NUTRITION

Is the process by an organism obtains or makes food and prepares it for its use.
It’s divided into two
1. AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION which includes photosynthesis and chemosynthesis
2. HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
Autotrophic (Greek: auto – ‘self’; trophic - 'feeding') organisms are those which use an
inorganic form of carbon such as carbon dioxide and energy, to form complex organic
compounds.
Autotrophic nutrition: This is the mode of feeding in which an organism manufactures
its own food from simple inorganic raw materials, from the environment, using energy
from the sun or chemical reactions.
There are two types of autotrophic nutrition that is; photosynthesis and chemosynthesis.
The former uses light energy while the later uses energy from oxidation of chemical
compounds. Photosynthesis is the more common of the two processes and it is used by
most plants, algae, some bacteria and protoctists.

Types of Autotrophs
(1) Phototrophs - living organisms in which the synthesis of organic compounds depends
on light energy. e.g. all green plants, algae, cyanobacteria, blue-green bacteria, green
sulphur bacteria, purple sulphur bacteria, colourless sulphur bacteria.
(2) Chemotrophs - living organisms which use energy extracted from oxidation of
inorganic chemicals for the synthesis of organic compounds in a process called
chemosynthesis e.g. Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
This is the process by which green plants/cell containing chlorophyll make complex
organic substances /food from simple inorganic molecules of carbon dioxide and water in
presence of light energy trapped by chlorophyll and producing oxygen and water as by-
products.

Sun light
6CO2 + 12 H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Chlorophyll
Note that water is both a raw material and as well a by-product, though not the
same water molecules. The reactant water molecules are split to release
electrons during the initial light reactions, while the product water molecules
are assembled from hydrogen and oxygen released during the light and
biochemical reactions.

1
During photosynthesis, carbondioxide is reduced to carbohydrates and water is oxidized
to O2 gas and hydrogen ions. Thus the process involves both reduction and oxidation
known as redox reaction.
I.e. oxidation of water would be:
2H2O light energy O2 + 4H+ + 4e-

Oxygen evolved is lost to the atmosphere as a by- product of photosynthesis while the
hydrogen ions are used in the reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates.
CO2 + 4H+ + 4e- (CHO) n + H2O

This implies that the summarized equation of photosynthesis is obtained by combining

the 2 equations i.e. the oxidation of water and the reduction of CO2
6CO2 + 7H2O light energy C6H12O6 + H2O + O2
Chlorophyll

From the above equation the following conclusions are made;

 The carbon in the carbohydrate is obtained from the CO2 .
 oxygen atoms of the CO2 are used in formation of the carbohydrate and water
released as a by-product of photosynthesis ( metabolic water )
 Oxygen developed as a by-product of photosynthesis comes from the oxidation of
water by the process of photolysis.
 The hydrogen atoms in the carbohydrate and metabolic water are obtained from
the water as a raw material of the process.

The above conclusions are approved using the Isotope labeling technique i.e. carbon-14
in the CO2 , oxygen -18 in CO2 and oxygen – 16 in water. When the above isotopes are
used, subsequent testing with a mass spectrometer found that the carbohydrate contained,
carbon -14 and oxygen – 18 but the oxygen evolved as a by- product contained oxygen –
16 which was contained in the water molecules.

Importance of photosynthesis
 It provides a source of complex organic molecules for heterotrophic organisms. It
makes both carbon and energy available to organisms. All organisms directly or
indirectly depend on photosynthesis.
 It releases oxygen into the atmosphere that is used by aerobic organisms for
respiration.
 It is the means by which the sun's energy is captured by plants for use by all
organisms
 It avails man with fossil fuels
 The process of photosynthesis is a CO2 sink .i.e. The process reduces on the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere thus controlling global warming
 Photosynthesis together with respiration create a cycling of carbon dioxide (C02)
and oxygen in the atmosphere

2
 CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1. Carbon Dioxide
Terrestrial plants obtain carbon dioxide (1) from the atmosphere (where it’s about 0.03%)
via the stomata
(2) By absorbing carbonates from the soil through the roots. Aquatic plants absorb
dissolved bicarbonates through their general surface to carbon dioxide.
2. Water
Water provides the H+ ions and electrons for the reduction of carbon dioxide in oxygenic
photosynthesis of all organisms.

2H2O light energy O2 + 4H+ + 4e-

4H+ + CO2 CH2O + H2O

Experiments conducted using isotropically enriched oxygen (18O2) also proves that all of
the oxygen produced in photosynthesis is derived from water and none from carbon
dioxide.

3. Light
The three properties of light that are of importance to organisms are (i) spectral
quality/colour (ii) intensity/brightness (iii) duration/time.
Light is electromagnetic energy propagated in discrete particles called photons or
quanta.

4. Photosynthetic Pigments
The photosynthetic pigments which are of two categories:
(1) Chlorophyll
(2) carotenoids take part in absorption of light energy for the purpose of
photosynthesis.

Main photosynthetic pigments and their distribution

Photosynthetic Distribution (occurrence) Properties/colour
Pigment
Blue- green in pure state
1.CHLOROPHYL All photosynthetic plants
LS i.e. It is the most abundant Empirical formula: C55H72N4O5Mg
Very soluble in ether, and also soluble
because of its universal
in lipid solvents e.g. chloroform, carbon
Chlorophyll a occurrence tetrachloride, alcohols, etc
yellow-green in pure state.
Empirical formula: C55H70N4O6Mg
Chlorophyll b Higher plants and green algae Very soluble in methyl alcohol and also
soluble in lipid solvents e.g. chloroform,
carbon tetrachloride, etc
(1) Purple sulphur Bacteria,  Are related to chlorophylls
Bacteriochlorophyll
(2) Chloracidobacterium Conducts photosynthesis, but do not

3
 thermophilum produce oxygen.
(3) Green sulfur bacteria Absorbs wavelengths of light not
absorbed by plants e.g. 750-1040 nm
Chlorobium photosynthetic Occurs as esters of farnesol.
Bacterioviridin
bacteria Empirical formula: C51H67O4N4Mg
Colouration: golden or brownish
Are accessory pigments.
Chlorophylls C Diatoms and Brown algae
Gather light but is not used in
photosynthesis itself
Absorb far-red light, at 710 nm
Cyanobacteria wavelength, just outside the optical range
Chlorophyll d
e.g. Acaryochloris marina but Acaryochloris marina, a bacterium,
uses it for photosynthesis.
Cyanobacteria e.g.  Absorb infrared light.
Chlorophyll f stromatolites from Western  Function not known.
Australia's Shark Bay.
2.CAROTENOIDS Naturally occurring in  xanthophylls contain oxygen.
 carotenes are purely hydrocarbons, and
(a) xanthophylls chloroplasts and chromoplasts of
lack oxygen.
α-carotene plants and some other In general absorb blue light.
serve two key roles in plants and algae:
photosynthetic organisms
(1) absorb light energy for use in
(b) carotenes β- like algae, some bacteria, and photosynthesis, (2) protect chlorophyll
from photo damage.
carotene and lycope some types of fungi
Carotenes are unsaturated
ne hydrocarbons.
Xanthophylls are often yellow.
 Carotenes vary in colour: pale yellow,
bright orange, deep red.
Generally, carotenoids
are antioxidants in humans and work
to prevent the effects of aging.
 Are soluble in fat solvents like ether,
chloroform, acetone, carbon disulphide.
Carotenes are closely related to the
vitamin A, with mpirical formula is
C40H56.
 Xanthophylls have empirical formula
is C40H56O

Chlorophyll belongs to a class of organic compounds called porphyrins and bears a

close resemblance to the chemical structure of haem and the cytochromes.
Chlorophyll b and carotenoids are called accessory photosynthetic pigments because
they hand over the energy absorbed by them to chlorophyll a.

4
CAROTENOIDS serve two key roles in plants and algae:
(1) Absorb light energy and pass it over to chlorophyll a for use in photosynthesis,
(2) Protect chlorophyll from being destroyed by excess light/photo damage and from
oxidation by oxygen produced by photosynthesis.
3) They provide bright and attractive colours to the leaves/bracts for attraction of insects
for pollination and to fruits to attract agents of dispersal.

ABSORPTION AND ACTION SPECTRA

Absorption spectrum (A);

This is the graph showing the relative amount of light absorbed at different wave lengths
by photosynthetic pigments/chlorophyll.

The absorption of radiation by a substance can be quantified with an instrument called a

spectrophotometer

Action spectrum of photosynthesis

A graph of the effectiveness of different wavelengths of light in stimulating the
photosynthetic process.

