1.

Classification of Computers

Computers can be classified based on their purpose, data

handling, and size.

Classification According to Purpose

 General-purpose computers: Designed to perform a wide

variety of tasks.

o Characteristics: Versatile, flexible, accessible.

o Examples: Personal computers, tablet computers,

smartphones.

o Use cases: Education, home, business.

 Specific-purpose computers: Designed to perform a specific

task or a narrow range of tasks.

o Characteristics: Task-specific, efficient, limited

flexibility.

o Examples: Automated teller machines, digital cameras,

traffic control systems, MRI systems.

o Use cases: Healthcare, manufacturing, banking, home

appliances.

Classification According to Data Handling

 Analog computers: Process continuous data (voltage,

current, temperature, pressure).

o Characteristics: Continuous data, real-time processing,

measurement-based.

o Examples: Kerrison predictor, E6B flight computer,

Ishiguro storm surge computer.

o Use cases: Engineering, weather monitoring, security.

 Digital computers: Process discrete data (0s and 1s).

o Characteristics: Discrete data, speed and accuracy,

programmability.

o Examples: Personal computers, smartphones, servers.

o Use cases: Business, education, healthcare.

 Hybrid computers: Combine features of both analog and

digital computers.
 o Characteristics: Versatility, speed and precision,
specialized applications.

o Examples: Medical equipment, automotive control

systems, flight simulators.

o Use cases: Telecommunications, industrial automation,

healthcare.

Classification According to Size

 Supercomputers: The most powerful and fastest type of

computers.

o Characteristics: High processing power, large physical

size, expensive, parallel processing.

o Examples: Japan's Fugaku supercomputer, Summit

supercomputer.

o Use cases: Scientific research, engineering,

cryptography.

 Mainframes: Large, powerful machines designed for

processing and managing vast amounts of data.

o Characteristics: Multi-user support, high reliability,

robust security features, large storage capacity.

o Examples: IBM Z series, Hewlett Packard NonStop,

Fujitsu GS21.

o Use cases: Banking and finance, government,

insurance.

 Minicomputers: Mid-range computers, smaller than

mainframes but more powerful than microcomputers.

o Characteristics: Multi-user capability, moderate

processing power, cost-effective.

o Examples: DEC PDP-11, Digital Equipment Corporation

(DEC) VAX Series.

o Use cases: Scientific laboratories, small and medium

enterprises.

 Microcomputers: Small, personal computers that utilize a

microprocessor as their central processing unit.

o Characteristics: Size, microprocessor, versatility.

 o Examples: Desktop computers, laptops, tablets,
smartphones.

o Use cases: Personal use, education, business.

2. Computer Systems

What is a Computer System?

A computer system is an integrated set of hardware, software, peopleware

(users), and dataware (data) components that work together to perform
tasks, process data, and provide information.

Importance of Understanding Computer Components

 Holistic Understanding: Understanding the components helps

you appreciate how each part contributes to the overall functionality
and performance of the system.

 Troubleshooting and Maintenance: Knowledge of components

enables you to diagnose issues, perform upgrades, and maintain
your system effectively.

 Informed Decision-Making: Understanding the components

allows you to make informed choices when purchasing or upgrading
computer systems.

Components

I. Hardware

 Physical components that you can touch and see.

 Provides the infrastructure for software applications to run.

Input Devices

 Allow users to enter data and commands into a computer.

 Examples: keyboards, mice, scanners, microphones, touchscreens.

Output Devices
  Convey processed data from a computer to the user or another
device.

 Examples: monitors, projectors, speakers, headphones, printers.

Processing Devices

 The central component responsible for executing instructions and

controlling the entire system.

 Includes the CPU (Central Processing Unit), ALU (Arithmetic Logic

Unit), CU (Control Unit), registers, and buses.

Storage Devices

 Store and retrieve digital data.

 Examples: HDDs, SSDs, USB flash drives, optical discs.

II. Software

 Instructions that tell the hardware what to do.

 Includes operating systems, applications, and programming

languages.

III. Peopleware/User

 The people who interact with and use the computer system.

IV. Dataware

 The data that is processed and stored by the computer

system.

