ATOMS

ATOMS

THOMSON’S MODEL (Plum Pudding Model)

 An atom is a sphere of positive charge of radius of the order 10 -10 m.

 The positive charge is uniformly distributed over the sphere and electrons are embedded in the
sphere.
 The total positive charge is equal to the negative charge so that atom is neutral.

FAILURE OF THOMSON’S MODEL

 It could not explain the spectral lines of hydrogen atom.

 It could not explain the large angle scattering in Rutherford α – scattering experiment.

RUTHERFORD ALPHA SCATTERING EXPERIMENT (Geiger and Marsden experiment)

The α - particle from 83Bi214 contained in a lead cavity are collimated into narrow beam using
a lead plate with slit. The narrow beam of α- particles then falls on a thin gold foil. The α- particles
scattered in different directions were detected with the help of an α - particle detector. The whole
apparatus was arranged inside a vacuum chamber to prevent the scattering of α - particles from air
molecules.

Observations

 Most of the α – particles passed through the foil without any appreciable deflection.
 This observation led to the conclusion that an atom has lot of empty space in it.
 Some of the 𝛼-particles were scattered by only small angles, of the order of a few degrees.
 𝛼 − particles being +vely charged and heavy compared to electron could only be
deflected by heavy and positive region in an atom.
 A very few α – particles were deflected through 1800.
 This observation led to the rejection of Thomson’s model.
 The backward scattering of α – particles lead to conclude that whole of the positive
charge and nearly the entire mass of the atom were concentrated in an extremely
small central core called ‘ nucleus’.

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𝟏
𝑵(𝜽) 𝜶
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟒 𝜽
Explanation

 α- particles passing through foil are experienced by two forces, repulsion due to
positive charge and attraction due to electrons.
 Force due to electrons will not deflect the heavy alpha particles.
 α – particles which are moving away from nucleus will not be deflected appreciably
 α – particles which undergo head on collision will be deflected by 180 0.

RUTHERFORD’S ATOM MODEL (planetary model)

 An atom may be regarded as a sphere of diameter 10-10m.

 Entire positive charge and nearly entire mass of the atom were concentrated in an extremely
small central core.
 The total positive charge is equal to the negative charge so that atom is neutral.
 Electrons are distributed around the nucleus, so there is lot of empty space in the atom.
 Electrons are revolving around the nucleus in circular orbits. Electrostatic force of attraction
provides the necessary centripetal force.

Failure of Rutherford’s Model

 A charged particle in accelerated motion (circular motion) should emit energy in the form
radiation. As a result of continuous radiation, energy of the electron should gradually
decrease. This should lead to a continuous decrease in the radius of the orbit and finally fall
into the nucleus and collapse the nucleus. But atom is a stable structure.
 According to Rutherford, an electron can have an orbit of any radius. This means that an
atom can emit radiation of any possible frequency. But this is contrary to the experimental
results.

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Distance of Closest Approach

In head on collision, in α – scattering experiment, the distance between the α – particle and
nucleus at which the kinetic energy (speed) of α – particle become zero is known as distance of
closest approach.

At distance of closest approach ‘r0 ’.

Kinetic energy of the α particle = potential energy of the α particle

1 2
1 2𝑍𝑒 2
𝑚𝑢 = 2𝑒𝑉 =
2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟0

Where 2e is the charge of α particle and V is the accelerating potential.

Impact Parameter

Impact parameter of the α – particle is defined as the perpendicular distance of the velocity
vector of the α - particle from the centre of the nucleus, when it is far away from the atom.

1 𝑍𝑒 2 cot 𝜃/2 1 𝑍𝑒 2 cot 𝜃/2

𝑏= =
4𝜋𝜀0 1 𝑚𝑢2 4𝜋𝜀0 2𝑒𝑉
2
Where ‘b’ is impact parameter.

 If b is large, then cot 𝜃/2 is also large , i.e angle of scattering is small. i.e. α – particles go
through the foil without deviation.
𝜃
 If b is zero then cot 𝜃/2 = 0 or 2
= 900 ⟹ 𝜃 = 1800
Thus, If b is zero, angle of scattering is 1800 .

