PERSUASION AND ARGUMENT - what's the difference?

Okay, so you've been asked to write to persuade. But what's the difference
between persuading and arguing? Well... not a lot! In fact, you'll be creating two very
similar styles of writing. This is because they are both writing that has a similar purpose,
that of seeking to influence. But, you've guessed it... there are key differences that the
examiner looks for and knowing about these will help push up your marks and help you
towards a higher grade!

When you set out to persuade someone, you want them to accept your opinion on an issue:
you want to change that person's mind to your way of thinking. To do this, you will - just as
with 'writing to argue' - be presenting a form of written argument; but when you are trying
to persuade, your argument is expected to be more passionate, even more one-sided than
the far more balanced presentation of views typical of "Writing to Argue". This is because
persuasion is based on a personal conviction that your way of thinking is
the right way.

 This does not mean you should ignore your opponent's views - far from it. That's a
sure fire way to 'put their back up' if ever there was one! And lose marks! You're
looking only for success and high marks. Are you persuaded yet? Read on...
 When writing to argue, you're expected to take account of opposing views and find
ways to counter and overcome these, mostly through the use of well-reasoned
points. This is because when you are asked to argue, you need to show you have
recognises that other equally valid views exist on the subject.

This difference means that when you write to persuade, you can afford to be:

 more one-sided and personal

 more passionate and emotional.
 more reliant on rhetorical language and devices.
 !!THREE TOP TIPS!!
TOP TIP NUMBER ONE
Your reader or listener needs to feel "warm" towards you - to be
brought to feel that you are worth listening to - worthy of their
time. This means that you need to find a way to present yourself
as both reasonable and authoritative on your topic. In your
opening paragraph explain this. Perhaps you can say that you are
the head of the Year 11 committee, or have been a girl guide /
boy scout leader, and so on.

TOP TIP NUMBER TWO

One way to bring your reader to start agreeing with you, right
from the outset, is to "forge common ground". This means
finding a way to show that both you and your opponent have
a similar goal. This reduces the differences between the two of
you to something much more manageable and achievable. There's
much more on this later.

TOP TIP NUMBER THREE

A highly effective persuasive device, almost foolproof, is to tell
an emotional anecdote. An anecdote is a brief and fascinating
story from life, often from personal experience. Its purpose is to
create a powerful and emotional illustration of why your view is
the right view to hold.

 Although anecdotes are based on real events, for your

coursework and exam, you can make up the story, so long
as it is realistic and reasonable. Click here for more on
this.

WHAT IS EXPECTED OF YOU?

For coursework or exam, you will be asked:
  to write in a particular form (i.e. format: a newspaper or magazine article,
a formal or informal letter or the text of a speech)
 to write for a particular kind of audience.

To gain a high grade, you will need to:

 use an effective and persuasive structure built up through several clear topic
paragraphs
 use what are called discourse markers (i.e. 'argument sign-posts' such as, for a
start..., on the other hand..., therefore..., to continue..., as you can see...,
however..., but..., to conclude...).
o These help your ideas flow and help your reader follow your
argument
 show you are aware of the form you are writing in and its genre conventions
 show a clear awareness of your intended audience by writing in a suitable style
 use effective persuasive techniques.

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW...

The art of argument and persuasion is a very ancient art indeed. In fact, the ancient Greeks
called the art of using language persuasively, rhetoric (hence, phrases you might have
heard such as 'rhetorical language' and 'rhetorical devices' - these both refer to ways
of using language that seem especially persuasive or powerful). Two of the most famous
teachers of the ancient art of rhetoric were Plato's student, Aristotle and the Roman, Cicero.

CLASSICAL RHETORIC

If the two ancient teachers Aristotle and Cicero were helping you
write to persuade, they would be trying to convince you
(using rhetorical language, no doubt...) that the ideal form of
argument was through the use of one thing and one thing
alone... reason (which they called logos); however, these ancient
scholars both realised that, humans being human after all, we
were prone to being persuaded by two other techniques: an appeal
 to character (which they called ethos) and an appeal
to emotion (which they called pathos).