Hardware Components in Detail

Input Devices

 Keyboards: Mechanical, membrane, ergonomic, wireless.

 Mice: Optical, laser, trackball, wireless.

 Scanners: Flatbed, sheet-fed, handheld.

 Microphones: Condenser, dynamic, USB, built-in.

Output Devices

 Visual Output Devices:

o Monitors: CRT, LCD, LED.

o Projectors: DLP, LCD.

 Audio Output Devices:

 o Speakers.

o Headphones.

 Print Output Devices:

o Printers: Inkjet, laser, dot-matrix.

o Plotters.

 Data Output Devices:

o GPS, Braille embosser, haptic devices.

 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):

 Functions: Executes arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply,

divide) and logical operations (AND, OR, NOT, XOR).

 Role: Carries out calculations and comparisons on data.

 Control Unit (CU):

 Functions: Directs CPU operations by fetching instructions from

memory, decoding them, and generating control signals.

 Role: Manages data flow between the CPU, memory, and

input/output devices.

 Registers (High-speed storage within the CPU):

 Program Counter (PC): Holds the address of the next instruction

to fetch.

 Memory Address Register (MAR): Stores the memory address

for data read/write operations.

 Memory Data Register (MDR): Temporarily holds data being

transferred to/from memory.

 Current Instruction Register (CIR): Holds the currently executed

instruction.

 Accumulator (ACC): Temporarily stores intermediate results from

the ALU during operations.

 CPU Architecture:

 Fetch-Execute Cycle: The process of fetching instructions from

memory, decoding them, and executing them.
  Buses: Provide pathways for data, addresses, and control signals to
move between the CPU and other components.

 Address bus: Carries memory addresses from the CPU to memory.

 Data bus: Transfers data between the CPU and memory or

input/output devices.

 Control bus: Carries control signals that coordinate the activities of

various components

Types of CPUs:

o Single-core vs. Multi-core.

 Performance Factors:

o Clock speed, cache size, compatibility with motherboard and

other components.

 CPU Comparison:

o Intel vs. AMD (e.g., Ryzen 7 7800X3D vs. Intel Core i9-
13900K).

 Performance Factors:

o Clock Speed Clock cycle – a single electronic pulse generated

by CPU’s clock Clock cycle per second – refers to the number
of clock cycles that occur in one second. Hertz (Hz) – the unit
of frequency that measures cycles per second (1 Hz = 1 clock
cycle per second)

o Clock Speed 1 kHz = 1,000 clock cycles per second

o 1 MHz = 1,000,000 cycles per second

o 1 GHz = 1,000,000,000 cycles per second

Funtions of CPU Cores

Executing Instructions: Each core can execute instructions

independently, enabling parallel processing.
Performing Calculations: Handles arithmetic and logical
operations for tasks.
 Managing Data Flows: Coordinates with other CPU cores and
system components for efficient data movement.
Multi-tasking: Multiple cores allow the CPU to run several
applications simultaneously, improving performance.

Storage Devices

 Primary Storage:

o RAM (Random Access Memory): Volatile memory.

o Cache Memory: Levels L1, L2, L3.

o Registers: Small storage areas within the CPU.

 Secondary Storage:

o Magnetic Storage Devices: HDDs, magnetic tape.

o Optical Storage Devices: CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs.

o Solid State Storage Devices: SSDs, USB flash drives.

 HDD vs. SSD:

o SSDs are faster due to no moving parts, direct access, faster

interfaces, and lower seek time and latency.

Note: This is a comprehensive overview of computer systems and their

components. You can delve deeper into specific topics as needed.
3. Computer Concepts (Software)

Software

 A set of instructions, data, or programs that dictate how a

computer operates.

 Tells the hardware what to do and how to perform various

functions.

 Makes computers useful by allowing them to execute tasks.

Key Distinction

 Physical Components: Hardware is the physical parts of a

computer.

 Enables Physical Components to Function Together: Software

is the instructions that make the hardware work.

Importance of Software

1. Intermediary between users and hardware: Enables users to

interact with the computer system effectively.

2. Powers applications: Provides tools for various tasks, from word

processing to complex simulations.

