SOUTH ASIA

RESEARCH
Vol. 39(3): 339–352
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DOI: 10.1177/0262728019868895 Copyright © 2019
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ANIMAL WELFARE AND HUMAN

HEALTH: RISING CONFLICTS OVER
STRAY DOGS IN CHANDIGARH
Namita Gupta and Rajiv Kumar Gupta
Panjab University, Chandigarh, India

abstract India’s large stray dog population, estimated to be about

25 million, poses substantial risks to human health, motivating some
civic bodies to employ cruel methods to control dog populations.
This article argues that while human health is certainly a priority,
it is also important to consider animal welfare and to handle dog
population control measures without causing unnecessary animal
suffering. Triangulating the issues of rabies control, dog population
management and state intervention, the article identifies recent
practical difficulties in local management of dog population control
laws and policies in India’s model city of Chandigarh. Based on
a survey of local opinions, this shows how rising human–animal
conflicts require new ways of handling existing challenges.
keywords: animal welfare, Chandigarh, dog population control,
environment, health, India, rabies, stray dogs

Introduction
While animals have played an important role in human societies (Chhabra, 2019),
concerns over animal rights have been sidelined by anthropocentric perspectives. These
have more or less systematically downplayed evidence of symbiosis between humans and
animals (D’Avray, 2010: 8) so that largely (Frey, 1987), though not completely (Davis,
1986), the position and recognition of non-humans as stakeholders in sustainable
environments has been neglected and needs to be revisited.
In South and Southeast Asia, increasing numbers of unwanted and unhealthy dogs
have become a serious health hazard, especially related to rabies, an illness which is fully
preventable through precautionary vaccination of dogs. Gongal and Wright (2011: 1)
report that dog bites account for 96 per cent of human rabies cases and that about 45
per cent of worldwide rabies deaths occur in Asia. The situation is especially precarious
in India, ‘which reports about 18000 to 20000 cases of rabies a year and about 36%
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of the world’s deaths from the disease’ (Kole et al., 2014). Though accurate estimates
of stray dog populations in India are not available, the World Health Organization
(WHO, 2013) estimated India’s stray dog population at approximately 25 million.
Their ability to multiply in great numbers, even in difficult conditions, has meant
high numbers of dog bites, affecting especially children, so that human deaths due to
rabies in India have not declined.
However, ‘[a]ttempts to control rabies through dog culling have not been sustainable
or socially acceptable due to public, religious, and animal welfare concerns’ (Gongal &
Wright, 2011: 2). While human health, including the prevention of zoonotic diseases,
is a priority, since 2003, SAARC has identified rabies as a major public health problem
(Gongal & Wright, 2011: 5). As it becomes more important to devise dog population
control measures that avoid unnecessary animal suffering, major new challenges arise
for state intervention. At the local government level in India, disease control and
dog population management are the responsibility of municipal corporations along
with departments of animal welfare. Most municipalities in India have handled such
measures in unsystematic and reactive ways, which are no longer sufficient when both
human and dog populations increase, especially in urban environments.
In colonial India, since the middle of the nineteenth century, organised efforts
were made to reduce the dog population in order to control the spread of rabies.
Extensive use of barbaric methods such as clubbing, shooting, drowning, poisoning
or electrocution dominated dog population control beyond the end of the twentieth
century. In 1976, through the 42nd constitutional amendment, protection of animals
and their rights was enshrined in the 1950 Constitution of India through insertion
of Article 51A(g), which now casts upon every citizen of India the fundamental duty
to have compassion for all living creatures. While this has prominently been debated
in relation to bovines and cow slaughter (Gundimeda & Ashwin, 2018), the current
challenges of dog population control show that concerns about killing animals also
extend to stray dogs.
Animal cruelty has long been a punishable offence in India, under sections 428
and 429 of the Indian Penal Code of 1860. Colonial India was also one of the first
legal orders in the world to enact specific laws such as the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals Act of 1890 (Chhabra, 2019). Notably, an enactment under the same name
was promulgated for the whole of India in 1960. Despite such legislative provisions,
cruel methods of dog population control have continued in India. Hence, in 1964
an NGO called ‘Blue Cross of India’ proposed a mass ‘spay-vaccinate-and-return
programme’ to effectively control stray dog populations (Krishna, 2009). In 2000, the
Government of India adopted Animal Birth Control (ABC) as an official programme,
and India claimed to become a no-kill country (Krishna, 2009). However, as India’s
stray dog populations grew and dog bite incidences rose, a WHO-sponsored study of
rabies in India for 1993 to 2002 reported that human rabies cases in India remained at
the same high level (Kole et al., 2014). To implement sterilisation and vaccination of
stray dogs, the Government of India notified the Animal Birth Control (Dogs) Rules
Gupta and Gupta: Animal Welfare and Human Health 341

