A REPORT ON INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

IN

TECH MAHINDRA
The project report is submitted in partial fulfilment
of the requirement of the award of
DIPLOMA IN

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Submitted by
N.KRISHNA CHAITANYA (21038-EE-025)

Under the guidance of

Sri. P.SHREENIVAS
Central manager of Tech Mahindra

State Board of Technical Education & Training

Diploma in Electrical and Electronics Engineering
M.R.A.G.R Govt Polytechnic, VIZIANAGARAM (2021-2024)

i
 DIPLOMA
IN
ELECRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
M.R.A.G.R Government polytechnic
Vizianagaram
(2021-2024)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that N.KRISHNA CHAITANYA (21038-EE-025) is bonafide

student of M.R.A.G.R Government polytechnic, Vizianagaram have completed Project and
Submitted the Project Report to the Institution in Partial fulfilment of requirements for the
Award of DIPLOMA in ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING. During the
above mentioned period his conduct and performance is found to be satisfactory

Industrial Training Incharge Head of the section

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is great privilege for us to present the training report on Study of Electrical

Machinery ,TECH MAHINDRA SMART-T Auto Nagar, Visakhapatnam in partial
fulfilment of requirement for completion of diploma in Electrical and Electronics Engineering
of SBTET .A.P

We feel happy to convey our sincere thanks to our beloved principal of our college
Smt. J.ASHA RAMANI, M.E for her kind cooperation in completing our project
successfully. We intend to express our thanks with obedience to our Head of Department Smt.
K.PADMAJA, M.TECH, MBA for cordial assistance rendered by her .

We take this opportunity to express our deep and sincere indebtedness to our
esteemed guide Sri. P.SHREENIVAS, MBA Centre manager of Tech Mahindra for his
discrete suggestions, inspiring guidance and cooperation in successfully bringing out this
training report.

We are also thankful to all members of our department and working staff who
helped us directly and indirectly in completing this training report.

Yours Faithfully
N.KRISHNA CHAITANYA
(21038-EE-025)

iii
 ABSTRACT

This report presents a comprehensive account of the industrial training undertaken as

part of the diploma curriculum in Electrical and Electronics Engineering. The training was

conducted at Tech Mahindra, a leading firm in the technical training academy over a period of

six months

The primary objective of this industrial training was to bridge the gap between

academic knowledge and practical application in a real-world industrial environment.

Throughout the training period, I was engaged in various projects and tasks that provided

hands-on experience with modern electrical and electronic systems, equipment, and

technologies. Key areas of focus included circuit design, control systems, power distribution,

and maintenance of industrial automation systems. Under the mentorship of experienced

professionals, I gained invaluable insights into the operational procedures, safety protocols,

and troubleshooting techniques essential for efficient and safe engineering practices. The

training also involved collaborative projects where I worked alongside engineers and

technicians to solve complex problems, enhancing my teamwork and communication skills.

Furthermore, this training period allowed me to observe and participate in the implementation

of cutting-edge technologies and innovations currently shaping the industry. The experience

at Tech Mahindra has been invaluable, providing us with practical insights and a solid

foundation for professional development.

iv
 INDEX

S.NO CONTENT PAGE NO

1. Introduction of Tech Mahindra. 1

2. Soldering 3

3. Starters. 9

4. Single phase wiring 15

5. CCTV installation 21

6. Assembling of led lights and fans 27

7. Inverters and generators 32

8. Conclusion 37

v
 CONTENTS
PAGE NO

CHAPTER 1: 1-2
1.INTRODUCTION OF TECH MAHINDRA FOUNDATION

CHAPTER 2: 3-8
2.SOLDERING
2.1.INTRODICTION
2.2.WHAT IS SOLDERING
2.3.TYPES OF SOLDERING
2.4.PROCESS OF SOLDERING
2.5.SOLDERING TOOLS
2.6.ADVANTAGES OF SOLDERING
2.7.DISADVANTAGES OF SOLDERING
2.8. APPLICATIONS OF SOLDERING

CHAPTER 3: 9-14
3.STARTERS
3.1.INTRODUCTION OF STARTERS
3.2.TYPES OF STARTERS
3.3.D.O.L STARTER
3.4.ROTOR RESISTANCE STARTER
3.5.STATOR RESISTANCE STARTER
3.6.AUTO TRANSFORMER STARTER
3.7.STAR DELTA STARTER
3.8.FUNDAMENTAL FUNCTIONS OF STARTERS

Vi
CHAPTER 4: 15-20
4.SINGLE PHASE WIRING
4.1.INTRODUCTION
4.2.TYPES OF SINGLE PHASE WIRING
4.3.MATERIALS USED IN SINGLE PHASE WIRING
4.4.RELATION B/W 3 PHASE AND 1 PHASE WIRING
4.5.APPLICATIONS OF SINGLE PHASE WIRING

CHAPTER 5: 21-26
5.CCTV INSTALLATION
5.1.INTRODUCTION
5.2.MATERIALS REQUIRED
5.3.METHODS OF INSTALLATION
5.4.APPLICATIONS OF CCTV’S

CHAPTER 6: 27-31
6.INVERTERS AND GENERATORS
6.1.INTRODUCTION
6.2.VARIOUS TYPES OF INVERTERS AND GENERATORS
6.3.APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 7: 32-36
7.ASSEMBLING OF LED LIGHTS AND FANS
7.1.LED LIGHTS AND IT’S ASSEMBLING
7.2.CEILING FAN REPAIR
7.3.PROBLEM FACED BY FANS

CONCLUSION: 37
Vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

S.NO FIG NO FIGURE NAME Page No

1 2.1 Soldering 4

2 2.2 Desoldering 8

3 3.1 Motor Starter Circuitry & Operation 10

4 3.2 D.O.L.Starter 11

5 3.3 Rotor Resistance Starter 12

6 3.4 Stator Resistance Starter 12

7 3.5 Auto Transformer Starter 13

8 3.6 Star-Delta Starter 13

9 4.1 Single Phase House Wiring Module 19

10 5.1 CCTV Camera Installation 25

11 6.1 Basic Inverter working 30

12 6.2 Generator 31

13 7.1 LED Light Assembling 33

14 7.2 Ceiling Fan Repair 35

15 7.3 Table Fan Repair 36

viii
CHAPTER-1

1
 INTRODUCTION OF TECH MAHINDRA FOUNDATION

BCT TECH MAHINDRA:

Firstly We are thank full to SBTET to providing industrial Training for diploma students on the
purpose of training we are going to the company of TECH MAHINDRA BCT(Bhagavathula charitable trust)
TMF SMART -T TRAINING CENTER , autonagar , visakhapatnam, 530026 established by 2017 on the
purpose of providing smart training for students Smt. P.SHREENIVAS M.B.A, CENTER MANAGER Of
BCT. Students trainer Sri. M.AYYAPPA, B.TECH and soft skills trainer Smt. T.KEERTHISHA ,M.A
ENGLISH . The trust is providing for students who are interested in technically .this also providing poor
children for education and oldage homes also running from on 2017 successfully running on the supporting
of SBTET.

Secondly we are going to talk about BCT- Bhagavathula charitable trust , visakhapatnam.This trust
is providing With its focus on ‘Rural prosperity for India’s growth’, Bhagavatula Charitable Trust is a non-
profit, non-sectarian social service organization involved in transforming rural Andhra Pradesh. Established
in 1976, our four-decade-long journey has centered on diverse aspects that impact development and enhance
the quality of life for people in rural Andhra Pradesh, especially in the Visakhapatnam district.
Working with a participatory approach, our integrated rural development programs nurture change agents
within villages and create a paradigm for replication both nationally as well as internationally.