This is the graph showing the amount of photosynthesis occurring at each wave length. It
is measured in terms of O2 produced at each wave length. It is obtained by subjecting
light of these same wave length in turn for a unit of time on to aquatic pond weed the gas
evolved is collected and its volume measured (rate of O2 production is a measure of
the rate of photosynthesis.
Graph B

5
 Conclusions from graph A
1. carotenoids absorb the largest amounts in the violet blue region of light
2. chlorophyll b absorbs more blue light than red light
3. Chlorophyll a absorbs both blue and red light in large amounts.
4. There is very low light absorption of green light by chlorophyll and none for the
carotenoids.

Conclusions from graph B

 Red and blue light is the most effective wave length for photosynthesis
 The more the absorption of light the higher the rate of photosynthesis; the action
spectrum shows a dose correlation with the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a
and b

Observations Interpretations
 The action spectrum of photosynthesis  This indicates that most of the wavelengths
corresponds closely to the absorption spectra of of light absorbed by chlorophyll are used in
chlorophyll a and b. photosynthesis.
 There is non-correspondence of action spectrum  This is because it is at ‘X’ where there is
of photosynthesis with absorption spectra at point maximum absorption by carotenoids, which are
marked ‘X’ not used in photosynthesis.
 The wave lengths of about 550 nm to 620 nm  The unabsorbed (reflected light) appears
have the lowest absorption and action spectra for green, thus making chlorophyll, the chloroplasts
all the photosynthetic pigments. and the leaves that contain it appear green to
our eye.
 There are two absorption maxima of lambda=  This shows that chlorophyll a as well as
430 nm and lambda= 662 nm for chlorophyll a, b are the main photosynthetic pigments,
and 453 nm and 642 nm for chlorophyll b, but only however, photosynthesis also occurs in the mid
one maximum for carotenoids at about 510 nm. part of light spectrum where carotenoids are
active.
 The action spectrum peaks within the blue-violet  This shows that maximum photosynthesis
and red regions of the light spectrum occurs in red part and blue-violet part of visible
light.

OTHER OBSERVATIONS
 Chlorophyll a absorption in red light is about twice that of chlorophyll b and the absorption peak is
at a slightly longer wavelength (lower energy)
 Absorption of chlorophyll a in the blue is lower and shifted to a slightly shorter wavelength (higher
energy).

ADAPTATIONS OF CHLOROPLASTS FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

 Membrane system composed of flattened fluid sacs called thylakoids i.e. the
grana and the intergrana to increase surface area for maximum absorption of sun
light by chlorophyll molecules.
 The outer membrane is thin, transparent, permeable towards respiratory
gases/CO2 and O2

6
  Matrix known as stroma contains enzymes that catalyze the reactions of the dark
stage of photosynthesis.
 In the thylakoid system, there is a system of different electron carriers existing at
different energy levels via which emitted electrons by excited chlorophyll
molecules are transferred to release energy used to form ATP from ADP and
phosphate.
 Outer membrane is semi- permeable to regulate entry and exit of substances for
maintaining internal chloroplast environment.
 Extensive network of thylakoid membranes increase surface area for
photosynthesis.
 Narrow intermembrane space enables H+ ion concentration gradient to be rapidly
established for chemiosmosis to occur
 DNA presence codes for protein synthesis, including enzymes.
 Many ribosomes for protein synthesis to reduce on importing proteins from
cytoplasm.
 Outer membrane is permeable to gases like carbon dioxide which is a raw
material for photosynthesis

ADAPTATIONS OF LEAVES FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Adaptations for obtaining sunlight
1. Phototropism causes shoots to grow towards the light in order to allow maximum
illumination.
2. Etiolation causes rapid elongation of shaded shoots to enable leaves capture light as
soon as possible.
3. The mosaic leaf arrangement minimizes leaf overlap and reduces leaves shading each
other.
4. Its broad to have a Leaf large surface area for capturing maximum sunlight.
5. Its thin to allow easy diffusion of CO2 and maximum light penetration.
6. The transparence of leaf cuticle and epidermis allow light penetration into the
photosynthetic mesophyll beneath.
7. The palisade mesophyll cells are densely packed with chloroplasts and arranged with
their long axes perpendicular to the surface to form a continuous layer which traps most
of the incoming light.
8. Cyclosis (movement of chloroplasts within the mesophyll cells) allows them to arrange
themselves into the best positions for efficient absorption of light.
9. The chloroplasts hold chlorophyll in an ordered / structured way on the sides of the
grana to present maximum chlorophyll to the light and also bring it close to other
pigments / substances necessary for functioning.
10. In leaves of sun plants the palisade layer, whose cells are densely packed with
chloroplasts is more than one cell thick to increase on photosynthetic efficiency.
11. In leaves of shade plants, the cells of palisade and spongy mesophylls are densely
packed with chloroplasts to increase on light trapping hence photosynthetic efficiency.

7
Adaptations for gas entry and exit
1. Numerous stomata are present in the epidermis of leaves to enable entry (CO2) and exit
of gases (O2).
2. The guard cells bordering stomata pores can be opened and closed to regulate the
uptake of carbon dioxide and the loss of water.
3. Spongy mesophyll possesses much airspace to enable faster and uninterrupted
diffusion of gases between the atmosphere and the palisade mesophyll which wouldn’t
happen if the gases were to diffuse through the cells themselves, a process which would
be much slower.
Adaptations for liquid entry and exit
1. A large central midrib containing a large vascular bundle comprising xylem and
phloem tissue is possessed by most dicotyledonous leaves for the entry and transport of
water and mineral salts, and the phloem for carrying away sugar solution, usually in the
form of sucrose.
2. A network of small veins is found throughout the leaf to ensure that every cell is close
to xylem vessel or phloem sieve tube for constant supply of water for photosynthesis
and a means of removing the sugars they produce.

MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis is an oxidation-reduction process, in which water is oxidized to release

oxygen and carbon dioxide is reduced to form carbohydrates. Photosynthesis occurs in
two phases
(1) Photochemical reactions (also called light or Hill reaction) and
(2) Biochemical reactions (also called dark or Blackman 's reaction.
Photosynthesis basically divided into 2 stages
i. Light dependant stage
ii. Light independent stage or dark reaction

LIGHT DEPENDENT STAGE

It takes place in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.
The main functions are:
(1) Photophosphorylation i.e. formation of Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the
addition of an inorganic phosphate to Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) using light energy.
(2) Formation of NADPH+ which is the reduced form of Nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate.
The light dependent stage involves 3 major events
1. Photolysis of water ; splitting of water
2. Formation of NADPH+ ; reducing agent.
3. Photophosphorylation; addition of phosphorous.
This is a stage of photosynthesis that requires light energy which is absorbed by the
photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll) found in the thylakoids of the chloroplast.

8
These pigments are located in special reaction centres called photosystems. These
systems convert the absorbed light energy (photons) into chemical energy (in form of
ATP)
Hill’s reaction involves 3 major events

1. Photolysis of water; is the splitting of water using sunlight energy absorbed by

chlorophyll.
Water used as a raw material for photosynthesis is chemically oxidized (split) by using
light energy (protons) absorbed by chlorophyll molecules into an oxygen molecule,
hydrogen ions and 4 electrons
2H2O light energy 4H+ + O2 + 4e-
The oxygen produced by photolysis of water is evolved to the atmosphere as a by-product
of photosynthesis. The protons (H+ ) are used to reduce NADP+ to NADPH + H+ . The
protons of the hydrogen ions are used in the dark stage of photosynthesis to reduce CO2
to carbohydrates.

2. Formation of NADPH2 i.e. reduced NADP

Also known as Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate Hydrogen. This event

involves reduction of oxidized NADP in the presence of two hydrogen ions and electrons
obtained from the photolysis of water. Reduced NADP is one of the products of the light
stage. its purpose is to carry hydrogen from the light to the dark stage for the reduction
CO2 to carbohydrates in the presence of NADP- reductase;
NADP +2H++2e- NADP-reductase NADPH + H+

3. Photophosphorylation
The synthesis of high energy chemical compound, ATP from Adenine Diphosphate
(ADP) and a free inorganic phosphate by using energy emitted by photo-excited
electrons/using the sun light energy absorbed by photosynthetic pigments in the presence
of the ATPase enzyme.
The energy used the in the formation of ATP molecules is lost by excited electrons as
they are carried from higher to lower energy levels. Through this process, solar energy
that excites electrons is converted into chemical energy.
ADP + Pi ATPase enzyme ATP (high energy chemical compound)
Light energy
N.B: phosphorylation:-involves addition of a free inorganic phosphate to Adenine
Diphosphate (ADP) forming a high energy compound ATP.
ADP +Pi ATP

Mechanism of photophosphorylation

Light energy in form the photons is absorbed by the photosynthetic pigments in the
reaction centres called photosystems .In each photosystem, there are several chlorophyll
molecules and accessory pigments i.e. carotenes and xanthrophyll which all harvest light
energy and pass it onto chlorophyll a in the reaction centres each pigment absorbs light of
different wave length

9
There are 2 types of photosystems
i.Photosystem 1 (PSI)
With chlorophyll a molecule called P-700 which absorbs light of wave length 700 nm
which functions as reaction centre. In P700 photochemical reaction takes place. The
pigment system I is located on both the non-appressed part of grana thylakoids and
stromal thylakoids.

ii .photosystem II (PSII)
With chlorophyll a absorbing light of wave length 680nm (p 680) light energy absorbed
excites electrons which are raised to higher energy levels and then get accepted by
electron carriers (coenzymes). The lost electrons are replaced by the ones from photolysis
of water or from photosystem II. This system is located in the appressed part of grana
thylakoids only.