of 2001 under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 and created the Animal
Welfare Board of India. However, these various bureaucratic and legislative activities
(see Gandhi et al., 1996) seem to have largely failed and the apparent lack of success
is attributed to relatively weak penalties for violations of the law.
The present study analyses the local enforcement of dog population control laws and
policies in India’s model city of Chandigarh, with special emphasis on animal welfare
and public health and the role of civil society organisations in implementing the law.
Multiple research methodologies were used. Regarding the stray dog population, the
researchers primarily relied on data provided by local government agencies. To verify
and supplement these data, a questionnaire for local communities was prepared asking
people about the number of stray dogs observed roaming in their neighbourhood.
Direct observation was used to study the health status of stray dogs, particularly focused
on their body, skin conditions and evidence of injuries. To analyse the housing and
treatment facilities for stray dogs, numerous visits were made to dog shelters. Interviews
with dog catchers, veterinary surgeons and shelter authorities identified the methods
and resources and direct observation at shelter homes was used to gauge the situation.
Several rounds of discussions with small groups of Chandigarh residents involved a
total of 100 respondents from a range of backgrounds, selected through a stratified
random sampling method, dividing the city into four zones and taking 25 respondents
from each zone, to understand the dynamics of ongoing debates on human health
versus animal welfare. Additionally, data regarding 100 dog bite victims visiting the
Anti-Rabies Centre in Chandigarh was collected over a period of six months. The
economic burden from the patients’ perspective was calculated using both direct and
indirect costs. Relevant stakeholders such as local government agencies, veterinary
organisations, animal welfare activists and NGOs were interviewed to comprehend
all aspects of dog population control measures in the city.

Dog Population Control Programme in Chandigarh

Chandigarh, one of the most successful experiments in urban planning in modern
India, celebrated in a Special Issue (15.1) of Mārg, A Magazine of the Arts, in December
1961, is still rated one of the best cities in India to live in. Planned by Le Corbusier
for half a million people, it is now home to well over a million, in the same confined
area of 114 sq. km, with thousands of new migrants coming every year in search of
better opportunities.
Apart from human overpopulation, the stray dog menace has become a major
challenge facing people and local authorities in the city. The Municipal Corporation
of Chandigarh is responsible for carrying out the ABC programme in the city,
helped by local NGOs. The city framed its own bye-laws in 2010 and created a
comprehensive scheme in 2012 for stray dog management. Below, this section
discusses various aspects of the implementation problems for the Animal Birth
Control Rules in Chandigarh.