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BOHR’S ATOM MODEL

Postulates

 In an atom, negatively charged electron revolves in a circular orbit around the heavy
positively charged nucleus. The centripetal force required by the electron is provided by
the attractive force exerted by the nucleus on it.
 An electron can revolve only in those orbits for which its orbital angular momentum is
integral multiple of h/2π. Where h is Plank’s constant (6.626 x 10-34 J s).
While revolving in such an orbit, electron cannot radiate energy. These orbits are known as
non –radiating orbits or stationary orbits.
If m and v are mass and velocity of the electron in stationary orbit of radius r, then,
𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟 = where 𝑛 is principal quantum number, and this condition is known as
2𝜋
Bohr ′ s quatisation condition.
 The energy is radiated, when an electron jumps from higher to lower energy orbit and the
energy is absorbed, when it jumps from lower to higher energy orbit.
𝐼𝑓 𝐸𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑛𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝜗 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑠
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
ℎ𝜗 = 𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓

This equation is called Bohr’s frequency condition.

Bohr’s Hydrogen Atom

The electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus (charge e) and the electron is

𝑒2
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑘 2 − − − − − −(1)
𝑟
1
Where 𝑘 = and 𝑟 is the radius of orbit.
4𝜋𝜀0

If m and v are masses and orbital velocity of the electron, then the centripetal force required by
the electron to move in circular orbit of radius r is given by

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑐 = − − − − − − − (2)
𝑟
Electrostatic force (𝐹𝑒 ) provides the necessary centripetal force (𝐹𝑐 )

Therefore 𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑐

𝑚𝑣 2 𝑒2
=𝑘 2
𝑟 𝑟

2
𝑒2
𝑚𝑣 =𝑘 − − − − − −(3)
𝑟

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According to Bohr’s quantisation condition

𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟 = − − − − − − − (4)
2𝜋
𝑛ℎ
𝑟= − − − − − − (5)
2𝜋𝑚𝑣
Therefore equ(3) becomes

2
𝑒 2 2𝜋𝑚𝑣
𝑚𝑣 =𝑘
𝑛ℎ
𝑒 2 2𝜋
𝑣 =𝑘 − − − − − − − (6)
𝑛ℎ
Multiply and divide equ (6) by ‘c’.

𝑐 𝑘𝑒 2 2𝜋
𝑣 = ( ) − − − − − (7)
𝑛 𝑐ℎ

𝑐 1
𝑣 =
𝑛 137
𝑘𝑒 2 2𝜋 1
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ( )= a dimensionless quantity
𝑐ℎ 137

For first orbit n = 1 , then

𝑐
𝑣 = = 2.189 × 106 𝑚/𝑠
137
Using equ (6) in equ (5) we get

𝑛2 ℎ2
𝑟= − − − − − − (8)
4𝜋 2 𝑒 2 𝑚𝑘
ℎ2
𝑟 = 𝑛 ( 2 2 ) = 𝑛2 0.53 × 10−10 m
2
4𝜋 𝑒 𝑚𝑘

If n =1, then 𝑟 = 0.53 × 10−10 m is known as Bohr Radius.

Energy of Electron
1
Kinetic energy K.E of the electron = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

Using equ (3)

1 1 𝑘𝑒 2
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = − − − − − − − − − (9)
2 2 𝑟
𝑘𝑒 2
𝑃. 𝐸 = − − − − − − − − − − −(10)
𝑟
1 𝑘𝑒 2
𝑇. 𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸 = − − − − − − (11)
2 𝑟

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Using equs (8) and (11)

1 𝑘 2 𝑒 4 4𝜋 2 𝑚
𝑇. 𝐸 = − − − − − − − − −(12)
2 𝑛2 ℎ2
1 𝑘 2 𝑒 4 4𝜋 2 𝑚
𝑇. 𝐸 = − ( )
𝑛2 2ℎ2

13.6
𝑇. 𝐸 = − 𝑒𝑉
𝑛2
If n = 1 then T.E = 13.6 eV.

If n = ∞ , then T.E = 0

Negative sign in the expression tells that electron and the nucleus form a Bound System.