There are 2 types of photophosphorylation

1. cyclic photophosphorylation
2. non-cyclic photophosphorylation

Non cyclic photophosphorylation

This is the formation of ATP from ADP + Pi using energy emitted by photo-excited
electrons as they flow unidirectionally through electron carriers from PSII/p680 to
PSI/p700.

The light stage reactions are triggered by light energy exciting photosystems I and II
inside the thylakoid membranes at the same time, not one after the other.
Chlorophyll molecules of PSII and PSI are excited by light of wavelength 680 nm and
700 nm respectively; causing the loss of electrons to a chain of electron carriers in a
series of reduction-oxidation reaction.

This path way consists of 2 pigment systems of chlorophyll

Pigment system1 (phototosystem1) and pigment system II (photosystem II)
The 2 systems are at different energy levels
Photosystem II is at the lower energy level compared to PSI.

When both photosystems are struck by sun light of appropriate wave length, they get
excited and loose electrons. Electrons from PSII are raised to a higher energy level and
accepted by the electron carrier known as plastoquinone (PQ).
Electrons lost from a photosystem II (PSII) are replaced by the ones from photolysis of
water in order to restore its neutrality i.e
2H2O light energy O2 + 4H+ + 4e- (free electrons used to restore the neutrality of
PSII).photolysis is the splitting up of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen using
sun light energy trapped by chlorophyll.

10
The electrons from PSII flow from PQ down through a chain of electron carriers to PSI
to replace the lost electrons. As the electrons are carried from a carrier at a higher energy
level to one at a lower energy level, energy is lost that is used in phosphorylation (ATP
synthesis from ADP and Pi ). The electrons are received by PSI/p700 which becomes
restabilised.
The electrons from PSI/p700 are then passed on another electron acceptor, Ferrodoxin
and combine with hydrogen from photolysis of water.
The electrons and hydrogen reduce Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
(NADP) to form reduced Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate /NADPH.
In the presence of hydrogen ions from the photolysis of water reduced NADP + is used in
the dark reactions by providing hydrogen used to reduce CO2 to carbohydrates. The
formed ATP molecules are used in the dark reactions.

The main Products of non – cyclic photophosphorylation therefore are ATP, Reduced
NADP/ NADPH2 while the by-product is Oxygen
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation is also called the Z scheme because it involves flow of
electrons from light excited chlorophylls in Ziz Zag pattern via chains of electron carriers
to form ATP and reduced NADP/NADPH

Electron transport and non – cyclic photophosphorylation in photosynthesis

11
Cyclic photophosphorylation:
Is the synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi coupled to the cyclic passage of electrons
along a series of electron transport molecules to and from photosystem I (P700). OR
It is the formation of ATP from ADP + Pi using energy emitted by photo-excited
electrons of P700 as they flow along photosynthetic electron carriers and back to
photosystems I (P700).

In this phosphosphorylation, light energy absorbed by PSI boosts electrons to a higher

energy level that excited electrons are accepted by a ferrodoxin (electron acceptor) . From
ferrodoxin, electrons are recycled back in PSI directly via a series of electrons carries
which are at different energy levels.
The energy lost by the electrons as they are returned to PSI is captured and released in the
synthesis of ATPs from ADP and an in organic phosphate
By so doing, light energy is converted to chemical energy. The only product of cyclic
photophosphorylation is ATP and involves only PSI
NOTE: Cyclic photophosphorylation takes place most efficiently when the dark reaction
is prevented by either
(1) Absence of hydrogen acceptor NADP
(2) Lack of carbondioxide.
Electron transport and cyclic photophosphorylation in photosynthesis

CYCLIC AND NON-CYCLIC PHOTOPHORYLATION COMPARED

Similarities
In both:
(1) There is flow of electrons through several electron carriers
(2) There are photosystems which accept and lose electrons.
(3) ATP is formed.
(4) pigment system I is involved
(5) Electron movement is located in the thylakoid membranes
(6) Protons are moved outwards of the thylakoids.

12
(7) Protons (H+) are actively pumped from stroma into thylakoid space.
(8) There is photo-excitation of electrons in the pigment systems.

Differences
NON-CYCLIC CYCLIC PHOTOPHORYLATION
PHOTOPHORYLATION
 Electrons flow unidirectionally (non-  Electrons flow cyclically
cyclically)
First electron donor is (source of First electron donor is pigment system I
electrons) water (PSI)
Last electron acceptor is NADP Last electron acceptor is pigment system
I (PSI)
The products are ATP, NADPH and The product is ATP only
Oxygen
Involves both pigment systems I and II Involves only pigment system I
Photolysis of water occurs No photolysis of water

Differences between PSI and PSII

PSI PSII
 Restabilised by electrons from PSII stabilized by electrons from water
 Involved in both cyclic and non- Involved in non-cyclic
cyclic photophosphorylation photophosphorylation
 Is not associated with photolysis of Is associated with photolysis of water
water
 PSI is at a higher energy level PSII is at a lower energy level
 Its reaction centre is P7oo Its reaction centre is P680

Chemiosmotic theory of ATP synthesis (theory of photophosphorylation)

Photolysis of water by light absorbed by chlorophyll in PSII, releases protons/H+ ions,

electrons and oxygen. The electrons are passed along a chain of electron carriers and as
they move from one electron carrier to another carrier energy is released.

The flow of electrons through electron carriers in the thylakoid membranes releases
energy for active pumping of hydrogen ions (H+) from the stroma across a thylakoid
membrane to the thylakoid space/thylakoid compartment/ lumen/cavities.

The protons/Hydrogen ions accumulate in the thylakoid space/cavity; creating a proton

gradient/ steep electrochemical gradient in the lumen of the thylakoid membranes than in
the stroma, leading to the rapid diffusion of hydrogen ions ( H+ ions) along the steep
electrochemical gradient back to the stroma through specific channels called
chemiosmotic channels / via the stalked particles. These channels are formed by an
enzyme complex called ATP synthase/ATPase. As protons pass through the channels; the
enzyme ATPase converts ADP and inorganic phosphate into ATP. Also the potential
energy stored in proton concentration difference is used to generate ATP from ADP and
inorganic phosphate in presence of ATPase

13
Qn .The synthesis of ATP is driven by a flow of protons. Describe where and how
the required proton gradient is produced in the chloroplast.

LIGHT INDEPENDENT OR DARK STAGE

It’s called dark reaction because does not require light, although can take place in light
also.

THE MAIN PATHWAYS FOR THE DARK REACTION

(l) Calvin-Benson cycle / C3 pathway
(2) Hatch-Slack pathway / C4 pathway

It occurs in a cycle of reactions called the Calvin cycle named after Melvin Calvin and It
occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts of C3 -plants. The major purpose of the dark reaction
is to reduce the CO2 absorbed from the atmosphere and water to the carbohydrates.

This requires ATP and reduced NADP (NADPH+ H+) from the light stage of
photosynthesis. ATP provides energy for the endergonic with action reaction of the dark
stage and reduced NADP provides hydrogen atoms required to reduce CO2 to
carbohydrates.

C3 CYCLE: is the series of reactions in plants to form glycerate-3-phosphate (which has

3 carbons) as first organic substance during photosynthesis.

C3-Plants are plants that fix CO2 directly in glycerate-3-phosphate/ G.P which is a 3
carbon organic compound as the first stable product during photosynthesis. OR
These are plants whose first stable compound of carbon dioxide fixation is a 3 carbon
organic compound called PGA/G.P/Phosphoglycerate.