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Stray Dog Demographics and Dog Ecology

A dog ecology study would be the first important step for a dog population control
programme, helping to understand the estimated dog population, age and sex
structure, survival and reproductive rates, ratio of stray dogs to human population and
distribution. Multiple methodologies can be used to estimate a dog population. Total
or direct count is the simplest method, but has its own restrictions, as stray dogs are
by nature a roaming population. Other methods include estimates based on rates of
capture or recapture, including estimates from photographic recaptures. Evidently, the
same methodology needs to be applied at appropriate intervals to monitor and review
population trends. In Chandigarh, the dog census was conducted on the basis of direct
count, considered the simplest method of estimating a dog population.
Two dog censuses were conducted in the city in 2007 and 2012, by the Department
of Animal Husbandry and Fisheries. The 2007 count identified 7,712 pet dogs and
5,713 stray dogs, a total of 13,425. In 2012, the corresponding figures were 9,984
pet dogs and 7,928 stray dogs, totalling 17,912. The number of dogs had thus
increased by around 33 per cent during these five years. According to this trend, the
dog population in 2018 must have risen to around 23,000, with around 10,000 stray
dogs. Chandigarh, with its 1.1 million people, thus has approximately one stray dog
per 100 people and around 87 dogs per sq. km on average, which is very high and still
rising due to ineffective intervention. Though there is no study to suggest what should
be an ideal dog-human population ratio, earlier research in the Indian city of Jodhpur
suggested that surgical sterilisation coverage under 40 per cent would maintain the
dog population at current levels, while coverage above 70 per cent would be advisable
to reduce stray dog populations (Totton et al., 2011).
Apart from stray dog numbers, it is also important to know their age, sex and
reproductive rate. The approximate life expectancy of a stray dog is assumed to be
5–6 years, depending on several environmental factors such as availability of food and
disease control in a particular area. The Municipal Corporation of Chandigarh has not
collected any data regarding age and sex structure of the stray dog population nor area-
wise distribution, so that it becomes difficult to gauge the accurate demography of stray
dogs in the city. Interviews with veterinary doctors confirmed that a comprehensive
dog ecology study, a precondition for the success of any animal population control
measure, was missing in the city.

Dog Sterilisation and Immunisation

To enforce dog population control measures, the foremost requirement is capture of
roaming dogs for sterilisation, a process which should not lead to unnecessary stress
for the dogs nor endanger the health and safety of the staff involved. Chandigarh’s
Municipal Corporation has carried out the ABC programme since 2008 with the help
of local NGOs like Society for the Protection and Care of Animals (SPCA), People
for Animals and the Pet Animal Society. All three NGOs had their own dog capturing
facility. However, various gaps were identified in the enforcement of their practice. Our
Gupta and Gupta: Animal Welfare and Human Health 343

study revealed in April 2015 that only 7,478 dogs were sterilised between 2008 and
2014. In April 2015, the Municipal Corporation contracted out some of the work to
the SPCA. The Corporation purchased dog catching vans and also appointed staff to
carry out dog catching activities.
According to guidelines of the Animal Birth Control Rules in India, no dog below
the age of six months is to be captured for sterilisation, while pregnant females and
old or sick dogs are not to be picked for sterilisation. Field visits revealed that dog
capture involves humane methods through use of nets or soft loops by animal catchers.
NGO staff and volunteers accompany the dog catchers during the capturing process
to ensure avoidance of stress to dogs. However, informal discussions with dog catchers
revealed that dog capturing is not always a smooth process. While some residents
object to picking up stray dogs, others insist they should be taken away altogether.
Regarding staff safety, officials revealed that prophylactic vaccination was done, but
frequent cases of dog bite occur during catching processes, creating a constant need to
monitor adequate techniques and equipment for catching, restraint and transportation
of dogs in the city.
The prime purpose of controlling or preventing reproduction in dogs is to reduce
the population of unwanted animals, and to do so humanely. A range of methods can
be used, including surgical, chemical or immunological sterilisation and separation of
female dogs during oestrus from unsterilised males. Surgical sterilisation is the only
method approved by the Animal Welfare Board of India. Though cheaper compared
to other methods, this process sometimes leads to post-operative swelling and pain,
necessitating post-operative care such as dressing of wounds, medical observation and
feeding operated dogs for 3–5 days.
If the Municipal Corporation sterilised 7,478 stray dogs between 2008 and 2015,
this would have been around 1,068 dogs per year, approximately three dogs every day.
Assuming that surgical sterilisation coverage of 40 per cent would maintain the dog
population at current levels, around 2,991 dogs rather than 1,068 would have to be
sterilised every year in Chandigarh. Since there were clearly not enough sterilisations to
control the stray dog population, dog numbers in the city continued to increase. With
this in mind, in 2015 the Municipal Corporation contracted out the sterilisation work
to SPCA. Two veterinary doctors were appointed for surgical sterilisation of captured
dogs. The official data indicated thereafter that 9–11 dogs were now sterilised every day
with a target of 4,300 dogs per year, which should stabilise the city’s dog population
in the next 2–3 years. Indeed, the NGO sterilised 8,600 stray dogs in the two years
between April 2015 and March 2017.
To make the programme more effective and ensure best use of resources, focus is laid
on sterilising female dogs. The dog’s right ear is notched to identify a sterilised animal.
Besides surgical sterilisation, anti-rabies vaccination was also given and revaccination
is carried out every year to reduce incidents of rabies in dogs and humans. However,
practical problems associated with this revised dog population control initiative arose.
As only two doctors were every day conducting 9–11 surgeries, a cumbersome process,

