Essential B2 First (FCE) English

The Ultimate Guide to

English Grammar

Professional English 1
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 Table of contents

01 The Present Simple 4 27 Obligation and Necessity 46

02 The Present Continuous 6 28 Deductions 48
03 The Present Perfect 7 29 Ability 50
04 The Present Perfect Continuous 9 30 Communication 51
05 State Verbs 10 31 Reported Speech 53
06 The Past Simple 12 32 Countable and Uncountable Nouns 57
07 The Past Continuous 13 33 Possessive ‘s and of 62
08 The Past Perfect 15 34 Adjectives 64
09 The Past Perfect Continuous 17 35 Adverbs 70
10 The Future Simple 18 36 Comparatives and Superlatives 73
11 The Future Continuous 20 37 Questions 77
12 The Future Perfect 21 38 Linking Words 81
13 The Future Perfect Continuous 22 39 Inversions 85
14 The Zero Conditional 23 40 Cleft Sentences 87
15 The First Conditional 24 41 Ellipsis 89
16 The Second Conditional 26 42 Irregular Verbs 91
17 The Third Conditional 27 43 Spelling 93
18 The Mixed Conditionals 28 44 Punctuations 97
19 Future Time Clauses 30 45 Pronouns and Determiners 100
20 Wish and If only 31 46 Determiners and Pronouns 102
21 The Passive Sentence 32 47 Articles 105
22 Reporting Verbs 35 48 Prepositions 108
23 The Causative 37 49 Prepositions of Place and Movement 111
24 Verbs 39 50 Verbs with Prepositions 113
25 Gerund or Infinitive 41 51 Nouns and Adjectives with Prepositions 115
26 The Auxiliary (Modal) Verbs 45

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 Professional English

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 Unit 1. The Present Simple

1. Permanent truths and facts

We use the present simple to talk about permanent truths and facts.
Water boils at 100 degrees.
Cats have four legs.
The sun rises on the east

2. Situations in the present

We use the present simple to talk about situations in the present.
I work in a bank.
Peter lives in London.
She likes cats.

3. Regular, repeated activity

We use the present simple to talk about a regular, repeated activity.
I get up at 7am.
She works from 9am to 5pm.

We use adverbs to say how often we do things:

Adverbs of frequency Adverbial phrases of frequency

always on Mondays
usually every day
normally once a month
generally twice a week
often every year
frequently in the afternoons
sometimes at nights
occasionally every now and then
seldom nowadays
hardly ever from time to time
rarely
never

4. Referring to the future

We use the present simple to refer to the future, especially to talk about timetables.
The plane arrives at 10 am.
The concert starts at 9pm.

5. Clauses of time and condition

We use the present simple in clauses of time and conditions referring to a point in the
future.
It is used after: when, if, unless, before, after, until, as soon as, whenever, etc.

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 I will give him the book when I see him.
If it rains, we will say at home.
As soon as we arrive home, I will make dinner.
The bus leaves at 4.15pm.

6. Observations and declarations

We use the present simple to talk about observations and declarations.
We use state verbs to express sentiments, states and thoughts (not activities).

I hope he arrives on time.

Jonathan likes chocolate.
I agree with you.

7. Instructions
We can use the present simple to give instructions.

You heat the oil and fry the meat.

You turn left at the second street.
You mix the flour with the sugar.

8. Sports commentaries, news headlines

We use the present simple in sports commentaries and newspaper headlines.

Ronaldo passes the ball to Beckham.

And Smith takes the ball and hands it to Frank.
Ford dismisses 500 workers.

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 Unit 2. The Present Continuous

1. Actions in progress
We use the present continuous to talk about actions which are happening at the
moment of speaking.
For example:
Peter is watching TV at the moment.
We are cooking dinner in the kitchen.
What is happening in the street

2. Temporary actions in the present

We use the present continuous to talk about temporary actions or situations in the
present period.

We often use following adverbials: today, this week, this year, these days, now, for the time
being, for now, at the moment, etc. to refer to a period around now.

I am working from home these days. (but normally I work in the office)
These days Peter is living in London. (but his home is in York)
She is studying at university. (but she is not studying at this very moment)

3. Situations in the process of changing

We use the present continuous to talk about situations which are changing.

We often use the following verbs: get, become, change, rise, increase, grow, fall, improve,
begin, start

The prices are rising.

Is your English improving?
We are getting tired.

4. Planned future actions

We use the present continuous to refer to planned future actions, especially with verbs
which express movement.

She is flying to New York on Wednesday.

We are driving to France next week.
Peter is travelling to the UK next month.

5. Repeated actions
We use the present continuous to talk about repeated actions, especially if we are
irritated or want to criticise.

We often use: always, constantly, continually or never.

You are always talking on the phone!

He is constantly inviting his friends to the pub.
He is always coming late to work.
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 Unit 3. The Present Perfect

1. Relationship between past and present

We use the present perfect when:
a) there is a connection between the past and the present:
I have read this book. (so I know it)

b) we give new information:

I have broken the vase. (so it is broken)

) to talk about things people have done or experienced and the exact time is not
important and the action can be repeated:
He has travelled to several countries. (not important when)

2. With adverbials
We use the present perfect with adverbials which show a connection between the past
and the present:
already, yet, still, just, so far, up to now, ever, never, recently, since, for, ever, before, etc.
I have already finished the project.
Peter has lived in London and New York so far.
She has just completed her degree.
Have you ever been to New York?
I have never eaten a frog.

3. With time reference

We use the present perfect to talk about a period of time which started in the past and
continuing into the present (and perhaps beyond).

We often use: today, this + morning/afternoon/week/year, etc.

I’ve travelled a lot. (in my life and can do it again)

I have taken two exams this week. (the week is not finished)
She has written three emails this morning. (the morning is not finished)

4. In clauses of time and condition

We use the present perfect simple to refer to a future action which will be completed.

I will send you an email after I have finished my homework.

Can you give me a ring when you have arrived to the hotel?
Once you have found your passport, you can travel again.

5. With since, for, how long

We use the present perfect simple to describe how long an activity is if the activity
started in the past and continues to the present or into the future.

We use: since, for and how long

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 I have lived in Beijing for 6 months.
He has worked for Microsoft since 1996.
How long have you had this car?

6. With superlatives
We can use the present perfect simple with superlatives to say that something we
experience is the best/worst, first, etc that has happened to us so far.

It’s the best cake I have ever eaten.

It’s the most expensive holiday I have ever had.
It’s the first time I have been here.

7. For or since?
We use for to say how long an activity is (a period of time). We use since to say when an
activity started.

For = duration Since = point in time

three months 1999
a day June
five years last week
two hours Christmas
a while I met you
some time the first day

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 Unit 4. The Present Perfect Continuous

1. Use and meaning

We use the present perfect continuous to talk about actions which started in the past and
continue up to the present or beyond.

The present perfect emphasizes the duration and continuity of the action.

She has been studying for three hours.

I have been working as a teacher for over ten years.

2. For and since

We can use the present perfect continuous with for and since.

I have been learning English for two years.

She has been wearing glasses since she was a child.
Joe has been watching TV for hours.

3. Present perfect simple or continuous?

Simple Continuous

• To focus on the result of an activity: • To focus on the activity:

• I’ve read the book. (finished • I’ve been reading this book since the
reading it) morning. (still reading it)
• To focus on how many times an • To focus on how long an activity is:
activity has happened: • She’s been working here for five
• She has worked for three years.
companies.

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 Unit 5. State Verbs

1. General description
Most verbs in English are dynamic. They can describe habits or actions in progress.
Dynamic verbs have simple and continuous forms.

Habit: I often travel abroad.

Action in progress: I am watching television at the moment.

State has no beginning or end, they describe states, not actions.

Some verbs are always stative: belong, want
Some verbs can have state or dynamic uses: weigh/weighing

2. Feelings and perceptions

Feelings: Like, love, prefer, hate, dislike, care, hope, admit
Perception: Feel, hear, notice, see, smell, sound, taste

We normally use these verbs in the simple tenses:

Do you see that woman in the park?
I love cats.

We often use can with see, hear , smell and taste:

I can smell something (at the moment)
Can you hear the music?

3. Wants
Wants and needs: want, need, wish, depend on, weigh, come from, cost
I wish you good luck.
The room needs cleaning.
She wants to sleep.

4. Existence and possession

Existence: be, exist
Possession: belong to, own, owe, have, possess
Appearance: appear, seem, resemble, look
She is tall.
Who does this pen belong to?
It appears to be difficult.

5. Thinking and believing

Knowledge: forget, realise, understand, know, remember
Opinion: believe, doubt, imagine, suppose, think, expect, agree, mean, deserve

If we want to say “have an opinion”, we can use think:

I think he is a nice person.

Other examples:
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 She doesn’t understand your words.
I know Peter well.
I doubt he would like your idea

6. Compositions and connections

Compositions: consist of, contain, have
Connection: come from, concern, cost, fit, suit
The presentation consists of five parts.
Maggie comes from Canada.
My friend has a Ferrari.

7. Change in meaning
Some verbs can have a dynamic or state form with a change in meaning.

Stative Dynamic

I am thinking about my holiday.

I think you are right. (opinion)
(consider)

I am seeing the bank manager

I can see you. (see with my eyes)
tomorrow. (meeting)

This cake tastes good. (has a good taste) I was just tasting the cake. (testing)

What are you looking at? (look with

You look good. (seem)
eyes)

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 Unit 6. The Past Simple

1. Completed past actions

We use the past simple to talk about completed actions and events in the past which are
not connected to the present.

We travelled to London by bus.

Peter finished his studies last year.

2. Past habits
We use the past simple to talk about habits or repeated actions in the past.

When I was young, I always spent the holidays with my grandparents.

I went to work by bus when I worked in France.
She went to lots of concerts.

3. Past situations at a concrete past time

We use the past simple to talk about actions or events at a concrete past time or period
of time.

I got up at 7am.
She worked from 9am to 5pm.
We met in 1995.

4. With for and ago

We use the past simple to refer to completed action in the past with ago.
We use for to express the duration of a past action.

The plane arrived 10 minutes ago.

Joe lived in Peru 10 years ago.
The journey lasted for two hours.
I stayed in a hotel for five days.

5. With when
We use the past simple to ask questions with when or what time.

What time did you arrive home?

When did you start working here?
When did you meet your wife?

6. With adverbials
We can use the past simple with adverbials which refer to the past.

last week/month/year
yesterday, earlier today, this week
a year/three days/ a few months ago
at two o’clock, in 2003
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 Unit 7. The Past Continuous

1. Actions in progress in the past

We use the past continuous to talk about an action which was in progress in the past at a
specified time.

We often use all to emphasize continuity: all night, all day, al evening, etc.

We were watching movies all night.

I was working all day.
She was living in Paris in 1998.

2. Actions happening at the same time

We use the past continuous to express that two or more actions were in progress at the
same time.

We often use while.

While Peter was playing on the computer, Julie was reading a book.
Jack was jogging and Peter was weightlifting.
I was writing emails while the cake was baking in the oven.

3. Actions interrupted by another action

We use the past continuous to express that an action in progress was interrupted by
another action. We use the past simple for the action which interrupts.
We often use the following words: when, as, just as, while.

We were having dinner when the phone rang.

While I was walking home, I met Fred.
Just as she was leaving the office, the boss turned up.

4. Repeated past actions

We use the past continuous to talk about repeated past actions. We often use always, all
the time, constantly and continually to express criticism.

When she was young, she was always playing music at night.
He was talking all the time.
Jack was always wearing a scarf.

5. Unfulfilled plans
We use the past continuous to talk about unfulfilled plans.

We use: plan, hope, want, intend, to be going to, etc.

I was hoping to meet my friends at the weekend but they were too busy.
She was planning to go on holiday but she didn’t have money.
Peter was wanting to phone his mum but he didn’t have time.
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6. Polite questions
We can use the past continuous for polite questions.

I was wondering if you could help me.

I was thinking that you might be able to help me.
I was hoping you could do something for me.

7. Background information
We can use the past continuous to give background information.

It was getting dark and she was preparing dinner.

We were walking in town when the sun was setting.
Peter was going home and the sun was shining.

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 Unit 8. The Past Perfect

1. Comparing past events

We use the past perfect when we want to emphasize that one past event happened
before another past event.

The action which happened first uses the past perfect.

When I arrived at the station, the train had left. (the train left before I arrived)

2. With when
If we want to emphasize that one action happened before another, we can use when +
past simple.

When she arrived at the party, everyone had left. = everyone left before she arrived
(past simple) (past perfect)

3. With time expressions

We can use the past perfect with time expressions to express that the action in the past
perfect happened before the action in the past simple.

We can use: when, before, after, as soon as, by the time, the moment, immediately , till, until,
etc.
When I had finished the project, I called my boss.
As soon as they had arrived to the hotel, they went to bed.
She didn’t know how funny he was, until she had met him.

4. With adverbs
We can use the past perfect with the following adverbs: just, already, never and ever.

Peter had already begun cooked dinner, when his wife arrived.
She had just completed her first book, when the editor contacted her.

5. As the equivalent of the present perfect

We can use the past perfect as an equivalent of the present perfect when we are looking
back from the past.

It was 2003 and she had just arrived to New York.

He had worked for T&T Co. for 5 years when he was promoted.

6. With reported speech

We use the past perfect in reported speech when the original sentence was in the past
simple or in the present perfect.

From past simple to past perfect:

‘I went to the cinema three times last week.’, he said
He said that he had gone to the cinema three times the week before.

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From present perfect to past perfect:
‘Have you ever been to New Zealand?’, she asked.
She asked if I had ever been to New Zealand.

7. With if, wish and if only

We use the past perfect in subordinate clauses to express an unreal past situation.

I wish you had told me about the problem.

If you had told me about the problem, I could have helped you.
If only she had sent me an email.
I would rather we had gone home on time.

8. Past simple or past perfect?

In most cases, we can use either the past simple or the past perfect. The past perfect is
used to show which action happened first when it is important.

After I finished work, I went home. = After I had finished work, I went home.

However, we must always use the past perfect when we talk about unreal past
situations

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 Unit 9. The Past Perfect Continuous

1.Use and meaning

We use the past perfect continuous to emphasize the duration of an activity in the past.

When I arrived home, Jane had been cooking for an hour.

He was tired because he had been playing computer games all night.

2. With reported speech

We use the past perfect continuous in reported speech: the present perfect continuous and the
past continuous become past perfect continuous.

“I was walking in the park when I met her.” he said

He said that he had been walking in the park when he had met her.
“I have been living here since 1985.” he claimed.
He claimed that he had been living there since 1985.

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 Unit 10. The Future Simple

1. Facts or prediction
We use the future simple to express facts about the future which do not depend on the
speaker.
Peter will be 28 years old in December.
The elections will take place next year.

We can also make predictions about the future which are not definite or arranged.

