UNIT I: UNDERSTANDING K TO 12 LANGUAGE CURRICULUM

Language- more than communication; it's the living tapestry of human expression, a dynamic system weaving together
culture, cognition, and connection.
"Nature of Language"- refers to the inherent qualities and fundamental features that define language as a sophisticated
communication system.
- involves examining the essential characteristics, functions, and structures that render language a
unique and crucial aspect of human cognition and social engagement
- a multifaceted, dynamic system intertwining culture, cognition, and connection..
Nature of dialect- entails a thorough examination of the fundamental properties that form.
- complex and multifaceted, enveloping different viewpoints that contribute to its work in
communication.
Key aspects of the Nature of Language:
1. Communication- language may be a tool for communication.
- empowers people to communicate considerations, thoughts, sentiments, and data to others.
- this communicative work is principal to the nature of dialect.
2. Discretion- relationship between phonetic signs (words) and their implications is for the most part subjective.
- there's no characteristic association between the sound of a word and its meaning, and distinctive dialects may
utilize completely diverse sounds to represent the same concept.
3. Efficiency- Language is highly productive, permitting speakers to form and get it and boundless number of modern
expressions.
-Typically accomplished through the combination of a limited set of components (sounds, words, and linguistic
rules) in novel ways.
4. Cultural Transmission- Language is passed down through eras inside a community or culture.
-It is learned and procured by people as they associated with others, and it advances over time.
5. Structured and Rule-Governed- Language has a structure and administered by rules.
- Linguistic use, sentence structure, and semantics give a system for organizing and
understanding dialect.
-These rules are regularly intuitive for local speakers.
6. Multifunctionality- Language serves different capacities, counting communicating contemplations and emotions,
giving and looking for d making demands, and maintaining social connections.
- could be a flexible instrument that adjusts to distinctive communicative needs.
7. Evolving and Advancing- Languages are energetic and subject to alter over time.
- They advance through social, and chronicled impacts.
- Modern words are coined, implications move, and dialects adjust to the changing needs of
their speakers.
8. Universality and Diversity- there are all inclusive angles to language, such as the nearness of things and verbs, there's
moreover critical differing qualities among dialects.
- Diverse dialects have particular sounds, structures, and vocabularies.

Phonetics- the logical think about of dialect, dives into these perspectives to pick up more profound experiences into the
nature and work of dialect.
Language acquisition- is a substantial acquisition of a particular language system through educational experiences and
personal interactions
Mother tongue or first language- initial language learned
Second Languages- additional languages
- essential for effective communication within specific speech communities
Mastery of a language- crucial to avoid confusion, as improper utilization may hinder effective communication.
●Individuals embark on the process of learning these languages, either formally through educational institutions or
informally through self-study.
Language contact- For example, when engaging in conversations with friends of different nationalities, especially those
who speak French, one might experience confusion, shyness, or difficulty due to the unfamiliarity of the language.
However, having a friend who understands French can alleviate these challenges by providing assistance in bridging the
communication gap.
Resultant adaptation or change in language- is a natural response to the repeated exposure and learning that occurs
through language contact.
Language is recognized as the principal mode of communication, and the communication process involves a complex
series of interconnected steps that facilitate the exchange of information.
●This intricate process encompasses encoding thoughts into linguistic expressions, transmitting these expressions
through speech or writing, receiving the communicated message, and decoding it to extract meaning.
Communication process- incorporates feedback, allowing participants to gauge communication effectiveness.
 extends beyond verbal exchanges, including nonverbal cues, gestures, and contextual factors that
contribute to a holistic understanding of conveyed information.
Context – influences the interpretation of message.
language - plays a pivotal role in this multifaceted process
-dynamic tool for the intricate exchange of ideas, emotions, and information among individuals.
Subsequent acquisition of additional languages (formally or informally) to enable effective communication
within diverse speech communities.

Structure of a Language Curriculum- opens avenues for a holistic understanding, empowering you to contribute
meaningfully to the dynamic field of language education
GUIDE TO CURRICULUM PROCESS-serves as a vital tool for planning and implementing a high-quality instructional
program.
Key features of such a guide include:
1. Clear Philosophy and Overarching Goals: Establishing a philosophy guiding the entire program, providing a
foundation for decision-making.
2. Sequences and Progression: Defining sequences within and between levels for a coherent and articulated
progression.
3. Framework for Achievement: Outlining a basic framework for what, how, and when goals are to be achieved.
4. Flexibility and Innovation: Allowing flexibility for experimentation and innovation within a structured framework.
5. Interdisciplinary Approaches: Promoting interdisciplinary approaches and integration when appropriate.
6. Assessment Methods: Suggesting methods for assessing program goals and objectives.
7. Ongoing Revision and Improvement: Providing a means for continuous improvement and adaptation.
8. Resource Identification: Identifying resource materials to assist with program implementation.
9. Assessment Tools: Developing or identifying assessment items and instruments to measure student progress.

THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Curriculum development- unfolds as a process of shaping effective educational plans for enhanced learning experiences
and improved teaching methods.
4 Steps process in developing a Curriculum
A. Planning- is the cornerstone of effective curriculum development, involving strategic steps to shape the educational
landscape.
1. Convening a Curriculum Development Committee: Formation of a committee comprising teachers,
administrators, public representatives, and students. Led by a capable chairperson, this committee becomes the
driving force for curriculum change.
2. Identifying Key Issues and Trends: Thorough research into recent reports, standards, test results, and
instructional materials. Broadening perspectives by studying educational trends in other leading school systems.
3. Assessing Needs and Issues: A crucial process aimed at enhancing student learning by gathering
comprehensive information. Involves desired outcomes, assessment roles, current achievement, program
content, and stakeholders' perspectives.
Critical Indicators for Needs Assessment:
 Dissatisfaction with older content and techniques.
 Declining test scores.
 Lack of materials and technological integration.
 Alignment with contemporary issues.
 Interest in interdisciplinary engagement.
B. Articulating and Developing- Transitioning from planning to articulating and developing,
-this phase lays the foundation for a coherent and purposeful curriculum.
4. Articulating a K-12 Program Philosophy: Addressing fundamental questions about the program’s guiding
principles and core beliefs. Providing a unifying framework justifying discipline-based instruction.
 5. Defining K-12 Program, Grade-Level, and Course Goals: Creating comprehensive, broad goals aligned with
the philosophy. Ensuring realistic, manageable goals that align with district goals.
6. Developing and Sequencing of Grade-Level and Course Objectives: Crafting measurable measure objectives
that align with goals and philosophy. Organizing objectives in a logical and orderly fashion, considering various
structures.
7. Identifying Resource Materials: Moving beyond objective listings to suggest instructional resources.
Supporting a shift from a single textbook approach to a broader range of supplementary materials.
8. Developing and/or Identifying Assessment Items: Creating grade-level criterion-referenced tests,
performance-based tasks, and final exams. Ensuring assessments align with curriculum goals, providing a
foundation for ongoing improvement.
C. Implementing- After all that, it is now time to apply the theory that has been conceptualized.
9. Putting the New Program into Practice: Recognizing the need for time and support for effective
implementation. Allowing teachers to familiarize themselves with the new curriculum through pilot phases.
D. Evaluating- The final steps would of course include assessing if the program is successful.
10. Updating the New Program: Embracing a systematic approach to ongoing oversight and updates.
- Facilitating grade-level meetings to share materials, activities, and student work, fostering
continuous improvement.
11. Determining the Success of the New Program: Periodic evaluations using surveys, discussions, and data
analysis.
-Incorporating feedback on program strengths, weaknesses, and stakeholder perceptions.
-Utilizing quantitative data on exam results, course enrollments, and standardized test scores for
a comprehensive assessment.
This comprehensive curriculum development process is a cyclical and ongoing journey, ensuring that language
education remains adaptive, relevant, and effective.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE TEACHING

Linguistic and Psychology Aspects
●The approach to language teaching considers both linguistic and psychological aspects.
●The modern approach to language learning and teaching is grounded in scientific principles, particularly those rooted
in linguistics.

LINGUISTIC SCIENCE
THE PRINCIPLES UNDER LINGUISTIC SCIENCE:
Principle 1. Give priority to the sounds:
●The sounds of English should receive priority in teaching.
●Sounds should not be presented in isolation but in proper expressions and sentences.
●Expressions and sentences should be spoken with the intonation and rhythm used by a native speaker.
Phonetics
The study of speech sounds is divided into three (3):
1. Articulatory - How speech sounds are produced by the human speech apparatus.
2. Acoustic-How speech sounds are heard.
3. Auditory-How speech sounds are transmitted and perceived.

Principle 2. Present Language in Basic Sentence Patterns:

●Present and have students memorize basic sentence patterns used in day-to-day conversation.
●Start with small utterances, allowing students to progress to longer sentences.
●In learning a mother-tongue, students' memory span can retain longer sentences compared to a foreign language.
●The facility gained in a foreign language helps learners expand their grasp of the language in terms of sounds and
vocabulary items.

Principle 3. Language Pattern as Habits:

●Real language ability is at the habit level, not just knowledge about the language.
●Make language patterns a habit through intensive pattern practice in a variety of situations.
●Students must be taught to use language patterns and sentence constructions with appropriate vocabulary at normal
speed for communication.
●The habitual use of the most frequently used patterns and items of language should take precedence over the mere
accumulation of words.
Principle 4. Imitation:
●Imitation is an important principle of language learning.
●No leaner by himself ever invented language. Good speech is the result of imitating good models.
●The model should be intelligible.
●Imitation followed by intensive practice helps in the mastery of the language system.

Principle 5. Controlled Vocabulary:

●Vocabulary should be kept under control.
●Vocabulary should be taught and practiced only in the context of real situations. This way, meaning will be clarified and
reinforced.

Principle 6. Graded Patterns:

●"To teach a language is to impart a new system of complex habits, and habits are acquired slowly." (R. Lado, 2015)
●Language patterns should be taught gradually, in cumulative graded steps.
●The teacher should add each new element or pattern to previous ones.
●New language patterns should be introduced and practiced with vocabulary that students already know.

Principle 7. Selection and Gradation:

●Selection of the language material to be taught is the first requisite of good teaching. Selection should be done in
respect of grammatical items and vocabulary and structures.
Selection of language items should involve:
 Frequency: (how often a certain item or word is used)
 Range: (in what different contexts a word or an item can be used)
 Coverage: (how many different meanings a word or an item can convey)
 Availability: (how far an item is convenient to teach)
 Learnability: (how far an item is easy to learn)
 Teachability: (how far and item is easy, to teach - in the social context)
Gradation of the language material means placing language items in a graded sequence.
Grading involves:
 Grouping and sequencing the system of language.
 Organizing its structures.
Grouping the best of language means deciding what sounds, words, phrases, and meanings are to be taught.
TYPES OF GROUPINGS
(i) Phonetic grouping, Le. grouping according to sounds. For example words having the same sound are placed in the
one group as, cat, bat mat, pat, fat, sat, it, bit, fit, hit, kit, it, etc.
(ii) Lexical grouping. i.e., grouping according to lexical situations. Example: school, teacher, headmaster, peon, class-
room, library. All these words are grouped around "school."
(iii) Grammatical grouping, ie, grouping according to similar patterns as my book/ his book, (pattern grouping): in
the room, in the corner/in the class/in the garden, etc. (phrase grouping)
(iv) Semantic grouping, ie, grouping according to meaning. Example school, college, university; bicycle, rickshaw,
car, tonga, train, aeroplane, etc..
(v) Structure grouping, ie, grouping in the structures means how the selected items fit one into the other-the
sounds into the words, the words into phrases, the phrases into the clauses and sentences, and the sentences into
the context.
Sequence- means what comes after what.
Sequence should be maintained in the arrangement of:
 Sounds (phonetic sequence)
 Phrases (grammatical sequence)
 Words (lexical sequence)
 Meaning (semantic sequence)
Sequence of structures implies:
 Direction
 Expansion
 Variation
 Length of the structures

Principle 8. The Oral Way.