Founded by Sri Dr. BV Parameswara Rao, BCT has conducted over 100 pilot programs, a few of which have
become models for replication across country. These include women’s self-help groups (precursor to
DWACRA & SHG), rural banking, wasteland development, development of literacy primers etc. Today BCT
continues to focus its energies on education, livelihoods, support to specially-abled, agricultural communities
and rural entrepreneurship models.

2
CHAPTER-2

3
 SOLDERING
INTRODUCTION:
Soldering is a process that joins two or more types of metals through melting solder. The first soldering iron
was developed in 1896 by Richard Schneider and August Tinnerhol and was called the “First Electric Heating
Apparatus”.

Soldering is commonly used in electronics, as it is simple and safe in joining sensitive materials. Likewise,
the process is also known for metalworking, plumbing, roofing and joining wires. Let’s take an in-depth look
into soldering to find out more.

WHAT IS SOLDERING:
Soldering uses a filler metal with a low melting point, also known as solder, to join metal surfaces. The solder is
usually made up of an alloy consisting of tin and lead whose melting point is around 235°C and 350°C, respectively.

But when tin and lead are mixed then the melting point of the mixture is reduced to 183°C. The alloy is melted by
using a hot iron at above 316 °C (600 °F).

As the solder cools, it creates a strong electrical and mechanical bond between the metal surfaces. The bond allows
the metal parts to achieve electrical contact while it is held in place.

Note that lead-free solders are increasingly used as an alternative to environmentally harmful lead-based solders due
to regulations.

Fig 2.1 soldering

TYPES OF SOLDERING:
Here are three soldering types that are used at varying temperature levels that result in different joint strengths:

1.Soft soldering (90 °C – 450 °C)

The solder melts alloys containing lead that has a low melting point. With a lower melting point, this soldering
type minimises the thermal stress wherein the base metals are subjected.

4
2.Hard soldering (above 450 °C)

Brass and silver are usually hard soldered, with the use of a flame via blowtorch to melt the filler metal. Hard
soldering has better mechanical strength than soft soldering, which applies to crafting jewellery and some
machining operations.

3.Brazing (above 450 °C)

Brazing uses metals with a much higher melting point compared to hard and soft soldering. It produces the
strongest result, which is perfect for metal repairs and for pipe joining.

PROCESS OF SOLDERING:
The first step in soldering is to wear protective gear in a well-ventilated area. Next, the soldering iron should
be preheated. For cleaning the soldering tip, you can use a wet sponge. Likewise, any residue on the workpiece
surface should be wiped off.

After finishing the preparations, it’s time to heat the base metal to a working temperature using the hot iron.
Doing so will help prevent thermal shock, activate the solder, and overall improve the quality of the joint. A
good indicator that the metals are well-heated is when the molten solder freely flows into the joint. The filler
material solidifies as it cools down, making it the best time for inspection.

The key to successful soldering is ensuring that the metals being joined are clean and free of any oxides or
other contaminants
Basic Steps of Soldering:

1. Joint fitting: A clearance of 0.005” is suitable for most soldering. When soldering precoated metals, a
clearance of 0.001” is recommended for maximum mechanical strength.
2. Types of cleaning include:

Mechanical – Scotch Brite pad, emery cloth Chemical – cleaning using acids to remove rust, scale
or sulfides. Most commonly used acids are hydrochloric and sulphuric.

3. Application of flux

Flux should be capable of removing oxides and stop them from reforming.

Flux should permit displacement by the solder.

Flux should promote wetting of the surface by the solder.

4. Application of heat: Heating the joints evenly or uniformly is of utmost importance to insure a sound
joint.

Types of soldering equipment:

Soldering irons – electric

Plumbers torch – propane low heat

Dip soldering – large tank with molten solder to solder multiple joints

Oven heating – only used in production where other heating methods are impractical

5
 5. Applying the Solder takes place in two steps:
Wetting the metal surfaces Filling the gap between the wetted surfaces with solder Depending upon
conditions dictated by the application, each step can be done separately. This allows for more easily
controlled conditions.
6. Cooling the Joint:

As soon as possible after soldering the joint may be cooled using a water spray or air blast. Slow
cooling could cause excessive alloying, resulting in a brittle joint.
7. Flux Residue Treatment:

Non-corrosive fluxes are ones which are rosin base and do not require removal. Corrosive fluxes are
fluxes containing zinc chloride. Removal is a must to prevent corrosion.

SOLDERING TOOLS:
Soldering irons are hand tools that heat the solder above its melting temperatures. They offer a wide variety
of sizes, which is great for different applications. The tip of the iron has different types and sizes that suit a
variety of projects.
Soldering guns are employed when higher temperatures require more power. A soldering gun heats quicker
and offers better flexibility as it can be operated in confined spaces, heavy electrical connections, and
metalworks.
Soldering stations are multipurpose devices that have everything covered for minor projects. They are more
durable than regular soldering irons due to them being equipped with sensors, fuses, alerts and temperature
regulation.

1.Solders:
Lead-based solder

Most soldering projects are typically performed using lead solder consisting of a 60-40 tin-to-lead ratio. This
solder melts in a range of 180 to 190°C and is usually the best choice for soldering electrical connections.

Lead-free solder

As a way to mitigate the use of harmful elements, lead-free solders were developed. These usually come as
solder wire and are composed of metals with higher melting points: tin, copper, bismuth, silver, brass, indium,
and antimony.

Flux core solder

These filler metals come as paste or soldering wires that contain a flux solder core. The flux releases a
protective layer around the workpiece as it is consumed, which achieves cleaner electronic connections and
better wetting properties

6
2.FLUX:
Rosin flux (alternatively called passive flux) is used for electronics as it leaves a residue that doesn’t lead to
corrosion.

Acid flux solders contain aggressive properties, which are effective in removing the oxides of the metal
surface. This leads to stronger and cleaner metal joints compared to rosin.

The type of flux can be broken down into two groups depending on its application. No-clean flux is made with
natural rosin or other synthetic materials, requiring no post-cleanup, while water-soluble flux contains water-
soluble resin that is easily removed by rinsing.

ADVANTAGES OF SOLDERING:
1.Soldering is operated at lower temperatures compared to common welding methods.

2.Most metals and non-metals can be soldered.

3.A simple process makes it easy to learn.

4.The base metal isn’t melted in the process, unlike welding techniques such as stick welding, flux-cored
welding, etc.

5.Soft soldering can be undone using a desoldering tool without damaging the base materials.

DISADVANTAGES OF SOLDERING:
1.Weaker joints compared to other welding methods such as MIG and TIG.
2.Soldering isn’t suitable at high temperatures, as the solder has a low melting point.

3.Heavy metals aren’t suitable for soldering.

4.Melted solder might leave a toxic flux residue.

5.Improper heating may cause deformities or voids in the solder.

DESOLDERING:
From time to time, components fail and need replacement. When these components are mechanically held in
place with solder, a process called desoldering removes the material cleanly and safely.

A soldering iron or a heat gun can be utilised to melt the solder, allowing you to safely remove any soldered
components. To remove the liquid solder, you can use a desoldering pump as a vacuum, or a soldering wick
to absorb the molten solder.
Alternatively, you can resort to an aggressive method using compressed air that can blow off the liquid solder.