It will rain tomorrow. (weather forecast)

Real Madrid will win the match again. (I think)

2. Intentions and promises

We use the future simple to talk about intentions and promises or decisions made at the
time of speaking.

Ok, I will buy you an ice cream. (promise)

I’ll have a cappuccino, please. (decision)
I will travel to New York one day. (intention)

3. Threats
We can use the future simple to express threats.

Leave me alone or I will call the police!

You will regret this!

4. Requests
The future simple can also express requests.

Will you, please, open the door for me?

Will you help me with the project, please?

5. Hopes and expectations

We can use the future simple to talk about hopes and expectations.

It is used with verbs: expect, hope, think, assume, doubt, suppose, believe, I’m sure, I wonder,
etc. and with adverbs: probably, hopefully, perhaps, possibly, etc.

I hope he will arrive on time.

Hopefully the plane will not be delayed.
Do you think he will phone?

6. Weather forecasts
We use the future simple in weather forecasts to predict the weather.

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 Tomorrow will be rainy.
The snow will continue tomorrow.
It will be sunny and dry over the next few days.

7. Offers and suggestions

We use ‘shall’ to express offers and suggestions.

Shall we have a pizza? (suggestions)

Shall I wash up the dishes for you? (offer)
Where shall we go on holidays? (asking for suggestion)

8. Use of shall
We don’t use shall very often in modern English. It is usually used to express offers and
suggestions in the first person singular (I) and plural (we) in questions. The negative of
shall is shan’t (= shall not).

Shall I make you a cup of tea?

We can also use shall to express strong determination.

I shall tell him the truth!

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 Unit 11. The Future Continuous

1. Actions in progress in the future

We use the future continuous to describe an action in progress in the future.

I will be having dinner at 6pm. (around 6pm)

We will be watching football in the evening. (all night)

2. Planned future actions

We use the future continuous to describe planned actions or arrangements in the future.

I will be meeting my friends at the weekend.

We will be staying in a hotel while we are in New York.

3. Routine actions
We can describe routine actions and repeated, regular events.

I’ll be working Friday evening. (as normal)

I’ll be seeing him tomorrow so I can tell him the news.

4. Polite questions
We can use the future continuous in polite questions instead of the future simple (will).
Questions with the future continuous are more polite or casual.

Will you be meeting him tomorrow?

Will you be helping with the decorations?

5. Assumptions about the present

We can use the future continuous to express assumptions about the present.

They will be landing in Tokyo now.

It’s 7 o’clock, she will be going home now.

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 Unit 12. The Future Perfect

1. Completed actions in the future

We use the future perfect to describe an action which will be completed in the future.

It is common to use by + a time reference: by January, by 2035, by next month, by the time
you arrive.

I will have cleaned the whole house by the time your parents arrive.
We will have arrived by 4pm.
They will have built the bridge by next year.

2. With for
We often use ‘for’ with the future continuous to talk about the duration of a future
activity.

By next month, I will have lived here for two years.

They will have been married for 40 years by the end of this year.

3. Assumptions
We can use the future perfect to express assumptions about the past or the present.

As you will have heard, we will be changing office. (I am quite confident that you
have heard it)
He will have woken up by now – it’s 10 o’clock.

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 Unit 13. The Future Perfect Continuous

1. Use and meaning

We use the future perfect continuous to talk about the duration of an activity or event.
It is usually necessary to mention a time reference.

She will have been working for this company for 6 years in August.
I will have been studying Spanish for ten years.

2. With for
We usually use ‘for’ to express the duration of a future activity.

She will have been living abroad for 3 years by the end of next months.
They will have been seeing each other for 2 months.

3. An activity leading up to a future time

We use the future perfect continuous to describe an activity which leads up to another
future activity.

When you arrive, I will have been cooking for hours.

She will be tired when you see her because she will have been working hard.

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 Unit 14. The Zero Conditional

1. Form
The zero conditional is formed with:

Main clause If clause

present tense present tense

Ice melts if you heat it.

You get sick if you eat too much.

If clause Main clause

present tense present tense

If you heat ice, it melts.

If eat too much, you get sick.

2. Meaning
We use the zero conditional to talk about general truth and facts.

I always take a taxi if it rains.

If you freeze water, it becomes ice.

3. Other forms
The zero conditional can also be formed with ‘when’ instead of ‘if’.

When it rains, the weather turns cold.

I always order a takeaway when I work late.

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 Unit 15. The First Conditional

1. Form
The main way of forming the first conditional is:

Main clause If clause

Future simple ‘will’ Present simple

I will stay at home if it rains tomorrow.

If clause Main clause

Present simple Future simple ‘will’

If it rains tomorrow, I will stay at home.

2. Meaning
We use the first conditional to talk about events which we feel are possible.

If the sun shines tomorrow, I will go to the park.

She will be very happy if she hears the news.
If you play games all night, you will be tired in the morning.

3. With modal verbs

We can use the first conditional with modal verbs to add an extra meaning. The extra
meaning is always related to the meaning of the modal verb.

The modal verb can be: may, might, can, could, should, ought to, must.

If you eat your sandwich, you can play with your friends.
If you want a pet, you should be more responsible.
If you can talk to him today, will you give him my regards?

4. If clause with other tenses

Depending on the meaning we want to express, we can use the following tenses in the if
clause: present continuous, present perfect simple and present perfect continuous.

If you are coming to the party, you will have to wear a suit.
If she has received your letter, she will reply soon.
If Jim has been cleaning the house, he will be very tired tonight.

5. Main clause with other tenses

It is also possible to use the following tenses in the main clause: ‘be going to’, future
continuous and future perfect.
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 If I finish work early, I am going to watch my favourite film.
She will be sleeping all night if she gets very tired.
If he goes to Botswana, he will have visited 52 countries in the world.

6. With the imperative

We can use the imperative in conditional sentences.

If you have a problem, please phone me.

However, we can replace the if word with and or or.

Affirmative sentences:
If you finish early, go home.
Finish early and go home.

Negative sentences:
If you don’t stop shouting, I’ll call the police.
Stop shouting or I’ll call the police.

7. If + should
We can use should in the if clause to make the meaning more polite or less likely to
happen.

If I should see him, I will tell him the news.

If I should go to the concert, I’d better get ready now.
If you should happen to find a mobile phone, it’s mine.

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 Unit 16. The Second Conditional

1. Form
We form the second conditional the following way:

Main clause If clause

Would + infinitive Past simple

I would buy a sports car if I won the lottery.

If clause Main clause

Past simple Would + infinitive

If I won the lottery, I would buy a sports car.

2. Meaning
We use the second conditional to talk about imaginary or improbable situations.

If you had more time, would you stay longer?

If I had a hot air balloon, I would fly around the world.
If she didn’t like her job, she wouldn’t work here.

3. If clause + modals / past continuous

In the if clause, we can use the past continuous, could or was/were to.

If I were to travel round the world, I would start in New York.

If you could change your name, what would you choose?
If we were driving too fast, the police would arrest us.

4. Main clause + modals

In the main clause, we can use the modals could and might.

If we finished work early, we could go out in the evening.

If we had time, we might meet up with our friends.

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 Unit 17. The Third Conditional

1. Form
We form the third conditional the following way:

Main clause If clause

would have + participle past perfect (continuous)

I would have visited you. If I had had the time,

you would have passed the test. If you hadn’t been partying,

If clause Main clause

past perfect (continuous) would have + participle

If I had had the time, I would have visited you.

If you hadn’t been partying, you would have passed the test.

2. Meaning
We use the third conditional to talk about a past event which did not happen. With the
third conditional, we express how we would like to change the past.

If I had won the lottery last week, I would have bought that sports car. (But I didn’t
win the lottery so I didn’t buy that sports car.)

3. Main clause + modals

It is possible to use could or might instead of would in the main clause of the conditional
sentence.

He might have gone to the party if he had been invited.

He could have met lots of friends if he had gone to the party.

4. If clause + could
We can use could in the if-clause of the conditional sentence.

If I could have flown to New York yesterday, I would have seen the carnival.

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 Unit 18. The Mixed Conditionals

1. Types
We can create mixed conditional sentences by mixing the if-clause from one type of
conditional sentence with the main clause of another type of conditional sentence.

1st 2nd

If I go to the party tonight, I wouldn’t wear a suit.

2nd 3rd

If I had more money, I would have ordered a pizza.

2nd
3rd

If I had studied harder when I was young, I would speak Spanish now.

2. Conjunctions
We can use the following conjunctions instead of ‘if’:

What if Assuming (that) Imagine

If only As/so long as Even if

Provided/providing (that) Unless

On (the) condition (that) Suppose/supposing (that)

Even if it rains, I will go jogging.

You can meet your friends, as long as you finish your homework before.
Suppose you get the promotion, what will you do?
Provided that you finish all the work, you can go home early.

3. Inversions
In conditional sentences, we can use an inverted structure instead of ‘if’.
Should you have any questions…. = If you should have any ….
Were I to meet him…. = If I met him…
Had you studied more…. = If you had studied more…..

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4. Other ways
Sometimes in spoken English we express conditions in other ways – usually with extra
words – or the condition is implied in the context.

I am sure you’d enjoy dancing. Why don’t you try it?

= If you tried dancing, you would enjoy it.

Don’t tell Mike the news. He’d be furious.

= If you told Mike the news, he’d be furious.

With a bit more time, he could have finished the project.

= If he had had a bit more time, he could have finished the project.

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 Unit 19. Future Time Clauses

1. What is it?
The part of a sentence which talks about the future is a called future time clause or
conjunction of time.

They are introduced by the following conjunctions:

when after until

before as soon as once

while immediately whenever

by the time

2. Use
If time clauses refer to the future, we usually use the present simple or the present
perfect after the conjunction.

When I arrive home, I will phone you.

As soon as I have arrived, I will phone you.
I will phone you before I leave the office.

3. Use with present simple

We use the present simple in the future time clause, if the two actions in the sentence
happen at the same time or the emphasis is on the action.

When I see her, I will tell her the news. (at the same time)
As soon as I hear something, I will let you know. (immediately I will inform you)

4. Use with present perfect

We use the present perfect in future time clauses to show that an action is completed
before another action.

I will phone you after I have arrived home. (First I arrive home, then I will phone
you.)
As soon as I have finished my studies, I will travel round the world. (First I will
finish my studies, then I will travel.)

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 Unit 20. Wish, If only

1. Meaning
We use sentences starting with ‘wish’ or ‘if only’ if we want to express a wish. ‘If only’
is not so common and more emphatic than ‘wish’.

We can wish something about:

a) the present: I wish you were here. (but you are here now)
b) the future: I wish he would help me with my project tomorrow.
c) the past: I wish I had travelled the world when I was younger

2. Wishes about the present

We use wish + past simple or wish + past continuous to talk about a wish in the present.

I wish I had a small dog. (but I don’t have a dog)

I wish I were/was taller. (but I am short)
I wish you were here. (but you are not here)

We can use were instead of was:

I wish I were younger.

We can also use could:

I wish I could drive a car.

3. Wishes about the future

We use wish + would to express the following:

a) to talk about a future wish, for something to happen:

I wish he would arrive sooner.
I wish they would increase the speed limit.

b) to complain about a bad habit:

I wish you wouldn’t smoke so much.
I wish you would stop lying.

4. Wishes about the past

We use wish + past perfect to express a regret about the past. It refers to something that
we cannot change.

I wish I had studied more. (but I didn’t)

I wish you had arrived on time. (but you didn’t)
Peter wishes he had written down the girl’s number.

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 Unit 21. The Passive Sentence

1. Forming the passive

The passive sentence is formed: be + past participle.
We always keep the tense of the original active sentence.

Active: Passive:
I write the letter. The letter is written.
She brought the cake. The cake was brought.

The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence:

Maria found a bird.

A bird was found by

Maria.

2. The simple tenses

How to form the passive in the present simple and in the past simple:

a) In the present simple, the active verb becomes: is/are + past participle (of the same
verb).

Active: Peters cleans the house every Friday.

Passive: The house is cleaned every Friday.

b) In the past simple, the active verb becomes: was/were + past participle (of the same
verb).

Active: Peters cleaned the house last Friday.

Passive: The house was cleaned last Friday.

3. The continuous tenses

How to form the passive in the present and past continuous:

a) In the present continuous, the active verb becomes: is/are + being + past participle
(of the same verb).

Active: Peters is cleaning the house.

Passive: The house is being cleaned.

b) In the past continuous, the active verb becomes: was/were + being + past participle
(of the same verb).

Active: Peters was cleaning the house.

Passive: The house was being cleaned.

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4. The perfect tenses
How to form the passive in the present and past perfect:

a) In the present perfect, the active verb becomes: have/has + been + past participle (of
the same verb).

Active: Peters has cleaned the house.

Passive: The house has been cleaned.

b) In the past perfect, the active verb becomes: had + been + past participle (of the same
verb).

Active: Peters had cleaned the house.

Passive: The house had been cleaned.

5. The passive with modals

How to form the passive with modal verbs: modal verb + be + past participle

Active: Peters will clean the house.

Passive: The house will be cleaned.

Active: Joe can write the memo.

Passive: The memo can be written.

Active: Joe might bring the sandwiches.

Passive: The sandwiches might be brought.

6. The agent
Usually we omit the subject of the active sentence from the passive sentence. However, if
it is important for the meaning of the sentence, we can include the agent at the end of
the passive sentence:

by+ who did the action

with + the instrument used to do the action

Dinner was served by the waiter.

This house was built in 1885 by my grandfather.
The cake was cut up with a knife.

7. The uses of the passive

We use the passive if:

a) we don’t know who did the action: The motorway was built last year.
b) the action is more important than who did it: The dinner has been prepared.
c) it is obvious who did the action: The bank has been robbed.
d) in scientific texts: Water is heated to 90 degrees.
e) in reports and announcements: The new president has been elected.

8. Verbs with two objects

Some verbs can have two objects: a direct and an indirect object. Both object can become
the subject of the passive sentence.
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Joe gave me a book.
I was given a book by Joe.
A book was given to me by Joe.

Peter sent Sarah a letter.

Sarah was sent a letter.
A letter was sent to Sarah.

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 Unit 22. Reporting Verbs

1. The structure
When we want to report what people say, believe, think, report, etc., we use an
impersonal passive construction.

1) it + is/was reported/said + that + clause

The television reported that a fire broke out in the centre.
It is reported that a fire broke out in the centre.

2) passive subject + is/was reported + to infinitive or

passive subject + is/was reported + to have participle

The television reported that a fire broke out in the centre.

A fire was reported to have broken out in the centre.

2. Reporting verbs
Examples of reporting verbs we can use:
assume, calculate, claim, consider, discover, estimate, expect, feel, hope, know, prove, report,
say, show, think, understand, agree, believe, find, mean, presume, regard, suppose, etc.

Dinosaurs are believed to have died out millions of years ago.

Mr Smith is expected to arrive shortly.
The costs were calculated to be over the budget.