3. Essential for the global economy: Drives productivity,

communication, entertainment, and innovation.

Software Overview
  System Software: Manages hardware and system resources.

 Application Software: Performs specific user-oriented tasks.

System Software

 Manages computer hardware and software resources.

 Provides foundational services for application software.

Types of System Software

1. Operating Systems:

o Manages computer hardware and software resources.

o Examples: Windows, macOS, Linux.

2. Device Drivers:

o Allow communication between the operating system and

hardware devices.

3. Firmware:

o Embedded software in hardware devices.

4. Utility Programs:

o Help manage, maintain, and control computer resources.

System Software - Operating Systems

 Most critical type of system software.

 Manages computer hardware and software resources.

 Provides common services for application programs.

System Software - Device Drivers

 Specialized programs that allow communication between the

operating system and hardware devices.

 Act as translators between the operating system and

hardware.

System Software - Utility Programs

 System software designed to help manage, maintain, and

control computer resources.

 Examples: Disk management utilities, antivirus programs, backup

utilities.

Application Software
  Programs designed to perform specific tasks or solve
particular problems for users.

 Directly used by end-users.

Categories of Application Software

1. General Application Software:

o Word processing software, spreadsheet software, presentation

software, graphics software, web browsers, multimedia
software, education and reference software.

2. Business Application Software:

o CRM, ERP, project management software, database

management software, resource management software.

3. Specialized Application Software:

o Educational, financial, sales.

Types According to Shareability

1. Freeware: Available at no cost but may have limitations.

2. Shareware: Trial versions that allow evaluation before purchase.

3. Open Source: Source code is available for modification and

distribution.

4. Closed Source: Proprietary software with restricted access to

source code.
FILE EXPLORER
1. Windows File Explorer Overview

 What is it?: Windows File Explorer is the file management tool on

Windows OS, designed to allow users to navigate, organize, and
manage their files and folders.

o Interface: A graphical user interface (GUI) with icons, menus,

and panes to make interaction intuitive.

o Access Methods:

 Taskbar Icon: A quick-access folder icon.

 Start Menu: Available under "Windows Accessories."

 Keyboard Shortcut: Windows + E opens File Explorer

directly, often used for fast file navigation.

2. Main Components of File Explorer

 Ribbon Interface:

o Organizes commands into tabs for quick access to frequently

used tools. Key Tabs:

 Home Tab: Includes critical file functions such as New

Folder, Copy, Paste, Delete, and more.

 Share Tab: Facilitates sharing files via email or on

social media platforms, enabling smooth file
distribution.
  View Tab: Provides options to customize file display,
such as adjusting icon size, toggling between list or
grid view, and more importantly, how to sort and
group files.

 Navigation Pane:

o Located on the left-hand side, it is your quick access hub for

jumping between locations in your file system.

o Quick Access: Displays recently opened files or frequently

used folders.

o This PC: Comprehensive view of all connected drives,

including internal storage and external devices (like USB
drives).

o Network: Shows devices that are connected to the same

network, allowing easy access to shared resources.

 Address Bar:

o Displays the current file path. The structure is hierarchical

(C:\Users\Documents...) and you can click on parts of it to go
to specific folders.

 Search Box:

o Located in the upper right, this powerful tool allows users to

search for files and folders within the selected directory.
Supports keyword search, and you can use filters like "type

" to refine results.

 File List Pane:

o Central to File Explorer, this area displays the contents of the

folder. File names, icons (indicating file type), size, and
modification date are all visible here.

 Details/Preview Pane:

o When enabled, this feature gives a preview of a selected file

(especially useful for images and documents) without opening
it fully.

 Status Bar:

o Located at the bottom of File Explorer, showing the number of

items in the folder and the total size of those items. A quick
summary of the folder’s contents.
  Context Menu:

o Accessible via right-click on a file or folder, giving users

actions such as Open, Cut, Copy, Rename, Delete, or even
properties (where metadata such as file size and last
modification date is visible).

 Column Headings:

o In list view mode, you can sort files by clicking on column

headings like Name, Size, Type, and Date Modified. This is
especially useful for quickly finding files.