LOGOS
THE APPEAL TO REASON
Most people believe themselves to be reasonable and to have a
logical mind, so appealing to a person's sense of reason is
generally thought to be the single most effective means of
convincing them to change their way of thinking (e.g. 'If you do
this, then that will happen...').

ETHOS
THE APPEAL TO CHARACTER
We all share certain common ideas about what is right, just or fair.
By demonstrating your own, or appealing your opponent's, sense
of what is right and fair, you can create quite a powerful
persuasive device. (E.g. 'Both of us, I'm sure, would agree that
trampling roughshod over a child's rights must be very wrong...').

PATHOS
THE APPEAL TO EMOTION
It is said that when emotion comes in through the door, reason
leaves via the window, thus when trying to persuade, using
emotional pleas need great care. That said, persuasion does very
often succeed by the careful and considered use of an emotional
plea - especially one that shows just how passionate you feel for
your point of view (E.g. 'Can we genuinely call ourselves human
beings when we allow this kind of thing to continue unabated..?).

HOW TO GAIN A HIGH GRADE

1. In all you write, never ignore your audience (i.e. your
reader): always show you have thought closely about their needs

Just imagine how difficult it would be to persuade a stranger! Always 'get to know'
your reader by working out what brought them to think the way they do. Showing
a close awareness of your audience is a key aspect of the mark scheme for this
particular question in the exam.

Follow these tips...

 Be respectful... Use an appropriate level of formality by creating an

effective register to suit your audience and purpose.
 Be generous... 'What's in it for me?': people put their own interests first. What can
you offer your readers to help them change their mind?
 Be interesting... especially as you open and close your writing aim for maximum
interest! Don't be shy - be different! It gains attention and it gains marks!
 Be personal... Persuasion works best when you know your audience well so
consider your reader, think about what their current views are and what has brought
them to think that way - think about addressing them as a 'friend using the pronoun
'You'.
 Be concerned... and show that you share your reader's concerns - even if your view
is different.
 Be reasonable... To change a person's mind, you need to recognise that they feel
they hold a reasonable view already. You must use reason in return and show how
much more reasonable your own position is.
 Be diplomatic... Shouting is never a good idea if you're trying to persuade someone
- harsh persuasive methods are rather like shouting. People rarely change their
minds easily (do you?) so, whilst you obviously cannot agree with what the other
side currently believe or do, you must work out the best way to show them that your
way is a better way to think or act.
 Be modest... no one will listen to an arrogant, impolite big-head.
 Be trustworthy... Would you listen to someone you couldn't trust? Not likely! So
find ways of convincing your readers that you are a sound individual with your feet
firmly on the ground. Sound sincere and authentic - even earnest and passionate if it
is appropriate to the cause. Let your audience know that you are worth listening to,
 that you know what you are talking about and that you have a good reason for
holding the beliefs that you do.
 Be convincing... The most important persuasive technique is to
sound authentic and passionate (as if you really mean what you say!) and this
requires a confident tone: sound like you are sincere and believable. Try things
like rhetorical devices and emotive language. Back up claims with solid
evidence. For more on these see below.
 Be yourself... In an exam, what you write will - naturally - be purely made up: you
are being tested on your writing skills, not on your ability to speak the truth and
nothing but the truth. So the evidence you choose to support your case will need to
be made up to suit the question. There is no problem with this, but you must make
sure it is realistic and reasonable. Also, unless in the unlikely event that the exam
question specifies differently, write as the sixteen-year-old school student that
you are, never as some imaginary adult. Remember
that sincerity and conviction are very convincing traits in a person pretending you
are someone else will make it very difficult to sound sincere and authentic.

2. Show you have thought long and hard about why you are writing -
your purpose
Read your question with care until you are absolutely absorbed into the scenario it
requires: try to become the person that holds this viewpoint. Only then will you be
at your most convincing.

But be realistic: your purpose is to change minds and sometimes a compromise is the most
sensible next step in the process. Minds rarely change quickly and easily: take this into
account when working out your objectives - maybe a meeting to discuss the issue is a
sensible objective to hold?