7
 Fig 2.2 Desoldering

APPLICATIONS OF SOLDERING:

Electronics Industry

The most popular application of this fusion process is electronics soldering, where wires are joined and
electronic components are fused to a circuit board. This technique allows soldering components together with
the luxury of desoldering when needed.

Roofing’s

Soldering can be used in creating leak-proof roofings wherein the galvanised steel is infused with solder. The
soldering iron tip is far broader when used in this application compared to other uses.

Sections
Soldering is applied in the piping and plumbing industry as a way to create joint sections. It is a straightforward
process and a reliable solution in sealing the connections in copper pipes, for example.

Art

Soldering can be used to create stained glass art, wire modelling, sculptures, jewellery and other creative
works.
Metalwork

The soldering material can be used to fill cavities and even out rough surfaces. This process is practiced to
fuse metal sheets, pipes and other applications where metals don’t undergo high temperatures.

Automation

Technology allows us to automate the soldering process through the use of programmed robots. Not only does
it create precise joints but it is also fast in production speed.

8
CHAPTER-3

9
 STARTERS
INTRODUCTION:
Motor starters are one of the major inventions for motor control applications. As the name suggests, a
starter is an electrical device which controls the electrical power for starting a motor. These electrical devices
are also used for the purpose of stopping, reversing and protecting electric motors. The following are the two
major components of a starter:

Contactor: The main function of the contactor is to control the electric current to the motor. A contactor can
make or break power to the circuit.

Overload Relay: Overheating and drawing too much current can cause the motor to burn out and become
practically useless. Overload relays prevent this from happening and protect the motor from any potential
danger.

A starter is an assembly of these two components, which allows it to turn on or off an electric motor or motor
controlled electrical equipment. The starter also provides the necessary overload protection to the circuit.

TYPES OF STARTERS:
There are several types of motor starters. However, the two most basic types of these electrical devices are:

Manual Starters

Manual starters are devices that are operated manually. These starters are extremely easy and straightforward
to operate and do not require expert intervention. The starter includes a button (or rotary knob) which enables
a user to turn the connected equipment on or off. The buttons feature mechanical linkages, which make the
contacts open or close, starting or stopping the motor. The following features of a manual starter make it a
preferred choice over other types:

These starters deliver a safe, as well as economical operation.

The compact size of these devices make them suitable for a wide range of applications.

They provide overload protection to the motor, protecting it from any potential damage.

These devices come with a vast choice of enclosures.

The initial cost of the manual starter is low.

Magnetic Motor Starters

3.1 Motor Starter Circuitry & Operation

10
This is the other main type of motor starter. It is operated electromagnetically. It means that the motor load
connected to the motor starter is typically started and stopped using a lower and safer voltage than the motor
voltage. Just like other motor starters, the magnetic starter also has an electrical contactor and overload relay
to protect the device from too much current or overheating.

There are two circuits in a motor starter, which are as follows:

Power Circuit: The power circuit connects the line to the motor. It provides transmission of electricity through
the starter contacts, overload relay, and then to the motor. The motor current is carried by the power (main)
contacts of the contactor.

Control Circuit: This is the other motor starter circuit, which operates the contactor to turn it on or off. The
contactor main contacts are responsible for allowing or interrupting the flow of current to the motor. To do
this, the contacts in the control circuit are either opened or closed. The control circuit energizes the contactor
coil, which creates an electromagnetic field. The power contacts are pulled by this electromagnetic field to a
closed position. This completes the circuit between the motor and the line. This way, remote operations are
made possible by the control circuit. The control circuit can be wired in the following two ways:

Method 1: One of the most widely used methods employed for wiring the control circuit is referred to as the
“Two-wire method”. A maintained contact type of pilot device like presence sensor, thermostat, or float switch
is used in the two-wire method of wiring the control circuit.

Method 2: Unlike the two-wire method, the “Three-wire method” of wiring the control circuit uses a holding
circuit contact and the momentary contact pilot devices.

The control circuit can derive the power from either of the following three ways:

Common Control: This type of control is when the power source of the control circuit is the same as the
motor.

Separate Control: This is the most popular type of control. As the name suggests, the control circuit derives
power from a separate source in this arrangement. Generally, the power derived is lower in voltage as
compared to the motor’s power source.

Transformer Control: As the name suggests, the control circuit derives power from a control circuit
transformer. Generally, the power derived is lower in voltage as compared to the motor’s power source.

D.O.L.STARTER:

3.2 D.O.L.STARTER

11
The direct-on-line starter is the simplest form of motor starter, other than a manual starter. The controller of
this starter is typically a simple push button (but could be a selector switch, limit switch, float switch, etc.).
Pressing the start button closes the contactor (by energizing the contactor coil) connected to the main supply
and motor. This provides the supply current to the motor. To turn the motor off, a stop button is provided. To
protect it from over current, the control circuit is wired through a normally closed auxiliary contact of the
overload relay. When the overload relay trips, the normally closed auxiliary contact opens, and de-energizes
the contactor coil, and the contactor main contacts open.
The Advantages of Using Direct-On-Line Motor Starters:

1.They have a compact design.

2.They are cost-effective.

3.They have a simple construction

ROTOR RESISTANCE STARTER:

3.3 ROTOR RESISTANCE STARTER

In the rotor resistance starter, the three resistances are connected such that they are in series with the rotor
windings. This helps reduce the rotor current considerably, as well as increases the motor torque.

The Advantages of Using Rotor Resistance Motor Starters:

1.They are cost-effective.

2.They have a simple speed control method.

3.They provide low starting current, large starting torque, and large pull-out torque.

STATOR RESISTANCE STARTER:

3.4 STATOR RESISTANCE STARTER

12
The stator resistance starter consists of three resistors, which are connected in series with each phase of the
stator windings. At each resistor, a voltage drop is caused, so it becomes necessary to apply low voltage to
each phase. These resistances are set at the start or maximum position during the motor start stage. The starting
current is kept at a minimum in this type of starter. Also, the starting torque to the motor needs to be
maintained.

The Advantages of Using Stator Resistance Motor Starters:

1.They are suitable for use in speed control applications.

2.They have extremely flexible starting characteristics.

3.They provide smooth acceleration.

AUTO TRANSFORMER STARTER:

3.5 AUTO TRANSFORMER STARTER

With an auto transformer starter, the transformer supplies a certain percentage of the primary voltage to the
secondary of the transformer. The auto transformer is connected in a star configuration. The three tapped
secondary coils of the transformer are connected to the three motor phases in this type of starter. This helps in
reducing the voltage that is being applied to the motor terminals.

The Advantages of Using Auto Transformer Motor Starters:

1..They can be used for manual speed control, but with limited options.

2.They have extremely flexible starting characteristics.

3.They have a high output torque.

STAR-DELTA STARTER:

3.6 STAR-DELTA STARTER

13
Compared to the other types of starters, the star delta starter is used on a large scale. As the name suggests,
the three windings are connected in a star connection in the star delta starters. A certain time is set by the timer
or any other controller circuit. After this time is passed, the windings are then connected in the delta
connection. The phase voltage in the star connection is reduced to 58%, and the total current drawn is 58% of
normal current. This results in a reduced torque.

The Advantages of Using Star Delta Motor Starters:

1.They are ideal for long acceleration times.