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some lapses in performance of surgeries and post-operative care occurred. Hence, the
need was felt to involve both private and public veterinary doctors to meet the demand
for services in accordance with criteria of the World Organisation for Animal Health
(2009). Further, notching the right ear of sterilised dogs still made identification of
such dogs difficult, as it is dangerous to go near them for identification. Hence the
need for reflective collars for sterilised stray dogs was raised.

Holding Facilities
Holding facilities for stray dogs perform many functions, such as housing dogs during
sterilisation procedures, before release and quarantining of dogs during observation
for rabies symptoms. Since inadequate and substandard holding facilities can cause
significant animal welfare problems, the stray dog population control rules of
Chandigarh stipulate basic standards of facilities for housing and care in dog shelters.
There were 104 dog kennels of 6 × 3 × 3 feet each to hold one dog per kennel, offering
sufficient space for free movement. Numerous visits to the dog holding centre revealed
there was proper ventilation, natural lighting, drainage, water and electricity supply.
Adults and puppies were housed separately and adult males and females were kept
apart. Adequate arrangements for drinking water and food existed. On arrival at the
shelters, all dogs were examined by the veterinarians and sick dogs were segregated
and sent to hospitals run by an animal welfare NGO for proper treatment, to be
sterilised and vaccinated after their recovery. Female dogs found to be pregnant did
not undergo abortion, irrespective of the stage of pregnancy, and were immediately
released back to their locality.
However, the heads of the animal welfare NGOs and animal activists reported that
there were always more dogs than the holding capacity. Mostly, there were more than
one dog per kennel, proper hygiene was not maintained and some animals suffered
filthy conditions, leading to infections. Dogs sharing kennels had frequent fights and
some more submissive dogs were starving because they could not get to their food.
The doctors of the Centre and officials denied such problems, asserting that the
system is transparent and the dog pounds are open for visitors, from 10 to 11 am every
day. Dogs are photographed before and after sterilisation and a dog is released only
after certification of fitness by the sterilising doctor from the government veterinary
hospital. Notably, such holding facilities are not a recommended solution for long-
term population management, as ideally dogs should only be sheltered for short-term
management (FAO, 2014). There would of course also be cost implications.

Release of Dogs
There is scientific thought behind methods of restoring sterilised dogs to their original
habitat, as dogs are territorial animals. They mark out their territories based on the food
available and do not let outsiders come in. When local dogs are removed from their
territory, other dogs move in to occupy it. As these dogs may not be sterilised, added
problems continue for that locality and dog fights increase, as any new dog entering
Gupta and Gupta: Animal Welfare and Human Health 345