Spectral Series of Hydrogen Atom

From Bohr’s frequency condition we have

ℎ𝜗 = 𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓
using equ (12)
1 𝑘 2 𝑒 4 4𝜋 2 𝑚 1 𝑘 2 𝑒 4 4𝜋 2 𝑚
ℎ𝜗 = − +
2 𝑛𝑖2 ℎ2 2 𝑛𝑓2 ℎ2

1 𝑘 2 𝑒 4 4𝜋 2 𝑚 1 1
𝜗= 3
( 2 − 2)
2 ℎ 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖

we know that 𝑐 = 𝜗𝜆

𝑐 1 𝑘 2 𝑒 4 4𝜋 2 𝑚 1 1
= 3
( 2 − 2)
𝜆 2 ℎ 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖

1 1 𝑘 2 𝑒 4 4𝜋 2 𝑚 1 1
= 3
( 2 − 2)
𝜆 2 𝑐ℎ 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖

1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 ( 2 − 2 )
𝜆 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖
1 𝑘 2 𝑒 4 4𝜋 2 𝑚
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝐻 =
2 𝑐ℎ3
𝑅𝐻 = 1.0967 × 10 𝑚−1 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑹𝒚𝒅𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
7

Here (1/𝜆) is called wave number

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Spectral Series
1. Lyman Series

Spectral lines correspond to the transition of electron from some higher

energy state (ni = 2, 3, 4, 5 .......) to the energy level corresponds to nf =1.

1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 ( − 2 )
𝜆 1 𝑛𝑖

This spectral lines lie in ultraviolet region.

2. Balmer Series

Spectral lines correspond to the transition of electron from some higher

energy state (ni = 3, 4, 5 .......) to the energy level corresponds to nf =2.

1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 ( − 2 )
𝜆 4 𝑛𝑖

This spectral lines lie in visible region.

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑯𝜶 , 𝒏𝒊 = 𝟑 , 𝑯𝜷 , 𝒏𝒊 = 𝟒, 𝑯𝜸 , 𝒏𝒊 = 𝟓
3. Paschen Series

Spectral lines correspond to the transition of electron from some higher

energy state (ni = 4, 5,6,7 .......) to the energy level corresponds to nf =3.

1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 ( − 2 )
𝜆 9 𝑛𝑖

This spectral lines lie in near infra -red region.

4. Brackett Series

Spectral lines correspond to the transition of electron from some higher

energy state (ni = 5,6,7 .......) to the energy level corresponds to nf =4.

1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 ( − 2)
𝜆 16 𝑛𝑖

This spectral lines lie in infra –red region.

5. Pfund Series

Spectral lines correspond to the transition of electron from some higher

energy state (ni = 6,7,8 .......) to the energy level corresponds to nf =5.

1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 ( − 2)
𝜆 25 𝑛𝑖

This spectral lines lie in far infra -red region.

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Excitation and Excitation Potential

The energy required, so as to raise an electron from its ground state to an excited state, is
called excitation energy.

The potential required, so as to raise an electron from its ground state to an excited state, is
called excitation potential.

Ionisation Energy

The energy required to knock an electron completely out of the atom. It is numerically equal
to the ground state energy.

Limitations if Bohr’s Atomic model

 It could explain spectra of only hydrogen like atoms (single electron).

 It couldn’t explain the fine spectral lines in hydrogen spectrum.
 It could not explain the splitting of spectral lines into number of spectral lines under the
effect of magnetic field (Zeeman effect).
 It did not give the relative intensities of spectral lines.
 Bohr theory defines the momentum and position with complete certainty. It is against the
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
 It considered electron only as a particle, but electrons exhibit wave nature also.

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De – Broglie Wave length and Bohr’s 2nd postulate

According to de – Broglie the wave length associated with an object of mass m moving with a
velocity v is

ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣
Using the value v = c/137, from equ (7) for the electron in first orbit of hydrogen atom, we get

𝜆 = 3.33 × 10−10 𝑚 − − − − − − − (13)

From equ (8) radius of first orbit of hydrogen =0.53 X10 -10 m.

There for the circumference of the first orbit

2𝜋𝑟 = 3.33 × 10−10 𝑚 − − − − − − − (14)

From this we can say

Electron can revolve in an orbit which can contain an integral multiple of electron wavelength. i.e

2𝜋𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆 − − − − − − − −(15)

The above result can be obtained by using de – Broglie wave and Bohr quantisation principle.

According to Bohr quantisation principle

𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟𝑛 = − − − − − −(16)
2𝜋
According to de – Broglie

ℎ
𝜆= − − − − − − − (17)
𝑚𝑣
⇒ ℎ = 𝑚𝑣𝜆 − − − − − − − (18)

Substituting equ (18) in (16)

𝑛𝑚𝑣𝜆 𝑛𝜆
𝑚𝑣𝑟𝑛 = ⇒ 𝑟𝑛 =
2𝜋 2𝜋
2𝜋𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆

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