14
MAIN STAGES OF THE CALVIN-BENSON CYCLE (C3 CYCLE)

1. Carboxylation stage
During this stage carbondioxide fixation occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast of the
mesophyll cells.
CO2 which has diffused into the stroma of the chloroplast reacts with 5 carbon
compound, ribulose Bisphosphate under the catalysis of ribulose Bisphosphate
carboxylase enzyme/RUBISCO to produce an unstable 6 carbon compound.
The 6carbon compound splits up into two molecules of 3 carbon compound, the first
stable product of phosynthesis called phosphoglyceric acid ( PGA) or glycerate -3-
phosphate /phosphoglycerate .
Some of the Phosphoglycerate is used for the synthesis of amino acids and fatty acids
needed for the synthesis of proteins and lipids respectively.
The fixing of CO2 by RUBP is called carboxylation of RUBP or carbon dioxide fixation
i.e.
CO2 + RUBP (5C) RUBP unstable 6C organic compound
Carboxylase
.2. Reduction stage
The remaining and biggest portion of phosphoglycerate is reduced by hydrogen donated
by reduced NADP, using energy from hydrolysis of ATP to form phosphoglyceraldehyde
(PGAL)/triose phosphate/glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate/GALP/3-phosphoglyceraldehyde.
Water molecules are released as PGA is reduced to the Aldehyde PGAL
ATP ADP
PGA/G.P PGAL + H2O
NADPH+H+ NADP+

Part of PGAL is used for the synthesis of glycerol.

The triose phosphate is the end product of photosynthesis.
3. Isomerisation and condensation

The remaining and biggest portion of PGAL passes via a series of reactions and is used to
form Monosaccharide sugars mainly hexose sugars which condense into sucrose and
starch. i.e. Two of the 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde molecules undergo isomerisation and
several reactions to form fructose-1-phosphate and glucose-1-phosphate, both of which
may condense to form sucrose or starch.

4. Regeneration of ribulose Bisphosphate (RUBP)

Another portion of PGAL is used for regeneration of RUBP via several enzyme catalyzed
reactions, using energy from hydrolysis of ATP into ADP.
In regeneration of RUBP; 5 PGAL are used to regenerate 3 RUBPs .this process require
ATPs and re arrangement of the carbon atom in the sugar phosphate to generate 5 carbon
compounds from 3 carbon compounds
3ATP 3ADP+ 3Pi
5 PGAL rearrangement of carbon chain 3RUP 3RUBP

5. Product synthesis stage:-

15
Product of photosynthesis (T.P) is assimilated through different pathways some of which
are:-
 Is converted into sucrose; a form in which it’s translocated either in storage
organs or growing points.
 It is fed into the glycolytic pathway (respiration) to produce energy required for
endergonic reactions. T.P/GPAL enters the Glyccolytic pathway where it is
converted into acetyl CO.A which enters the Kreb’s cycle

Synthesis of lipids:-lipids are formed from glycerol which is formed directly from
T.P/PGAL and fatty acids which are obtained from phosphoglycerate/PGA/G.P.
PGA/G.P enters the glycolytic pathway to form Acetyl co-enzyme A which is then used
to synthesis fatty acids, which finally react with glycerol through condensation reaction
forming lipids.

Synthesis of proteins: - The Triose Phosphate is fed into Kreb’s cycle after converting it
to Acetyl co.A.
PROTEINS are formed from amino acids which are also formed from
phosphoglycerate/glycerate-3-phosphate.
Phosphoglycerate via the acetyl CO.enzyme A, forms an intermediate organic acid of the
kreb’s cycle.
The intermediate kreb’s cycle acid reacts with ammonia from the reduction of nitrates
obtained from the soil to form amino acids which are used in protein synthesis.
The nitrites are obtained from reduction of nitrates using reductase enzyme as show
below.
NO3-(aq) nitrate NO2-(aq) Nitrite NH3
Reductase Reductase
NH3 + kreb’s cycle acid intermediate organic acid amino acids

SUMMARY OF THE CALVIN CYCLE

16
Question
Chlorella (unicellular organism) was allowed to photosynthesize at high and very low
carbon dioxide levels .the concentration of G.P and RUBP was investigated.

17
a) Account for the different concentration of RUBP during the whole course of the
investigation
b) Explain why the concentration of GP fall when the level of carbon dioxide is reduced.

LIGHT INDEPENDENT MECHANISMS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN C4-

PLANTS.

C4 Plants are the ones whose first formed stable compound of carbondioxide fixation is a
4 carbon organic compound known as oxaloacetate.

Plants that produce the 3 carbon compound as the first stable product of photosynthesis of
carbondioxide fixation are called the C3 plants.
C4 plants found in maize, sugar cane, millet, sorghum, and many tropical grasses. These
are plants which are mainly monocots that produce a 4 carbon compound called oxalo
acetic acid (OAA) as the first stable product of carbondioxide fixation.
They undergo two pathways of photosynthetic reactions which includes the Hatch-slack
pathway and the Calvin cycle.

Hatch-slack pathway
A type of photosynthesis in which CO2 is first, fixed by phosphoenol pyruvate catalyzed
by PEP carboxylase (PEP) into Oxaloacetate (OAA) inside mesophyll cells, stored as
organic acid (mainly malate) which is later decarboxylated, refixed and CO2 is
assimilated in the Calvin‐cycle inside bundle sheath cells.

Hatch-slack pathway Involves transportation of hydrogen and carbondioxide from the

mesophyll cells into the bundle sheath cells.

During this pathway Carbondioxide is fixed by a 3 carbon compound called phosphoenol

pyruvate (PEP) in the cytoplasm of the mesophyll cells under the catalysis of
phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase enzyme to form a stable 4 carbon organic compound
called oxalo-acetate (OAA).
PEP PEP carboxylase Oxalo-acetate (4C)

Oxalo-acetate (OAA) is reduced by hydrogen from Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

phosphate Hydrogen /reduced NADP to form a 4 carbon compound called Malate.
Fixation of CO2 by PEP to form Malate occurs in the mesophyll cells.
OAA (4C) Malate (4C)

NADPH2 NADP+
The malate produced in the mesophyll cells diffuses through the plasmodemata and then
diffuses into the chloroplast of the bundle sheath cells.
Within the chloroplasts of the bundle sheath cells, malate is dehydrogenated to give large
amount H + ions and decarboxylated to form CO2 and pyruvate. The C4 path way pumps
CO2 and H+ ions into the bundle sheath cells where they are used by the normal Calvin’s
cycle.

18
 CO2 Calvin cycle
Malate (4C) pyruvate (3C)

NADP+ NADP H2

The H+ ions produced are used to reduce NADP to form reduce NADP/NADPH whose
synthesis is limited to a bundle sheath cells.
The formed CO2 in the bundles Sheath cells is fixed by RUBP under the catalysis of
RUBP carboxylase to form organic food substances via a series of reactions.
Regeneration of PEP
The pyruvate diffuses back into the mesophyll cells where it is phosphorylated using 2
molecules of ATP to regenerate the carbondioxide acceptor, PEP.

Pyruvate (3C) PEP (3C)

ATP ADP +Pi

ILLUSTRATION OF HATCH SLACK-PATHWAY

Note.1
1. Carbondioxide fixation in the mesophyll cells does not occur inside their chloroplasts
because they lack RUBP carboxylase enzyme.

19
2. PEP carboxylase has a much higher affinity for CO2 than RUBP carboxylase and
therefore a higher level of carbondioxide is fixed into the carbohydrate metabolism
leading into formation of a larger amount of food, energy than in C3 plants.
3. Because of the high concentration of CO2 fixed by PEP under the catalysis of PEP
carboxylase initially, RUBP carboxylase only catalyses fixation of CO2 rather than
oxygen. The high CO2 concentration in the chloroplast of the bundle sheath cells out
completes O2 for RUBP carboxylase active site. Hence prevents photorespiration in C4
plants ensuring efficient CO2 fixation by RUBP carboxylase.
4. Its high affinity for CO2 also makes it unable to fix oxygen instead of CO2.

NOTE.2
 Most C4 plants register a high photosynthetic yield in tropics and subtropics
regions with high temperatures and high light intensity due to their ability to fix a
high concentration of CO2.
 C4 plants yield more food materials than C3 plants because they don’t
photorespire.

C4 plants have a characteristic leaf Anatomy which is described as kranz anatomy which
is the arrangement 2 distinct rings of leaf cells around the vascular bundles each with a
different type or form of chloroplasts, where by the inner ring of cells are called the
bundle sheath surrounded the outer ring referred to as the mesophyll cells.
Chloroplasts in the C4 plants show some Dimorphism i.e. they exist in two forms. Those
of the bundle sheath cells have rudimentary grana where as the grana are prominent in
the mesophyll cells.

The kranz anatomy illustration diagram.

Differences between bundle sheath and mesophyll cells of the C4 plant

Mesophyll cells/chloroplasts Bundle sheath cells/chloroplasts
 Many and large grana Lack grana and if present they are very few
and small.
 Lack RUBP carboxylase enzyme Has RUBP carboxylase enzyme
 A high concentration of NADPH A low concentration of NADPH ,ATP and
,ATP and oxygen are produced due oxygen are produced.

20
 to high activity of PSII
 There is no carbondioxide fixation There is carbondioxide fixation
due to lack of RUBP carboxylase
 Have high PEP carboxylation Have high RUBP carboxylation
 They have a low concentration of They have a high concentration of starch
starch formed formed
 The light dependent reactions occur The light dependent reactions occur at a low
at a high rate. rate.