●Experts believe that the oral way is the surest method for language learning.
●Prof. Kittson observes, "Learning to speak a language is always the shortest road to learning to read and write it."
●Prof. Palmer writes, "We should refrain from reading and writing any given material until we have learned to use its
spoken form."

Principle 9. Priorities of Language Skills:

●Listening (with understanding), speaking, reading, and writing are the four primary skills.
●Listening and speaking are primary skills, while reading and writing are secondary skills.
●Reading and writing are reinforcement skills, reinforcing what has been learned through listening and speaking.
●In fact, listening and speaking speed up the reading process.
●Writing should be introduced after reading.

Principle 10. Multiple Line of Approach

●The term multiple lines implies that one is to be poured simultaneously from many different points towards the same
end.
●"We should reject nothing except the worthless material and should select judiciously and without prejudice all that is
likely to help in our work."
●In teaching a language, it means attacking the problem from all fronts.
For example, a lesson on 'Holidays' in the textbook can involve various language activities such as:
 Oral drill
 Reading
 Sentence writing
 Composition
 Grammar
 Translation
 Language exercises

Principle 11. Language Habit through Language Using

●A language is best learned through use in different contexts and situations.
●Prof. Eugene A. Nida observes, "Language learning means plunging headlong into a series of completely different
experiences. It means exposing oneself to situations where the use of language is required."
●Another expert states, "Learning a language means forming new habits through intensive practice in hearing and
speaking."
●The emphasis should always be on language in actual use.

Principle 12. Spiral Approach.

●The "spiral" approach to language learning should be followed.
●Previously taught vocabulary and structures should be reintroduced in subsequent units whenever logical or possible.
This is "spiral approach".

Principle 13. Use Mother-tongue Sparingly.

●The mother tongue should be sparingly and judiciously used during teaching English.
●At the early stage, some explanations may need to be given in the pupil's mother tongue.
●It is important that students do not use their mother-tongue in the classroom.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT
CERTAIN PRINCIPLES WHICH HAVE BEEN DERIVED FROM THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY.
Principle 1. Motivation.
●Motivation is an important factor in language learning, especially in learning a second language.
●It creates interest and the need to learn the language.
●If the need for the language is felt, it is learned easily.
●Students' interest can be aroused in various ways, making language learning more interesting and attractive.
This can be done with the help of:
 Pictures
 Charts
 Models
 Flash cards
 Blackboard sketches
  Other visual devices
●The use of a tape-recorder can be most effective in teaching pronunciation.
●The aim is to have students maximally exposed to the target language in a variety of contexts and situations, not in
isolation.
●The teacher should prompt connections, provide feedback, and correct errors.
●The rules are to teach, test, reteach, and retest.
●The teacher should make continual and significant use of language material in classroom situations.
PALMER SUGGEST THE FOLLOWING SIX FACTORS WHICH LEAD TO MOTIVATE AND CREATE INTEREST AMONG
CHILDREN:
i. The limitation of bewilderment, that is, minimum of confusion;
ii. The sense of progress achieved;
iii. Competitions;
iv. Game-like exercises;
v. (v) The right relation between teacher and student; and
vi. Variety.

Principle 2. Immediate Correction.

●Make corrections as they help improve pupils' responses.
●Corrections should be made immediately.
●The corrections should be made in a way that will bring about learning, not frustration or discouragement.

Principle 3. Reinforcement
●Immediate reinforcement is an important principle.
●It has been experimentally proven that reinforcement of correct responses aids in better learning.
●The student should be told their response is correct immediately after it is given.

Principle 4. Frequent Review.

●An important psychological principle is the principle of frequent review.
●Frequent review and re-entry of the same material are necessary for retention.
●During the review process, variations in material should be introduced and practiced.

Principle 5. Correct Responses.

●Classroom activities should strengthen language skills.
●The techniques used by the teacher of English should encourage the maximum rate of correct responses. This will give
children a feeling of success, achievement, and assured progress.

Principle 6. Practice in Everyday Situations.

●A language is best learned when its need is felt in everyday situations.
●English should be practiced in everyday situations with which children can easily identify.
●The starting point should be the children, their environment, and their experiences.
●Let them recall (and they should be helped if they fail) something familiar that relates to or contrasts with a new
language item to be learned.
SOME OF THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING.
These principles are in no way dictative: they are only suggestive.
i. Teach the language, not about the language.
ii. Teach the language, not its written system (at the start).
iii. Teach the language, as it is, not as anyone thinks it to be.
iv. Teach the language, not its literature.
v. Teach the language as it is now, not in term of its history.
vi. Teach the language as a skill, not as an intellectual task.
vii. Teach the language in varied, interesting situations.
viii. Give maximum exposure.
ix. Give vocabulary its due place.
x. Use mother-tongue as a tool, not a medium.
xi. Immediately reinforce correct response.

The general principles of English language teaching encompass both linguistic and psychological aspects, providing a
flexible framework for effective language acquisition.

All principles are aimed at creating an engaging and successful language learning environment.
UNIT 2 : THE GRAMMAR AND ITS KIND
Grammar- system of rules that governs how words are combined to form sentences in a
language.
- essential for communication, as it helps us understand the meaning of sentences and produce sentences
that are clear and unambiguous.
- comes from the Greek word for “craft of letters.”,
- refers to the rules and structures of a language, including basic axioms such as verb tenses, articles and
adjectives, question formation, and more.
- essential for language function and communication.

Basic grammar rules

 sentence structure and
 parts of speech, such as nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions.

GRAMMAR AND ITS KIND

1. Functional Grammar- an approach that focuses on meaning in language, as opposed to formal grammar which
focuses on word classes.
- analyzes the meaning in texts, both oral and written, rather than just individual sentences.
- operates at three levels:
 the analysis of texts,
 the system of language, and
 the examination of linguistic structures within texts.
Main difference between functional grammar and formal grammar:
 Functional grammar- emphasizes meaning
 Formal grammar- focuses on classification and explanation of grammatical items.

