Chapter 3

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Solutions of equations in one variable

•This process involves finding a root, or solution,

of an equation of the form f(x) = 0, for a given
function f.

•A root of this equation is also called a zero of the

function f.

2
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 3.1
Bisection Method

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Intermediate Value Theorem
Suppose f is a continuous function defined on the interval
[a, b], with f(a) and f(b) of opposite sign.

There exists a number p in [a, b] with f(p) = 0.

f(x)

f(b)

a p
x
b
f(a)

4
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The Bisection Method
Illustration
f(x)

x x
xu

If function f x  does not change sign between two

points, roots of the equation f x   0 may still exist between the two
points. 5
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The Bisection Method
Illustration
f(x)
f(x)

x xu
x x
x xu

If the function f x  does not change sign between two

points, there may not be any roots for the equation f x   0 between
the two points.

6
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The Bisection Method
Illustration
f(x)

xu x
x

If the function f x  changes sign between two points,

more than one root for the equation f x   0 may exist
between the two points.
7
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The Bisection Method
Illustration
x  xu
xm =
2
f(x)

f(xu) f(xl) f(xu) < 0

xl
x
xm xu
f(xl)
8
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The Bisection Method
Illustration
x  xu
xm =
2
f(x)

f(xl) f(xu) < 0

f(xu)
xl xm
x
xu
f(xl)
9
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The Bisection Method
Illustration
x  xu
xm =
Keep repeating … 2
f(x)

f(xl) f(xu) < 0

f(xu) xl xm
x
xu
f(xl)
10
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The Bisection Method
Step 1
Choose xl and xu as two guesses for the root such that
f(xl) f(xu) < 0, or in other words, f(x) changes sign between xl
and xu.
f(x)

xl
x
xm xu
11
The Bisection Method
Step 2
Estimate the root, xm of the equation f(x) = 0 as the mid point
between xl and xu as
f(x)

x  xu
xm =
2
x xm
x
xu

Estimate of xm
12
The Bisection Method

Step 3
Now check the following

a) If f xl  f xm   0 , then the root lies between xl and xm;

then xl = xl ; xu = xm.

b) If f xl  f xm   0, then the root lies between xm and xu;

then xl = xm; xu = xu.

c) If f xl  f xm   0 ; then the root is xm. Stop the algorithm if

this is true.

13
The Bisection Method
Step 4
Find the new estimate of the root
x  xu
xm =
2
Find the absolute relative approximate error
x new  x old

a  100
m m
new
x m

where
xmold  previous estimate of root
xmnew  current estimate of root

14
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The Bisection Method
Step 5
Compare the absolute relative approximate error a with the
pre-specified error tolerance s.
Go to Step 2 using
Yes new upper and
Is a s ? lower guesses.
No Stop the algorithm

15
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The Bisection Method
Example 1
The floating ball has a specific gravity of 0.6 and has a radius
of 5.5 cm.
Find the depth to which the ball is submerged when floating in
water.

The equation that gives the

depth x to which the ball is
submerged under water is
given by

4
x  0.165x  3.993 10  0
3 2 Diagram of the floating ball

16
The Bisection Method

Example 1 Cont.
Solution
From the physics of the problem, the ball would be submerged
between x = 0 and x = 2R,
where R = radius of the ball,
that is
0  x  2R
0  x  20.055
0  x  0.11

Diagram of the floating ball

17
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The Bisection Method

Example 1 Cont.
Solution
To aid in the understanding of
how this method works to find
the root of an equation, the
graph of f(x) is shown to the
right,
where
f x   x3  0.165x 2  3.993 10- 4

Graph of the function f(x)

18
The Bisection Method
Example 1 Cont.
Let us assume
x  0.00
xu  0.11
Check if the function changes sign between x and xu .
f xl   f 0  0  0.1650  3.993 104  3.993 104
3 2

f xu   f 0.11  0.11  0.1650.11  3.993 104  2.662 104

3 2

Hence

f xl  f xu   f 0 f 0.11  3.993 104  2.662 104  0  
So there is at least on root between x and xu, that is between 0
and 0.11
19
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The Bisection Method
Example 1 Cont.

Graph demonstrating sign change between initial limits

20
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The Bisection Method

Example 1 Cont.
Iteration 1 x  xu 0  0.11
The estimate of the root is xm    0.055
2 2

f xm   f 0.055  0.055  0.1650.055  3.993 104  6.655 105

3 2


f xl  f xm   f 0 f 0.055  3.993 104 6.655 105  0  
Hence the root is bracketed between xm and xu, that is, between
0.055 and 0.11. So, the lower and upper limits of the new bracket
are xl  0.055, xu  0.11

At this point, the absolute relative approximate error a cannot be

calculated as we do not have a previous approximation. 21
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The Bisection Method
Example 1 Cont.