SIGNIFICANCE OF HATCH-SLACK PATHWAY

Advantages Disadvantage
C4 plants ably photosynthesize at very low CO2 concentration (e.g. in
dense tropical vegetation) because PEP carboxylase enzyme has a very  The CO2 fixing enzymes in
high affinity for carbon dioxide.
C4 plants are less active at
Concentric arrangement of mesophyll cell produces a smaller area in
relation to volume for better utilization of available water and reduce the cool temperature and low
intensity of solar radiations. illumination, therefore
Photorespiration, which inhibits growth in C3 plants is avoided /
photosynthesis occurs slowly
reduced in C4 because (1) the CO2 fixing enzyme PEP carboxylase does
not accept oxygen (2) RUBISCO enzyme inside the bundle sheath cells is at high altitude with cool
shielded from high oxygen concentration by the ring of palisade cells. temperature and in low light
 The CO2 fixing enzymes in C4 plants are more active at hot temperature
intensity of temperate
and high illumination, therefore photosynthesis occurs rapidly at low
altitude, hot and brightly lit tropical conditions than in C3 plants. conditions.
The productivity of C4 almost four times greater than in C3 because:
(1) of the increased rate of CO2 uptake caused by (i) large internal leaf
surface area (ii) short CO2 diffusion distance (iii) CO2 steep diffusion
gradients
(2) The bundle sheath cells in which dark reactions occur have (i) a large
photosynthetic surface area enabled by un-usually large chloroplasts (ii)
lack of grana on which O2 would be produced, so no photorespiration.
(3) the Palisade cells in which light reactions occur have large grana to
increase the photosynthetic surface area.
Advantages and significance of the c4 path ways
 It makes C4 plants more adapted to high light intensities and temperatures of the
tropics due to higher optimum temperatures of PEP carboxylase for Co2 fixation.
 Dimorphic nature of the chloroplast limits photorespiration greatly leading to
efficient fixation of CO2 by RUBP carboxylase and higher yield i.e. higher
productivity in C4 plants
 PEP carboxylase does not accept O2 thus limiting photorespiration

21
  closing of stomata during the day by desert plants does not affect the rate of
photosynthesis due to large stores of large CO2 at night as malate
 The high affinity of PEP carboxylase for CO2 leads to high productivity of
photosynthesis.
 Because they can reduce the aperture of their stomata during high light intensity
and hot conditions, they lose less water by transpiration.

Dis advantages
1. Consumes a lot of energy compared to C3 path ways.
2. CO2 fixation and hence the rate photosynthesis is limited by ATP in cooler, moist
temperate regions because in such conditions; it requires external energy.

COMPARISON OF C3 AND C4 PLANTS

Similarities
Both:
(1) contain RUBISCO enzyme
(2) Depend on light for their reactions
(3) Show CO2 fixation phases
(4) Have RuBP as CO2 acceptor
(5) Form several same organic products e.g. GALP, PGA, sucrose
(6) Have the calvin cycle

Diff C3 PLANTS C4 PLANTS

structural Lack Kranz anatomy Exhibit Kranz anatomy

All chloroplasts have identical Chloroplasts are dimorphic (have two

structure(have one type of chloroplast) types of chloroplasts ) e.g. those of
palisade cells have grana yet are
lacking bundle sheath cells.
Physiological  CO2 acceptor is a 5-Carbon RuBP  CO2 acceptor is a 3-Carbon PEP
 CO2 fixation occurs once  CO2 fixation occurs twice
Photorespiration occurs No photorespiration
Less photosynthetically efficient More photosynthetically efficient
G.P is the first organic product OAA is the first organic product
Enzymes are more efficient at lower Enzymes are more efficient at high
temperatures(20-250C) temperatures(30-350C)
 Use only RUBISCO enzyme for  PEP carboxylase and RUBP
CO2 fixation carboxylase enzyme are used
 Compensation point is attained at  Compensation point is attained at
higher CO2 concentration lower CO2 concentration
Oxygen is an inhibitor of Oxygen is not an inhibitor of
photosynthesis photosynthetic process
Grows at a low rate Grows at a high rate

22
Note
C3 plants can survive best in an environment of C4 plants
-Low temperature -Regions of high temperatures
-In low light intensity -in high light intensity
-Low oxygen levels -In high CO2 levels
-In high CO2 levels - RUBP carboxylase has a higher affinity
for CO2

PHOTORESPIRATION
Is the light dependent uptake of oxygen by RUBP carboxylase and output of CO2, which
mainly occurs in C3 plants.
Its wasteful process in which carbon fixation in C3 plants is prevented due to the light
dependent uptake of oxygen by RuBP carboxylase (RUBISCO enzyme) and release of
carbondioxide

HOW PHOTORESPIRATION AFFECTS PLANTS

When C3 plants are exposed to low carbondioxide concentration (or high oxygen
concentration) e.g. when stomata close to reduce water loss, RuBP carboxylase catalyses
the reaction between RuBP and oxygen to form a 2-carbon compound;
phosphoglycolate, which is oxidized to release carbondioxide.

This means that carbondioxide and oxygen do compete for the active site of the enzyme.
This makes oxygen to be a competitive inhibitor during carbondioxide fixation. Because
RUBP carboxylase enzyme catalyses fixation of both of CO2 and O2 due to the affinity it
has for both of them, it can be referred t as RUBISCO/Ribulose bisphosphate
carboxylase-oxygenase enzyme.

When the carbondioxide concentration is high, RUBISCO enzyme catalyses the reaction
between RuBP and carbondioxide to form a 3-carbon compound; 3-phosphoglyceric
acid/G.P, which undergoes several reactions to form sugar useful to the plant.

However, when C3 plants are exposed to low carbondioxide concentration or high oxygen
concentration, instead of RUBP carboxylase accepting CO2 ,accepts o2 leading to the
production of one PGA/G.P molecule and a phosphoglycolate. This reduces PGA yields
by ½.
During photorespiration RuBP carboxylase catalyses the fixation of oxygen by RuBP
to form one molecule of phosphoglycerate/G.P and a 2-carbon compound;
phosphoglycolate, which is oxidized to release carbondioxide.

23
Plants recover the lost carbon in the phosphoglycolate by converting it into PGA/G.P
through a series of reactions that occur in 3 cell organelles i.e. chloroplast, peroxisomes
and mitochondria.
Phosphoglycolate is immediately dephosphorylated into glycolate.
In abide to recover another molecule of G.P, two molecules of glycolate via a series of
reactions are used to form one molecule of G.P and one remaining carbon atom is lost in
form of CO2 without net production of ATP.

Mechanism of photorespiration
It is estimated that Photorespiration therefore reduces the potential yield of
photosynthesis by 30-40%.
Therefore C3 plants are less efficient in production of photosynthetic products than C4
plants which do not photorespire or less photorespire.
C4 plants do not photorespire or do it it at a very low rate because they have PEP
carboxylase enzyme with a much higher affinity in fixing a high for CO2 and highly
efficient in fixing a high concentration of CO2 which is shunted into the bundle sheath
cells by malate.
The high concentration of CO2 is accumulated in the bundle sheath cells increases the
efficiency of RUBP carboxylase in fixing CO2 whereby it does not fix O2 as well as it is
in C3 plants.

Characteristics of photorespiration
1. carbon lost as CO2 is never retrieved
2. ATP and reduced NADP are consumed
3. Increased of CO2 concentration lowers the affinity of RUBP carboxylase for O2
therefore inhibits photorespiration.
4. occurs in 3 organelles
5. It is favored by higher temps (tropics) in case of C3 plants because stomata
aperture narrows leading to lower CO2 concentration.
6. it occurs in the presence of light
CONDITIONS for photorespiration
 Low CO2
 High O2 concentration
 High light intensity
 High temperatures

Dis advantages of photorespiration:-

1. it cuts the yield of photosynthesis by half
2. There is loss of carbon and reduces the productivity of the plant.

CRASSULACEAN ACID METABOLISM (CAM) PHOTOSYNTHESIS

These are plants that fix CO2 into organic Compounds i.e. citrate and malate in the
absence of light .In the presence of light , the organic acids malate decompose to release
CO2 ( decarboxylation ) which is used in the synthesis of sugars via the C3 path way.
Or
24
A type of photosynthesis in which CO2 is taken in at night via open stomata, fixed by
phosphoenol private carboxylase into OAA, stored as organic acid (mainly malate) which
is later decarboxylated during daytime, refixed and CO2 is assimilated in the
Calvin‐cycle when stomata are closed. CO2 enters the leaf and fixed at night through the
PEP system. The enzymatic conversion /breakdown of the mallic acids formed during
day provide a supply of CO2 for C3 pathway/Calvin cycle.
Biochemically CAM resembles C4 plants only that in C4 plants CO2 fixation by PEP
carboxylase and RUBP carboxylase occurs simultaneously but separated in space in
CAM plants, the enzymes act in the same cells .i.e. mesophyll cells but separated in time.
CAM is a modified form of C3 photosynthesis adopted by approximately 6% of vascular
plant species as an adaptation to water deficit in terrestrial and epiphytic plants, with
exceptions exhibited by submerged freshwater plants for other reasons.