2.They have a lower input surge current when compared to other starters.
3.They have a simpler construction as compared to other starters.

FUNDAMENTAL FUNCTIONS OF STARTERS:

The following are the most fundamental functions that a starter has to perform:

Control: The control function is mainly carried out by the contactor component of a starter. It is controlling
the opening and closing of the power electrical circuit. The switching is done by the main contacts (poles) of
the contactor. An electromagnetic coil is energized, which open or close the contacts. This electromagnetic
coil has a nominal control voltage, and can either be an AC or DC voltage.
Short-Circuit Protection: In industrial applications, normal load current can be up to thousands of amperes.
In the case of a short-circuit fault, the fault current can go over 100,000 amperes. This can cause severe damage
to the equipment. The short-circuit protection disconnects the supply and prevents the potential damage in a
safe manner. Short circuit protection is provided by fuses or circuit breakers in a Combination Motor
Controller.

Overload Protection: When a motor draws more current than it is designed to, an overload condition is
caused. The main objective of an overload relay is to detect the excess currents. When an overload is detected,
the auxiliary contact of the overload relay opens the circuit and prevents the motor from burning out or
overheating. Electronic or electromechanical overload relays are used in combination with a contactor to
provide the required overload protection.

Disconnecting and Breaking: In order to prevent an unintended restart, it is required to disconnect the motor
from the main power circuit. In order to safely perform maintenance on a motor or starter, a motor must be
able to switch off and be isolated from the power. The disconnect switch of the circuit provides this function.
Disconnecting and breaking is provided by a disconnect switch or circuit breaker in a Combination Motor
Controller (or can be installed remotely from the starter).

14
CHAPTER-4

15
 SINGLE PHASE WIRING
INTRODUCTION:
Single-phase wiring is a fundamental aspect of electrical systems, prevalent in both residential and small
commercial settings. This essay will delve into the key components, characteristics, advantages, and
limitations of single-phase wiring, elucidating its significance in modern electrical infrastructure.

At its core, single-phase wiring comprises two conductors: a “hot” wire, responsible for carrying the electrical
current, and a neutral wire, which serves as the return path for the current. In essence, this setup facilitates the
flow of alternating current (AC) in a single direction, forming the basis of numerous electrical circuits found
in everyday applications.

One of the defining features of single-phase wiring is its simplicity and affordability. Unlike more complex
three-phase systems, which require additional components and wiring configurations, single-phase setups are
relatively straightforward to install and maintain. This makes them particularly well-suited for residential
properties, where cost-effectiveness and ease of installation are paramount considerations.

Furthermore, single-phase wiring offers versatility in powering various household appliances and devices.
From lighting fixtures and kitchen appliances to heating and cooling systems, single-phase circuits provide
the necessary electrical supply to meet a diverse range of residential needs. This flexibility underscores the
widespread adoption of single-phase wiring in homes across the globe.

Despite its advantages, single-phase wiring does have its limitations, primarily in terms of power capacity.
Since it relies on a single alternating current waveform, the amount of power that can be delivered through a
single-phase circuit is limited compared to three-phase systems. As a result, single-phase setups may struggle
to meet the demands of larger commercial or industrial applications, where higher power requirements are
common.

Additionally, single-phase wiring is susceptible to voltage fluctuations and imbalance, which can affect the
stability and efficiency of electrical systems. Uneven loading across phases can lead to inefficiencies and
potential equipment damage, necessitating careful planning and monitoring to mitigate these issues effectively.

In conclusion, single-phase wiring plays a crucial role in modern electrical infrastructure, particularly in
residential and small commercial settings. Its simplicity, affordability, and versatility make it an attractive
option for powering a wide range of household appliances and devices. However, it’s essential to recognize
the limitations of single-phase systems, particularly regarding power capacity and voltage stability, to ensure
the reliable operation of electrical systems.

TYPES OF SINGLE PHASE WIRING:

Single-phase wiring encompasses various types and configurations, each tailored to specific applications and
requirements. In this essay, we’ll explore some common types of single-phase wiring and their characteristics.
1.Split-phase Wiring:

Split-phase wiring is the most common type of single-phase wiring found in residential and light commercial
applications. It consists of a single live wire (hot wire) and a neutral wire, along with a grounding conductor
for safety. The live wire is split into two branches, each carrying 120 volts, but with a

16
 180-degree phase difference between them. This configuration allows for the provision of both 120-volt and
240-volt power to household appliances and outlets. Split-phase wiring is well-suited for powering lighting,
outlets, kitchen appliances, and HVAC systems in homes and small businesses.

2.Single-phase Three-wire Wiring:

In this configuration, instead of splitting the live wire into two branches, a single-phase system uses three
wires: two live wires (hot wires) with opposite phases and a neutral wire. This setup is commonly used in
applications where a higher voltage is required, such as powering larger appliances or machinery in
commercial and industrial settings. By utilizing two live wires with a phase difference, a single-phase three-
wire system can provide 240 volts for heavier loads while still accommodating 120-volt circuits.

3.Capacitor-start Capacitor-run (CSCR) Wiring:

CSCR wiring is a variation of single-phase wiring commonly used in single-phase induction motors. It
employs two capacitors – a start capacitor and a run capacitor – to provide the necessary phase shift for motor
starting and operation. The start capacitor is used during the starting phase to create a phase difference between
the motor’s windings, while the run capacitor remains connected during operation to improve motor efficiency
and power factor. CSCR wiring is often employed in applications requiring high starting torque, such as air
compressors, pumps, and refrigeration systems.

4.Permanent Split Capacitor (PSC) Wiring:

PSC wiring is another type of single-phase wiring used in induction motors, particularly in applications with
constant-speed requirements. Unlike CSCR wiring, PSC motors have a single capacitor that remains
connected during both starting and running operations. This configuration simplifies motor design and reduces
cost while providing reliable performance for applications such as fans, blowers, and small pumps.

In summary, single-phase wiring encompasses various configurations tailored to different applications, from
split-phase wiring for residential and light commercial use to specialized configurations like CSCR and PSC
wiring for single-phase induction motors. Understanding the characteristics and applications of these types of
single-phase wiring is essential for designing, installing, and maintaining electrical systems in diverse settings.

MATERIALS USED IN SINGLE PHASE WIRING:

Single-phase wiring is a crucial component of electrical systems, commonly found in residential and small
commercial buildings. The materials used in single-phase wiring are selected with precision to ensure safety,
efficiency, and longevity. Here’s an essay detailing the materials commonly employed in single-phase wiring:
Introduction:

Single-phase wiring plays a vital role in delivering electrical power to various appliances and devices in
residential and small commercial buildings. The materials used in single-phase wiring are carefully chosen to
meet safety standards, ensure efficiency, and provide durability.
Conductors:

Conductors are the backbone of any electrical wiring system. In single-phase wiring, copper and aluminum
conductors are predominantly used. Copper is preferred due to its excellent conductivity, resistance to
corrosion, and malleability, which makes it easy to work with. However, aluminum is also used, especially

17
in larger installations, due to its lower cost. Both materials must meet specific standards to ensure they can

handle the electrical load safely without overheating.

Insulation:

Insulation is crucial in single-phase wiring to prevent electrical shocks and short circuits. Common insulation
materials include PVC (polyvinyl chloride), XLPE (cross-linked polyethylene), and THHN (thermoplastic,
high heat-resistant, nylon-coated). These materials provide excellent electrical insulation properties while also
being resistant to heat, moisture, and abrasion, thus ensuring the longevity and safety of the wiring system.