3. Continuous events
Look at the examples:
The neighbours think that Mr. Jack is living in Paris.
Mr. Jack is thought to be living in Paris.

The family believed that Frank was working for the CIA.
Frank was believed to be working for the CIA.

In these sentences ‘is living’ and ‘was working’ are continuous tenses, therefore, their
passive form is ‘to be doing’.

4. Earlier events
Study these examples:
a) The news reports that the president has been re-elected.
b) The president is reported to have been re-elected.

a) The teacher reported that Kate had cheated in the exam.

b) Kate was reported to have cheated in the exam.

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In these examples, ‘has been re-elected’ and ‘had cheated’ are actions which happened
before ‘reports’ and ‘reported’ therefore their passive form is ‘to have done’ or ‘to have
been done’

5. Double passive
Look at the example:
a) His friends feared that Joe was kidnapped.
b) Joe was feared to have been kidnapped.

As you can see, this sentence contains two passive parts: ‘was feared’ (this is the
reporting part) and ‘to have been kidnapped’ (this is the original passive part). This
often happens when the original sentence contains a passive part.

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 Unit 23. The Causative

1. Form
When we ask or force somebody to do something for us, we can use the following
structures:

1) to have something done

Sue had her hair cut by the hairdresser.

2) to get something done

I got my car repaired yesterday.

3) to get somebody to do something

I will get my brother to fix the printer.

4) to have somebody do something

I will have my brother fix the printer.

2. Have
Sometimes, the structure suggests difficulty or bad luck. ‘Have’ is more common in
these situations

I had my car stolen.

Sometimes it is unclear from the meaning if we asked somebody to do an action for us or

if it was bad luck:

We had the hole garden dug up. (‘dug up’ can mean we asked somebody to dig up
the garden, or perhaps that a dog dug in the garden and destroyed the plants)

3. Get
‘Get’ is more common in spoken English and ‘have’ is more common in formal English.
I’ll get her to type up the document.
I’ll have a meeting arranged for next Tuesday.

Get can mean ‘manage’ to do something’.

I got the house cleaned by the time the visitors arrived.

4. Needs doing
We often use an idiomatic expression which means that we have to do an action:
need doing or need done

I need to clean my shoes. My shoes need cleaning.

You need to water the plants. The plants need watering.
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Note: We don’t mention the person who does the action.
‘Need done’ is a regional expression and is generally not considered correct.

5. Get + past participle

We can often use ‘get’ with a past participle to mean ‘become’. Its meaning is similar to
‘be + past participle.

We often use the following expressions:

To get + married / divorced / dressed / hurt / done / accepted / chosen / arrested, etc.

She got dresses quickly.

His fingers got burned.
They got divorced last year.
I will get the letter typed up.

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 Unit 24. Verbs

1. Verb types
Verbs can be transitive or intransitive or both. Some words can have two objects and
some take a compliment.

2. Transitive verbs
Transitive verbs require an object. Some words have just a direct object while other verbs
have both a direct and an indirect object. These verbs can also take a prepositional
phrase.
Study the following table:

Verb indirect object direct object Prepositional phrase

They received ----- a letter on Monday.

We gave them a book for Christmas.

He smokes (cigarettes) after dinner.

3. Verbs with two objects

The indirect object usually comes before the direct. However, it is possible to put the
direct object first and then connect the indirect object with a preposition (usually to or
for).

Verb Indirect object Direct object

She bought Frank a book.

I gave her flowers.
They sent me an email.

Verb Direct object Preposition Indirect object

We wrote a letter to my friend.

The bank lent money to my brother.
I showed my new flat to Jack.
Ann made a cake for her sister.
She chose a dress for her daughter.
He ordered a pizza for the kids.

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4. Intransitive verbs
Intransitive verbs cannot take an object. They also cannot use the passive form.

Some common intransitive verbs:

appear / burn / come / fall / go / happen / lie / matter / open / sleep / swim

The children are sleeping.

We swim every day.

Some verbs can be both transitive and intransitive:

The film continued after the break. (intransitive)
Joe continued the story. (transitive)

Intransitive verbs can take a prepositional phrase or an adverbial phrase that completes
their meaning.
We waited for the bus for 15 minutes.
The door closed with a huge bang.

5. Linking verbs + complements

Some verbs are followed by a complement, not an object. These verbs are called linking
verbs.
Linking verbs describe the subject and can be followed by an adjective or noun phrase.

Common linking verbs:

be / become / appear / grow / turn / seem / remain / look / sound / stay / keep / get / go

He seemed ill.
They became concerned.
The milk turned sour.
The food tastes delicious.
William is an accomplished writer.

Appear and seem can be followed by a ‘to be+adjective’.

Ann seems to be late again.

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 Unit 25. Gerund or Infinitive

1. Gerund or infinitive?
When we want to use two verbs one after the other, or a verb after an adjective, we can
connect them in different ways:
• with a to infinitive
• with a gerund (-ing)
• with a bare infinitive (infinitive without ‘to’)
• with a that clause
• with a preposition + to infinitive
• with an object + to infinitive
• adjective + to infinitive

A good dictionary will always tell you which category a verb belongs to.

2. Verb + to infinitive
The following verbs are followed by a to infinitive:

afford / aim / appear / ask / attempt / choose / deserve / fail / happen / help / learn /
manage / neglect / offer / plan / prepare / refuse / seem / tend / wait / want / wish

Peter can’t afford to buy a house.

We decided to buy an ice-cream.
Jack wanted to go for a walk.
He tends to smoke a lot.

3. Verb + to infinitive / that

Some verbs can be followed by a to infinitive or a that clause:

agree arrange decide demand desire expect

hope intend learn plan pretend promise
seem threaten wish

They agreed to travel by car.

They agreed that travelling by car was a good idea.
They hoped to arrive early.
They hoped that the plane wouldn’t be late.

4. Adjectives + to infinitive
Adjectives are usually followed by a to infinitive verb. (For exceptions, look at part 2.)

1. It + is/was + adjectives (+ noun) + to + verb

It is difficult to answer this question.
It is a difficult question to answer.
It is nice to see you.

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2. Subject + is/was + adjective + to + verb
She is easy to talk to.
Frank was surprised to see us.
This question is difficult to answer.

3. It + is/was + adjective + for you + to + verb

It is nice of you to help me.
It was kind of him to organize the party.

5. Verb + ing / noun

Some verbs can be followed by either a noun or a gerund (verb+ing):

avoid delay dislike enjoy fancy

feel like finish help give up involve
keep mind miss postpone practise
risk can’t stand

I enjoy reading books. I enjoy this party.

He practiced dancing. He practiced his dance moves.
I can’t stand smoking. I can’t stand cigarettes.

6. Verb + ing / noun / that

Some verbs can be followed by either a gerund, a noun, or a that – clause:

admit appreciate consider confess deny

imagine mention recollect report suggest

He admitted stealing the jewellery.

He admitted that he stole the jewellery.
Jack mentioned meeting Fred in the street.
Jack mentioned that he met Fred in the street.

7. Verb + preposition + ing

All verbs which have a preposition are always followed by a gerund:

afraid of / apologise for / concentrate on / congratulate on / decide on / dream of / get

rid of / forgive for / insist on / keen on / look forward to / prevent from / sorry for /
succeed in / suspect of / stop from / thank for / warn against

Jack apologised for breaking the vase.

Phil succeeded in swimming across the channel.

8. Verb + ing = Verb + to infinitive

A few verbs can be followed by either a gerund or an infinitive without any change in the
meaning. These are:

attempt / begin / continue / can’t bear / dread / hate / intend / like / love / prefer / start

I began to read the newspaper.

I began reading the newspaper.

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9. Verb + ing ≠ Verb + to infinitive
In these cases, the meaning changes depending on the infinitive or gerund:

Verb + ing / inf meaning

I remember visiting my grandma when I was a child. ➢ Have a memory of it

Please, remember to post the letter. ➢ Instruction to remember

I won’t forget meeting him the first time. ➢ Have a memory of it

Please, don’t forget to lock the doors. ➢ Instruction to remember

I regret telling him my secret. ➢ I am sorry that I did this.

I regret to inform you that the plane has been ➢ I am sorry that I will do
canelled. this

Last winter, I tried skiing but I didn’t like it. ➢ Experiment

I have tried to call him five times. ➢ Attempt

➢ Finish doing it
He stopped reading and stood up.
➢ Stop in order to so
He stopped to have a cigarette.
something

Changing your country means learning a new

➢ Involve
language.
➢ Intend
I meant to call you but I didn’t have time.

Fred went on talking about his job for hours. ➢ Continue

After university, Jill went on to become a lawyer. ➢ The next thing to do

10. Verb + bare infinitive

A small number of verbs are followed by an infinitive without to:

a) Modal verbs → this topic is discussed in a separate unit.

I should go. You must eat your food.

b) Help, let, make

She helped me (to) bake the cake.
Please, let me show you the new catalogue.
She made the children clean up.

But: The children were made to clean up. (passive!)

Note: ‘Help’ can be followed by to infinitive or the bare infinite (without ‘to’).

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11. See / hear / feel, etc.
The following verbs can be followed by an infinitive without to or a gerund with a small
change in meaning.

a. see/hear/feel/etc. + object + verb = we focus on the completed action

b. see/hear/feel/etc + object + verb+ing = we focus on the continuing action

feel / hear / see / listen to / notice / watch

He saw the boy run across the road. (from beginning to end)
He saw the boy running across the road. (part of the action)
I heard him shout. (a short shout probably)
I heard him shouting. (the shouting continued)

12. Verb + object + to or Verb + ing

Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or by an object plus to infinitive.

a. Verb + gerund
b. Verb + object + to infinitive

advise allow encourage forbid permit recommend

He recommended travelling to Asia. She forbade leaving the room.

He recommended us to travel to Asia. She forbade the child to leave the room.

13. Expressions
There are some expressions which always use the gerund.

1. have difficulty doing something

2. it is a waste of time/money doing something (to is also possible)
3. spend time doing something
4. waste time doing something
5. It’s no use/good doing something

I spent time talking to my neighbour.

It’s no use learning Hungarian. Nobody speaks it.
It’s a waste of time speaking to him. He never listens.

14. Verb + (object) + to

Some verbs can be followed by a to infinitive or by an object + to infinitive.

ask beg help expect *enable

*force *invite *get *order *persuade
*remind *teach *tell *warn want
would like would love would prefer would hate

I want to go home. I want you to go home.

I would like to leave. I would like you to leave.

The verbs with a star (*) always follow the verb + object + infinitive pattern.
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 Unit 26. The Auxiliary (Modal) Verbs

The modal verbs help us express extra ideas that other types of sentences cannot.

1. The verb system

The chart below shows how the different types of verbs are related in the English
language.

The English verbs

Main verbs Auxiliary verbs

go
do Modal verbs
buy be
have can, could
work
read may, might
write will, would
Semi-modal verbs
eat shall, should
Speak dare (to) ought to must
has to need (to) had better

2. What does it mean?

As you could see from the chart before, in the English language we can have main verbs
and auxiliary verbs.

Auxiliary verbs help the main verbs to form tenses, negative sentences and questions.

I don’t eat meat. (negative sentence)

I have eaten an apple. (present perfect)
Can you swim? (question)

Modal verbs can give several extra meanings to the main verb:
a) Ability: Peter can sing well.
b) Obligation: You must pay the bills.
c) Permission: You may sit down.
d) Prohibition: Dogs mustn’t enter.
e) Possibility: He could arrive soon.

3. Characteristics
Modal verbs behave differently from main verbs:
• They never change, they don’t add –s, -ed, -ing.
• They are followed by the verb without ‘to’.
• They always go before the main verb.
• They form the negative by adding ‘not’ or ‘n’t’.
• They are used to form questions and negatives.
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 Unit 27. Obligation and Necessity

1. Obligation
We can use should, ought to, must, mustn’t, need (to), have to and have got to when we
want to express obligation.

Obligation No Obligation

You should be careful.

You ought to be careful.
You don’t have to get up early.
You must eat vegetables.
He doesn’t have to pay rent.
Present You mustn’t drive fast.
I don’t need to write to her.
I need to phone Paul.
I needn’t write to her.
I have to wear a uniform.
I have got to see the doctor.

I had to work last Sunday.

He didn’t have to write a report.
You should have told me the price.
Past You didn’t need to call me.
You ought to have arrived earlier.
You needn’t have called me.
You needed to call me.

2. Must and have to

must and have to/have got to

We prefer must:
to give orders and instructions
to show the speaker feels strongly about something
in public notices

We prefer have to:

to talk about rules and regulations
to talk about habits

have got to is more informal than have to.

I must go home now. (It’s my decision.)
I have to work tomorrow. (It is outside my control.)

3. Must and don’t have to

mustn’t means it is forbidden/prohibited. We can also use can’t to express prohibition.
don’t have to means it is not necessary.

Synonyms of don’t have to:

don’t need to
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 needn’t
haven’t go to

You mustn’t play ballgames in the park. (It is not allowed.)

You can’t eat all the cakes! Leave some to the others, too.
You don’t have to phone the client. (It is not necessary.)

4. Should and ought to

should and ought to are used to express advice, opinion or a polite instruction. In the
negative we say shouldn’t and oughtn’t to.

You should eat more vegetables. (In my opinion is it good for you but you don’t have
to do it.)
You ought to see the doctor. (My advice is to see the doctor but you have a choice.)
You shouldn’t work so much.

5. Had better and to be to

We can use had better or had better not to give strong advice.

You had better leave now.

He had better not be late!

We can use to be to when we want to give a formal instruction.

You are to arrive in the office at 8am sharp.
You are not to enter the premises.

6. Need (to)
In the present, we can use need as a main verb or as a model verb. It means ‘necessary.
I need to call mum. (main verb) - I need call mum. (model)
I don’t need to call her. - I needn’t call her.
Do you need to call? - Need you call?

In the past tense, we use the main verb form with ‘to’:
I needed to call. I didn’t need to call.

But: needn’t have done has a different meaning:

You needn’t have brought the umbrella. (You brought the umbrella although it was
totally unnecessary.)

7. Obligation in the past

When we talk about obligation in the past, we use had to or needed to. In the negative we
use didn’t have to or didn’t need to.
I had to work last weekend. = I needed to work last weekend.
(It was necessary and I did it.)
I didn’t have to work yesterday. (It was not necessary.)

If something was necessary but the person didn’t do it, we use: should have done or
ought to have done.
I’m angry with Peter. He should have told me the truth! (Although it was important,
he didn’t tell me the truth)

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 Unit 28. Deductions

1. Certainty - present
To express that we are very sure about something in the present, we can use must.

You’ve worked all day. You must be very tired!

You must be the new boss. Nice to meet you.

To express that we are sure something is not possible in the present, we use can’t and
couldn’t.

You can’t be tired! You’ve been sleeping all day.

It couldn’t be true! He always lies.

Note: mustn’t (obligation, uncertainty) is not the opposite of must (prohibition)!