Types of Functional Grammar

a. Theme-Rheme Analysis - focuses on the relationship between the theme and rhyme of a sentence.
- used to understand how speakers and writers convey new information to their
audiences.
-used to analyze the structure of texts and to identify the main ideas and supporting
points.
 Theme- is the part of the sentence that is already known or assumed to be known by the listener or
reader
 Rhyme- is the part of the sentence that provides new information.
 Example: "The dog barked at the cat”. The theme is "the dog" because it is already known or assumed
to be known by the listener or reader. The rheme is "barked at the cat" because it provides new
information about the dog.

b. Role-and-reference grammar- focuses on the roles that words and phrases play in a sentence.
- can be used to understand how the meaning of sentences is conveyed by the
relationships between words and phrases.
- used to compare the meaning of sentences with different grammatical
structures.
The main roles in role-and-reference grammar are:
 Agent: The one who performs the action
 Patient: The one who is acted upon
 Recipient: The one who receives something
  Location: The place where something happens
 Time: The time when something happens
●Example: "The dog chased the cat". The dog is the agent because it is the one who performs the action of
chasing. The cat is the patient because it is the one who is chased. The verb "chased" expresses the relationship
between the agent and the patient.

c. Discourse analysis- focuses on how language is used in context.

- used to analyze any type of text, including oral and written text, fiction and non-fiction text,
and every day and academic text.
- a powerful tool for understanding the way that language works in the real world.
- used to study a wide range of phenomena, such as:
 How speakers and writers use language to achieve their goals
 How language is used to construct social identities
 How language is used to create and maintain relationships
 How language is used to reproduce and challenge power relations
●Example: "The dog barked at the cat" can be analyzed using discourse analysis by considering the context in
which it is used. For example, if the sentence is spoken by a mother to her child, the mother may be trying to
teach the child about the dangers of dogs or about the importance of being kind to animals. If the sentence is
written in a newspaper article, the author may be trying to inform the reader about a recent event or to express
their opinion on a particular issue.

2. Descriptive Grammar- describes how people actually use the language.

- used to study patterns in language as they actually appear.
- no set of rules to reflect the ways that languages constantly change.
- In Descriptive Grammar, things are only "ungrammatical" if the speakers of the language
cannot understand it.
Here is more example of Descriptive Grammar
FUNCTION: Greeting FUNCTION: Leave-taking
"Hello" – informal "So long" / "Bye" - informal
"Good evening" – formal

3. Prescriptive Grammar- describes when people focus on talking about how a language should or ought to be used.
- is essential as it helps people use formal English speech and writing.
- more of dictating or telling people what they should follow as well as what
should not be used and not just simply suggesting.
- it follows set of norms or rules about how language should be used, or in other words it follows
the standard English grammar rules as this is what is held to be correct and used by the people
like the teachers.
- focus of this kind of grammar is not how the language is used to communicate but how the
language is ought to be used or the correct way of using grammar in communication.
- widely used in formal settings such as in English classes.
Prescriptive 'traditional' approach- refers its attitudes toward language based on what is held to be "correct" by socially
prestigious elements and by teachers.
- is the traditional approach of grammar that tells people how to use the English language, what
forms they should utilize, and what functions they should serve.
●Examples: Do not use "ain't" - as it is considered as a non-standard English, e.g. "She ain't like mango",
"They ain't like to go to hospital".
Proper use of the pronouns "I" and "Me" we use the pronoun "I" if the speaker is the doer of the action and we
use the pronoun "me" if the speaker is the receiver of the action.

4. Pedagogic Grammar- a description of how to use the grammar of a language to communicate, for people wanting
to learn for a specific target audience.
- grammatical analysis and instruction designed for second-language students.
- is also called PED grammar or teaching grammar.
- intended for the second language learners or to people who want to acquire mastery or learn
foreign language.
 - an instruction of how to use the grammar of the target medium.
- designed to taught students language aside from their primary or native language as it includes
grammatical content of that specific medium.
Examples of Pedagogic Grammar are:
 Textbooks
 Grammar books like for example" How English Works and Grammar in Use" are pedagogic grammar books, as
they help learners use the grammar of English for communication.
 In the classroom Learners can be asked to compare different explanations of a language point from different
grammars. This allows learners to think about grammar and its role in communication.

UNIT 3: COGNITIVE APPROACH

Cognitive Approach
● otherwise called as cognitive code- learning theory, was proposed by cognitive psychologists and applied
linguists, J.B. Carroll and K. Chastain in the 1960s.
● This approach was designed as another option to the audio-lingual method, which focuses on habit formation
as part of the language learning process.
● Its main focus is on understanding the foreign language as a structured system of rules and knowledge, rather
than studying it as a set of practical skills.
● The problem solving and critical thinking skills of the learners is honed by employing certain cognitive.
● The primary aim of these activities is to encourage the learners to think independently and to not rely on a fixed
set of procedures that leads them to the right answers.
DRAWBACKS OF THE COGNITIVE APPROACH IN LANGUAGE LEARNING
● The initial drawback of the cognitive approach is that it disregards the emotional aspects and other subjective
elements of language learning since the main focus of this approach is the logical or rational aspects of language
acquisition.
● The second drawback of the cognitive approach lies on the idea of whether our perception of how our mind
works is true.
● That is because the tools and methods that are utilized in cognitive approach heavily depend on how human
minds operate in order to develop our cognitive abilities in terms of language learning.
GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD
 Transitioning into the next approach, which is the Grammar-Translation Method, this approach was initially
introduced in Germany, particularly in Prussia, that is why it was also known as the Prussian Method. Earning
the title as the oldest and classical language teaching method, it has widely prevailed in the European and
foreign language pedagogy from 1840-1940. The proponent for the framework for this approach is Professor
Karl Plotz. This traditional approach centers on teaching languages by prioritizing grammar and translation,
wherein learners are required to gain a sufficient understanding of their target language by studying various
grammatical rules to interpret texts, mostly by relying or consulting a dictionary.
the Grammar-Translation Method are as follows:
1. Translation: This method involves translating target language passages, typically literary texts, into the native
language.
2. Reading Comprehension: Students practice understanding and interpreting the content of passages, making
inferences, and relating it to their personal experiences.
3. Antonyms/Synonyms: Learners are tasked with identifying antonyms and synonyms for words or phrases in the
target language.
4. Cognates: Students learn spelling and sound patterns that correspond between their native language and the target
language.
5. Deductive Application of Rules: Understanding grammar rules and their exceptions and then applying them to new
examples.
6. Fill in the Blanks: Students fill in gaps in sentences with new words or items based on a specific grammar type.
7. Memorization: This involves memorizing vocabulary lists, grammatical rules, and grammatical paradigms.
8. Vocabulary Practice: Learners create sentences to demonstrate their understanding of the meaning and usage of new
words.
9. Composition: Students write about a given topic using the target language KEY FEATURES OF GRAMMAR
TRANSLATION METHOD
1. Classes are delivered through the use of mother tongue.
2. Elaborate and in-depth explanations of the nuances of grammar are provided.
3. Reading of challenging classical texts began at an early stage.
4. Enable students to use a variety of words and phrases interchangeably, supporting them to expand their vocabulary.
While the Grammar-Translation Method possesses unique key features, like any other language learning approaches, it
has also its own limitations.
LIMITATIONS OF GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD
1. Since the classes are primarily conducted in the mother tongue, there is a limited application of the target language.
2. The content of the texts often receives minimal attention, as they are commonly viewed as exercises in grammatical
analysis.
3. Pronunciation of words often receives little to no attention. Grammar translation method.
SUMMARY
● Cognitive Approach Cognitive language learning enhances problem- solving and critical-thinking skills through
cognitive activities like association, visualization, mind mapping, self-assessment, scanning, and monitoring,
aiming to foster independent thinkers who don't rely on predetermined steps. Grammar
● Translation Method - the Prussian Method, first used in Germany, is the oldest and most traditional method of
teaching languages. It focuses on grammar and translation, requiring learners to study grammatical rules to
interpret texts, often relying on dictionaries.