 Back, Forward, and Up Buttons:

o Similar to web navigation, you can go back to previously

viewed folders, forward to the next one, or move up the folder
hierarchy.

3. File Operations

 Copy: Create a duplicate of the file in another location.

 Move: Transfer the file to another folder or drive.

 Rename: Change the name of a file to follow naming protocols or

correct errors.

 Delete: Remove the file from the system; it moves to the Recycle
Bin unless permanently deleted.

4. Practical File Management Tips (Expanded):

1. File Naming Protocol:

o Establish a system that includes key details like date, project

name, and version number. Example:
2024_10_05_ProjectA_v1.docx. This system ensures files are
easy to locate and identify later.

2. File Compression:

o Use compression tools like WinRAR or 7-Zip to bundle large

files into a .zip or .rar format. This is crucial when sending
multiple files via email or conserving storage space. Example:
Compress a folder of images to email them easily.

3. Cloud Storage:

o Services like Google Drive, Dropbox, and OneDrive allow

for remote storage, sharing, and collaboration on files.
 Cloud storage ensures files are accessible from multiple
devices and secures data from local device failure.

4. Folder Hierarchy:

o Structure your folders logically, such as by project or date. A

typical structure might look like:

yaml

Copy code

Projects

├── 2024

│ ├── ProjectA

│ └── ProjectB

Archives

├── 2023

└── 2022

Organizing this way allows easy navigation and retrieval of old work or
archived files.

5. Regular Deletion of Files:

o Regularly review folders like Downloads and delete

unnecessary files. This frees up space and reduces clutter,
improving system performance.

6. Backup Files Regularly:

o Use external drives or software like Time Machine (macOS)

or Windows Backup for automated, periodic backups of
critical data.

7. Use Appropriate Software:

o Open and edit files in software tailored to the file type. For
example, use Microsoft Word for .docx files, Adobe
Acrobat for PDFs, and VLC for media files.

8. File as You Go:

o Immediately save new files in their appropriate locations

rather than leaving them in temporary locations like the
desktop.
 9. Remove Duplicate Files:

o Tools like Duplicate Cleaner or CCleaner can help you scan

for and remove duplicate files, freeing up valuable disk
space.

10. Color Coding:

o In macOS or certain cloud storage platforms, right-clicking on

folders lets you assign colors to them (e.g., red for urgent,
green for completed). This is useful for at-a-glance folder
prioritization.

11. Separate Ongoing vs. Completed Work:

o Use separate folders like “Active Projects” and “Archive” to

distinguish current work from past work, reducing clutter in
your main workspace.

12. Organize by Date:

o Group files into folders based on their creation date (year >
month), ideal for organizing reports or invoices.

13. Secure Important Documents:

o Sensitive files should be password-protected using the built-in

options in Microsoft Word or Adobe Acrobat. Encrypting
these files prevents unauthorized access.

14. Set Reminders for Regular Maintenance:

o Use apps like Google Calendar to schedule periodic reviews

of your digital workspace to ensure it stays organized.

5. Malware (Expanded Section)

 What is Malware?: Malicious software designed to harm or exploit

computers, networks, or users. Malware can steal information,
damage systems, or grant unauthorized access to hackers.

Types of Malware:

1. Computer Virus: Attaches to a legitimate file or program and

spreads when the host is run. Example: CIH Virus, which
overwrites system files and causes irreversible data loss.

2. Computer Worms: Standalone software that self-replicates

across networks, exploiting vulnerabilities. Example:
Mydoom, which spread via email, causing disruptions.
3. Trojan Horse: Malware disguised as legitimate software. It
can steal sensitive data or open backdoors for attackers.
Example: Zeus Trojan, known for stealing banking
credentials.

4. Ransomware: Encrypts a user’s files, demanding a ransom

for the decryption key. Example: CryptoLocker, which
encrypted personal files and demanded payment.

5. Spyware: Secretly monitors user activity and gathers

sensitive information without consent. Example: Cool Web
Search, which collected browsing data.

6. Adware: Automatically displays or downloads unwanted ads.

While some are harmless, others can compromise security by
tracking user behavior.

7. Keylogger: Records keystrokes to capture sensitive

information like passwords or credit card numbers.