2. Certainty - past
To express that we are very sure about something in the past, we can use must have.

Jo didn’t answer the phone. He must have fallen asleep.

Well done for passing the test. You must have studied a lot.

To express that we are sure something is not possible in the past, we use can’t
have/couldn’t have.

He can’t have lent you the money. He’s mean!

He couldn’t have stolen the painting. He has an alibi.

3. Possibility - present
To express uncertainty or possibility in the present, we can use may, might or could.
‘Where’s Jane?’ ‘I don’t know. She may be in kitchen. Or she could be in bathroom.’
(The speaker is not sure.)
‘Don’t buy him that tie. He may not/might not like it.

Note: We don’t use couldn’t to express possibility.

4. Possibility - past
To express possibility in the past, we can use may have, might have or could have.

‘Why is that child crying?’ ‘He may have lost his toy.’
‘Where are the diamonds?’ ‘They could have been stolen!’

5. Probability - present
To express probability or expectation, we can use will, should (ought to) or to be bound
to.

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 She will arrive soon. (I expect her to arrive soon because she usually arrives at this
time.)
She should be in Paris now. (I expect that the plane has landed.)
He’s bound to be promoted. He’s the best. (I expect that he will be promoted.)

6. Probability - past
To express probability in the past, we can use should have or shouldn’t have.

He should have arrived in New York by now. (I expect that he has arrived.)
He shouldn’t have sold his car. He loves it. (I expect that he didn’t sell his car.

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 Unit 29. Ability

1. Ability - present
To talk about ability in the present, we use can and to be able to/to be unable to.

‘Can Joe drive?’ ‘No, he can’t. He is too young.’

I cannot sing at all.
I am not able to answer this question. It’s too difficult.

Note: The negative of can is can’t and cannot.

can is used for general situations. to be able to/to be unable to is used for more specific
situations and can be used in all the tenses.

to be able to is also used for all the tenses.

I will be able to speak English next year.

2. Ability - past
To talk about ability in the past, we can use could and was/were able to.

When I was young, I could run very fast.

I could always swim well, but that day I just wasn’t able to swim fast enough.

3. Other ways of expressing ability

We can use verbs to express ability: manage to + infinitive and succeed in +
gerund/noun. These verbs can be used both in the present and the future. They an be
used in all the tenses.

I have managed to phone the insurance company finally.

I’m sure Jack will succeed in learning French.

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 Unit 30. Communication

1. Permission

Asking for permission: Giving permission:

Can I open the window, Yes, of course, you can.

please? No, you can’t use my phone.
Could I use your phone, You may sit down.
please? You may not enter.
May I sit down?
May I enter?

Could is more formal and polite than can.

May is the most formal way of asking or giving permission

2. Requests
We can make requests using the following modal verbs:
Can I ask you something?
Can you help me with this letter, please?
Will you get me some milk, please?

More formal ways of making requests:

Could I borrow your camera?
Could you make me a coffee, please?
Would you pass me the salt, please?

3. Offers
We can make offers in different ways:

Shall I open the door for you?

Can I get a cup of tea for you?
Would you like to have something to eat?
Would you like me to help you?
Why don’t I go and get a sandwich for you?
I can write the report, if you’d like me to.
I will take you to the airport.

4. Suggestions
Ways of making suggestions:

Shall we order a pizza?

Let’s go the cinema tonight.
Why don’t we go out for a walk?
How about watching a movie?
What about watching a film?
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 We can go to Paris or to Rome.
We could go out tonight.

5. Orders and instructions

We can give polite orders by using one of the following expressions:

You must fill in the form immediately.

Can you, please, finish the report by tomorrow?
Could you post this letter, please?
Would you mind telling me the truth?

Another way of giving an instruction is to use the imperative:

Stand up.
Sit down.
Open the door.

6. Advice
We can ask for advice the following ways:
Shall I tell him the truth?
Should I talk to him?
Would you buy this car if you were me?

We can give advice in many different ways:

You must go and see the doctor.
You should/ought to eat more vegetables.
You shouldn’t smoke.
You had better drive carefully.
You had better not arrive late.
You could call him.

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 Unit 31. Reported Speech

1. What is it?
Reported speech is when we report or repeat somebody’s words or sentences. We can
report directly by simply repeating the exact sentence we heard:

Joe: ‘It is very hot today.’

‘It is very hot today’, Joe said.

Or indirectly, when report somebody’s sentence from our point of view:

Peter to Anne: ‘I like your new dress.’

Anne: ‘Peter says that he likes my new dress.’

2. What can we report?

We can report many different types of sentences: statements, thoughts, questions,
instructions, offers, advice, promises, suggestions

Frank to Bill: ‘Stop using my bike!’

Frank told Bill to stop using his bike.

‘You shouldn’t smoke so much’, said Fred.

Fred suggested that I shouldn’t smoke so much.

‘Do you like blue cheese?’ , asked Mary.

Mary asked Phil if he liked blue cheese.

3. Tense change or not?

When we report somebody’s sentences which relate to the present, we do not have to
change the tenses. Usually the reporting verb (eg. say, tell) is in the present.
Chris to Liza: ‘I love you.’
Liza to her friend: ‘Chris says that he loves me.’

When we report somebody’s sentences which relate to the past, we have to change the
tenses. Usually the reporting verb is in the past.

‘I went on an excursion around the city’, said Bill.

Bill said that he had gone on an excursion around the city.

4. Statements, thoughts, etc.

When we report somebody’s words and thoughts, we have to pay attention to the
following:

Tense change These are discussed in the following unit

Pronoun change
Changing words of time and place

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Study the examples carefully:
‘I can swim very fast’, said Frank.
Frank said that he could swim very fast.

‘I am going to travel to Paris next year’, insisted Bill.

Bill insisted that he was going to travel to Paris the following year.

5. Wh-question
When we report somebody’s wh-question, we have to pay attention to the following
changes:
a) Tense change
b) Pronoun change
c) Changing words of time and place
d) Word order change from question to statement

Look at the example sentences, and study how the word order changes:
‘Where are you going?’ asked mum.
Mum asked where I was going.

When does the plane arrive?’ asked the passenger.

The passenger asked when the train arrived.

6. Yes/no questions
When we report somebody’s question, we have to pay attention to the following
changes:
a) Tense change
b) Pronoun change
c) Changing words of time and place
d) Word order change from question to statement
e) Add if/whether in reported speech

Study how the word order changes in yes/no questions:

‘Do you have a car?’
She asked if/whether I had a car.

‘Have you ever been to New York?’

He asked if/whether I had ever been to New York.

7. Reporting advice, promise, etc.

When reporting advice, command/instruction, promise, request, warning, etc, we use:

advise / ask / tell / warn / promise / beg / expect / want / allow / command / tell /
invited / offer, etc (+ pronoun) + the to-infinitive

‘Open, the door, please.’ He told me to open the door.

‘Can you help me?’ He asked me to help him.
‘You shouldn’t smoke.’ He advised me not to smoke.
‘I’ll will visit you.’ She promised to visit me.
‘We could do it for you.’ They offered to do it for us.
‘Don’t tell him anything.’ She instructed me not to tell him anything.

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8. Suggestions
When we report suggestions and recommendations with the word suggest, we can use
four constructions:

‘Let’s order pizza.’

He suggested that we order pizza.
He suggested that we should order pizza.
He suggested that we ordered pizza.
He suggested ordering pizza.

Note: We cannot use ‘to-infinitive’ after suggest!

9. Tense changes
When we report somebody’s speech and the reporting verb is in the past, we have to
move the tense one step back in time:

present simple past simple

present continuous past continuous
past simple past perfect
present perfect (continuous) past perfect (continuous)
past perfect past perfect
past continuous past perfect continuous
am going to was going to
will would
can/could could
may/might might
must had to
mustn’t couldn’t
shall/should should

10. Time, place word changes

When the reporting verb is in the past tense, we usually have to change the following
words:

today that day

tonight that night
tomorrow the next day, the following day
yesterday the previous day, the day before
two days ago two days before, two days earlier
next (week/day) the following (week/day)
last (week/month) the (week/month) before
now then
here there
come go
this/these that/those/that
ago before
before earlier

11. Other changes

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In reported speech, pronouns can change depending on the speaker’s viewpoint.
Peter to his son: ‘I will buy you a video game.’
Son to his friend: ‘Dad said that he would buy me a video game.’

This/that/these/those may change to the. This/that may change to it.

‘I love this ice-cream’, said Clara.
Clara said that she loved the ice-cream.
‘Please, give me that book’, asked Fred.
Fred asked me to give it to him.

12. Common reporting verbs:

admit, advise, agree, answer, tell, suggest, think, demand, ask, report, remind, believe,
imagine, insist, wonder, beg, announce, command, forbid, invite, tell, order, warn,
teach, offer, want to know, enquire, request, command, wonder, recommend, refuse,
threaten, swear, instruct, explain, remind

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 Unit 32. Countable and Uncountable Nouns

1. Countable nouns
Countable nouns can:
- be counted: 1 apple – 2 apples – 3 apples
- have both singular and plural forms: child – children, car - cars
- use a/an with the singular form: a house, a cat, an elephant
- can use some / any / many / a few: some dogs, any banana, a few books, many
people

2. Uncountable nouns
Uncountable nouns are usually abstract ideas, liquid or mass forms.
Uncountable nouns:
- cannot be counted: 3 rices but: some rice/a bowl of rice
- have only a singular form and followed by a singular verb: water, rice, sand, air,
wine, cheese. The water is clear.
- cannot use a/an: a music, a blood, a furniture, an advice
- can use some / any / much / a little: some music, any advice a little water, much
damage

3. Nouns ending in -s
Plural nouns are nouns which only have plural forms. They are followed by a plural verb.

trousers, clothes, glasses, goods, feelings, jeans, premises, surroundings, thanks,

stairs, socks, pyjamas, scales, pants, remains, goods, proceeds, whereabouts,
congratulations, overheads, earnings, outskirts, savings, particulars

‘Where are your trouser?’ ‘They are on the shelf.’

Some uncountable nouns end in –s but are uncountable and use a singular verb:

mathematics, physics, aerobics, genetics, measles, linguistics, economics, classics,

mumps, diabetes, news, thanks, happiness, gymnastics, aerobics, darts, politics,
physics, phonetics, statistics, rabies, means, economics

Mathematics is an interesting subject.

Plural measurements ending –s take a singular verb:

Four-hours is a long time to drive without stopping.

4. Group nouns
Group nouns or collective nouns are nouns which refer to a group of people or things
together. They can take either a singular or a plural verb.

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government, army, company, crew, crowd, data family, group, media, press, public,
staff, team, committee, gang, the BBC, the EU, club, audience, class, generation, jury

My family is/are from Minnesota. The team is/are very successful.

Some collective nouns only take the plural verb:

Cattle are microchipped. The people are celebrating.
The police always arrive quickly.

5. Irregular plurals
Some countable nouns have irregular plural forms:

change in form: no change in form:

child – children fish – fish
ox - oxen aircraft – aircraft
man – men cod – cod
woman – women deer – deer
tooth – teeth fruit – fruit
goose – geese sheep – sheep
foot - feet series – series
mouse – mice species - species
louse – lice
person – people

Change Example

knife – knives
life – lives
wife – wives
half – halves
wolf – wolves
change -f to -v loaf – loaves
leaf – leaves
shelf-shelves
calf – calves
elf - elves
hoof - hooves
cliff – cliffs
chief – chiefs
no change
cuff – cuffs
roof - roofs
potato – potatoes
tomato – tomatoes
volcano – volcanoes
ends in -o buffalo – buffaloes
embargo – embargoes
hero – heroes
mosquito – mosquitoes

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 zero - zeroes

alumna – alumnae
change –a to -ae
antenna - antennae
cactus – cacti
nucleus – nuclei
focus – foci
fungus – fungi
change –us to -i
octopus – octopi
radius – radii
stimulus – stimuli
syllabus - syllabi
analysis – analyses
crisis – crises
thesis – theses
oasis – oases
diagnosis – diagnoses
basis – bases
change –is to -es ellipsis – ellipses
emphasis – emphases
hypothesis – hypotheses
neurosis – neuroses
paralysis – paralyses
parenthesis – parentheses
synthesis - syntheses
phenomenon – phenomena
change –on to –a
criterion - criteria
datum – data
medium – media
bacterium – bacteria
addendum – addenda
change –um to -a curriculum – curricula
memorandum – memoranda
millennium – millennia
stratum – strata
symposium - symposia
appendix – appendices
change –x to -ces index – indices
matrix - matrices

6. Counting the uncountable

We can count uncountable things by using the following expressions:

a bit of bread a bag of flour

a bunch of flowers items of clothing
a cup of tea pieces of furniture

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a spoonful of medicine a bar of chocolate
a loaf of bread a box of cereal
a piece of news a can of beer
a pool of water a drop of blood
a glass of coca cola a roll of toilet paper
a portion of meat a tube of toothpaste
a slice of cake a jar of jam
a tub of butter a block of ice
a bottle of wine a kilo of fruit
a blade of grass a block of
a speck of dirt a lump of
a scrap of a sheet of paper
a spot of ink a grain of truth

7. Common uncountable nouns

Here’s a list of common uncountable nouns. Study the list carefully.

advice age anger

baggage bread beauty
behaviour blood concrete
company concern air
damage duty education
electricity equipment evidence
experience faith food
fun furniture growth
hair health homework
information knowledge justice
love luck luggage
music machinery money
paper rubbish traffic
travel weather work

8. Quantifiers used with countable nouns

a couple of a number of another of
both (of) each (of) either (of)
every neither (of) the entire
the whole (of) (a) few (of) half (of)
many (of) several (of)

9. Quantifiers used with singular uncountable nouns

an amount of a great deal of a little (of) much (of)

10. Quantifiers used with all nouns

all (of) a lot of lots of
all (of) any (of) enough (of)
more (of) most (of) no
none (of) plenty of some (of)
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11. Subject verb agreement
Under the previous points, we already discussed some of the interesting features of
subject-verb agreement. Here are some more things worth knowing.

We use a singular verb after:

• everyone / everybody / everything
• words beginning with any- / some- / no-
• any of / each of / either of / neither of / none of / the number of + plural noun
• any of / none of / the majority of / a lot of / plenty of / all (of) / some (of) +
uncountable noun
• each / every + singular noun
• common phrases connected by ‘and’ (fish and chips / R & D)
• X per cent of + plural nouns

We use the plural verb after:

• any of / each of / either of / neither of / none of / the number of + plural noun
(Singular verb is preferred! See above.)
• the number of + plural noun
• plural forms of measurements and quantities (50 pounds, thirty metres)
• two joint subjects (Jack and Jill / a book and a pen)
• after ‘per cent’
• Subject connected with ‘either … or …’ and ‘neither … nor …’

12. Change of meaning

Some words change their meaning depending on the countable or the uncountable form.