UNIT III: APPROACHES FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

Before the 20 century

●Language teaching methods oscillated between two main approaches:
1. practical language use- including speaking and understanding
2. analyzing grammatical structures
This shift reflected an ongoing debate between prioritizing
 communicative competence- using language effectively in real-world situations
 linguistic competence- mastering grammatical rules

Use-oriented approach- aimed to develop learners’ ability to communicate effectively, emphasizing oral proficiency
through activities like conversations and role-playing.
- aimed to foster fluency and natural language usage for real-world scenarios
Analysis-oriented approach- stressed understanding and applying grammatical rules.
- believed a strong grammar foundation would equip learners to comprehend and produce accurate language
structures, using exercises like translations and written drills.
●The swing between these approaches mirrors changing views on language acquisition and learners' needs.

Communicative approaches- In recent decades, have gained prominence, recognizing the importance of using language
authentically for fluency.
●Role of grammar instruction remains debated, with some advocating for a balanced approach that integrates both
communicative and analytical elements.

THE FLUCTUATIONS OF LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Classical Greek and Medieval Latin periods.
●The emphasis on teaching people to use foreign languages was prevalent
●The classical languages were utilized as lingua francas, first Greek and then Latin.
●Higher education was provided in various languages throughout Europe.
●They were frequently employed in religion, politics, and business. As a result, the educated elite became fluent in the
appropriate classical language as speakers, readers, and writers.

Renaissance
●Formal study of Greek and Latin grammar became popular. It was established, particularly in the case of Latin, that
the grammar of Classical writings differed from that of the Latin widely used as a lingua franca, with the latter being
dubbed degenerate or vulgar as a result. Latin was eventually abandoned as a lingua franca as a chasm grew between
the Classical Latin detailed in Renaissance grammars, which became the formal goal of education in schools, and the
Latin utilized for everyday reasons. In retrospect, the Renaissance concentration with the formal study of Classical Latin
contributed considerably to Latin's collapse as a language franca in Western Europe, as bizarre as it may appear.
17th century
●Focus of language studies turned back to utility rather than analysis.
●Jan Comentios- a Czech who wrote volumes about his teaching methods between 1631 and 1058
- perhaps the most prominent language instructor and methodologist of the period.
-was the first to introduce INDUCTIVE APPROACH to language teaching
Goals of Inductive Approach
 Use of the language rather than analyzing the language
 Use imitation instead of rules to teach language
 Students should repeat after the teacher
 Help students practice reading and speaking
 Teach languages through pictures to meaningful
Comenius made explicit for the first time an inductive approach to learning a language, the goal of which was to
teach use rather than analysis of the language being taught

By the Beginning of 19th Century

●The systematic study of the grammar of Classical Latin and of classical tests had once again taken over in schools and
universities throughout Europe.
●Analytical Grammar-translation Approach became firmly entrenched, not only as a method for teaching Latin but
modern languages as well.

Grammar-translation approach- a traditional teaching style that originated in the late 19th century.
- Students analyze the grammatical rules of English and then practice translating discourse from their
mother tongue into English and vice versa.
- To achieve this, students are expected to memorize long vocabulary lists and complex grammatical
paradigms.
- By end of the 19th Century the Direct Method, which once more stressed ability to use rather than to
analyze a language, had been established as a viable alternative.
Direct Method- was developed as a response to the Grammar Translation method.
- sought to immerse the learner in the same way as when a first language is learnt.
- All teaching is done in the target language, grammar is taught inductively, there is a focus on speaking and
listening, and only useful 'everyday' language is taught.
- The weakness is its assumption that a second language can be learnt in exactly the same way as a first ,
when in fact the conditions under which a second language is learnt are very different.
- crossed the Atlantic in the early 20th Century when de Sauzé, a disciple of Gouin, came to Cleveland, Ohio
and saw to it that all foreign language instruction in the public schools there reflected the Direct Method.
Next to the direct method is the Oral approach and Situational language teaching which was developed by
British applied linguists from the 1930s to the 1960s.

Oral Approach- relies on the use of situations to teach language.

- A situation is the use of such as pictures, objects, and or realia, to teach.
- -Students are expected to listen and repeat what the instructor says. This means that students have little
control over content.
Audiolingual method (Army Method, or New Key)- is a method used in teaching foreign languages.
- based on behaviorist theory, which postulates that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans,
could be trained through a system of reinforcement.
- was widely used in the 1950s and 1960s,
- the emphasis was not on the understanding of words, but rather on the acquisition of structures and
patterns in common everyday dialogue
- focuses on oral skills.
- aims to improve students' speaking achievement.
- Language items are presented to students in spoken form without reference to the mother tongue so that
they can learn language skills effectively
English Language Teaching (ELT) saw phenomenal growth in the 19th century as a result of changing pedagogical
theories, advances in technology, and the English language's increasing popularity throughout the world. During this
time, communicative and student-centered approaches replaced more traditional, grammar-focused ones.

EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

19th century- witnessed significant developments in the field of English language teaching (ELT), shaped by evolving
pedagogical theories, technological advancements, and the expanding global reach of the English language.
- this period saw the transition from traditional, grammar-focused approaches to more communicative and
student-centered methodologies.

Why reading is important?

●Significance of reading lies in its active nature, requiring skills such as inference, prediction, and deduction, making it a
vital skill for comprehension and critical thinking.
●Engaging in reading enables students to not only grasp the intricacies of various tenses and their applications but also
fosters an understanding of different cultural perspectives, contributing to cross-cultural awareness and appreciation.
●Through reading, individuals gain insight into linguistic structures, enabling them to discern different tenses and their
contextual usage.
●They can broaden their cultural horizons by exploring diverse narratives, fostering an enriched understanding of global
customs, values, and traditions.
●Students can discern significance beyond mere letters or words, comprehend and interpret the text and engage in
dynamic and effective reading.
Reading Approach- is a traditional approach of teaching English, mostly as a second language.
- the idea behind the approach was that by just acquiring words and grammatical patterns from written text,
students could quickly pick up the fundamentals of the language.
Reading Method- Following its inception in the 1920s, it gained widespread traction in the teaching of English as an
additional language.
- requires little teaching skill since the lesson-form is a standardized and fixed procedure
- does not demand deep knowledge of the language on the part of the teacher, since the teacher does not
have to compose the sentences and questions: everything is supplied in the book.

4 TYPES OF LEARNING AND TEACHING APPROACH IN READING APPROACH

1. SKIMMING- involves reading at a pace significantly quicker, typically three to four times faster than standard reading.
- technique is commonly employed when individuals are faced with an abundance of material within a
constrained time frame..
- typically involves focusing on titles, headings, subheadings, opening and closing paragraphs, and any
emphasized text like bold or italicized words.
- Skimming aids in understanding the primary themes, text organization, and important information without
extensively reading every single word or sentence.
- a useful technique when aiming to get an initial sense of the content or when facing a large volume of material
with limited time for reading.
2. SCANNING- a commonly employed technique when searching for specific information, involves students seeking out
key words or ideas.
- method encompasses swiftly moving the eyes down the page, aiming to pinpoint particular words and phrases.
- a highly effective strategy when seeking specific information.
- skimming, where detailed information is filtered out, scanning is an active search for details matching your
inquiry.
3. EXTENSIVE READING- involves using a substantial volume of reading material as a method for language acquisition,
including the learning of foreign languages.
- when students encounter unfamiliar words within a specific context, reviewing and reexamining these
words enables them to deduce their meanings, leading to the learning of previously unknown
vocabulary.
- focuses on reading for pleasure and comprehension rather than intensive analysis.
- aims to enhance general reading fluency, enlarge vocabulary, and foster an innate grasp of a
language's grammar and structure.
 - typically includes reading materials slightly less challenging than the learner's skill level to ensure a
more effortless and pleasant reading encounter.
- main focus is comprehending the overall message rather than pausing to search for definitions of every
unknown word or phrase, with the goal of enhancing language skills through exposure to a broad array
of texts and content.
4. INTENSIVE READING- essentially involves a comprehensive and detailed reading process, commonly conducted in a
classroom setting where each student is provided with the same text.
- requires students to delve deeply into the material, focusing on specific learning objectives and
assigned tasks.
- aim is to encourage a meticulous examination of the text to achieve the outlined educational goals.
- aims of achieving a thorough understanding and strong memory retention within a specific timeframe.
- students might read a brief text and then organize the events within it in chronological order to
demonstrate their comprehension.

INSTRUCTIONAL EXPERIENCES AND MATERIALS IN READING

1. Reading Aloud by the Teacher- approach involves the teacher reading aloud to students to serve as a model in the
reading process.
- teacher selects diverse reading materials, including stories, poems, and informational texts,
which contribute to expanding students' background knowledge.
Purposes:
 Enhancing vocabulary, stretching students' comprehension in content areas.
 Exposure to various text forms like fiction, nonfiction, and poetry.
 Encouraging diverse responses such as discussions, writing, drama, art, and movement.

2. Shared Reading- teacher leads while students participate, observing silently.

- aids struggling readers in comprehending and developing reading fluency.
Purposes:
 Teaching print concepts and conventions.
 Enhancing comprehension and interpretation skills.
 Analyzing textual features and word study (e.g., phonics, word analogies).

3. Word Study- involves activities to reinforce understanding of the sounds and structures of words,
- aiding reading and spelling skills.
Purposes:
 Providing systematic instruction at the word level.
 Offering additional support for students needing it.
 Supporting reading and spelling through examination of textual features and linguistic patterns.

4. Independent Reading- involves students choosing their own books, fostering fluency, automaticity, and confidence.
Purposes:
 Encouraging practice to improve fluency and confidence.
 Monitoring time on task and selecting appropriate books.

EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

THE AUDIOLINGUAL APPROACH: EMBRACING DIALOGUES AND PATTERN DRILLS
Audio-Lingual Approach- In the mid-20 century, it emerged as a response to the perceived limitations of the reading
approach.
- influenced by behaviorist learning theories, emphasized the importance of repetition, pattern drills, and oral
practice.
- Teachers would present students with dialogues in the target language, which students would then repeat
and memorize until the patterns became automatic.
- aimed to develop students' fluency and pronunciation through intensive oral practice.
- it was criticized for being too mechanical and repetitive, lacking in real-world communication scenarios and
failing to foster genuine language comprehension.
THE ORAL SITUATION APPROACH: A SHIFT TOWARDS COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
Oral situation approach- In the 1960s, it emerged as a more communicative alternative to the audiolingual approach.
- developed by Harold Palmer and others, focused on real-world communication scenarios and encouraged
students to use the target language in meaningful contexts.
- Teachers would present students with oral situations, such as ordering a meal in a restaurant or discussing a
current event, and students would engage in role-playing and spontaneous dialogues.
- represented a significant shift towards communicative competence, emphasizing the ability to use language
effectively in real-world situations.
- it was criticized for being too unstructured and difficult to assess, as it lacked standardized tests and clear
evaluation criteria.
19th century- marked a crucial period of transformation in English language teaching, characterized by the emergence
of new pedagogical approaches and a growing emphasis on communicative competence. While each method had its
strengths and limitations, they collectively contributed to the evolution of ELT and laid the foundation for contemporary
teaching practices.
Today, ELT methodologies continue to evolve, incorporating technologies, adapting to diverse learning styles,
and embracing the global diversity of English language learners. The legacy of the 19th century's pioneering approaches
remains evident, as their emphasis on language acquisition, communicative competence, and real-world applications
continues to shape the future of English language teaching.

Reading Approach - Reading enhances deductive reasoning, inference, and prediction skills, aiding comprehension and
critical thinking.
- promotes cultural awareness and understanding of different tenses.
Audio Lingual - This method was developed in the middle of the 20th century in response to the perceived shortcomings
of the reading approach.
- approach placed a strong emphasis on oral practice, pattern drills, and repetition-all of which were
influenced by behaviorist learning theories.
- Instructors would use the target language to present dialogues to their students, who would then repeat
and internalize the patterns until they were second nature.
Oral Situation Approach- placed a strong emphasis on the capacity to use language effectively in everyday contexts,
marked a substantial shift towards communicative competence.
-lacked standardized tests and explicit evaluation criteria, it was criticized for being overly unstructured
and challenging to assess.

EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Direct instruction- According to research, it is one of the most effective teaching strategies. Although often
misunderstood, students who are taught using the direct instruction method perform better in reading, math, and
spelling than those who were not.
- is a teacher-directed teaching method. This means that the teacher stands in front of a classroom, and
presents the information. The teachers give explicit, guided instructions to the students.
The direct instruction method is based on two core principles:
 All students can learn when taught correctly, regardless of history and background.
 All teachers can be successful, given effective materials and presentation techniques.

THE 6 FUNCTIONS/STEPS OF DIRECT INSTRUCTION

1. Introduction/Review. First, you set the stage for learning. This is the opening of the lesson, and it's intended to
engage students, get their attention, and activate their prior knowledge.
2. Present the new material. Use clear and guided instructions, so students can begin absorbing the new material. The
lesson content should be carefully organized step-by-step, with the steps building on each other. In the direct instruction
method, you can present new material through a lecture or through a demonstration.
3. Guided Practice. Here, the teacher and students practice the concept together. The student attempts the skill with
the assistance of the teacher and other students. The guided practice is conducted by the teacher. The purpose of this
step is to guide initial practice, correct mistakes, reteach (if necessary) and provide sufficient practice so that students
can work independently.
TAKE NOTE: It's very important to ask good questions to verify your students understanding.
4. Feedback and correctives. If students do not understand the lesson material, the teacher has to correct them and
give feedback. This is also very important in the guided practice, as students have to understand everything in that
phase.
4 types of student responses to questions and actions a teacher should take depending on the answer.
Student Answer
 Correct, quick, and firm- Ask a new question to keep up the pace of the lesson
 Correct, but hesitant- Provide encouragement
 Incorrect, but careless- Simply correct and move on
 Incorrect and lacking knowledge- Provide hints, ask a simpler question, or reteach

5. Independent practice. After guided practice and receiving the right feedback, students are ready to apply the new
learning material on their own. Independent practice gives the students the e repetitions they need to integrate the new
information or skills
6. Evaluation/Review. Check whether your students know everything before moving on to a new concept that builds
upon what they've just learned. Collect student data you can review and decide whether or not the lesson needs to be
retaught.
TAKE NOTE: Make sure your evaluation says something about your students' learning process.

Comprehension- is one of the important abilities that we need to have in order to understand lessons and thus, excel in
studies.
- reason why the Comprehension-based Approach is still commonly used in many classrooms around the
world.
Comprehension-based approach- refers to a method of learning a new language through the process of understanding
the meaning of words and expressions in the language as opposed to any other form of language learning.
- may be used as part of the progression of language learning include the process of learning the letters,
symbols and other representations of the language first before actually understanding the meaning of the
words.
- main purpose of this approach is to make meaning clear or to make input comprehensible. As learners have
success in understanding input in the target language during their silent period, they will gain confidence
and eventually begin speaking in the target language as well.

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS IN COMPREHENSION-BASED APPROACH

●The Silent Period- supposed to mimic the time when children are listening to their parents and other people around
them and forming connections in their brain with regards to grammar and vocabulary in their first language.
- there is a greater focus on comprehension and less on production.
Advantage: When the learner eventually understands the meaning and the correct application of the words, the
language will sound more effortless when he or she speaks it.
Disadvantage: Students who are not very confident might decide to wait until they feel that they have totally grasped
the concepts of the language, including the correct pronunciation, before attempting to speak that language. This may
be due to a reluctance to mispronounce the words or to misapply the language while attempting to speak it.
●Role Reversal. In any given classroom, there are always learners who are more advanced than others and teachers can
have those learners who've already begun speaking the language take on the role of teacher and work with those who
are still in their silent period. That makes things go a lot faster.

SUMMARY
Direct Method Direct instruction, a teacher-directed teaching strategy, involves presenting material in front of the class,
providing clear, guided instructions to students. However, in modern education, teachers adapt instruction to specific
tasks, ensuring that it aligns with the skill needed for effective learning.
Comprehension Based Method - Comprehension is crucial for understanding lessons and excelling in school. Classrooms
worldwide use the comprehension- based approach, which involves learning a new language by understanding words
and expressions, including letters, symbols, and other language representations, before truly understanding the
meaning.

EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Having awakened your prior knowledge about our topic, let us now go more in-depth in our exploration of the 20th
Century Approaches in English Language Teaching.
READING APPROACH- is one of methods that can be used by teacher.
- one way that will help students solve their problem in reading. In reading approach, students will improve
their knowledge and get something new because they are demanded to read more. Incorporating the
reading approach into teaching equips students with essential skills, fostering critical thinking and
comprehension. Through regular reading, students not only enhance their academic proficiency but also
cultivate a lifelong love for learning and exploration.
A Brief History
Reading approach or reading method- was first devised for English learners in India and French or German learners in
the United States of America who have not the time to master the "active" or oral use of the language.

THE READING APPROACH: A FOUNDATION IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

The Reading Approach- dominated English language teaching (ELT) in the 20th century, particularly in the context of
second language acquisition.
- emphasized the development of reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition through extensive
engagement with written texts.
- Students were presented with a series of graded readers, carefully structured texts designed to increase in
difficulty and complexity as their proficiency progressed.
STRENGTHS OF THE READING APPROACH
Vocabulary Acquisition: The Reading Approach placed a strong emphasis on vocabulary development, exposing
students to a rich range of words through their interactions with written materials. This immersive approach facilitated
the acquisition of new vocabulary and enhanced students' ability to express themselves and comprehend written
language.
Grammatical Knowledge: The Reading Approach provided students with a solid foundation in English grammar. By
analyzing and practicing grammatical patterns within the context of written texts, students developed an understanding
of sentence structure, rules, and conventions. This grammatical knowledge enabled them to construct grammatically
correct sentences and comprehend the nuances of English syntax.

LIMITATIONS OF THE READING APPROACH

Limited Oral Fluency: The Reading Approach's focus on written texts often resulted in limited oral fluency. Students
were primarily engaged in reading and vocabulary exercises, with fewer opportunities for active oral practice and
spontaneous language use. This limitation hindered their ability to communicate effectively in spoken English.
Lack of Authentic Communication: The Reading Approach's emphasis on decontextualized written texts often failed to
foster authentic not adequately exposed to real-world language use scenarios, limiting their ability to apply their
language skills in practical contexts.
Mechanical and Repetitive Learning: The Reading Approach's reliance on pattern drills and memorization could lead to
a mechanical and repetitive learning experience. Students might engage in rote learning without fully grasping the
underlying concepts language use. or applying them creatively in their own

THE END OF THE READING APPROACH

The 20th century witnessed significant advancements in English language teaching methodologies, with the Reading
Approach emerging as a prominent method. This approach, while emphasizing reading comprehension and vocabulary
acquisition, faced limitations in fostering communicative competence and real- world language use. As a result, more
holistic and learner-centered approaches, such as the Humanistic Affective Approach, gained prominence.

EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

At the end of our last discussion about the reading approach, we've talked about how its limitations more prevented it
from being more popular hence why holistic and learner-centered approaches, such being more popular hence
Approach can gain more prominence.

THE HUMANISTIC AFFECTIVE APPROACH: A SHIFT TOWARDS PERSONAL GROWTH AND EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING
In the latter half of the 20th century, the Reading Approach faced criticism for its limitations in promoting
communicative competence and real-world language use. This critique paved the way for the emergence of more
holistic and learner-centered approaches, including the Humanistic Affective Approach.
Humanistic Affective Approach- emerged as a response to the perceived shortcomings of the Reading Approach.
- emphasized the importance of personal growth, emotional well-being, and affective factors in language
learning.
- viewed the learner as a whole person, recognizing the role of emotions, motivation, and self-esteem in the
language acquisition process.
KEY PRINCIPLES OF THE HUMANISTIC AFFECTIVE APPROACH
1. Individualized Learning: The Humanistic Affective Approach emphasized individualized learning, recognizing that each
learner brings unique experiences, motivations, and learning styles to the language classroom. This approach
encouraged teachers to adapt their methods and materials to cater to the individual needs and preferences of their
students.
2. Positive Learning Environment: The Humanistic Affective Approach fostered a positive and supportive learning
environment, emphasizing the importance of creating a space where students feel comfortable taking risks, making
mistakes, and expressing themselves without fear of judgment.
3. Emphasis on Emotions: The Humanistic Affective Approach recognized the role of emotions in language learning,
acknowledging the impact of positive emotions such as interest, curiosity, and self-confidence on motivation and
engagement. This approach aimed to create a classroom atmosphere that fostered positive emotions and minimized
anxiety or fear.

TECHNIQUES IN THE HUMANISTIC AFFECTIVE APPROACH

Affective Role-Playing: Students engage in role-playing activities that allow them to explore different emotions, express
themselves creatively, and develop empathy for others.
Self-Assessment: Students are encouraged to reflect on their own progress identify areas for improvement, and set
personal learning goals. This self. assessment process fosters a sense of ownership and responsibility for their own
learning.
Cooperative Learning: Students work together in collaborative activities, fostering a sense of community and mutual
support. This cooperative approach encourages peer learning, sharing ideas, and providing constructive feedback

IMPACT OF THE HUMANISTIC AFFECTIVE APPROACH

The Humanistic Affective Approach- introduced a new dimension to ELT, emphasizing the importance of personal
growth, emotional well-being, and affective factors in language learning.
-It moved the focus away from solely cognitive aspects and recognized the holistic nature of the
language learning process.
-While the Humanistic Affective Approach initially faced criticism for its perceived lack of
structure and emphasis on measurable outcomes, its contributions to ELT have been recognized
and incorporated into more contemporary approaches.
- The understanding of the role of emotions, self-esteem, and motivation has become
increasingly important in creating effective and engaging learning environments.

A DYNAMIC LANDSCAPE OF ELT METHODOLOGIES

The evolution of ELT methodologies from the Reading Approach to the Humanistic Affective Approach reflects the
continuous efforts to refine and improve teaching.

SUMMARY
Reading Approach- In the 20th century, the Reading Approach dominated English Language Teaching (ELT), particularly
for second language acquisition. It emphasized vocabulary growth and comprehension through prolonged interaction
with written texts, using graded readers to make reading more complex.
The Humanistic Affective Approach - is a holistic, learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of
affective factors, emotional health, and personal development in language learning. It treats students as whole,
acknowledging the role of motivation, emotions, and self-worth.