Examples of CAM plants

Cacti, agaves (sisal), opuntia, Kalanchoe (Bryophyllum), Vanilla (family:
Orchidaceae), pineapples (Family: Bromeliaceae), Mesembryanthemum crystallinum
(Common ice plant), and Euphorbia milii a.k.a Crown of Thorns plant – a spiny climber
with showy red bracts, commonly grown in school gardens

Significance of CAM photosynthesis

For terrestrial CAM plants, there is increased water use efficiency (WUE) in which
nocturnal stomatal opening greatly reduces stomatal loss of water as it would in day
light.

PHASES OF CAM THROUGH THE DIURNAL COURSE

Phase I: nocturnal CO2 fixation (atmospheric + respiratory sources) mediated by PEP
Carboxylase and accumulation of malate within the vacuole.
Phase II: atmospheric CO2 fixation at dawn which marks the transition between C4 and
C3 activity.
Phase III: decarboxylation of malate and fixation of the regenerated CO2 by Rubisco.
Phase IV: a period of atmospheric CO2 fixation from the end of Phase III to dusk which
latterly incorporates the shift from Rubisco to PEP Carboxylase activity.
CAM plants are a group of mainly succulent plants and are found in the small
crassulacaen.
CAM and C4 plants are adapted to drier regions ( deserts ) due to their ability to store
CO2 at night (mainly malate) and decarboxylate during day when the CO2 up take is
greatly reduced since the stomata close to reduce water loss by transpiration.
Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis
Internal factors
 Structure of the leaf and chlorophyll content
 Influence of enzymes
 Accumulation with in chloroplasts of products of photosynthesis
 Hormones
 Leaf size
 Number of stomata
 Vascular bundles

25
  Air spaces
External factors
 Quantity and quality of light incident on leaves
 Suitable temperature
 Concentration of carbondioxide in the surrounding atmosphere
 Concentration of oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere
 Availability of water
 Inorganic ions; absence of ions like mg, N and Fe , chlorophyll can’t be
synthesized
THE PRINCIPLE OF LIMITING FACTORS
The law of limiting factors: It states that: when a physiological/chemical process
depends on more than one essential conditions being favourable, its rate at any given
moment is limited by the factor at its least favourable valve/nearest its minimum value/in
its short supply.i.e its this factor which directly affects the process if it’s in quantity is
changed.
Example photosynthesis can’t proceed in the dark because the absence of light limits the
process. The absence of will alter the rate of photosynthesis
orAt any given moment, the rate of a biochemical reaction depends upon more than
one factor/conditions being favourable; its rate is determined or limited by the one
factor which is nearest its minimum value.

When one factor is favourable e.g. when light is increased the rate of photosynthesis
increases until it levels of because another factor other than light intensity limits the rate
of photosynthesis. But when the limiting factor such as CO2 is increased, the rate of
photosynthesis further increases until yet another factor like temperature tends towards
its minimum and limits the rate of photosynthesis resulting its leveling off.
Salinity
One of the major effects of salinity is osmotic stress, and hence there are intimate
relationships to drought stress or ‘water stress’. This results in stomata closure in an
effort to avoid desiccation, which reduces photosynthesis because uptake of CO2 reduces.
26
 Effect of carbondioxide
Rate of photosynthesis as estimated

Observation / description Explanation

 Generally, the rate of photosynthesis  RuBISCO attaches carbon dioxide instead of
increases rapidly with increasing oxygen, because the carbon dioxide concentration
carbondioxide concentration to a is higher than the oxygen concentration.
maximum at 30 Pa in C4 plants and 90 More cells photosynthesize because of the
Pa in C3 plants and thereafter remains increased carbon dioxide molecules available.
constant.
 The rate of photosynthesis is faster in PEP Carboxylase of C4 has a higher affinity for
C4 than C3. carbondioxide than RuBISCO of C3 and hence acts
faster.
 The overall photosynthetic products C4 needs more ATP than C3 which generally
are greater in C3 than in C4 reduces photosynthetic out put
 The C4 plants are more efficient at  At lower CO2 concentration in C3
lower CO2 concentration while C3 more photorespiration reduces the photosynthesis
efficient at higher CO2 efficiency yet PEP Carboxylase has a high affinity
for carbon dioxide
 C3 plant has a higher compensation PEP Carboxylase has a high affinity for carbon
point than C4 dioxide
27
After attaining the maximum, the rate of It is because other factors limit the process e.g.
photosynthesis remains constant in both temperature, light intensity etc.
 At the CO2 concentration of about 70
Pa, the rate of photosynthesis is equal in
both plants
Carbondioxide is a raw material for the dark stage of photosynthesis in that it’s reduced
by hydrogen donated by reduced NADP via a series of reactions to form carbohydrates.
HIGH Carbondioxide concentration in the atmosphere increases the rate of
photosynthesis significantly.

In the atmosphere, the concentration of carbon dioxide ranges from 0.03 to 0.04 %.
However, the highest CO2 level needed for photosynthesis is 0.1%, beyond this optimum
CO2 concentration the rate may reduce due the inactivation or denaturation of the
photosynthetic enzymes due to the acidic PH as result of formation of carbonic acid from
the reaction of excess CO2 with water.

Chlorophyll Concentration
The concentration of chlorophyll affects the rate of reaction as they absorb the light
energy without which the reactions cannot proceed. When the level of chlorophyll
molecules is high the rate of photosynthesis is high because sufficient light energy is
absorbed for formation of enough ATP and reduced NADP (NADPH) needed for the
dark reactions.

But when the concentration of chlorophyll is low the rate of photosynthesis is low
because little amount of light energy is absorbed leading to production of insufficient
ATP and reduced NADP (NADPH) needed for the dark reactions. Total absence of
chlorophyll results into lack of photosynthesis.

Lack of chlorophyll or deficiency of chlorophyll results in chlorosis or yellowing of

leaves. It can occur due to disease, mineral deficiency or the natural process of aging
(senescence). Lack of iron, magnesium, nitrogen and light affect the formation of
chlorophyll and thereby causes chlorosis.

Temperature
Most reactions of photosynthesis are catalyzed by enzymes; they need an optimum
temperature for optimum enzyme activity for high photosynthetic rate.
At temperatures below the optimum (around 0oC) the photosynthetic rate is reduced due
to the inactivation enzymes and when the temperature is increased beyond optimum the
rate of photosynthesis reduces until the reactions stop because of denaturation of
enzymes until all of them are fully denatured. Different species of plants have different
optimum ranges of temperature ,most temperate plants need an optimum range of
temperature between 20-25 oC while the tropical plants need 35-40oC
Since both the stages of photosynthesis require enzyme activity, the temperature has an
affect on the rate of photosynthesis.

28
Observation / description Explanation
Below 10 C, C3 rate of photosynthesis is C4 photosynthetic enzymes are less active
0

higher than in C4 above 100C. in the cold but become more active with
increase in temperature.
The maximum rate of photosynthesis The optimum temperature for enzymes
attained in C4 is much higher than in C3 involved in the C4 cycle is higher than in
the C3 cycle
At about 45 C, the rate of photosynthesis Enzymes controlling photosynthesis are
0

decreases denatured
There is an initial increase in Light intensity becomes a limiting factor
photosynthetic rate to a maximum at about in each of the three cases
40-420C, inspite of further increase in
temperature
There is increase in the rate of Increase in temperature activates
photosynthesis with increase in enzymes to a level beyond which enzyme
0
temperature until up to at about 40 C denaturation occurs.

Water
Water is a metabolite/raw material for photosynthesis. Water is split by light energy to
provide hydrogen ions needed in the dark stage of photosynthesis. It also provides
electrons which restabilises the PSII/photo system II after it has emitted its electrons.

It is found that even slight deficiency of water results in significant reduction in the crop
yield. The lack of water not only limits the amount of water but also the quantity of
carbon dioxide. This is because in response to drying the leaves close their stomata in
order to conserve water being lost as water vapour through them.