Countable: Uncountable:
a paper = newspaper paper = the material
a wood = a forest wood = the material
an experience = a particular situation experience = in general
a coffee = a cup of coffee coffee = liquid
a help = a helping person help = help in general
a hair = one piece hair = all the hair on the had
a work = a work of art work = in general
an exercise = a task exercise = physical exercise in general
a tea = a cup of tea tea = the liquid
a chicken = the whole chicken to eat chicken = the meat
cheeses = various kinds cheese = the food

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 Unit 33. Possessive ‘s and of

1. Using ‘s
We normally use ‘s in the following cases:

Usage Example

For people and animals The cat’s fur, the boy’s book

After singular nouns my brother’s bike

After plural nouns, we put the

the three girls’ dog
only ‘

For organisations the school’s decision

For places and origins Madrid’s best restaurant, Beckett’s novel

After more than one noun Jack and Jill’s house

After compound nouns my sister-in-law’s birthday

With time expressions yesterday’s movie, tomorrow’s trip

With periods of time a week’s holiday, ten minutes’ drive

With quantities and

a pound’s worth
measurements

With irregular plural nouns the children’s toys

With double possessive my mother’s cat’s food

With names of shops,

the newsagent’s, the greengrocer’s the vet’s
companies

Expressions For goodness’ sake!

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2. Using of
We normally use of in the following cases:

Usage Example

For things and ideas the room of the house

the beginning / the end / the top / the bottom

With expressions
/ the front / the back / the middle, etc.

For organisations the decision of the school

a friend of Frank’s (one friend out of all of

With double possessive
Frank’s friend)
When the noun is followed by
the tail of the cat mewing loudly
a prepositional phrase
the mysterious disappearance of Mr Jack
With long, complex phrases
Smith

With a specific year or date the fire of 2014

Other fixed expressions the President of the United States

3. Either ‘s or of
Very often there is no difference in meaning between the ‘s or of:
The book’s cover = the cover of the book
New York’s statues = the statues of New York
The country’s government = the government of the country.

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 Unit 34. Adjectives

1. What are adjectives?

Adjectives are words that describe nouns (objects, people).
For example:
nice, good, beautiful, worried, insulting, continuous

Adjectives can go before nouns: Adjectives can go after some verbs:

adjective + noun verbs + adjective

a nice person seem nice

a good day is good
a beautiful cat looks beautiful
an insulting remark feel happy

2. Order of adjectives
Sometimes we need to use more than one adjectives. An opinion normally goes before
the fact:

Opinion + fact + noun

An interesting Spanish movie
A beautiful black cat
An interesting new idea

If we have several factual adjectives, we use the following order:

size +age +shape +colour +origin +material +purpose +noun

a huge ancient round blue Japanese wooden ---- table
a small new ------ ----- German silver tea spoon
an ---- old square black ------ plastic radio button

3. Adding suffixes
Adjectives can be individual, unique words (nice, small) or can be formed from other
words by using suffixes or prefixes.
- able: manageable, readable
- ible: flexible, edible
- ant: hesitant, distant
- ing: sleeping
- ic: energetic, apologetic
- ish: foolish, blueish
- ous: dangerous, famous
- ly: friendly, weekly
- al: political, musical
- ful: harmful, tactful
- les: harmless, careless
- ive: attractive, passive
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4. Adding prefixes
We can form new adjectives by adding prefixes to words. These prefixes create a
negative meaning.
im-: impossible, impatient
il-: illogical, illegal
un-: undesirable, unattractive
in-: indispensable, indirect
dis-: dishonest, disabled
ir-: irreplaceable, irrational
pre-: pre-negotiated, preheated

Note: adding pre- to an adjective, does not create a negative meaning.

5. Compound adjectives
Compound adjectives are created by using two words. They are usually written with a
hyphen.
bullet-proof, duty-free, long-distance, sugar-free, hand-made

The second part is often a present or past participle. These are often used to describe a
person:
long-legged, curly-haired, self-centred, absent-minded, ill-fitting,
expensive-looking

We can also use prepositions to create a compound adjective:

off-putting, built-up, cut-off, run-down, thrown-out

6. Adjectives of measurement
We can combine numbers with nouns to make compound adjectives. They are used to
measure different things, ie. age, distance, etc.

a five-minute song (time)

a two-year-old girl (age)
a ten-euro ticket (price)
a one-litre bottle (volume)
a three-kilo parcel (weight)
a fifty-square metre house (area)
an hour-long meeting (duration)

7. Adjectives as nouns
Some adjectives can be used with ‘the’ to refer to a group of people. They function like a
noun.
the blind the homeless the young
the accused the old the famous
the bizarre the deceased the poor

Some words are used as both nouns and adjectives without changing their form.
English, Italian, German, Chinese, American, etc.
chemical, musical, right, dear, elder, fun, indoor

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8. Adjectives after verbs
We can use adjectives after linking verbs. Here is a list of the most common linking verb:
appear, be, become, come, feel, get, go, grow, turn, keep, look, remain, seem, smell, sound,
stay

Examples with adjectives:

The project is difficult.
She felt happy all day.
It turned dark quickly.
You look upset.
The witness remained silent.

Adjectives starting with the letter ‘a’- and adjectives that describe health and feelings,
tend to go after a linking verb. Often these adjectives have a related adjective which we
can use before a noun or after a linking verb.

ablaze, aflame, afloat, afoot, afraid, alight, alike, alive, alone, aloof, ashamed, askew, asleep,
awake, aware, fine, glad, ill, poorly, sorry, sure, unsure, upset, well, unwell

9. Adjectives after nouns

Some adjectives are used only after nouns. For example, fixed phrases:
secretary general, heir apparent, lieutenant major, force major, court martial, etc.

After anything, something, anywhere, somewhere, etc.:

anything interesting, somewhere quiet, something nice, etc

Have you met anybody interesting lately?

I’d like to go somewhere quiet this summer.
‘What would you like to have?’ ‘Something nice and sweet.’

Some adjectives which end in –able/-ible can go before or after the noun without
change in their meaning. They usually go after the noun when combined with the words
only, first and last.

suitable, available, possible, imaginable, etc.

I will employ the first candidate suitable for the position. (=first suitable candidate)
The only solution possible is to find a new manager. (=the only possible solution)

10. Change in meaning

Some adjectives change their meaning depending on their position.
elect, proper, present, concerned, responsible, involved, opposite

a proper city = a real city

the city proper = the main part of the city
the concerned parents = the parents who are concerned
the parents concerned = the parents involved
opposite points of view = opinions which conflict
the house opposite = the house on the other side of the road
the present director = the current director
the members present = the members who are here at the moment

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11. -ed and –ing adjectives
We can make adjectives from verbs by adding –ing or –ed or by using the past participle
form if the verb is irregular.

-ing adjectives tell us how something makes us feel.

This movie is boring. (= It makes me feel bored.)
We had an exciting trip to the zoo. (= The trip made us feel excited.)
‘We saw a real ghost! It was so frightening.’ (= We felt frightened.)

-ed adjectives tell us how somebody feels.

I’m tired.
He was interested in the idea.
She has always been terrified of spiders.

Some –ed and –ing adjectives are not connected to feelings.

a sunken boat a sliding door a ringing phone
a closed deal a moving part a written complaint
a broken glass a sinking feeling a floating boat
a finished project

Other common –ed / -ing adjectives:

disappointed / disappointed
amused / amusing
confused / confusing

Most –ed and –ing adjectives go before the noun they describe:
An interesting movie
The interested party
However, many –ed and –ing adjectives can also go immediately after the noun they
describe:
Everyone interested in the discussion was present. (=everyone who was interested…)
The cat lying on the sofa is mine. (the cat which is lying on the sofa…)

Some of these adjectives are rarely or never used before a noun:

infected, caused, found, included, provided, applying, discussed, questioned, taken, selected,
stolen, remaining, identified

12. Adjectives + prepositions

Here is a list of some common adjectives with prepositions.

Adjective Preposition

nice, kind, cruel, intelligent, sensible, scared, afraid, frightened,

proud, ashamed, fond, full, short, polite, stupid, silly, terrified,
of
jealous, envious, suspicious, critical, tolerant, aware, conscious,
capable, incapable, full, typical, tired, sick, certain, sure, independent
nice, kind, good, polite, friendly, cruel, accustomed, used, married,
to
similar, possible, rude, friendly, generous, engaged, different

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 angry, furious, annoyed, happy, pleased, upset, nervous, certain,
about
excited, worried, sorry, certain, sure, anxious, curious, right, wrong

surprised, shocked, amazed, astonished at/by

pleased, disappointed, satisfied, angry, annoyed, busy, content,

with
delighted, friendly, occupied, bored, fed up, crowded, impressed
famous, late, ready sorry, responsible, suitable, eager, desperate,
for
impatient
good, angry, bad, hopeless, useless, brilliant, amazed, annoyed,
at
awful, terrible
keen, reliant, dependent on

interested, involved in
different, absent, free, safe from

13. Gradable and non-gradable adjectives

Adjectives can be gradable or ungradable. We use different groups of modifiers with the
gradable and ungradable adjectives.

a) Gradable adjectives can show the scale or grade of something (how much?). They
can form comparative and superlative form.
angry big busy clever common
deep fast friendly happy popular
rich strong weak young cheap
expensive large small unpleasant exciting
good upset disappointed shy intelligent
dizzy aggressive long difficult interesting

b) Modifiers for gradable adjectives:

a bit, a little, fairly, pretty, quite, really, too, very, hugely, slightly, rather, too,
somewhat

His car was fairly expensive when it was new.

His mother was hugely disappointed with him.

c) Ungradable adjectives show extremes (all or nothing).

free vast enormous priceless minute
tiny fabulous freezing amazing correct
wrong deaf appalled full empty
awful excellent huge impossible superb
terrible unique whole domestic environmental
dead exhausted fantastic necessary

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 d) Modifiers for gradable adjectives:
absolutely completely quite totally utterly
perfectly practically entirely, simply virtually
almost exclusively fully largely mainly
fairly really pretty nearly

Jack was totally wrong about the cost of the project.

Your photos are simply amazing!

e) Some adjectives can be both gradable and ungradable.

common foreign public wild innocent
academic adult average genuine individual
guilty scientific technical true

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 Unit 35. Adverbs

1. Use of adverbs
Adverbs give us extra information about actions:

Category examples

manner (how) quickly, slowly, fast, rapidly, easily, suddenly, badly

always, frequently, often, sometimes, never, normally,
frequency (how often)
occasionally, rarely, ever, seldom, generally, usually
very, a bit, rather, fairly, extremely, quite, slightly,
degree (how much) absolutely, almost, completely, entirely, hardly, partly,
really, totally, largely
certainty certainly, definitely, probably, possibly

place (where) in London, here, there, far away

tomorrow, at 5 o’clock, on Monday, in July, daily, late,
time (when)
already, finally, immediately, no longer, soon, then
linking adverbs as well, whereas, although, next

comment honestly, frankly, sadly

2. Forming adverbs
On the one hand, adverbs can be single, independent words or combination of words. On
the other hand, we can form adverbs from other words.

-from adjectives: -from nouns:

slow – slowly day – daily
quick – quickly week – weekly
easy – easily hour – hourly
loud – loudly friend - friendly

3. Spelling
Spelling of adjectives can change the following ways:

adjective adverb

ending in a vowel or –l calm changes to -ly calmly

ending in -le probable changes to -ly probably

ending in –y easy changes to -ily easily

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 ending in -ic periodic changes to -ally periodically

ending in -ly friendly add extra word friendly way

4. Confusing adjectives
Adjectives and adverb which are often confused:

adjectives: adverbs:
fast = a fast train fast = run fast
still = still water still = stand still
good = a good book well = cook well
early = an early train early = arrive early
daily = the daily news daily = shop daily

Some adverbs have two forms and we can use both without a change in the meaning:
quick/quickly, cheap/cheaply, slow/slowly/ loud/loudly, etc.

Some adverbs have two forms and there is a difference n meaning:

close/closely, direct/directly, high/highly, hard/hardly, free/freely, deep, deeply, late/lately,
short/shortly, near/nearly, fair/fairly, wide/widely

hard/hardly
He worked hard. (a lot) He hardly worked. (almost nothing)

late/lately
The taxi arrived late. (not in time) I met Jim lately. (recently)

5. Position of adverbs
Adverbs can go into different positions in the sentence. Study the following table
carefully.

position adverbs example

Yesterday I visited my friend.

front time adverbs
In the park, I saw a lovely dog.
He often cooks dinner.
I almost forgot about the meeting.
middle frequency adverbs
I will probably go by train.
She will soon arrive.

manner adverbs She walks slowly.

end place adverbs They lived in Madrid.
time adverbs He got up at 6 o’clock.

Slowly, I approached the lion.

all positions manner adverbs I slowly approached the lion.
I approached the lion slowly.

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6. Comparatives
Usually adverbs form their comparative and superlative forms the same way as
adjectives.

a) Short adverbs (1 or 2 syllables):

They add an –er to the comparative form and an –est to the superlative form.
fast – faster, fastest
near – nearer, nearest

b) Long adverbs (2 or more syllables):

They add more to the comparative form and most to the superlative form.
quickly – more quickly, most quickly
carefully – more carefully, most carefully

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 Unit 36. Comparatives and Superlatives

1. Forming the comparatives and superlatives

As a general rule, the comparative adjective is created by adding –er at the end of the
adjective. The superlative adjective is created by adding –est at the end.

In the case of two or more syllables, we use the words more and most to form the
comparative and superlative forms.

adjective comparative superlative

rich richer richest

strong stronger strongest

cool cooler coolest

dark darker darkest

beautiful more beautiful most beautiful

interesting more interesting most interesting

1 One or two syllable words ending in –e:

safe – safer – safest
nice – nicer – nicest

2 One syllable words ending in a short vowel plus consonant double the consonant at
the end of the adjective
big – bigger - biggest
sad – sadder – saddest

3 two syllable adjectives ending in –y: the –y changes into an –i:

busy – busier – busiest
happy – happier – happiest

4 Two syllable adjectives ending in –r, -ly, -ow, -y, and -l can have two forms:
clever – cleverer / more clever – cleverest / most clever
Also: common, handsome, simple, stupid, pleasant

2. Irregular forms
Some comparative and superlative adjectives and adverbs are irregular.

Note: ‘elder’ cannot be used in comparative sentences. We cannot say ‘He is elder than
Kate.’

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 adjective comparative superlative

good / well better best

bad / badly worse worst
few / little less lest
little (size) smaller smallest
much/many/lot more most
far (distance) farther / further farthest / furthest
far (extra) further furthest
old (people) elder eldest
old (things) older oldest

3. Comparative sentence
When we compare two or more things, we can say: X is bigger/better/safer/etc. than Y

London is bigger than Leeds.

Henry is more/less intelligent than Rick.
The neighbour’s children are older than mine.