Protective Sheathing:
Protective sheathing is used to shield the wiring from external environmental factors such as moisture,
chemicals, and physical damage. Common sheathing materials include PVC, metal conduit (steel or
aluminium), and flexible metal conduit (FMC). The choice of sheathing material depends on factors such as
installation location, environmental conditions, and building codes.

Connectors and Terminals:

Connectors and terminals are used to join and terminate the conductors securely. Screw terminals, wire nuts,
crimp connectors, and compression connectors are commonly used in single-phase wiring installations. These
connectors must be made of high-quality materials such as brass or copper to ensure good conductivity and
long-term reliability.

Boxes and Enclosures:

Electrical boxes and enclosures are used to house and protect the wiring connections, switches, and outlets.
These boxes are typically made of metal or plastic, with metal boxes providing better durability and protection
against fire hazards. Enclosures must be properly grounded to ensure electrical safety and compliance with
building codes.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, the materials used in single-phase wiring are carefully selected to ensure safety, reliability, and
compliance with electrical codes and standards. Copper and aluminum conductors, along with appropriate
insulation, protective sheathing, connectors, and enclosures, form the essential components of a single-phase
wiring system. By using high-quality materials and following best practices in installation, single-phase wiring
can provide efficient and dependable electrical power distribution for residential and small commercial
applications.

RELATION B/W SINGLE PHASE AND THERE PHASE WIRING:

The relationship between three-phase and single-phase wiring is crucial in understanding electrical systems.

Single-phase wiring is commonly used in residential settings, powering household appliances and lighting. It
involves two wires: a hot wire and a neutral wire. The voltage between the hot wire and neutral wire is typically
120 volts in North America and 230 volts in Europe.

In contrast, three-phase wiring is prevalent in industrial and commercial applications, providing higher power
capacity. It consists of three hot wires and a neutral wire, or in some cases, three hot wires and no

18
 neutral. The voltage between any two hot wires in a three-phase system is higher than that of single-phase
systems, typically 208 volts or 480 volts in North America.

The relationship between the two lies in their differences in power delivery and efficiency. Three-phase
systems offer more power and are more efficient for large-scale operations, such as industrial machinery and
commercial HVAC systems, due to their balanced power distribution and ability to deliver constant power.
Single-phase systems, on the other hand, are suitable for smaller-scale applications where lower power
demands are sufficient.

Understanding the relationship between three-phase and single-phase wiring is essential for designing and
implementing electrical systems efficiently, ensuring safety and reliability in various applications.

4.1SINGLE PHASE HOUSE WIRING MODULE

APPLICATIONS OF SINGLE PHASE WIRING:

Single-phase wiring finds extensive applications in both residential and commercial settings due to its
simplicity, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness. Here’s an essay outlining some of its key applications:

Introduction:

Single-phase wiring is a common electrical configuration utilized in various applications, ranging from
residential homes to small businesses. Its simplicity and effectiveness make it a preferred choice for many
electrical installations.

Residential Applications:
In residential settings, single-phase wiring is ubiquitous. It powers lighting fixtures, appliances, and outlets
throughout the house. From the refrigerator in the kitchen to the television in the living room, single-phase
wiring ensures the seamless operation of essential household devices. Additionally, it is commonly used for
heating and cooling systems, providing comfort and convenience to homeowners.

Commercial Applications:

Single-phase wiring is also prevalent in commercial establishments, powering lighting systems, HVAC
(Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) units, and office equipment. Small businesses, shops, and
restaurants rely on single-phase wiring for their day-to-day operations. It enables the smooth functioning of

19
various electrical devices, contributing to business efficiency and productivity.

Industrial Applications:

While three-phase power is more common in industrial settings, single-phase wiring still has its applications,
particularly in small-scale industries and workshops. It powers machinery, tools, and equipment necessary for
manufacturing processes. Single-phase motors, although less powerful than their three-phase counterparts, are
suitable for many industrial applications, such as conveyor belts, pumps, and compressors.

Agricultural Applications:

In agriculture, single-phase wiring plays a crucial role in powering irrigation systems, lighting for barns and
stables, and equipment used for farming operations. It facilitates the automation of tasks, improves efficiency,
and enhances crop yields.

Renewable Energy Systems:

Single-phase wiring is often integrated into renewable energy systems, such as solar power and wind turbines,
for residential and small-scale commercial applications. It enables the connection of inverters to convert DC
(Direct Current) electricity generated by solar panels or wind turbines into AC (Alternating Current) electricity
suitable for use in homes and businesses.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, single-phase wiring serves a myriad of applications across residential, commercial, industrial,
agricultural, and renewable energy sectors. Its versatility, affordability, and ease of installation make it an
indispensable part of modern electrical systems, powering everything from household appliances to industrial
machinery. As technology continues to advance, single-phase wiring will likely remain a cornerstone of
electrical infrastructure worldwide.

20
CHAPTER-5

21
 CCTV INSTALLATION
INTRODUCTION:
CCTV systems have become ubiquitous in today’s society, deployed in various settings such as streets,
businesses, educational institutions, and residential complexes. The primary objective of CCTV installation is
to deter crime, monitor activities, and provide evidence in the event of an incident. This proactive approach
to surveillance is integral to maintaining safety and security in an ever-changing environment.

Benefits of CCTV Installation:

1. Crime Deterrence:The presence of CCTV cameras acts as a deterrent to potential criminals, reducing the
likelihood of unlawful activities such as theft, vandalism, and assault. The knowledge that one is being
monitored serves as a powerful preventive measure.

2. Evidence Collection: In the unfortunate event of a crime or security breach, CCTV footage serves as
invaluable evidence for law enforcement agencies and judicial proceedings. High-quality recordings capture
crucial details that aid in investigations and the prosecution of offenders.

3. Monitoring and Response:Real-time monitoring capabilities enable security personnel to promptly detect
suspicious behavior and respond accordingly. CCTV systems allow for immediate intervention in
emergencies, thereby mitigating potential threats and minimizing damages.

4. Enhanced Public Safety: CCTV installation in public spaces enhances the overall safety and well-being
of citizens by promoting a sense of security and accountability. It fosters a culture of vigilance and cooperation
among community members, contributing to crime prevention efforts.

Implications and Considerations:

1. Privacy Concerns: The widespread deployment of CCTV cameras raises legitimate concerns regarding
individual privacy rights. Striking a balance between security measures and personal freedoms necessitates
clear guidelines on data collection, storage, and access. Transparent policies and robust safeguards are
essential to prevent misuse or abuse of surveillance technology.

2. Technological Advancements:Continuous innovations in CCTV technology, such as high-definition

imaging, facial recognition, and smart analytics, offer enhanced capabilities for security monitoring. However,
these advancements also pose ethical and regulatory challenges related to data protection, consent, and
algorithmic biases. Responsible deployment and oversight are imperative to address these complexities.

3. Cost and Maintenance: While the benefits of CCTV installation are undeniable, it entails initial investment
costs for equipment procurement, installation, and maintenance. Moreover, ensuring the proper functioning
and upkeep of surveillance systems require ongoing resources and expertise. Strategic planning and budget
allocation are essential to maximize the effectiveness and longevity of CCTV infrastructure.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, the installation of CCTV systems plays a crucial role in modern security strategies, offering
numerous benefits in crime prevention, evidence collection, and public safety. However, it also raises

22
 important considerations regarding privacy, technology, and resource allocation. By adopting a holistic
approach that prioritizes ethical practices, regulatory compliance, and community engagement, CCTV
installation can serve as a valuable tool in safeguarding our surroundings while respecting individual rights
and dignity.

MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR CCTV INSTALLATION:

1. CCTV Cameras:

- Dome cameras for indoor surveillance and vandal-proof dome cameras for outdoor use.

- Bullet cameras for long-range viewing and outdoor monitoring.

- PTZ (Pan-Tilt-Zoom) cameras for flexible and adjustable coverage.

- Specialty cameras like thermal cameras for low-light or no-light environments.

2. DVR/NVR (Digital Video Recorder/Network Video Recorder):

- DVR for analog camera systems or NVR for IP camera systems.

- Sufficient storage capacity to store video footage based on the desired retention period.
- Network connectivity for remote viewing and management.

3. Cables and Wiring:

- Coaxial cables for analog camera systems.

- Ethernet cables for IP camera systems.

- Power cables for providing electricity to cameras and other components.

- Cable management accessories like conduits, connectors, and junction boxes.

4. Power Supply:

- Power adapters or power over Ethernet (PoE) switches for supplying power to cameras.

- Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) for backup power in case of outages, ensuring continuous
surveillance.

5. Mounting Hardware:
- Wall mounts, ceiling mounts, or pole mounts for securely installing cameras in desired locations.

- Mounting brackets and accessories for adjustable positioning and angle alignment.

6. Monitor/Display:

- High-resolution monitors or displays for live viewing of camera feeds.

- Multiple monitors for centralized monitoring of multiple camera feeds simultaneously.

7. Networking Equipment:

- Routers, switches, and hubs for creating a network infrastructure to connect cameras to the DVR/NVR.

23
 - Network cables and connectors for establishing wired connections between components.

- Wireless access points for wireless camera systems.

8. Accessories and Tools:

- Surge protectors and voltage regulators to safeguard equipment from power fluctuations.

- Cable testers, crimping tools, and other installation tools for proper cable termination and connectivity.

- Cable ties, fasteners, and labels for organizing and labeling cables during installation.

METHODS OF INSTALLING CCTV CAMERAS :

Installing CCTV systems involves careful planning and execution to ensure optimal coverage and
functionality. There are several methods of CCTV installation, each with its own advantages and
considerations.
One method is the centralized installation approach, where all cameras are connected to a central monitoring
station via cables or wireless networks. This method allows for easy monitoring and management of multiple
cameras from a single location. However, it requires extensive cabling or network infrastructure and may be
costly to implement.
Another method is decentralized installation, where cameras are connected to a network and can operate
independently or in a peer-to-peer configuration. This approach eliminates the need for a central monitoring
station and allows for more flexible camera placement. However, it may require more complex network
configuration and may not be suitable for large-scale deployments.
Hybrid installations combine elements of both centralized and decentralized approaches, allowing for a mix
of wired and wireless cameras connected to a central monitoring station. This provides flexibility in camera
placement while still enabling centralized monitoring and management.

When installing CCTV systems, it’s essential to consider factors such as the layout of the area to be monitored,
lighting conditions, and potential obstructions. Cameras should be strategically placed to provide maximum
coverage while minimizing blind spots. Additionally, proper security measures should be implemented to
protect against tampering and unauthorized access to the system.

Overall, the method of CCTV installation chosen will depend on the specific requirements of the surveillance
project, including budget, scalability, and desired level of monitoring and control. Regardless of the approach
taken, careful planning and attention to detail are crucial to ensuring the effectiveness and reliability of the
CCTV system.

24
 5.1 CCTV CAMERA INSTALLATION

APPLICATIONS OF CCTV CAMERAS:

1. Security Surveillance:

One of the primary applications of CCTV is in security surveillance. CCTV cameras are strategically placed
in public and private spaces to monitor activities and deter criminal behavior. From banks and airports to
streets and homes, CCTV plays a crucial role in preventing and investigating crimes.

2. Public Safety:

CCTV is also used for public safety purposes, especially in crowded areas such as transportation hubs,
stadiums, and shopping centers. By monitoring crowds and identifying potential safety hazards, CCTV helps
authorities respond promptly to emergencies and ensure the well-being of citizens.

3. Traffic Management:
In urban areas, CCTV cameras are deployed for traffic management and enforcement of traffic laws. These
cameras monitor traffic flow, detect accidents, and capture traffic violations, aiding in the smooth operation
of road networks and enhancing road safety.

4. Retail and Business Operations:

Retailers utilize CCTV to prevent theft, monitor employee behavior, and enhance overall security within
stores. Additionally, CCTV systems are employed in industries for monitoring manufacturing processes,
ensuring workplace safety, and safeguarding valuable equipment.

5. Environmental Monitoring:

CCTV technology is increasingly being utilized for environmental monitoring purposes, such as wildlife

25
observation, weather tracking, and pollution control. These applications contribute to environmental
conservation efforts and provide valuable data for research and analysis.

6. Education and Institutions:

Educational institutions employ CCTV for campus security, monitoring student activities, and preventing
vandalism. By enhancing security measures, CCTV helps create a safer learning environment for students and
staff alike.

7. Home Security and Surveillance:

With the advent of affordable home security systems, CCTV has become commonplace in residential settings.
Homeowners utilize CCTV cameras to monitor their property, deter burglaries, and remotely access live
footage for added peace of mind.

Conclusion:
The applications of Closed-Circuit Television (CCTV) extend far beyond traditional security surveillance,
encompassing a wide range of sectors and contributing to various aspects of modern life. As technology
continues to advance, the versatility and effectiveness of CCTV systems will likely expand, further enhancing
safety, security, and efficiency across different domains.

Installing a CCTV system requires careful consideration of various materials to ensure reliable and effective
surveillance. By selecting the right cameras, recording devices, cables, power supplies, mounting hardware,
networking equipment, and accessories, one can set up a robust security system tailored to specific needs and
requirements. Proper installation and maintenance of these materials are essential for maximizing the
effectiveness of CCTV surveillance in safeguarding property and assets.

26
CHAPTER-6

27
 INVERTERS AND GENERATORS
INTRODUCTION:
Inverters and generators are two key components in providing electrical power in various settings, from
residential homes to industrial facilities and outdoor events. Each has its unique features, advantages, and
limitations. This essay explores the differences between inverters and generators, their applications, and their
impact on energy efficiency and environmental sustainability.

Inverters:

Inverters are electronic devices that convert DC (direct current) electricity into AC (alternating current). They
are commonly used in solar power systems, uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), and portable power sources.
Inverters come in various sizes and capacities, ranging from small units for powering individual appliances to
larger systems for whole-house backup power.
Advantages of Inverters:

1. Quiet Operation: Inverters operate silently since they do not have moving parts, making them ideal for
indoor use or in noise-sensitive environments.

2. Clean Energy: Inverters can be paired with renewable energy sources such as solar panels or wind turbines,
promoting clean and sustainable power generation.

3. Instantaneous Power: Inverters provide instantaneous power when the main power source fails, ensuring
uninterrupted operation of critical equipment or appliances.

Limitations of Inverters:

1. Limited Power Output: Inverters are limited by their power rating, which may not be sufficient for high-
demand applications or large-scale power needs.