3. Show clearly you have considered the needs of what you are
creating - its form
Be sure you know the conventions required for various forms of writing
  You need to understand how to write in a variety of forms: formal and informal
letters, magazine articles, essays, speeches, and so on.
 Make sure you understand the particular conventions of whichever form you must
use for example, if you write a speech use a conversational tone without speech
marks if you write a letter, set it out correctly and neatly.
 Whichever form you use, you must capture and hold on to your reader's attention -
but be subtle and consider exactly what would appeal to that kind of reader with that
kind of mind-set.
 The examiner absolutely expects to see a 'consciously shaped essay, letter, speech
or article. Plan well and give what you write a progressively effective structure one
that is interesting and clear. Build each paragraph around one topic that is
introduced by an initial 'topic sentence aim to link each paragraph smoothly together
by finishing with a sentence that subtly 'hooks into the opening topic sentence of the
following paragraph.

4. Show you know how to be persuasive

Writing that is coherent and fluent and which flows naturally,

smoothly and with a sense of unity (i.e. singleness of purpose) is
writing that seeks to help your reader trust and believe in you and
your cause; it shows a sensitive understanding of their current
beliefs; it seeks to forge common ground; it is consciously
shaped and is a form of crafted persuasion that offers something in
return to your 'opponent'...

All of this will show that you are using a sophisticated and subtle
persuasive style. It is such points as these that will allow the
examiner to give you the high grade you want.

Switch roles!
Which points and style would
change your mind?
 Here is a small section of the mark scheme the examiners from a
major examining board use when they award a grade A:

 shows sustained awareness of the audience

 arguments are convincingly developed and supported by
relevant detail
 ideas are selected and prioritised to construct a sophisticated
argument
 paragraphs are effectively varied in length and structure
 a wide range of appropriate, ambitious vocabulary is used
 the writing flows and is made coherent through the use
of connectives
 a range of rhetorical devices are used appropriately - CLICK
HERE FOR MORE ON THIS IMPORTANT ASPECT!

WRITING YOUR ESSAY FOR COURSEWORK OR EXAM...

1. Plan
2. Write
3. Check

1. PLAN

 Planning: in the mark scheme, you are awarded extra marks if your writing shows
clear evidence that it has been consciously shaped; this means creating writing
that is well-structured. A plan is the best way to make sure your writing scores
highly in this area.
 Think hard about the requirements of the form of your writing: what voice must you
adopt; what layout is needed; what genre conventions must you adhere to. Is it an
essay, an article, a speech, a letter... or what?
 Decide on a suitable style: what kind of language and layout
will appeal to, engage and convince your reader?
  Brainstorm to create a list of the best points in favour of your idea - many students
use a 'spider diagram' but others prefer two columns of 'for' and 'against' ideas.
 Choose four or five of the most convincing points from your brainstorm.
Check that each point is truly separate and not a part of a larger, more general
point. If it is, use only the larger point.
 Make sure each point is truly convincing - switch roles: would it persuade
you?
 Organise your points into a progressively persuasive order.
 What is the strongest reason against your view? What are the 'other side's
views? At all costs, avoid making the other side feel foolish for believing differently
from yourself - but do counteract their most important beliefs by showing, with
evidence (which needs to be sensible and, if necessary, made up) that your way of
thinking is the better considered.
 Engage your reader's attention by being lively and interesting.
 Always avoid stating the boringly obvious.
 Create a sense of authenticity - if you truly believe what you say you do, sound as
if you do! Make your writing sound sincere and trustworthy.
 Create a sense of authority - consider making up some believable evidence to
support your views (a survey, a respected opinion, etc.).