When two things are the same, we say: X is as (so) big/good/interesting as Y

Your cat is as old as my cat.

Jack is so strong as Fred.
His car is not as expensive as your car.

4. The superlative sentence

If something is the best/biggest/most expensive, we say:
X is the best/nicest/most interesting in the world/classroom/family

James is the tallest in the class.

The McLaren F1 is the most expensive car in the world.

Note: In a superlative sentence, we usually use ‘in’ and not ‘of’

5. As...as + adjective / adverb

as + adjective or adverb + as
Just (about) / nearly / quite as + adjective or adverb + as

I would like to have as many apples as possible.

Phone me as soon as necessary.

as + clause + as
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As + much/many/little/few + as
Please, write me as soon as you can.
As far as I know, they have moved house.
You can take as many slices as you feel like.

6. The ... the

We can compare things by using the ‘the…the’ structure: The + older/better/etc. +
clause

The older I get, the more I know.

The richer he gets, the more unhappy he becomes.
The more relaxed he is, the more he talks.

7. Emphasis
We can add emphasis to comparative adjectives the following ways:
much / far / a lot / lots / even happier
considerably / significantly happier
substantially / a great deal happier
many / far / a lot more / less / fewer
a bit / a little / a little bit / quite a lot / somewhat bigger

We can emphasize the superlative forms the following ways:

quite / nearly / easily / much / by far the most expensive car
We can emphasize the as …. as structure the following ways:
Nearly / twice / three times as good as

My brother is quite a lot taller than you.

His house is by far the best in this street.

8. clauses
not + adjective/adverb + enough to do something
The time was not enough to complete the exercise.
• too + adjective/adverb + to do something
It was too hot to sit in the garden.

too + adjective + a/an + noun

It was too popular a restaurant to be able to get a table.

so + adjective/adverb + that clause

His car was so fast that the police couldn’t catch him.

9. Showing result
• so + adjective/adverb + that clause
• so + many / much + noun + that

His car was so fast that the police couldn’t catch him.

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• such + a/an + adjective + singular noun + that
• such + adjective + plural noun + that
• such + a lot of + noun + that
• enough + noun (+ for and/or + to infinitive)
• adjective / adverb+ enough (+ for and/or + to infinitive)

10. As / like
Like + noun / gerund / pronoun is used to compare two things which are similar or the
same.
Like can also mean ‘for example’ or ‘such as’ or ‘similarly’:

As + nouns / clause means ‘in the same way’ or ‘in the positions of’ when referring to
jobs.

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 Unit 37. Questions

1. Yes/no questions
Yes/no questions are those which can be answered with a ‘yes’ or a ‘no’. We put the
auxiliary verb before the subject.
Here is a table which shows how to form yes/no questions:

Auxiliary Subject Verb/adjective Compliment

Is he coming to the cinema?

Are you happy today?

Did Peter eat the cake?

Will Mary buy something?

Can You swim in the ocean?

Doesn’t She like reading?

Haven’t You seen my keys?

2. Short answers
We can give short answers to yes/no questions in two ways:

Using the same auxiliary verb as in the original question:

Does he like cats? Yes, he does. / No, he doesn’t.
Aren't they here? Yes, they are. / No, they aren’t.
Can you swim? Yes, I can. / No, I can’t.

With afraid/think/suppose/imagine, etc + so/not:

Does he like cats? I don’t think so.
I think so.
I hope so.
I suppose not.
I hope not.

3. Wh- (open) questions

Wh- or Open questions start with a question word and the answer can vary according to
the question word.
When we ask a question about the object or any of the compliment, we put the question
word first, then we use the same question word order as in yes/no questions:

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 Question word Auxiliary Subject Verb/adjective

Where did he go?

Why was the meeting cancelled?

When will you arrive?

What is your name?

When we ask a question about the subject, we keep the original word order (affirmative
order) but we replace the subject with ‘who’:

Subject / Who Rest of sentence

John is in London.

Who is in London?

Sarah went home by bus.

Who went home by bus?

He can swim.

Who can swim?

I have bought a house.

Who has bought a house?

4. Prepositions
It is important to keep the preposition of the verb when we ask a question. Prepositions
can go to two places:

At the front of the questions, before the question word:

At whom are you looking?
About which book did you talk?

At the end of the question:

Who are you looking at?
Which book did you talk about?

The two solutions are equal. Some people prefer the first option, whereas some people
prefer the second option.

Note: preposition + who becomes: preposition + whom

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5. What or which?
We use what when there is an unlimited choice:
What car would you like to buy? (out of all the existing types)
What would you like to eat? (you can choose whatever you want)

We use which when there is a limited choice:

Which car would you like? (out of those you can see here)
Which would you like to eat? (out of those you can see here)

6. Question tags
We can turn a statement into a question by adding a question tag at the end of the
sentence.

Reasons for question tags:

a polite question: You couldn’t post this letter for me, could you?
to check agreement: You are British, aren’t you?
to give instructions: Open the door, will you?
to make a suggestion or offer: Let’s get a pizza, shall we?

7. Forming question tags

The form of the question tag always depends on the tense of the sentence: we use the
corresponding auxiliary verb.

If the sentence is negative, the question tag is positive.

If the sentence is positive, the question tag is negative.

Statement Question tag

He loves travelling, doesn’t he?

You will do the shopping, won’t you?
You didn’t ask him, did you?
They haven’t arrived yet, have they?
You can swim, can’t you?
She shouldn’t talk like that, should she?

8. Special cases of the question tag

• question tags for the imperative: will you? or won’t you?
Answer the phone, will you?
• the first person singular (I): aren’t I?
I am too early, aren’t I?
• the question tag for Let’s: shall we?
Let’s go to the cinema, shall we?
• for everybody, somebody, someone, no one, etc, they is used
Everyone is here, aren’t they?
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• for nothing, everything, anything, it is used
Nothing happened, did it?

9. Short agreements
To agree with positive statement, we use so + auxiliary of the original statement.
‘I love ice-cream.’ ‘ So do I.’
‘She is from the USA.’ So am I.’
‘Peter failed his exams.’ ‘So did Alex.’

To agree with a negative statement, we use neither/nor + auxiliary of the original

statement.
‘I don’t drink milk.’ ‘Neither do I.’
‘Anne hasn’t arrived yet.’ ‘Nor has Bill.’
‘Phil can’t dance very well. ‘Neither can Jack.’

10. Echo questions

Echo questions are short questions we use after we have heard a statement. We use echo
questions to confirm what we have just heard and they do not need an answer.

We form echo questions using the corresponding auxiliary from the original sentence –
similarly to tag questions. However, a positive sentence requires a positive echo
question and a negative statement requires a negative echo question.

‘I have never been to Australia.’ ‘Haven’t you?’

‘I can sing and dance very well.’ ‘Can you?’
‘Everybody has arrived.’ ‘Have they?’

Note: The same special cases apply as with tag questions.

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 Unit 38. Linking Words

1. What are they?

Linking words are words that join two or more words, sentences or clauses. Linking
words are also called conjunctions.

Linking words can express different ideas, for example,

- contrast: however, although, but
addition: and, more, besides
purpose: in order to, so that
reason: since, because
result: as a result, consequently
time: when, after, before, since, by the time, as soon as
condition: if, provided, as long as, unless
reason: because, since, as
purpose: to, in order to, so that
contrast: but, although, however, whereas
addition: and, besides, as well, too, also
result: so … that, such a … that, because of, consequently
manner: as if, as though
comparison: as … as, than
place: where, somewhere, wherever

2. Linking words of contrast

a) However, nevertheless, whereas and while
We use however and nevertheless to connect to clauses or sentences. Nevertheless is
more formal. However can go at the beginning, middle or end of the sentence.

I trust you. However, I won’t tell you my secret.

I love animals. I don’t like insect, however.
We prefer to cook at home. Sometimes, however, we eat out.
He robbed a bank. Nevertheless, the police never caught him.

Whereas and while mean ‘on the contrary’. They are usually used in formal speech.
I like tea whereas Frank prefers coffee.
While I understand your point, I totally disagree with your decision.

b) Although, though and even though

Although, though and even though are synonyms and are used to show contrast.
Though can be used at the end of the sentence:

Although it was raining, we went out for a walk.

Even though he left the house late, he could catch the train.
He went to the party although he was tired.
I like cats. (But) I also like dogs, though.
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c) In spite of and despite
In spite of and despite are used to express contrast. We use them the following way:

in spite of + noun
despite + -ing
+ the fact that + clause + comma

Despite his success, he remained a shy person.

In spite of his success, he lives a quiet life.
Despite the fact that he succeeded in life, he is a shy person.

3. The infinitive of purpose

a) To infinitive
We can use the to infinitive to express purpose (why?).

I went to the shop to buy some fruits. (Why? To buy some fruits.)
Peter studies hard to pass his exam.
She switched off the light not to waste electricity.

Note: The subject of the two verbs is the same: I went and I bought.
Note: In the negative, we use not to.

b) In order to and so as to
If we want to express purpose, we can also use in order (not) to and so as (not) to. They
are the formal version of to.
in order to
He turned the radio on so as to listen to the news
to
She closed the window in order not to hear the noise.
We wrote down the address so as not to forget it.

c) In order that and so that

If the grammatical subjects of the two parts of the sentence are different, we use so, in
order that and so that.

I emailed the photos to Jane so that she could look at them.

Frank cleaned the house in order that he could make Jane happy.
We bought the tickets online so we could save money.

Note: We often use could in the second clause of the sentence.

d) For
We use for to describe how something is used. We have to use for+noun or for+gerund.

This switch is for the electricity.

This course is for learning about grammar.
I went to the office for a meeting.
We went out for a meal.

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4. Linking words of reason:
a) Because, as, since
When we want to express the reason for something, we can use because, as or since.
They have the same meaning but usually because is stronger than as and since.

They can start the sentence, or they can go in the middle of the sentence. However, only
because can start an answer to a question.

I made a sandwich because/as/since I was hungry.

Because/since/as I was hungry, I made a sandwich.

Note: ‘Why did you make a sandwich?’

‘Because/as/since I was hungry.’

b) So, therefore
So and therefore mean ‘for this reason’. Other expressions we can use: consequently, as
a result, because of that, hence.

I wanted to talk to my friend so I phoned her.

I wanted to talk to my friend. Therefore/Consequently, I phoned her.

Compare: I phoned my friend because I wanted to talk to her.

c) Due to, as a result, etc.

When we want to talk about the reason for something, we can use the following
expressions: due to, as a result of, owing to, because of, on account of , thanks to.

We have to use a noun or a gerund after these expressions.

due to
as a result of
owing to winning the lottery.
He bought a Ferrari
because of his lottery win.
thanks to
on account of

5. Linking words of result

a) So
To express the result of an action, we can use so. It shows cause and effect.
so + adjective / adverb + that
so + many/much/few/little + noun + that

He was walking so slowly that he missed the bus.

She was so clever that she passed all her exams easily.
There were so many people on the train that we couldn’t sit down.

b) Such
Such is used in the same meaning as so but in the following construction:
such + (adjective) + uncount noun + that
such + a(n) + (adjective) + singular count noun + that
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such + (adjective) + plural count noun + that

It was such nice weather that we just wanted to sit in the park.
He was such a nice person that he helped everyone.
They were such lovely people that we really enjoyed talking to them.

c) Too
Too means ‘more than needed’. We can use it to express cause and effect.
too + adjective/adverb (+ to infinitive / for someone)
too + many/much
too + many/much + noun (+ to infinitive / for someone)

This house is too big for our family.

He is too shy to ask questions.
‘How many cars does Frank have?’ ‘Too many.’

d) Enough
Enough means ‘sufficient’. We can use it to express cause and effect.
adjective + enough + (+ to infinitive / for someone)
adverb + enough + (+ to infinitive / for someone)
enough + noun + (+ to infinitive / for someone)

We had enough money to buy a huge pizza.

He run fast enough to cross the line first.
Peter had enough cups and plates for the party.

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 Unit 39. Inversions

We use inversions to show emphasis. Inversion means that we use a word order that is
different from the usual subject-verb-object order for affirmative sentences.

1. Subject-auxiliary inversion
After certain negative adverbials, we use question word order.

Inversions after negative adverbials

Hardly … (when)
Hardly ever
Scarcely … (when)
Rarely
Adverbs with negative Little
meaning Never
Seldom
Barely … (when)
No sooner … then
Nowhere

Only later
Only after
Only when
Only + time expressions
Only then
Only recently
Only in the last few days, etc.

Only if
Only + conjunction Only by
Only in this way

Not only … but …also/too

Not + only / time expressions
Not until

Clauses with neither/nor Neither … nor

With ‘may’ May

In no way
At no time
Negative expressions
Under no circumstances
On no account

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 Under no circumstances should you arrive late to the meeting.
Barely had I arrived home when the phone rang.
Only later did she tell him the truth.
May the queen live long!

Note: Little is used with verbs of thinking: realise, know, think suspect, etc.
Little did we know we’d never meet again.

Note: With adverbial that refer to a point in time (only when, not until, etc), we invert the
verb in the other clause:
Only when he got to the checkout, did he realise he had left his wallet at home.

2. Subject-verb inversion

In certain adverbial expressions, we use subject-verb inversion. Subject verb inversion

means that we put the verb in front of the subject. We do this in the following cases:

• Expressing direction of movement with along / away / back / down / in / off / out /
up + verbs of place and movement (come, go, fly, climb, run, stand, sit, sail)
Away from the noisy road stood the beautiful Victorian house.
Out goes our vacation money!
• Here / there / then / next / first / now / finally + verbs of place and movement
Here comes the sun.
There goes the bus!
• After adverbial phrases
In the town centre are the most famous monuments.
• After participle phrases
Waiting at the corner was Helena.

3. Other inversion
• In short answers using neither, nor, and so
So do I! Neither does he.
• After as, than, so + adjective … that, such + be … that
Jack finished the project on time and so did his best friend.
I eat more vegetables than does my brother.
So expensive was the restaurant that we decided to go somewhere else.
Such is his fame that he can get into most private pubs for free.
• In conditional sentences
Were you to win the lottery, what would you do with the money?
Should you have more questions, do not hesitate to call me.
Had you told me the whole story, I would have been able to help.
• As/though +may/might
Impossible as it may seem, I am sure he will win the elections.
Intelligent though he is, he couldn’t answer the question.
• Try as he/she/they might
Try as she might, he couldn’t win the competition.
Try as they might, they were not able to find a solution.

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 Unit 40. Cleft Sentences

Cleft sentences are also called it-clauses or what-clauses because they can start with it
or with relative pronouns (wh-question words).

We use cleft sentences to:

• show emphasis
• to introduce new information or a new topic
• to give reasons
• to give instructions
• to correct or repeat what we have just said

The important information or new information goes either at the front of the sentence
or at the end of the sentence.