Estimate of the root for Iteration 1

22
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The Bisection Method
Example 1 Cont.
Iteration 2 x  xu 0.055  0.11
The estimate of the root is xm    0.0825
2 2
f xm   f 0.0825  0.0825  0.1650.0825  3.993  10 4  1.622  10 4
3 2

f xl  f xm   f 0.055 f (0.0825)   1.622  10 4 6.655  10 5   0

Hence the root is bracketed between x and xm, that is, between
0.055 and 0.0825. So, the lower and upper limits of the new
bracket are x  0.055, x  0.0825
l u

23
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The Bisection Method
Example 1 Cont.

Estimate of the root for Iteration 2

24
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The Bisection Method
Example 1 Cont.
The absolute relative approximate error a at the end of Iteration 2 is

x new
x old
a  m
new
m
100
x m

0.0825  0.055
 100
0.0825
 33.333%

25
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The Bisection Method
Example 1 Cont.
Iteration 3 x  xu 0.055  0.0825
The estimate of the root is xm    0.06875
2 2
f xm   f 0.06875  0.06875  0.1650.06875  3.993 104  5.563 105
3 2


f xl  f xm   f 0.055 f 0.06875  6.655 105  5.563 105  0  
Hence the root is bracketed between x and xm, that is, between
0.055 and 0.06875. So, the lower and upper limits of the new
bracket are
xl  0.055, xu  0.06875

26
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The Bisection Method
Example 1 Cont.

Estimate of the root for Iteration 3

27
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The Bisection Method

Example 1 Cont.
The absolute relative approximate error a at the end of Iteration 3 is

xmnew  xmold
a  new
100
xm
0.06875  0.0825
 100
0.06875
 20%

28
Copyright © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The Bisection Method
Example 1 Cont.
Root of f(x)=0 as function of number of iterations for
bisection method.
Iteration x xu xm a % f(xm)

1 0.00000 0.11 0.055 ---------- 6.655×10−5

2 0.055 0.11 0.0825 33.33 −1.622×10−4
3 0.055 0.0825 0.06875 20.00 −5.563×10−5
4 0.055 0.06875 0.06188 11.11 4.484×10−6
5 0.06188 0.06875 0.06531 5.263 −2.593×10−5
6 0.06188 0.06531 0.06359 2.702 −1.0804×10−5
7 0.06188 0.06359 0.06273 1.370 −3.176×10−6
8 0.06188 0.06273 0.0623 0.6897 6.497×10−7
9 0.0623 0.06273 0.06252 0.3436 −1.265×10−6
10 0.0623 0.06252 0.06241 0.1721 −3.0768×10−7
29
The Bisection Method
Example 2

xl xu xm f ( xm )
- + +
- + -
 3.2
Newton-Raphson
Method

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Newton-Raphson Method
Illustration

32
Newton-Raphson Method
Illustration
f(x)

f(xi) x f x 
i, i f(xi )
xi 1 = xi -
f (xi )

f(xi-1)


xi+2 xi+1 xi X

33
Newton-Raphson Method
Derivation
f(x)

AB
f(xi) B tan(  
AC

f ( xi )
f ' ( xi ) 
xi  xi 1
C  A X f ( xi )
xi+1 xi xi 1  xi 
f ( xi )

34
Newton-Raphson Method

Step 1
Evaluate f (x) symbolically.

Step 2
Use an initial guess of the root, xi , to estimate the new
value of the root, xi 1 , as
f xi 
xi 1 = xi -
f xi 

35
Newton-Raphson Method

Step 3
Find the absolute relative approximate error a as

xi 1- xi
a =  100
xi 1

36
Newton-Raphson Method

Step 4
Compare the absolute relative approximate error
with the pre-specified relative error tolerance s.

Go to Step 2 using new

Yes
estimate of the root.
Is a s ?

No Stop the algorithm

37
Newton-Raphson Method

Example 1
The floating ball has a specific gravity of 0.6 and has a radius
of 5.5 cm.
Find the depth to which the ball is submerged when floating in
water.

The equation that gives the

depth x to which the ball is
submerged under water is
given by

4
x  0.165x  3.993 10  0
3 2 Diagram of the floating ball

38
Newton-Raphson Method

Example 1 Cont.
Solution

Solve for f ' x 

f x   x 3-0.165 x 2+3.993 10- 4
f ' x   3x 2-0.33x
Let us assume the initial guess of the root of f x   0
is x0  0.05m .

39
Newton-Raphson Method

Example 1 Cont.
Iteration 1
The estimate of the root is

f  x0 
x1  x0 
f '  x0 

 0.05 
0.05  0.1650.05  3.993  10  4
3 2

30.05  0.330.05
2

1.118  10  4
 0.05 
 9  10 3
 0.05   0.01242 
 0.06242
40
Newton-Raphson Method

Example 1 Cont.

Estimate of the root for the first iteration.