a territory is attacked by dogs already living in that area, while non-sterilised dogs
continue to mate and produce litters. Rabies continues to spread when dogs remain
unvaccinated. The new dogs may also be hostile to human residents, increasing safety
problems. Hence, after sterilisation and vaccination followed by a necessary period of
follow-up, dogs were released at the same locality from where they were captured. The
Corporation maintained records of dates and places of such release and to increase
transparency, NGO representatives accompanied the dog squad at the time of release.
However, discussions with dog catchers and NGO representatives revealed that
staff may face harassment by the public during the release of dogs in their respective
localities. In some cases, staff were abused and even manhandled. The dog catchers
demanded adequate protection for themselves during the release of dogs. Often
NGO representatives did not accompany staff at the time of release of sterilised
and vaccinated dogs, which made monitoring processes difficult. Further challenges
hampering the successful implementation of reproduction control measures in the
city included limited infrastructure, short supply of medicines and various cultural
and environmental barriers. Lack of veterinary care, poor health, as well as lack of
value given to dogs correlates with neglect and exposure to the risks of contracting and
spreading disease. Since emphasis on effective implementation of stray dogs control
measures is largely motivated by public pressure and public health, rather than animal
welfare perspectives, the next section proceeds to discuss ongoing debates about human
health versus animal welfare, which poses a major challenge for most urban policy
makers and administrators in India.

Human Health versus Animal Welfare

The current levels of stray dog population and increasing dog bite cases in Chandigarh
have generated human–animal conflicts, posing challenges for civic authorities to
maintain a fair balance between human health and animal welfare. Many people not
only tolerate roaming dogs, but also take care of them, while others are more concerned
with public health and safety problems, particularly transmission of diseases to humans
and other animals. Injury and fear caused by aggressive behaviour, nuisance through
noise and fouling, and causing road traffic accidents were other issues raised.
Around the world, people love to feed animals, but in India the reasons for this may
be quite culture-specific. Dogs are often associated with Hindu religious ceremonies,
specifically old beliefs about the journey of the spirit of the deceased, accompanied
by the two ferocious dogs of Yama, the god of death. These dogs, one black and one
grey, protect the spirit from the attacks of other dogs and are themselves so fierce that
the friends of the dead person ‘do wisely in trying to keep these two ghostly dogs in
a good temper by feeding other living dogs in this world’ (Stevenson, 1971 [1920]:
193). Some Hindu astrologers recommend feeding black dogs to escape the malefic
effects caused by Saturn (Shani) and Rahu in horoscopes. Often, thus, one witnesses
households feeding stray dogs on a daily basis.

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However, gradually the dog bite menace has created fear in people’s minds, so many
urban residents strongly object to feeding stray dogs. The annual estimated number
of dog bites in India is 17.4 million, leading to about 18,000–20,000 annual cases
of human rabies (Gongal & Wright, 2011). Kole et al. (2014) report that in India,
rabies affects mainly people of lower socio-economic status and children between
the ages of 5 and 15 years. They observe that ‘Indian children often play near stray
dogs, which are many and roam freely, and are used to sharing their food with them,
which results in frequent bites’ (Kole et al., 2014). The WHO (2019) details three
categories of contact with a suspect rabid animal and advises three kinds of post-
exposure prophylactic measures. Category I, involving licks by stray dogs on intact
skin, requires simply washing of the affected area. Category II, nibbling of uncovered
skin, causing minor scratches or abrasions without bleeding, makes it advisable to go for
immediate vaccination and local treatment of the wound. Category III, single or multiple
transdermal bites or scratches, licks on broken skin, causing contamination of mucous
membrane with saliva from licks, requires immediate vaccination and administration
of rabies immunoglobulin as well as local treatment of the wound. Gongal and Wright
(2011: 3) suggest that 25 per cent of victims suffer third category bites.
Our study in Chandigarh found that nearly 500 dog bite cases were reported in
Chandigarh each month in 2015/16, with dog bite victims in all age groups. Table 1
indicates that over 20,000 persons became victims in the two years examined. Stray
dog biting cases (68.1%) were more frequent than pet dog bites, whose numbers are
also very high. These statistics confirm the large number of serious dog bites (Category
III) and suggest that less serious bites would most likely remain unreported, as in
most Category I and II cases people used indigenous treatments for local wound care
(Kole et al., 2014).