1. at the front of the sentence in the it-clause:

It + be + noun phrase/adverbial phrase + that / wh-word
It was Jack who stole the money.
It is the lack of information that infuriates me most.
It was last week when I first ate avocados

2. at the end of the sentence (not the wh-clause):

a) What + verb + be + new information/emphasised word
What irritates me is his laziness.

b) What + verb + be + the fact that + clause

What bothers me most is the fact that my boss didn’t tell me the truth.

c) What + verb + be + that-clause / wh-clause

What my dad asked me immediately was why I arrived home so late.
What he hoped was that we would all agree with his suggestions.

d) Giving instructions
What I want you to do is (to) prepare a presentation.
The (first) thing we have to do is (to) check that the passports are valid.

Remember that the noun phrase and the adverbial phrase give us the new information
in cleft sentences.

We can also put a what-clause at the end of the sentence. (However, we cannot put an
it-clause at the end!)
What bothers me is tone of voice. = His tone of voice is what bothers me.

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3. Other patterns of cleft sentences
a) The reason (why/that) …
The reason why we need to learn English is that it is the language of business and science.

b) The place (where / that / in which) …

The place / village where I grew up was at the back of beyond.

c) The time (when / that) ….

The year when Sarah graduated from university was the happiest day of her life.

d) The day / year, etc. (when) …

The day when my holiday started was very windy.

e) The day / year, etc. on / in / at which ….

The day on which Sarah got married was a Saturday.

f) The person who + verb ….

The person who knocked on the door was wearing bright yellow wellies.

g) The person (who / that) + subject + verb …..

The person who Fred loves the most is his daughter.

h) The (only / first / last) thing (which / that) …

The last thing I’ve ever wanted to do was to upset you.

i) All (that) ….
All (that) you discovered you must tell the police.

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 Unit 41. Ellipsis

1. Ellipsis
Ellipsis means omitting (leaving out) certain words from the sentences. We omit words
because we want to avoid repetition.

We can omit:
• nouns
• pronouns
• verbs and verb phrases
• infinitives
• wh-clauses
• adjectives

As a general rule, we can omit the above words in clauses joined by and, or, but.

2. Omitting nouns and pronouns

We can leave out a repeated subject in the second clause if it is connected to the first
clause with and, or or but.

Gregg opened the newspaper and (Gregg) started reading.

Jack wanted to buy some pizza but (he) decided not to.
On Fridays, I either go to the cinema or (I) stay at home.

3. Omitting verbs
We can leave out a repeated subject, auxiliary and/or verb in the second clause if it is
connected to the first clause with and, but, or or.

We can have a pizza or (we can) make a sandwich.

We can have a pizza or (we can have) a sandwich.
We always have coffee or (we have) tea in the morning.
I have finished my course but my brother hasn’t (finished his).
Sarah can speak two languages fluently and so can (speak two languages) Bill.
‘Will you come to the party?’ ‘I might (do/come/go).

We can leave out verbs and/or auxiliary words in comparison clauses:

Jack has read more books than Bill (has read).

In present simple and past simple sentences, if we omit the repeated verb in the second
clause, we must replace it with do, does or did:

I wanted to travel a lot before I turned 30 and I did (travel).

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4. Omitting clauses
We can leave out an infinitive phrase and a wh-clause when the meaning is clear.
However, we usually have to keep the ‘to’ and we always have to keep the wh-questions
word.

I’m sure I have seen him before but I don’t remember where (I saw him).
She asked me not to come to the meeting although I would like to (come).
You can eat all the cake if you want to (eat it).

5. Omitting adjectives
We can omit a repeated adjectives and adverbials from the second clause after be.

Anna is interested in reading but Jack isn’t (interested).

This film is boring but the film yesterday wasn’t (boring).
Jack is already here while/but Fred isn’t (here).

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 Unit 42. Irregular Verbs

1. Regular verbs
Regular verbs form their past and past participle forms by adding –ed to the end of the
verbs.

Base form Past form Past participle

walk walked walked

love loved loved
hate hated hated
finish finished finished

2. Irregular verbs
Irregular verbs form their past and past participle forms differently from regular verbs.
They usually do not use the –ed ending.

Base form Past form Past participle

think thought thought

eat ate eaten

Some verbs can have both regular and irregular forms.

Base form Past form Past participle

dream dreamt/dreamed dreamt/dreamed

learn learnt/learned learnt/learned

3. All forms the same

In some cases, all the three forms (present, past and participle) are the same:

Base form Past form Past participle

cut cut cut

put put put
read read read
hit hit hit
bet bet bet
burst burst burst
set set set
shut shut shut

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4. Two forms are the same
Base form and past participle are the same:

Base form Past form Past participle

come came come

become became become
run ran run

Base form and past participle are the same:

Base form Past form Past participle

keep kept kept

mean meant meant
pay paid paid
feel felt felt

5. Ending in –en
Sometimes the past participle can end in –en. The -en can attach to the base form or to
the past form:

Base form Past form Past participle

choose chose chosen

fall fell fallen
speak spoke spoken
give gave given
write wrote written
speak spoke spoken
shake shook shaken
eat ate eaten

6. All forms are different

Sometimes all the three forms of the irregular verb are different:

Base form Past form Past participle

go went gone
see saw seen
grow grew grown
blow blew blown
shrink shrank shrunk
sing sang sung
swim swam swum

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 Unit 43. Spelling

1. Adding –s to nouns
Most nouns simply add an –s to form the plural
book → books,
computer → computers,
cat → cats, edge → edges

The exceptions are:

Add –es to nouns ending in:
–s or –ss: bus → buses, business → businesses
–x: tax → taxes, fox → foxes, box → boxes
–ch: church → churches, match → matches except: stomach → stomachs
–sh: leash → leashes, dish → dishes

Nouns ending in –o can add either –s or –es

zero → zeros, studio → studios, potato → potatoes, tomato → tomatoes
But: ghetto → ghettos/ghettoes, flamingo → flamingos/flamingoes

Nouns that end in a consonant + -y change the –y to –ies

baby → babies, story → stories, country → countries

Nouns that end in a vowel + -y (-ay/-ey/ -oy/ -uy) only add –s

monkey → monkeys, tray → trays, toy → toys, day → days

Nouns that end in –f or –fe change to –ves

knife → knives, half → halves

2. Adding –s to verbs
Most verbs simply add an –s to form the third person
eat → eats, treat → treats, sleep → sleeps, work → works

The exceptions are:

Add –es to verbs ending in
–ss: miss → misses, pass → passes
–zz: buzz → buzzes
–x: mix – mixes, tax → taxes
–ch: catch – catches, watch → watches, touch → touches
–sh: push – pushes, wash → washes
–o: do → does, go → goes, echo → echoes

Verbs that end in a consonant + -y change the –y to –ies

carry → carries, try → tries, study → studies

Verbs that end in a vowel + -y only add –s

pay → pays, say → says, play → plays

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3. Adding –ing to verbs
Most verbs simply add an –ing to the verb
eat → eating, treat → treating, sleep → sleeping, work → working

The exceptions are:

Verbs that end in an –e, lose the –e
use → using, smoke → smoking, write → writing

Verbs that end in –ee, keep the –ee

agree → agreeing, see → seeing

Verbs that end in –ic change to –ick

picnic → picnicking, traffic → trafficking

Verbs that end in –ie, change to –y

lie→ lying, tie → tying

We double the last consonant if:

The verb has one syllable and ends in a vowel+consonant
sit → sitting, stop → stopping, →plan → planning
except: play → playing, show → showing

The verb has two syllables and the second syllable is stressed
begin → beginning, admit → admitting but differ → differing

The verbs ends in a vowel+l

travel → travelling, equal → equallinge

4. Adjectives and adverbs ending in -e

The adjective ends in -e + r/st (comparative and superlative forms)
Fine → finer, finest
late → later, latest

- The adjective ends in -e + ly (making an adverb)

nice → nicely, close → closely

- The adjective ends in -le + ply / bly, etc. (making an adverb)

simple → simply, possible → possibly

5. Doubling the final consonant

We saw in a previous point above that if a verb has two syllables and the second syllable
is stressed, as well as if verbs ends in a vowel+l, we double the final consonant.
However, there are other situations when we have to double the final consonant:

- Word ends in vowel + consonant + -ing/-ed/-er/-est:

Stop → stopped, stopping, stopper
put → putting
big → bigger, biggest
run → runner, running
set → setter, setting

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6. Adding –ed to verbs
Most verbs simply add an –ed to the verb
help → helped, treat → treated, work → worked

The exceptions are:

- Verbs that end in an –e, add –d
use → used, smoke → smoked, like → liked

- Verbs that end in –ee, keep the –ee

agree → agreed, free → freed

- Verbs that end in –ic change to –ick

picnic → picnicked, traffic → trafficked

- Verbs that end in a consonant+y, change to –ie

try → tried, fry → fried, reply → replied
- We double the last consonant if:
- The verb has one syllable and ends in a vowel + consonant
slam → slammed, stop → stopped, →plan → planned
except: play → played, show → showed

- The verb has two syllables and the second syllable is stressed
regret → regretted, admit → admitted but happen → happened

- The verbs end in a vowel+l

travel → travelled, equal → equalled

7. Possessive ‘s
Most nouns simply add an ‘s to the noun.
Flat → flat’s, cat → cat’s

The Exceptions are:

- Regular Plural nouns add only an ‘ (apostrophe)
- Boys → boys’, cats → cats’, people → people’s
- Singular proper nouns (names) ending in –s can add ‘s or ‘
- Jones → Jones’s or Jones’, The Smiths → The Smiths’s or The Smiths’
- Irregular plural nouns (not ending in –s) add ‘s
- Men → men’s, children → children’s
- Words like somebody, anybody, one, each other, add an ‘s
- One → one’s, somebody → somebody’s

8. –ise or -ize
Most words in British English can be spelt with both –ise and –ize. However, American
English prefers –ize.
British: realise, organise, hypothesise
American: realize, organize, hypothesize

Exceptions:
exercise, devise, improvise, surprise, advise, supervise, etc.

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Some words are spelt with –yse in British English and -yze in American English:
British: Analyse, paralyse
American: analyse, paralyze

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 Unit 44. Punctuation

1. Punctuation marks
The table below shows the names of the most important punctuation marks.

Symbol name

‘ apostrophe

* asterix

@ at

() brackets / parentheses

: colon

, comma

– dash

… ellipsis

! exclamation mark

. full stop/period

- hyphen

? question mark

; semi-colon

[] square brackets

/&\ stroke / slash & backslash

“” double quotation mark / speech mark /

‘…’ quotation marks / inverted commas

_ underline / underscore

2. Capital letters
We use capital letters at the beginning of the following words:

Word types Examples

Names of days and month Monday, Tuesday, January, February

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 Names of holidays Christmas, Easter, Labour Day

Names and surnames of people John Smith, Joe Blogs

Names of institutions, places, Europe, The Thames, Sirius, Mars, The New York
stars, planets, newspapers Times

Titles of people Mr, Miss, Dr, Professor Black, Admiral Webb

Nouns and adjectives referring to

Britain, British, Germany, German, Spain, Spanish
countries and nationalities

The first word and other

Star Wars, Captain America, Gulliver’s Travels, The
important words of book and
Catcher in the Rye
movie titles

3. Here is a summary that tells you when to use the various punctuation marks.

Off-limits, bottle opener, topsy-turvy,

Hyphen (-) To create compound words
nice-looking

Post-war, ex-wife, self-centered, co-

With some prefixes
worker

With numbers from 21 to 99

Twenty-eight, thirty-two, two-fifth
and fractions

To show the end of the

Full stop (.) Cats like milk.
sentence

After people’s initials and F. J. Kennedy, Dr. P. Black,

titles Mr. Smith

In some abbreviations Mr., Mrs., U.S., lb.

Question
At the end of questions
mark (?)

Exclamation At the end of a command or

mark (!) exclamation

After ‘yes’ and ‘no’ in No, I’ve never met her.

Comma (,)
answers Yes, I know it.

Hi, how are you?

After greetings
Dear Sir, Yours sincerely,

Between words in a list

(except when we use ‘and’ He likes cars, books, bikes and trains.
or ‘or’)

34 Main Road, Harrogate, North

In addresses
Yorkshire

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 In dates 18th May, 2016

In numbers after the

5,349 / 123,569 / 45,864
thousands

If you finish your dinner, you can go out

After subordinate clauses
to play.

Before question tags You like him, don’t you?

Mr. Smith, who was born in 1902, worked

In relative clauses???
in the coal mines of England.

I’d, however, like to live abroad.

Before and after adverbs
Actually, he was promoted.

It’s (it is), they’re (they are), I’d (I had / I

Apostrophe
In contractions would), can’t (can not), isn’t, aren’t,
(‘)
wouldn’t, etc

With irregular plurals Do’s and don’t’s, three M.P.’s

In the possessive Jack’s book, Elena’s frog

Quotation When we quote other

marks (‘..’) people’s words

To emphasize words

Sometimes around titles of

books, movies, etc.

Colon (:) Before explanations

Before quotations

Semi-colon Between grammatically

(;) separate sentences

In informal writing to extend

I’d love to see all the capital cities –
Dash (–) the sentence with an extra
Paris, London, Berlin, all of them.
thought

Instead of a colon, or
brackets

To indicate omission or
Ellipses (…)
hesitation in speech

Square To explain words in a

brackets [] sentence
To indicate when a text is
changed slightly

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 Unit 45. Pronouns and Determiners

1. Pronouns
There are different pronouns in English depending on their position in the sentence:

Possessive
Subject pronouns Object pronouns
determiners

singular plural singular plural singular plural

I we me us my our
you you you you your your
he they him them his their
she her her
it it its

Subject pronouns replace the subject of the sentence and object pronouns replace the
object.
Possessive determiners show us possession and go in front of the noun.
Study carefully this table of the English reflexive and possessive pronouns.

Reflexive pronouns Possessive pronouns

singular plural singular plural

myself ourselves mine ours

yourself yourselves yours yours
himself themselves his theirs
herself hers
itself its

We use reflexive pronouns to refer back to the subject of the sentence.

Possessive pronouns replace a noun and show possession at the same time.

2. Subject and object

Subject pronouns stand in subject position in the sentence, and object pronouns stand
in object position.

Study the following examples:

Subject Verb Object
He saw her.
We met them.
I heard you.

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3. Possessives
The possessive determiners always stand before the noun. The possessive determiner +
noun combination can be either the subject or object of the sentence.
Possessive pronouns replace the noun they refer to. They stand alone and can be the
subject or the object of the sentence.

Study the following examples:

This is my book. This is mine. / This book is mine.

‘Whose car is it?’ ‘It is his car.’ or ‘It is his.’ / ‘The car is his.’
‘Their garden is huge! What about yours?’ ‘Mine is small.’

4. Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns always refer back to the subject and they usually stand in object
position.
Study the following examples:
I cut myself with a knife. He quickly washed himself.