2. Battery Dependency: Inverters connected to batteries require periodic recharging, which can be
cumbersome and may limit their continuous operation.
3. Initial Cost: The initial cost of purchasing and installing an inverter system, especially with battery backup,
can be higher compared to traditional generators.

Generators:

Generators are mechanical devices that convert mechanical energy into electrical energy through the use of
fuel combustion, typically gasoline, diesel, or natural gas. They are widely used as backup power sources in
residential, commercial, and industrial settings.

Advantages of Generators:

1. High Power Output: Generators are capable of providing high power output, making them suitable for
heavy-duty applications and large-scale power needs.

2. Versatility: Generators can operate on various fuels, providing flexibility in fuel choice based on availability
and cost.

3. Continuous Operation: Generators can operate continuously as long as there is a steady supply of fuel,

28
making them reliable for extended power outages.

Limitations of Generators:

1. Noise and Emissions: Generators produce noise and emissions during operation, which can be a concern in
residential areas or environmentally sensitive locations.

2. Maintenance Requirements: Generators require regular maintenance, including oil changes, filter
replacements, and periodic inspections to ensure optimal performance and longevity.

3. Carbon Footprint: Generators powered by fossil fuels contribute to carbon emissions and air pollution,
posing environmental challenges in terms of sustainability and climate change.
Conclusion:

In summary, both inverters and generators play essential roles in providing backup power solutions, each with
its distinct features and considerations. Inverters offer clean and quiet operation, making them suitable for
residential use and eco-friendly applications. On the other hand, generators provide high power output and
continuous operation, making them indispensable in commercial and industrial settings. Ultimately, the choice
between inverters and generators depends on factors such as power requirements, environmental concerns,
and budget considerations.

VARIOUS TYPES OF INVERTERS AND GENERATORS:

In the realm of power generation and management, inverters and generators play pivotal roles in ensuring
reliable access to electricity. These devices come in various types, each designed to cater to specific needs and
applications, from powering a small household to providing backup electricity for industrial facilities. Let’s
delve into the diverse array of inverters and generators available in the market.

Inverters:

1. Grid-Tied Inverters: These inverters are commonly used in residential and commercial settings to
convert direct current (DC) electricity from solar panels into alternating current (AC) electricity that
can be fed into the grid. They synchronize with the utility grid, allowing users to sell excess energy
back to the grid or draw power when solar production is insufficient.

2. Off-Grid Inverters: Unlike grid-tied inverters, off-grid inverters are designed for standalone systems
not connected to the utility grid. They convert DC electricity from sources such as solar panels, wind
turbines, or batteries into AC electricity for immediate use or storage in batteries.

3. Hybrid Inverters: These versatile inverters combine the functionalities of grid-tied and off-grid
inverters, allowing users to operate in both grid-connected and standalone modes. They enable
seamless transition between grid power, renewable sources, and battery storage, offering flexibility
and resilience in energy management.

4. Microinverters: Microinverters are installed directly on individual solar panels, converting DC

electricity into AC at the panel level. Unlike traditional string inverters, microinverters optimize energy
production by mitigating the impact of shading or panel mismatch, resulting in higher overall system
efficiency.

29
Generators:

1. Diesel Generators: Widely used for both standby and prime power applications, diesel generators
utilize diesel fuel to power an internal combustion engine, which drives an alternator to produce
electricity. They are known for their reliability, durability, and high energy density, making them
suitable for continuous or intermittent operation in various settings.

2. Gasoline Generators:Gasoline generators operate similarly to diesel generators but use gasoline as
fuel. They are often more affordable and lighter than diesel counterparts, making them popular choices
for portable and backup power needs in residential and recreational settings.

3. Natural Gas Generators:These generators utilize natural gas as fuel, offering cleaner combustion
compared to diesel or gasoline generators. They are commonly used in areas with access to natural gas
pipelines, providing efficient and cost-effective power generation for residential, commercial, and
industrial applications.

4. Biogas Generators: Biogas generators convert organic waste, such as agricultural residues, livestock
manure, or sewage, into biogas through anaerobic digestion. The biogas is then used to fuel an engine-
generator system, producing electricity while reducing greenhouse gas emissions and providing a
sustainable waste management solution.

In conclusion, the diversity of inverters and generators reflects the evolving landscape of energy generation
and management, driven by advancements in technology, environmental considerations, and changing energy
needs. Whether it's harnessing solar energy, ensuring backup power resilience, or exploring sustainable fuel
sources, the wide range of options available empowers individuals and industries to meet their energy
requirements efficiently and responsibly.

6.1 BASIC INVERTER WORKING

30
APPLICATIONS:
Inverters and generators are indispensable devices that power modern life in diverse ways. While they serve
distinct purposes, their applications often intersect, collectively ensuring continuous electricity supply in
various settings.

Generators, powered by fuel, natural gas, or renewable sources like solar and wind, are renowned for their
ability to produce electricity independently of the grid. Their applications span from emergency backup power
in residential settings to providing primary electricity in remote locations. In disaster-stricken areas or
construction sites devoid of grid access, generators become lifelines, ensuring continuity of operations and
basic amenities.

Inverters, on the other hand, are adept at converting DC power into AC, enabling the use of DC energy sources
like batteries and solar panels in AC-powered systems. They are integral to renewable energy systems,
allowing seamless integration of solar, wind, and battery storage into electrical grids. In residential contexts,
inverters facilitate solar power utilization, ensuring efficient energy capture and distribution within
households. Moreover, they are pivotal in uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems, safeguarding sensitive
electronic equipment from power fluctuations and outages.

The synergy between Inverters and generators is evident in hybrid power systems, where generators act as
backup sources, complementing renewable energy supplied through inverters. This combination offers
reliability and sustainability, crucial for off-grid installations and remote communities. In mobile applications
such as recreational vehicles (RVs) and boats, hybrid systems ensure uninterrupted power supply for on board
appliances and amenities.

Industries rely heavily on inverters and generators for various operations. In manufacturing, they power
machinery, ensuring seamless production even in areas with unreliable grid infrastructure. In
telecommunications, they support uninterrupted communication networks, vital for emergency response and
everyday connectivity. Data centers, critical for modern digital infrastructure, employ backup generators and
inverters to prevent service disruptions and data loss during power outages.

Transportation is another sector benefiting from these technologies. In electric vehicles (EVs), inverters
manage power flow between batteries and motors, optimizing performance and efficiency. Meanwhile,
generators play roles in extending EV range through on board charging systems or serving as range extenders
in hybrid vehicles.

In summary, inverters and generators are indispensable across various sectors and applications, ensuring
continuity, reliability, and sustainability in electricity supply. As technology advances and the demand for
clean energy grows, their roles will continue to evolve, driving innovation and reshaping how we harness and
utilize power.