Table 1 Demographic Characteristics of Dog Bite Patients in Chandigarh (2015–6)

Demographic Characteristics 2015 2016

Total number of dog bite patients 10,770 10,711
Age in years Children (<12 years) 2345 2150
Adults (>12 years) 8425 8561
Dog Stray dog 3243 3227
Pet dog 1960 2009
Nature of bite (WHO Classification) Category I 48 147
Category II 2637 1617
Category III 8539 10,037
Immunoglobulin prescribed All of Category III 8539 10,037
Reported cases of rabies 3 5
Number of deaths – 1
Source: Prepared by the authors based on a survey by the Municipal Corporation of Chandigarh
in 2016.
Gupta and Gupta: Animal Welfare and Human Health 347

Full treatment for rabies involves a dosage over 28 days. Discussions with doctors
revealed that many people did not complete the full essential regime of the vaccine
due to financial restraints. The cost of a dog bite is around `400–550 to the patient
and `1300 per patient to the government, depending on the category of dog bite. In
serious cases, when human serum has to be administered to the patient, it costs around
`17,700 for the government. As vaccine continues to remain expensive, many people
did not actually take it for want of funds. Besides financial restraints, short supply of
vaccine especially in rural areas of India and lack of experience among medical staff
(Kole et al., 2014) are affecting the efficacy of the vaccine regime.
Rabies control became a more prominent issue in April 2015 when a dog bite case
was reported in Chandigarh in which 14 people, mostly children in the age group
of 5–8 years, were injured. This led to raised demands for culling dogs. One of the
young victims suffered a dog bite on her lips and died the next day, while the dog was
found to be rabid. Another girl’s hair was torn and she sustained injuries on her head
and other body parts. City residents, especially in the southern and central sectors,
complained that stray dogs roam around every neighbourhood and occupied parks and
gardens, making it difficult for the general public and children to use the city’s green
spaces for daily walks and play. This posed a big public challenge to the Municipal
Corporation, as increasing numbers of dog bite cases confirmed the implementation
failure of the ABC programme.
The past few years have seen a vociferous group of people advocating culling of
dogs. The stratified random sample survey involving 100 citizens of Chandigarh,
conducted by the authors to ascertain people’s feelings about stray dogs and their
perception towards ABC measures, confirmed that every respondent was concerned
about stray dogs in their area. Most people (77) fear stray dogs, only 11 expressed love
and compassion towards stray dogs, 9 indicated hatred and 3 reported no feelings.
One reason for widespread fear was the increasing number of dog bite cases in the city
during 2016 and also the above-mentioned death of a child bitten by a rabid dog. This
probably dissuaded people from feeding dogs in their neighbourhood, yet 32 confirmed
that they fed such dogs, while 68 respondents did not do so. Asked specifically what
measures should be taken to control the stray dog population, nobody thought that
no action was required. While 78 people did not favour culling dogs, 22 advocated
this route. Most significantly, 43 people wanted such dogs to be put into dog pounds.
Asked about sterilisation, only 11 respondents advocated sterilisation and leaving the
dog back in the neighbourhood, while 24 people wanted the dogs sterilised and put in
some other place. This effectively means that 67 respondents did not want stray dogs
in their locality and wanted to get rid of them in one way or another, albeit without
seeing them killed. These citizens expect action from the state, which would require
some expenditure, but the implications have not been thought about in sufficient depth.
Frequent dog bite cases led some people to take the law into their own hands and
even to inflict cruelty on stray dogs, with many instances reported in the last few years.
In February 2016, four men tied a stray dog to a tree and thrashed it. After pictures of