2. WRITE
THE OPENING PARAGRAPH

 Engage or 'grab your reader's attention straight away - involve and interest
them at the outset.
 State why you are writing
 Involve your reader by using 'you', 'we - if appropriate!
 State why you have the authority to write on this topic and that you are
reasonable and trustworthy.
 Forge common ground between you and your reader - mention an outcome both
of you would endorse.
 Use a rhetorical question.
 Choose your words with precision and care.
THE BODY (CENTRAL) PARAGRAPHS

 Start each paragraph with a topic sentence that tells what it's about.
 Use one further rhetorical question - make it subtle.
 Develop only a single main point only per paragraph.
 Explain the topic of the paragraph by writing four to five extra sentences,
using 'connectives such as 'therefore...', 'and so...', 'so you see...'.
 Acknowledge the main opposing view but with care, subtlety and
tact countering it tactfully to show how much more likely your view is to produce the
desired outcome (i.e. the common ground between you).
 Help your reader relate and involve them - use an interesting (and if
appropriate, amusing) anecdote.
 Add authority - quote an acknowledged expert, a survey or any similar appropriate
and sensibly made up support for your case.
 Use vivid description - create a vivid image that will help your reader see your
point of view.
 Use emotion carefully. Again, an anecdote might work well, e.g. 'People think that
living on the streets is a matter of choice, but let me tell you about Alex. He was
twelve when he left home...'.
 Make your argument powerful by using a few, well chosen rhetorical
devices:

RHETORICAL DEVICES

Rhetorical questions, similes, metaphors, emotive language (used with

care), irony (but never sarcasm), 'lists of three', repetition, parallel
structures, hyperbole (i.e. exaggeration for effect), humour (care:
backfires very easily!)...

CLICK HERE FOR THE ENGLISHBIZ GUIDE TO RHETORICAL

DEVICES
  Add variety by using interesting vocabulary and sentences. Remember that shorter
sentences are snappier and often clearer and that an occasional ultra-short
sentence can be very powerful.
 Be fluent and coherent - link your ideas effectively.

LINKING EXPRESSIONS
'However... 'although...', 'if so...', 'and so...', 'but...',
'clearly...', 'on the other hand...', 'therefore...',
'supposing that...', 'furthermore...', 'looked at another
way...', 'in contrast...', 'on the contrary...', etc.

THE CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH

 Aim to finish strongly, positively and interestingly.

 Restate your viewpoint in an interesting way - express it slightly differently from the
way you did in your first paragraph.
 Emphasise again, very succinctly, why your view is worthy of close consideration.
 Make sure your reader knows precisely what you would like to happen next. This
might be a discussion, a compromise... you decide.
 If appropriate to your audience and purpose, end with an emotional plea.

3. CHECK

Each year, literally thousands of students fail to achieve the marks they could.
Don't be one of them ALWAYS CHECK YOUR WRITING BEFORE HANDING IN!

Read each sentence immediately after you write it

Use a variety of sentence types and styles and remember that shorter sentences are
often clearer and crisper sounding. An occasional ultra-short sentence can add real
impact to writing.
Read each sentence before you proceed to the next to check it is fluent, accurate and
complete. Does it follow on logically from the previous sentence?

Check every paragraph

A paragraph is a series of sentences (often at least five) that develop from a single topic
sentence used to introduce the point of the paragraph.

Avoid creating overly short paragraphs as this suggests either a) you do not know what a
paragraph is or b) that you have no explained the point of the paragraph in sufficient detail.
Try to make sure that each paragraph flows naturally on from its predecessor by using the
final sentence of each paragraph to subtly 'hook into the topic of the next paragraph.

To correct a missed paragraph simply put this mark where you want in to be: //
then, in your margin write: // = new paragraph. The examiner will not mark you
down for this so long as you have not forgotten all of your paragraphs.

Examine each comma

A very common error and poor style is to use a comma instead of a full stop to end a
sentence. This makes two or more stylish, short and crisp sentences into one long, drawn
out and boring sentence! Always end each sentence with a full stop - or a semi-colon if you
know how to use this punctuation mark.

Look at every apostrophe

Apostrophes are only ever used for two reasons. But so many students fail to use them
effectively. If two words are squeezed together into one and a letter is missed out in the
process, show where the letter was by inserting an apostrophe. So should not
becomes shouldn't

And when one of two nouns belong to the other, show which one possesses which by adding
apostrophe+s to its end. So the school's entrance is correct because the entrance is
'possessed by the school, also Alan's book shows a similar possession.

But watch out for your use of it's. With an apostrophe this is always a shortened form of it
is or it has, as in it's cold. If you mean belonging to it, as in its fur is shiny and
smooth, no apostrophe is needed.
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