6.2 Generator

31
CHAPTER-7

32
 ASSEMBLING OF LED LIGHTS AND FANS

LED LIGHTS AND IT’S ASSEMBLING:

An LED lamp or LED light[1] is an electric light that produces light using light-emitting diodes (LEDs). LED
lamps are significantly more energy-efficient than equivalent incandescent lamps and fluorescent
lamps.[2][3][4] The most efficient commercially available LED lamps have efficiencies exceeding 200 lumens
per watt (lm/W) and convert more than half the input power into light.[5][6][7] Commercial LED lamps have
a lifespan several times longer than both incandescent and fluorescent lamps. LED lamps require an electronic
LED circuit to operate from mains power lines, and losses from this circuit means that the efficiency of the
lamp is lower than the efficiency of the LED chips it uses. The driver circuit may require special features to
be compatible with lamp dimmers intended for use on incandescent lamps. Generally the current waveform
contains some amount of distortion, depending on the luminaires’ technology.[8]
The LED lamp market Is projected to grow from US$75.8 billion in 2020 to US$160 billion in 2026.[9]

LEDs come to full brightness immediately with no warm-up delay. Frequent switching on and off does not
reduce life expectancy as with fluorescent lighting.[10] Light output decreases gradually over the lifetime of
the LED. Some LED lamps are drop-in replacements for incandescent or fluorescent lamps. LED lamps may
use multiple LED packages for improved light dispersal, heat dissipation, and overall cost. The text on retail
LED lamp packaging may show the light output in lumens, the power consumption in watts, the color
temperature in kelvins or a color description such as “warm white”, “cool white” or “daylight”, the operating
temperature range, whether the lamp is dimmer compatible, whether the lamp is suitable for humid/damp/wet
conditions, and sometimes the equivalent wattage of an incandescent lamp .

7.1 LED LIGHT ASSEMBLING

33
 APPLICATIONS OF LED LIGHTS:
LED lamps are used for both general and special-purpose lighting. Where colored light is needed, LEDs
that inherently emit light of a single color require no energy-absorbing filters. LED lamps are commonly
available as drop-in replacements for either bulbs or fixtures, replacing either an entire fixture (such as
LED light panels replacing fluorescent troffers or LED spotlight fixtures replacing similar halogen
fixtures) or bulbs (such as LED tubes replacing fluorescent tubes inside troffers or LED HID replacement
lamps replacing HID bulbs inside HID fixtures) The differences between replacing a fixture and replacing
a bulb are that, when a fixture (like a troffer) is replaced with something like an LED panel, the panel must
be replaced in its entirety if the LEDs or the driver it contains fail since it is impossible to replace them
individually in a practical fashion[65] (although the driver is often separate and so it may be replaced),
where as, if only the bulb is replaced with an LED replacement lamp, the lamp can be replaced
independently of the fixture should the lamp fail. Some LED replacement lamps require the fixture to be
modified such as by electrically removing the fixture’s ballast, thus connecting the LED lamp directly to
the mains supply; others can work without any modifications to the fixture.

ADVANTAGES OF LED LIGHTS:

1. Energy Efficiency: LED lights are highly energy-efficient, consuming less power than traditional
lighting options, which can lead to cost savings on electricity bills.

2. Long Lifespan: LED lights have a longer lifespan compared to incandescent and fluorescent lights,
reducing the frequency of replacements.

3. Durability: LED lights are more durable as they are made of solid-state components and are less prone
to breakage.

4. Instant Lighting: LED lights illuminate instantly without any warm-up time, making them ideal for areas
where immediate light is needed.

5. Environmentally Friendly: LED lights are eco-friendly as they do not contain harmful substances like
mercury and are recyclable.

6. Design Flexibility: LED lights come in various shapes and sizes, allowing for creative and versatile
lighting designs.

DISADVANTAGES OF LED LIGHTS:

1. Higher Initial Cost: LED lights can have a higher upfront cost compared to traditional lighting options,
though the long-term savings on energy and replacement costs can offset this.
2. Heat Sensitivity: LED lights can be sensitive to high temperatures, which can affect their performance
and lifespan if not properly managed.

3. Color Quality: Some lower-quality LED lights may have issues with color consistency and accuracy, so
it’s important to choose reputable brands for better color quality.

4. Dimming Compatibility: Not all LED lights are compatible with dimmer switches, so you need to ensure
compatibility if you want dimmable lighting.

CEILING FAN REPAIR:

A fan is a powered machine used to create a flow of air. A fan consists of a rotating arrangement of vanes or

34
blades, generally made of wood, plastic, or metal, which act on the air. The rotating assembly of blades and
hub is known as an impeller, rotor, or runner. Usually, it is contained within some form of housing, or case.[1]
This may direct the airflow, or increase safety by preventing objects from contacting the fan blades. Most fans
are powered by electric motors, but other sources of power may be used, including hydraulic motors,
handcranks, and internal Mechanically, a fan can be any revolving vane, or vanes used for producing currents
of air. Fans produce air flows with high volume and low pressure (although higher than ambient pressure), as
opposed to compressors which produce high pressures at a comparatively low volume. A fan blade will often
rotate when exposed to an air-fluid stream, and devices that take advantage of this, such as anemometers and
wind turbines, often have designs similar to that of a fan.

Typical applications include climate control and personal thermal comfort (e.g., an electric table or floor fan),
vehicle engine cooling systems (e.g., in front of a radiator), machinery cooling systems (e.g., inside computers
and audio power amplifiers), ventilation, fume extraction, winnowing (e.g., separating chaff from cereal
grains), removing dust (e.g. sucking as in a vacuum cleaner), drying (usually in combination with a heat
source) and providing draft for a fire. Some fans may be indirectly used for cooling in the case of industrial
heat exchangers.

While fans are effective at cooling people, they do not cool air, but rather work by evaporative cooling of
sweat and increased heat convection into the surrounding air, due to the airflow from the fans. Thus, fans may
become less effective at cooling the body if the surrounding air is near body temperature and contains high
humidity.

7.2 CEILING FAN REPAIR

DUCTED FAN:

In vehicles, a ducted fan is a method of propulsion in which a fan, propeller or rotor is surrounded by an
aerodynamic duct or shroud which enhances its performance to create aerodynamic thrust or lift to transport
the vehicle.

35
JET FAN:

In ventilation systems a jet fan, also known as an impulse or induction fan, ejects a stream of air which entrains
ambient air along with it, in order to circulate the ambient air. The system takes up less space than conventional
ventilation ducting and can significantly increase the rates of inflow of fresh air and expulsion of stale air.

7.3 TABLE FAN REPAIR

PROBLEMS FACED BY FAN : speed of a fan may slow down due to Dust accumulation, motor problems,
capacitor issues, wiring problems, or Incorrect installation. Diagnosing and fixing the problem may require
Cleaning, repairs, or replacement of parts, depending on the specific cause Of the solve most problems with
an electric fan, disassemble the fan, Lubricate the central pin and bearings, and clean out the vent and motor
Case.

36
 CONCLUSION

Electrical engineering is a vast field crucial to modern society, involving the design, development, and

maintenance of electrical systems. Its applications range from power generation and distribution to electronics,

telecommunications, and beyond. With ongoing advancements in technology, it continues to play a pivotal

role in shaping the world around us.

The industrial training at Tech Mahindra offers a comprehensive and immersive experience, equipping

participants with valuable industry insights and practical skills.

1. Real-World Exposure: Trainees gain hands-on experience with cutting-edge technologies and tools

used in the industry, bridging the gap between academic knowledge and practical application.

2. Expert Guidance: The training is conducted by experienced professionals, providing mentorship and

insights into current industry trends and practices.

3. Skill Enhancement: Participants develop technical and soft skills, enhancing their employability and

readiness for the job market.

4. Networking Opportunities: Interaction with industry experts and peers fosters a professional

network, beneficial for future career opportunities.

5. Project Work: Real-time project assignments simulate actual work scenarios, allowing trainees to

apply their learning in a practical context.

Overall, Tech Mahindra's industrial training is a valuable investment for aspiring professionals,

offering a robust platform for career growth and development in the tech industry.

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