41
Newton-Raphson Method

Example 1 Cont.
The absolute relative approximate error a at the end of Iteration 1
is

x1  x0
a   100
x1
0.06242  0.05
  100
0.06242
 19.90%

42
Newton-Raphson Method

Example 1 Cont.
Iteration 2
The estimate of the root is
f  x1 
x2  x1 
f '  x1 

 0.06242 
0.06242   0.1650.06242   3.993  10  4
3 2

30.06242   0.330.06242 
2

 3.97781 10 7
 0.06242 
 8.90973  10 3

 0.06242  4.4646  10 5 
 0.06238

43
Newton-Raphson Method

Example 1 Cont.

Estimate of the root for the Iteration 2.

44
Newton-Raphson Method

Example 1 Cont.
The absolute relative approximate error a at the end of Iteration 2
is

x2  x1
a   100
x2
0.06238  0.06242
  100
0.06238
 0.0716%

45
Newton-Raphson Method

Example 1 Cont.
Iteration 3
The estimate of the root is
f  x2 
x3  x2 
f '  x2 

 0.06238 
0.06238  0.1650.06238  3.993  10  4
3 2

30.06238  0.330.06238
2

4.44  10 11
 0.06238 
 8.91171 10 3
 
 0.06238   4.9822  10 9
 0.06238
46
Newton-Raphson Method
Example 1 Cont.

Estimate of the root for the Iteration 3. 47

Newton-Raphson Method

Example 1 Cont.
The absolute relative approximate error a at the end of Iteration 3
is
x2  x1
a   100
x2
0.06238  0.06238
  100
0.06238
 0%

48
Newton-Raphson Method
Example 2

49
 3.3
Secant Method

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The Secant Method
Illustration

51
51
The Secant Method
Derivation
Newton’s Method
f(xi )
xi 1 = xi - (1)
f (xi )
Approximate the derivative
f ( xi )  f ( xi 1 )
f ( xi )  (2)
xi  xi 1

Substituting Equation (2) into Equation (1) gives

the Secant method

f ( xi )( xi  xi 1 )
xi 1  xi 
f ( xi )  f ( xi 1 )
52
The Secant Method

Step 1
Calculate the next estimate of the root from two initial guesses

f ( xi )( xi  xi 1 )
xi 1  xi 
f ( xi )  f ( xi 1 )
Find the absolute relative approximate error

xi 1- xi
a =  100
xi 1

53
The Secant Method

Step 2
Find if the absolute relative approximate error is greater
than the prespecified relative error tolerance.

If so, go back to step 1, else stop the algorithm.

54
The Secant Method

Example 1
The floating ball has a specific gravity of 0.6 and has a radius
of 5.5 cm.
Find the depth to which the ball is submerged when floating in
water.

The equation that gives the

depth x to which the ball is
submerged under water is
given by

4
x  0.165x  3.993 10  0
3 2 Diagram of the floating ball

55
The Secant Method
Example 1 Cont.
Solution
Let us assume the initial guesses of the root of f x   0
as x1  0.02 and x0  0.05.

Iteration 1
The estimate of the root is
f x0 x0  x1 
x1  x0 
f x0   f x1 

 0.05 
0.05  0.1650.05  3.993 10 0.05  0.02
3 2 4

0.05  0.1650.05  3.99310  0.02  0.1650.02  3.99310 

3 2 4 3 2 4

 0.06461

56
The Secant Method
Example 1 Cont.
The absolute relative approximate error a at the end of
Iteration 1 is
x1  x0
a  100
x1
0.06461  0.05
 100
0.06461
 22.62%

57
The Secant Method
Example 1 Cont.

Graph of results of Iteration 1.

58
The Secant Method
Example 1 Cont.

Iteration 2
The estimate of the root is
f x1 x1  x0 
x2  x1 
f x1   f x0 

 0.06461 
0.06461  0.1650.06461  3.993 10 0.06461  0.05
3 2 4

0.06461  0.1650.06461  3.99310  0.05  0.1650.05  3.993 10 

3 2 4 3 2 4

 0.06241

59
The Secant Method
Example 1 Cont.
The absolute relative approximate error a at the end of
Iteration 2 is
x2  x1
a  100
x2
0.06241  0.06461
 100
0.06241
 3.525%

60
The Secant Method
Example 1 Cont.

Graph of results of Iteration 2.

61
The Secant Method

Example 1 Cont.
Iteration 3
The estimate of the root is
f x2 x2  x1 
x3  x2 
f x2   f x1 

 0.06241 
0.06241  0.1650.06241  3.993 10 0.06241  0.06461
3 2 4

0.06241  0.1650.06241  3.993 10  0.05  0.1650.06461  3.99310 

3 2 4 3 2 4

 0.06238

62
The Secant Method
Example 1 Cont.
The absolute relative approximate error a at the end of
Iteration 3 is
x3  x2
a  100
x3
0.06238  0.06241
 100
0.06238
 0.0595%

63
The Secant Method
Iteration #3

Graph of results of Iteration 3.

64
The Secant Method f ( xi )( xi  xi 1 )
xi 1  xi 
f ( xi )  f ( xi 1 )
Example 2

65
The Secant Method f ( xi )( xi  xi 1 )
xi 1  xi 
f ( xi )  f ( xi 1 )
Example 2

66