
The equation for the circuit is,
di d i s (Vs − V0 )
Vs = V0 + L s or, =
dt dt L
The source current waveform is shown in Fig. 17.2b. As stated earlier, the current varies
linearly from I 1 ( I min ) to I 2 ( I max ) during the time interval, TON .
So, using the expression for d i s d t during this time interval,
I 2 − I 1 = I max − I min = (Vs / L ) TON .
Similarly, the current varies linearly from I 2 ( I max ) to I 1 ( I min ) during the time interval, TOFF .
So, using the expression for d i s d t during this time interval,
I 2 − I1 = I max − I min = [(V0 − Vs ) / L] TOFF .
Equating the two equations, (V s / L ) T ON = [(V 0 − V s ) / L ] T OFF , from which the average
value of the output voltage is,
⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎟⎟ = Vs ⎛⎜
1 1 ⎞
V0 = Vs ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = Vs ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = Vs ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ TOFF ⎠ ⎝ T − TON ⎠ ⎝ 1 − (TON / T ) ⎠ ⎝1− k ⎠
The time period is T = TON + TOFF , and the duty ratio is,
k = (TON / T ) = [TON / (TON + TOFF )] , with its range as 1.0 ≥ k ≥ 0.0 . The ON time interval is
TON = k T . As stated in the previous case, the range of k is reduced. This is, because the
minimum value is higher than the minimum (0.0), and the maximum value is lower than the
maximum (1.0), for reasons given there, which are also valid here. As shown, the source current
is assumed to be continuous. The expression for the output voltage can be obtained by using
other procedures.
In this case, the output voltage is higher than the input voltage, as contrasted with the
previous case of buck converter (dc-dc). So, this is called boost converter (dc-dc), when a self-
commutated device is used as a switch. Instead, if thyristor is used in its place, this is termed as
step-up chopper. The variation (range) of the output voltage can be easily computed.
Buck-Boost Converters (dc-dc)
A buck-boost converter (dc-dc) is shown in Fig. 17.3. Only a switch is shown, for which a
device belonging to transistor family is generally used. Also, a diode is used in series with the
load. The connection of the diode may be noted, as compared with its connection in a boost
converter (Fig. 17.2a). The inductor, L is connected in parallel after the switch and before the
diode. The load is of the same type as given earlier. A capacitor, C is connected in parallel with
the load. The polarity of the output voltage is opposite to that of input voltage here.
When the switch, S is put ON, the supply current ( is ) flows through the path, Vs , S and L,
during the time interval, TON . The currents through both source and inductor ( i L ) increase and
are same, with ( d i L d t ) being positive. The polarity of the induced voltage is same as that of
the input voltage. The equation for the circuit is,
di d i L Vs
Vs = L L or, =
dt dt L

Is Switch I0
+ S -

L
Vs L O V0
IL A C
D

- +
Fig. 17.3(a): Buck-boost converter (dc-dc)

IL2
IL1

TON T 2T
TOFF
Fig. 17.3(b): Inductor current (iL) waveform
Then, the switch, S is put OFF. The inductor current tends to decrease, with the polarity of
the induced emf reversing. ( d i L d t ) is negative now, the polarity of the output voltage, V0
being opposite to that of the input voltage, Vs . The path of the current is through L, parallel
combination of load & C, and diode D, during the time interval, TOFF . The output voltage
remains nearly constant, as the capacitor is connected across the load.
The equation for the circuit is,
di d i L V0
L L = V0 or, =
dt dt L
The inductor current waveform is shown in Fig. 17.3b. As stated earlier, the current varies
linearly from I L1 to I L 2 during the time interval, TON . Note that I L1 and I L 2 are the minimum
and maximum values of the inductor current respectively. So, using the expression for d i L d t
during this time interval, I L 2 − I L1 = (Vs / L ) TON .
Similarly, the current varies linearly from I L 2 to I L1 during the time interval, TOFF . So, using
the expression for d i L d t during this time interval, I L 2 − I L1 = (V0 / L ) TOFF .
Equating the two equations, (V s / L ) T ON = (V 0 / L ) T OFF , from which the average value of
the output voltage is,
⎛T ⎞ ⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ (TON / T ) ⎞
⎟⎟ = Vs ⎛⎜
k ⎞
V0 = Vs ⎜⎜ ON ⎟⎟ = Vs ⎜⎜ ON ⎟⎟ = Vs ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ TOFF ⎠ ⎝ T − TON ⎠ ⎝ 1 − (TON / T ) ⎠ ⎝1− k ⎠
The time period is T = TON + TOFF , and the duty ratio is,
k = (TON / T ) = [TON / (TON + TOFF )] . The ON time interval is TON = k T . It may be observed that,
for the range 0 ≥ k > 0.5 , the output voltage is lower than the input voltage, thus, making it a
buck converter (dc-dc). For the range 0.5 > k ≥ 1.0 , the output voltage is higher than the input
voltage, thus, making it a boost converter (dc-dc). For k = 0.5 , the output voltage is equal to the
input voltage. So, this circuit can be termed as a buck-boost converter. Also it may be called as
step-up/down chopper. It may be noted that the inductor current is assumed to be continuous.
The range of k is somewhat reduced due to the reasons given earlier. The expression for the
output voltage can be obtained by using other procedures.

Control Strategies
In all cases, it is shown that the average value of the output voltage can be varied. The two
types of control strategies (schemes) are employed in all cases. These are:
(a) Time-ratio control, and (b) Current limit control.
Time-ratio Control
In the time ratio control the value of the duty ratio, k = TON / T is varied. There are two ways,
which are constant frequency operation, and variable frequency operation.
Constant Frequency Operation
In this control strategy, the ON time, TON is varied, keeping the frequency ( f = 1 / T ), or
time period T constant. This is also called as pulse width modulation control (PWM). Two cases
with duty ratios, k as (a) 0.25 (25%), and (b) 0.75 (75%) are shown in Fig. 17.4. Hence, the
output voltage can be varied by varying ON time, TON .