29
  ROLE OF WATER IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Catalytic photolysis / splitting / breaking of water produces electrons (e-) and
protons (H+).
 Water is a source of electrons to replace those lost by chlorophyll / photosystem II
 Water is a source of H+ needed to produce NADPH + H+
 Water is a source of H+ which when flowing from thylakoid space into stroma via
ATPase, ATP forms.
 Water is a substrate / reactant / raw material / for photosynthesis
 Water is transparent so photosynthesis can take place underwater / light can
penetrate to chloroplasts

Pollution
Pollution of the atmosphere with industrial gases has been found to result in as much as
15% loss. Soot can block stomata and reduce the transparency of the leaves. Some of the
other pollutants are ozone and sulphur dioxide. In fact, lichens are very sensitive to
sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere. Pollution of water affects the hydrophytes. The
capacity of water to dissolve gases like carbon dioxide and oxygen is greatly affected.

Mineral salts
Mineral salts affect the production of chlorophyll such as nitrates,phosphates,Mg2+
nitrogen.in high concentration of mineral ions there is high production of chlorophyll
molecules.total absence results in chlorosis hence no photosynthesis will take place.
Oxygen
High concentration of oxygen, mainly in C3 Plants reduces the rate of photosynthesis
because oxygen competes with CO2 for the active site of ribulose bisphosphaate
carboxylase enzyme used to catalyze the fixation of CO2 by RUBP,carbondioxide
acceptor into an unstable 6C intermediate compound, this is the enzyme has an equally
high affinity for oxygen unlike CO2 . Because this enzyme is called RUBISCO (ribulose
bisphosphate carboxylase-oxygenase.

Light intensity and Compensation Point

When light intensity is Low the rate of photosynthesis is low. As the intensity is
increased the rate photosynthesis also increases. This is because light is used during the
light stage of photosynthesis to provide energy in form of ATP and reduced NADP
(Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen).ATP and reduced NADP as
products of the light stage are required as raw materials in the dark stage of
photosynthesis.
Light is also needed during photolysis of water resulting into production hydrogen. The
hydrogen ions produced during photolysis are used to reduce NADP to NADPH +H+.
light is used to raise the energy level of electrons of chlorophyll molecules on order for
them to be emitted and passed via electron carriers at different energy levels in order to
produced energy needed to combine ADP with inorganic Phosphate to form ATP.

As the light intensity is increased the rate photosynthesis also increases However, after
reaching an intensity of 10,000 lux (lux is the unit for measuring light intensity) there is
no effect on the rate. Very high intensity may, in fact, slow down the rate as it bleaches

30
the chlorophyll. Normal sunlight (usually with an intensity of about 100,000 lux) is quite
sufficient for a normal rate of photosynthesis.
When a plant in a region of low light / in darkness is provided with high light intensity,
its rate of photosynthesis increases until it equals to the rate of respiration whereby there
is no net release of oxygen by the plant to the atmosphere.
When the rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of respiration, the plant is said to have
reached its Compensation point .this happens at dawn and at dusk.

Light compensation point is that light intensity at which the rate of photosynthesis is
exactly balanced by the rate of respiration. At this point, CO2 is neither evolved nor
absorbed i.e. there is no net loss or gain in CO2 and there is no net loss or gain in
carbohydrates and there is no net exchange of O2 and CO2.
Compensation point: the point at which the rate of photosynthesis in a plant is in exact
balance with the rate of respiration, so there is no net exchange of CO2 or oxygen. Or
The light intensity at which the photosynthetic intake of carbon dioxide is equal to the
respiratory output of carbon dioxide. It occurs during early morning or late evenings
Beyond compensation point further increase in light intensity results in a proportional
increase in rate of photosynthesis until light saturation is reached. Beyond this point
further increase in light intensity has no effect on the rate of photosynthesis unless some
other factors like CO2 has its concentration increased. The time period taken for the plant
to reach compensation point is known as compensation period.

Net gain in sugars

(photosynthesis rate
exceeds respiration
rate)

Net loss of
sugars(sugars used in
respiration more
rapidly than they are
produced in
phosynthesis).

31
Shade plants have a shorter compensation period than those in bright light/light plant for
their maximum and efficient utilization of light
At very low light intensity, shade plants have higher CO2 uptake, which reduces with
illumination.
Light plants have a higher compensation point than shade plants.
At a certain light intensity, the rate of CO2 uptake is the same in both.
In both, CO2 increases with increase in illumination to a maximum and then levels off.
Shade plants reach maximum CO2 uptake at a lower illumination than light plants.
Increased illumination causes a bigger increase in CO2 uptake in light plants than in
shade plants.
Letter P represents compensation point at which CO2 uptake equals CO2 out put.
At Y biomass decreases because the rate of respiration exceeds that of photosynthesis.

Effect of altitude (and oxygen)

Observation / description Explanation

The decrease in atmospheric pressure at
C3 plants are more abundant at high higher altitude decreases the partial
altitude/elevation pressure of oxygen enables more
productivity since photorespiration reduces
Even when temperature is high, nocturnal
stomatal opening and closure in day light
enables them to reduce transpiration.
CAM plants are more abundant at low CAM plants that store a lot of malate and
altitude due to the thus high osmotic value also a
lot of water, are usually less frost resistant
than C3 plants.

The enzymes are tolerant to these high

C4 plants are widely distributed at low temperatures and the Kranz mesophyll
anatomy shields RuBISCO in bundle
altitude and slight elevation
sheath cells from much oxygen to avoid
photorespiration.

32
Significance of the study of the factors affecting photosynthesis
It enables us understand the most important biochemical life sustaining processes. All
plants and animals are dependent on the sun for energy, which is made available to them
by the process of photosynthesis. Man, like other animals, is dependent on the plants for
food. Scientists are constantly working towards developing new varieties of crops which
give better yield of crops. With the population explosion and resulting pressure on land
resources, the percentage of land available for cultivation is reducing at an alarming rate.
This means that in the restricted space, the crops have to yield more. Greenhouse plants
and crops in unfriendly freezing conditions have been possible due to the study of the
factors affecting photosynthesis.

MEASUREMENT OF RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

(i) Measure the uptake of CO2
(ii) Measure the production of O2
(iii) Measure the production of carbohydrates
(iv) Measure increase in dry mass

Measuring the uptake of water can’t work!

 Measuring the Uptake of CO2

Uptake of CO2 can be measured with the means of an IRGA (Infra-Red Gas Analyser)
which can compare the CO2 concentration in gas passing into a chamber surrounding a
leaf / plant and the CO2 leaving the chamber. The soil and roots must NOT be in the
bag to avoid CO2 production from respiration
NOTE: CO2 uptake can also be measured by following the uptake of carbon dioxide
labelled with Carbon 14

 Production of carbohydrates
This is a crude method where a disc is cut out of one side of a leaf (using a cork borer
against a rubber bung) and weighed after drying. Some weeks later, a disk is cut out of
the other half of the leaf, dried and weighed. Increase in mass of the disc is an indication
of the extra mass that has been stored in the leaf.
However, you can probably think of several inaccuracies in this method.

 Measuring the increase in dry mass

Dry mass is often monitored by the technique of 'serial harvests' where several plants are
harvested, dried to constant weight and weighed - this is repeated over the duration of the
experiment so as to have an accurate measure of the surplus photosynthesis over and
above the respiration that has taken place. As with most methods, several plants are
needed to have replicate measurements which are used to calculate the average and a
standard deviation if necessary.

33
 Measuring the production of O2
Oxygen can be measured by (a) counting bubbles evolved from pond weed with the
Audus apparatus
Requirements
(1) Previously well illuminated aquatic plant e.g. Elodea or Cabomba (2) Test tube (3)
Watch (4) Water at room temperature (5) bench lamp to provide light (6) Knife (7) Ruler
(8) 0.2 % sodium bicarbonate solution (9) plastic Syringe (10) 500 cm3 glass beaker (11)
capillary tube (12) plastic tube connector (13) graduated scale (14) retort stand (15) soft
board (16) thermometer

Procedure:

Set up the apparatus as below in TOTAL DARKNESS

(1) A light source is placed 50 cm away facing the test tube, is powered on and a 5
minutes lapse is allowed to enable the plant adjust to the light intensity.
(2) The length of gas bubble evolved in 10 second, 30 second, and 1 minute intervals is
measured by pulling the syringe plunger to draw the bubble slowly along the capillary
tube.
(3) Steps 1 and 2 are repeated with the light source placed at 40 cm from the test tube
with the plant, then 30 cm, 20 cm, and finally 10 cm.
(4) Lastly the control experiment involves using natural room lighting and repeating the
above steps.
Observation / results Explanation
 A colorless gas which relights a glowing  The gas is oxygen released from
splint evolves from the cut end of the plant. Photosynthetic reactions.
 The rate of gas evolution is directly This is because of the increased light
proportional to light intensity up to a intensity which provides more energy for
certain illumination i.e. the closer the light photo-activation of electron flow.
source is to the plant, the more oxygen  Increased illumination may not cause
bubbles evolve up to a certain light any further evolution of oxygen because
intensity then remains relatively constant (1) of light saturation (2) other factors limit