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this action went viral on social media, the police booked a case against these four people
and arrested three of them. In September 2016, a video went viral in which a man
spun a wailing dog by its hind legs and threw it against a wall. In another horrifying
incident, a pregnant canine was thrashed and blinded by three residents in the city for
allegedly straying into their home. Increasing evidence of such cruelty to stray dogs
has motivated a strong lobby to fight for animal welfare. City-based animal activists
stated in interview: ‘When a dog bites someone, so much hullaballoo is created, but
in cases of cruelty against dogs, even the police are mum’.
As animal rights have become a matter of growing public concern in India, many
public interest litigation cases have been filed by animal rights activists in various
courts to advocate animal rights. Though stray dogs clearly pose a significant threat
to human health by acting as vectors of disease, the Supreme Court of India, in an
earlier interim order on 18 November 2015, stated:

There can be no trace of doubt that there has to be compassion for dogs and that they
should not be killed in an indiscriminate manner…a balance between compassion to
dogs and the lives of human beings, which is appositely called a glorious gift of nature,
may harmoniously co-exist.

A recent extensive judgement in the Punjab & Haryana High Court, given on 31
May 2019 in Karnail Singh and others v State of Haryana (C.W.P. No. 2859 of 2011),
albeit primarily an appeal case concerning the illegal transportation of cows, clearly
upheld animal rights and required animals to be conferred with the status of legal
entity/legal persons:

All the animals have honour and dignity. Every species [sic] has an inherent right to
live and is required to be protected by law. The rights and privacy of animals are to be
respected and protected from unlawful attacks…They are entitled to justice. The animals
cannot be treated as objects or property.

This notably activist judgement concludes in paragraph 95 with a list of 29 mandatory

directions by Mr. Justice Rajiv Sharma, the last of which reads:

29. The entire animal kingdom including avian and aquatic are declared as legal entities
having a distinct persona with corresponding rights, duties and liabilities of a living
person. All the citizens throughout the state of Haryana are hereby declared persons in
loco parentis as the human face for the welfare/protection of animals.

This judgement also makes explicit and detailed reference to the treatment of dogs,
which confirms that it is considered increasingly important in India now to adopt
approaches that deal effectively with stray animal populations. This is essential not
only to protect humans from perilous contact with sick animals, but to protect the
health and welfare of these animals, too (ICAM, 2007; WSPA, 1990).
Gupta and Gupta: Animal Welfare and Human Health 349

Policy Recommendations and Conclusions

Focused on the model city of Chandigarh, this article identified that India faces a
growing problem of stray dog populations, requiring state action, while respecting the
increasingly prominent calls for the right to life of these animals. Most municipalities
in India have been unsuccessful in effective enforcement of dog population control
laws and policies, since such measures are often still implemented in a reactive manner
when a problem or perceived need arises, be it impending elections or serious bite
incidents reported by the media. Dog population control measures require long-term
investment and strategic plans, while quick fixes may lead to abuses and worsening
situations. One recognises that elimination of rabies is not possible without regional
and intersectional cooperation (Gongal & Wright, 2011). While experience shows that
effective control requires adoption of an integrated approach, most local governments
are uninterested, understaffed and lack resources (FAO, 2014). This implies that local
authorities and all other stakeholders must be sensitised about ABC programmes as
well as standard operating procedures, as set out by the Animal Welfare Board of India.
Experts concerned about rabies advocate increased awareness of communities
about possible disease risks and increased health-protective behaviours important for
disease prevention, such as hand-washing, dog vaccination and deworming, to foster
healthy and safe interactions with dogs (FAO, 2014; Kole et al., 2014). Furthermore,
educational and bite prevention programmes for the public and especially for children
should always include guidance on how to interact with animals and what to do when
approached by dogs, particularly those that show signs of fear and/or aggression. Such
educational programmes are non-existent in most Indian cities, including Chandigarh.
Vaccination and sterilisation activities are clearly essential if one wants to avoid
mass killings. At its Fourth International Symposium on Rabies Control in Asia, the
WHO (2001) stated that elimination of rabies in humans requires control of rabies
in dogs, making vaccination of dogs the most cost-efficient strategy. Hence, sustained
efforts to vaccinate and sterilise dogs should be made, so that the threshold figure of
70 per cent vaccination of dog populations may be reached to decrease the number
of rabies cases. A successful ABC programme would require large-scale surgeries,
involving significant financial resources. Claims of shortage of funds, one of the most
common obstructions in India, suggest that the government should develop far-sighted
policies to provide more competent people and adequate financial support to activate
the dog population control. Innovative policy changes should make ABC programmes
for dogs self-sustaining, maybe by raising funds through a kind of dog tax, involving
registration and licensing charges for pet dogs. In Chandigarh, where the estimated
pet dog population is now probably around 15,000, only 4,455 dogs were registered
with the Municipal Corporation in 2016. Stricter registration of pet dogs will not only
increase revenue, but may also foster more responsible dog ownership.
As dog population control measures require integrated approaches and inter-
professional collaboration, all relevant stakeholders should be involved in formulating
comprehensive and sustainable strategies of implementation, monitoring and