We can also use reflexive pronouns to emphasise that the subject did an action.
Look at the following examples:
Peter repaired the car himself.
We baked the cakes ourselves.

5. Each other, etc.

Look at the following examples:
Peter and Tom looked at themselves in the mirror.
Peter looked at himself (Peter) and Tom looked at himself (Tom).

Peter and Tom measured each other / one another.

Peter measured Tom and Tom measured Peter.

Peter and Sarah looked at someone else.

Peter and Sarah looked at a third person.

6. There or it?
Both there and it can be used in several different ways.

1. We use it to refer to specific things:

It is an expensive blue car.
2. We use it to talk about time, whether and distance:
It is 5 o’clock. How far is it from the bank?
3. We use there to talk about the existence of a thing:
There are two people talking at the corner.
4. We can also use there in the meaning of ‘a far place’:
Yesterday I went there but I couldn’t find anyone at home.

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 Unit 46. Determiners and Pronouns

1. Some/any + body/thing
Some words can be used both as pronouns and determines. We are going to look at these
words.
The following indefinite pronoun combinations are possible:
some body / one
any + thing
every where

Somebody/one, something, somewhere are used in positive sentences or in questions

when we expect a ‘yes’ answer.

Anybody/one, anything, anywhere are used in questions and negative sentences.

Everybody/one, everything, everywhere are always followed by a singular verb.

2. One, ones
We use one and ones when we do not want to repeat a countable noun.
‘The one’ is used instead of a countable singular noun:
‘Which car would you like?’ ‘The one with 5 seats.’

‘a + adjective + one’ is used to replace a countable singular noun:

‘I’d like a coffee, please. A strong one.’

‘Ones’ is used instead of a countable plural noun:

‘I like your cakes, especially the ones with cream.’

3. All, most, some

If we talk about general things, we use all/most/some + plural nouns:

All dogs have two legs.

Most flowers are nice.
Some people are rude.

To talk about a concrete group of things or people, we can say all/most/some of + the +
noun:

All (of) the dogs in this town are dangerous. (note: ‘of’ is optional with ‘all’)
Some of the students in this school want to go to university.

If we don’t want to repeat the noun, we can use all/most/some + of + it/the/us/you:

‘Where’s the cake?’ ‘Sorry. I ate all of it.’

4. Both, (n)either, none

Both/either/neither + noun refer to two things. Both is followed by a plural noun +
plural verb and either/neither are followed by a singular noun + singular verb.

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 Both girls are very pretty.
Either car is good for me. (= it doesn’t matter which one)
Neither house is big enough. (= none of the two)

We can also say:

Both of the girls or both the girls
Either of the cars
Neither of the houses

Both/either/neither can also stand alone to refer to a noun:

‘Which one do you like?’ ‘Both.’

5. Each and every

Each and every have a similar meaning. But: each looks at things individually and every
looks at things collectively.

Each + singular noun (+ singular verb)

Each book is useful. I like each book.

Each + of + plural noun/determiner (+ singular verb)

Each of these books is good. I love each of you.

Every + singular noun (+ singular verb)

Every day is hot. They visited every museum.

Every one + of + the+ plural nouns/determiner (+ singular verb)

Every one of the flats has been sold.
I want to talk to every one of you.

6. Much, many, few, etc.

Study carefully the following table:

countable uncountable positive negatives and

plural nouns nouns sentence questions

much ✓ ✓
many ✓ ✓ (possible) ✓
little ✓ ✓
few ✓ ✓
lots, a lot, ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
plenty

Note the difference in the following constructions:

I have few friends/little time. (= not a lot, negative meaning)
I have a few friends/a little time. (= some, positive meaning)

7. All, whole
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Whole means the ‘entire’. All can also mean ‘entire’ or ‘the total available’. Note the
difference in the constructions.
the whole day / all day
the whole cake / all the cake
her whole life / all her life
his whole house / all his house

The whole day was a disaster. (=from beginning to end)

We were shopping all day.
He worked hard all his life.
His whole life was dedicated to his children.

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 Unit 47. The Articles

1. The definite article

The definite article is: the. It has only one form, the, which is used for both singular and
plural nouns:
the book, the house, the table
the sofas, the families, the children

The is also used for uncountable nouns:

the cheese, the air, the furniture

2. Use of the definite article

when something has been mentioned ‘Has he got a car?’ ‘Yes. The car he has is
before: expensive.’

with of: the colour of my skirt

when only one of something exists: the President, the Pope, the moon, the sky

when referring to groups of people or

the rich, the sick, the English, the Russian
nationalities:
when talking about species (in the
The lion is a carnivorous animal.
context of biology):
when talking about musical
I play the guitar. He plays the piano.
instruments:
the press, the news, the radio, the papers,
the tv
with the media:
But: I watch television.
the first, the second, the best, the only, the
with superlatives and ordinal numbers:
last

when talking about parts of the body: He was hurt on the head.

when talking about geographical

features:
1. oceans, rivers, mountains: 1. the Themes, the Alps, the Pacific
2. regions:
2. the Middle East, the Sahara, the Amazon
3. groups of islands:
4. some countries: 3. the Solomon Islands, the Caribbean

5. other: 4. the USA, the Ukraine, The UK, the United

Arab Emirates, the Netherlands

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 5. the sea, the coast, the hills, the
mountains, the countryside

with the dates (only in speech): the twentieth of July, October the fifth

the cinema, the theatre, the opera, the

talking about entertainment:
museum
when referring to hotels and
the Hilton, the Grand Hotel, the Oriental
restaurants:
the traffic, in the morning, in the afternoon,
with expressions: the metro, the doctor, the dentist, the
hospital, the supermarket, the bank

3. The indefinite article

The indefinite articles are: a and an.

We use a in front of a consonant sound

a book, a table, a hotel, a moment,
a tall father, a blue car, a nice pie, a fire

We use an in front of a vowel sound

an apple, an hour, an architect, an animal,
an important decision, an efficient worker

The plural of a/an is zero or some/any

a cat – cats, some cats
a cinema – cinemas, some cinemas

4. The use of the indefinite article

when we mention something for the ‘He’s just bought a house.’ ‘Wow. That’s
first time: fantastic.’

when we talk about one item of a group: I’d like to buy a car.

with adjective + noun: We saw a huge, black panther.

when talking about somebody’s job: She is a high school teacher.

when talking about a kind/example of

We bottle a fine wine. (= a type of fine wine)
something:

when talking about amounts: a kilo of potatoes, a thousand litre of water

I’d like a slice of cake please. ‘But: ‘I wanted

difference between a and one:
only one slice, not two!’

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 when talking about frequency, price, 5 miles an hour, two pound a kilo, twice a
distance (meaning per) week
I have a cold. I have a headache. I have a
pain in my arm.
When talking about illnesses:
Except: flue, blood pressure and plural
diseases (measles, mumps)
With what and such when using
What a nice day! Such a lovely dog.
singular, countable nouns:

5. The zero article

The zero article means no article.

I like Ø travelling.
He eats Ø meat every day.
We bought Ø bananas.

6. The use of the zero article

with names of people, places, companies, Jack lives in London. I am friends with
countries, etc.: both Mary and Peter.

with names of meals: have dinner, have lunch

with the names of some illnesses: He has high blood pressure.

when talking about travelling: go by car/train

with plural nouns when talking in general: Katie likes exotic animals.

with uncountable nouns when talking in

Cheese is made from milk.
general:

when talking about certain places where the in hospital / at work / in prison / in
function of the place is the most important: bed / at school / at university

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 Unit 48. Prepositions

1. Use of ‘in
We use in with:

Months in September
in May

Years in 1996, in 1976

in 2004, in 2054

Seasons in summer, in winter

in spring, in autumn

Centuries in the 17th century

in the 21st century
in the Bronze Age
Main parts of the day in the morning
in the afternoon
in the evening

2. Use of ‘on
We use on with:

Days (especially with on Monday, on Friday

the word ‘day’) on weekdays
on Thursday morning
on a good day
on Christmas Day,

Dates on 16th September

on 30th October
on the fourth of May

3. Use of ‘at’
We use at with:

Times at 9am
at half past eleven
at 3 o’clock

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 A point of time at the start
at the beginning/end
at midnight
at noon, at night
at lunch time

Special days (without at Christmas

the word ‘day’) at Easter
at the weekend

Expressions at first, at last, at once, ect.

4. In, during, while

In and during often mean the same:
in summer = during summer
in the night = during the night

During emphasizes the duration:

It rained every day during the holidays.

Both while and during refer to duration but compare:

During + noun While + subject + verb + object

during the film while we were watching the film
during the break while I was having a break

5. Use of ‘by
By means ‘no later than’.
th
Applications to be received by Friday the 20 June. (= on or before Friday, not later
th
than Friday the 20 June.)

by the end of the year / by 2pm on Tuesday / by Sunday morning / by now / by the time you
arrive home

6. Use of ‘until
Until (or till) refers to the duration of an activity and show how long something will
continue. It means that something continues until a moment in the future.

I will be in a meeting until four o’clock this afternoon. (=the meeting will continue
until four, it will stop at four o’clock)

until everyone arrives

until we get home
until the morning

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7. Use of ‘for, in’
In shows how quickly something happens (how long it takes to do something).
Dad will come home in four days.
The train journey finished in an hour.

For shows the duration of an action (how long in lasts):

We stayed in Birmingham for 2 days.
He went to Tibet for August.

8. Expressions
on time = punctual, exact time
in time = ok time, not late but almost late
in the end = finally
at the end (of something) = when something finishes

at In on

at midnight in the morning on Wednesday afternoon

at noon in the afternoon on Sunday evening
at lunch time in the evening on a fine day
at dusk/dawn in half an hour on my birthday
at the same time in a few minutes on the day of the
at present in a moment wedding

at the time in a second on the day of something

at last in time on time

at the end in the present On New Year’s Day

at night in the past on his anniversary

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 Unit 49. Prepositions of Place and
Movement
1. Use of ‘in, at, on’

in at on

refers to an area or refers to a point, place or refers to a surface

volume event

in the building at the airport on the wall

in Europe / Asia at the bus stop on the screen
in London at the bank on the window
in New York at the library on the floor
in the garden at home on the door
in the park at church on a page
in the street at school on a sheet of paper
in the room at a concert on the bed
in bed at a dinner on the ceiling
in hospital at a meeting on the ground
in prison at a party on the grass
in church at (address) on the beach
in a queue at the top on the right
in a row at the bottom on the left
in a line at the end on the left-hand side
in the sky at the back on the right-hand side
in the world at the front on a menu
in the country at the corner on a list
in the photograph at sea on the ground floor
in a book at work on the first floor
in a magazine at college on a river
in a newspaper at university on the river Thames
in the world at a dance on the way
in the corner at a wedding on a bus/plane
on the train/ship

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2. The use of ‘beside, besides, by’

‘in addition, as well as, except’

Jack was at the party besides Frank and Sally.
besides
‘except’
He invited everyone to his birthday party besides me!
‘next to’
beside
Our house is beside /by the post office.
‘next to’
Our house is beside /by the post office.
‘beyond, past an area or object’
by My friend went right by me yesterday without saying hello.
‘using a vehicle’
Jack commutes to work by car.
‘right next to, close’
The hotel is right by the airport

3. The use of ‘between/among’ and ‘like/as’

between between two people
among among more than two people
like means ‘similar to’
as ‘in the role of, function’
My room is between the kitchen and the living room.
The teacher divided the sweets among the students.
Phil works like a machine! (=he similarly to a machine, perhaps fast, precise, etc)
My sister works as an accountant. (=she is an accountant

4. The use of ‘near/on’ and ‘above/over

near ‘not far’ I live near the airport.

‘right next to, along a line’

on My uncle lives right on the motorway.

‘at a higher place (not touching)’

The lamp is above the table.

above
‘at a higher level (general)’
The sky above/over us is bright at night.

over
‘at a higher place (touching)’
The blanket is over the bed.

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 Unit 50. Verbs with Prepositions

1. The use of prepositions with verbs

In the English language, verbs are very often followed by a preposition.

We are talking about the exam results.

Did you listen to radio this afternoon?
Scientists experiment with different chemicals.

Note: When a verb + preposition is followed by another verb, this verb will use the
gerund form.
We are talking about buying a new car.
She insisted on paying for the meal.

2. Verb patterns

Verb Preposition Object

We talked about the holiday

They listened to the radio

Verb Preposition Object

We talked about the holiday

They listened to the radio

Verb Prep Object Prep Obj / -ing

his wife
He argued with about the cleaning.
the
We talked to about the finances.
manager

Verb Object Prep Object / -ing

They blamed
the student for breaking the window.
We
them on on their wedding.
congratulated

3. Verbs with different prepositions

Some verbs can be followed by different prepositions. Usually this involves a change in
meaning.
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Here are a few examples:
We talked to the boss.
We talked about the weather.
I am thinking about taking some time off. (considering)
What do you think of the new teacher? (What’s your opinion?)
I’ve just thought of a cool present for Jane. (the idea came to my mind)

4. About and of
Think about = consider, concentrate on something
Think of = have an idea or opinion
What are you thinking about? (=what’s on your mind?)
What do you think of the new boss? (=opinion)

Hear about= hear something new, news, new information

Hear of = to know about the existence of something
Hear from = receive information from someone
Have you heard about the accident last night?
‘Do you know Tom Cruise?’ ‘I’ve never heard of him.’
I haven’t heard from Fred for months.

5. The use of ‘for’

Pay for something = when we buy something, we pay for it.
Ask for something = if you want to have something, you have to ask for it.
Apologise for something and say sorry for something = if you do something bad or
wrong, you have to apologise/say sorry for it
Thank somebody for something = if somebody helps you, you have to thank them for it.

Thank you for helping me yesterday.

I would like to pay for the drinks. How much are they?
I am really sorry for being late.
I apologise for the delay.

6. The use of ‘on’

Here are some examples of common verbs which always use the preposition on.
depend on
rely on
spend on
congratulate on
concentrate on
insist on
I can always rely on my best friend for advice.
What do you spend your free time on?
We congratulated him on graduating from high school.
I can’t concentrate on my work in this noise.

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 Unit 51. Nouns, Adjectives with Prepositions

1. Nouns and adjectives with prepositions

Nouns and adjectives are often followed by a preposition. Nouns take the same
preposition as the adjective or verb they are related to.

noun adjective / verb

kindness of kind of
success in succeed in
successful in
decision on decide on
objection to object to

2. Examples of nouns with prepositions

relationship with contract with agreement with
connection with damage to reply to
thanks to discussion about information about
debate about admiration for punishment for
insistence on decision on advice on
attack on excuse for respect for
responsibility for increase in delay in
decrease in fall from call from

3. Examples of adjectives with prepositions

good at bad at excellent at
married to engaged to pleased with
impressed with angry with keen on
famous for responsible for suitable for
scared of frightened of aware of
capable of sick of tired of
bored of fond of different from/to
embarrassed about successful in influential in
interested in

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