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evaluation. There should be a sense of trust and cooperation among all stakeholders,
rather than efforts to shift burdens elsewhere. Implementation would require a
range of professionals, including dog handlers, shelter operators, veterinarians and
veterinary technicians, but developing countries always face a shortage of animal health
professionals. A prime reason for this relates to perceptions that dog population control
work has low status and low value. Hence, efforts should be made to inculcate a sense
of professional pride through capacity building and making professional hierarchies less
rigid. Continuous monitoring and evaluation of dog population control programmes
is important, so that gaps in policymaking and implementation can be identified,
progress measured and overall performance improved. Monitoring and evaluation
should involve all relevant stakeholders including civil society organisations and
benevolent individuals. Exposure of problems or failures should be seen as opportunities
to improve the programme.
Overall, dog population control programmes are now an integral part of desirable
effective environmental management in India, straddling public and private interest. Key
facets of dog population control strategy include eliminating unwanted sources of food
and shelter, registration and identification of animals, provision of animal healthcare,
and above all prevention and control of diseases. As noted, it is important to encourage
responsible dog ownership through public awareness, education and legislation. When
an aggressive ABC programme is combined with an effective garbage control system,
the results are dramatically visible (Dodet & Meslin, 2001). As managing stray dog
populations requires political, socio-economic and humane strategies that are socially
acceptable and environmentally sustainable, this needs to take comprehensive and inter-
sectoral forms, with a welfare-focused and well-being-oriented approach.
Seen in this light, the present survey results indicate one significant problem that
requires further analysis. The citizens of India expect the state to take action also in
the field of dog population control, yet the preferred solutions of either keeping stray
dogs in dog pounds or putting them into places far away from the respondents are both
unrealistic. Feeding millions of dogs in dog pounds is surely not a sustainable long-
term strategy for India. Shifting the problem to other localities is also a short-sighted
approach. The evidence from Chandigarh about how to handle dog population control
indicates that there is only one sustainable long-term solution, namely to reduce stray
dog populations through effective fertility control and to be efficient in vaccinations.
However, steps must also be taken to ensure that unwanted pet dogs do not become
stray dogs. That dimension was not covered by this article and its survey, yet this, too,
is surely not irrelevant in practice.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Gupta and Gupta: Animal Welfare and Human Health 351

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article.

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Namita Gupta has been teaching human rights at the Centre for Human Rights and
Duties, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India and is presently the Chairperson. She
holds MA, MPhil and PhD degrees in Public Administration from Panjab University,
as well as an MA in Human Rights and Duties.
Address: Centre for Human Rights and Duties, Emerging Areas Building, Panjab
University, Chandigarh 160014, India. [E-mail: [email protected]].

Rajiv Kumar Gupta is a Punjab Civil Services Officer, presently posted as an

Additional Secretary at the Chandigarh Administration in Chandigarh, India. He
studied Engineering at the Punjab Engineering College and holds an MA in English
Literature from the Panjab University, Chandigarh.