34
and may decrease. the process
Determination of amount of gas released  Increased illumination may cause a
a) if scale is marked in mm3 or cm3: read decrease in bubble evolution because
volume directly chlorophyll gets bleached with increased
b) if scale is marked in mm: calculate illumination.
volume from πr2h
π=3.14, r=capillary tube radius, h=distance
bubble covers

Precautions to avoid experimental

Explanation / Remedy
inaccuracies / errors
 Thermostatically controlled bath should be used
 Temperature fluctuation of the water in the
to maintain temperature constant since it affect
beaker
photosynthetic activity.
 The experiment must be conducted in total  To avoid effects of external light fluctuations on
darkness photosynthesis
 There must be periodical refilling of HCO3-
 To avoid depletion of carbondioxide
solution
 To saturate the water with oxygen such that the
 The water should be aerated first.
oxygen evolved does not dissolve into water.
 Each time the light position is adjusted, a 5
 To allow the plant equilibrate (adjust) to the new
minute lapse must be allowed before bubble
light intensity.
counting
Use voltage that gives constant light for a long
Light intensity fluaction
time
Trapped gas bubbles Swirl the water weed to release them
 Expel gas before taking another reading 

NOTE:
 Instead of measuring the length of bubble, bubbles can be counted, but this has several
disadvantages (1) Some bubbles may not be seen due to variations in size, which can be
avoided by adding a little detergent to lower the surface tension (2) Bubbles may evolve
very fast to be counted, especially in much illumination.
The percentage of oxygen in the evolved gas is only about 40% because of dilution by
(1) dissolved N2 or other gases released from solution and (2) CO2 which had
accumulated from respiration, and is first displaced into the capillary tubing, especially if
the plant had been kept in the dark
Evidence for light reaction in photosynthesis
The following evidences indicates that te overall reaction in photosynthesis takes place
in two stages : one is light dependent and the other is light independent

35
 EXTRA WORK FOR REVISION (Soper R, et al., 1997; Biological Science, p.212: 7.19 & 7.20)

Limiting factor t A: light intensity X, Y and Z represent: the points at which light
Curves represent at B: both light and other factors, intensity ceases being the major limiting factor of
at C: light intensity no longer
EVIDENCE FORa LIGHT REACTION INphotosynthesis
limiting factor PHOTOSYNTHESIS in the four experiments because it’s
D represents: light saturation point
The following evidences indicate that the over all reaction inincrease
at these points that in light intensity
photosynthesis takescauses
place
E represents: maximum attainable rate of an increase in photosynthesis.
in two steps: one is light dependent
photosynthesis under experimental conditions
and the other is light independent.

1. Temperature coefficient studies

The rate of photosynthesis of two groups of plants was compared. Both were supplied
with an adequate concentration of carbon dioxide. But one group was kept under light of
high intensities and other group in light of low intensity. When the rate of photosynthesis
were measured at different temperatures it was found that high light group had a Q10 =
2 but the low light group Q10 = 1. Strictly, chemical reactions characteristically have a
Q10 from 2 to 3. This fact indicates that at least one of the reaction involved in
photosynthesis is of a purely chemical type. This reaction is called as dark reaction. The
other reaction of Q10 indicates that one of the reactions proceeds only at the expanse of
absorbed light it is called dark reaction. The Q10 of light reaction is 1

2. Flashing light experiments

Photosynthesis involves photochemical and biochemical reactions is also shown by the
results of investigations in which plants are exposed to intermittent light. Warburg (1919)
obtained higher rates of photosynthesis in Chlorella when it was exposed to rapid and
alternate periods of light and darkness instead of continuous illumination. Emerson and
Arnold (1932) found that at 250C, the maximum photosynthesis took place when light
and dark periods were respectively 10-5 second and 0.055 second. At 1.10C, maximum
photosynthesis could be obtained with the same light period but the dark period has to be
increased to 0.4 second. It means that temperature influences reactions of the dark period
and reactions of light phase are photochemical.

36
ENGELMANN’S EXPERIMENT ON ACTION SPECTRUM OF
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Description of Engelmann’s experiment Results of Engelmann’s experiment
Filaments of the green alga Cladophora of the
genus Pseudomonas are placed in a drop of
water on a slide, then illuminated with light of
different wavelengths and observed under the
microscope.
The control experiment involves mounting the
alga on a slide in water with aerobic bacteria in
total darkness and thereafter exposing the slide to
light.
 Observation 1:
The motile aerobic bacteria cluster near to the
filaments in the region of blue light (450 nm)
and red light (650 nm).  Deduction 3:
 Deduction 1: Darkness prevents photosynthesis, which
Since the distribution of aerobic bacteria is in stops evolution of oxygen resulting in
response to the concentration of oxygen which is anaerobic conditions that donot favour
a by-product of photosynthesis, then red and blue aerobic bacterial activity
light are the most effective for photosynthesis.  Observation 4:
 Observation 2: There is hardly any aerobic bacteria in the
Motile aerobic bacteria cluster around the edge ultra-violet, green and infra-red regions of
of the cells adjacent to the chloroplast. the spectrum.
 Deduction 2:  Deduction 4:
Oxygen is more concentrated near the Light from ultra-violet, green and infra-red
chloroplast which shows that the chloroplast is regions of the spectrum is hardly absorbed
the sight of photosynthesis. by chlorophylls hence least used in
 Observation 3: photosynthesis, with no / little evolution of
The aerobic bacteria of the slide previously in oxygen.
the dark are immobile but later cluster around the
alga filament on exposure to light.

AUTOTROPHIC BACTERIA
Are divided into two groups
1) Photosynthetic bacteria
2) Chemosynthetic

Both can build up carbohydrates from simple inorganic raw materials but they differ in
the way they obtain the necessary energy.

37
Photosynthetic bacteria
These build/manufacture organic food substances from simple inorganic substances using
sun light energy. Sun light energy is trapped by bacteriochlorophyll which is similar but
simpler than chlorophyll \a.
Most of them use hydrogen obtained from hydrogen sulphide instead of water to reduced
CO2 via a series of reactions using light energy absorbed by bacteriochlorophyll
molecules.
 This partly explains why most photosynthetic bacteria are located at the bottom of
shallow water bodies, like ponds where there is a high concentration of hydrogen
sulphide from decomposing of dead organic matter of plants and animals by the
decomposers, anareobically.
Sulphur bacteria live in bottoms of lakes, ponds and rocks where they obtain H2S from
metabolism of anaerobic decay bacteria.
CO2 + H2S [CH2O] + 2S + H2O

Sulphur resulting from splitting of H2S is deposited in bacterial cells.

 Because the bacteriochlorophyll absorbs light from either sides of the absorption
spectrum of green plants, the photosynthetic bacteria exist beneath the leaves of
green plants as the light absorbed by their bacteriochlororphyll passes through the
leaves reaches them.
Chlorophyll of green plants and bacteriochlorophyll do not absorb the same wave length
of light. Because bacteriochlorophyll is a simple pigment, can easily be destroyed by high
light intensity.
 Therefore photosynthetic bacteria are located beneath the sea weeds to hide
themselves from high light intensity, thereby preventing their bacteriochlorophyll
from destruction by high light intensity.
Also their light saturation levels are low in that they need low light intensity for efficient
photosynthesis to occur.

Some bacteria however don not use hydrogen sulphide as source of hydrogen to reduce
CO2.
Example 1 Blue green bacteria use water as a source of hydrogen to reduce CO2.
Example 2 purple non sulphur bacteria use organic compounds to provide hydrogen for
reduction of CO2 (Photochemoautotrophs or to reduce other organic compounds
(heterotrophic)

CHEMOSYNTHESIS

Chemosynthesis: chemical process in which inorganic chemicals are oxidized to provide

energy to living organisms for the synthesis of organic compounds.
Importance of chemosynthesis
The chemical activities of the organisms involved bring about nutrient cycling; for
example:
 Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter bacteria are involved in nitrification in plants.
 Thiobacillus catalyse the conversion of sulphur containing compounds to sulphates
which are directly useful to plants.

38
CHEMOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA
These manufacture organic food substances from simple inorganic substances using
energy from oxidation of inorganic substances rather than sugars.

EXAMPLES

 Iron bacteria: these obtain energy from oxidation of ferrous iron into ferric iron.
Fe2+ (aq) oxygen Fe3+(aq) + energy

 Colourless sulphur bacteria: these oxide sulphur using oxygen into sulphates and
energy is released.
S (s) oxygen SO4- (aq) + energy

H2S + 2O2 Thiobacillus SO42- + 2H+ + Energy

 Nitrifying bacteria: these oxide ammonia into nitrites the into nitrates and energy
is released.

Mechanism of chemosynthesis in some bacteria

Nitrosomonas
NH3 + 3O2 HNO2 + H2O + energy (79 kcals)

Nitrobacter
HNO2 + O2 HNO3 + energy (22 kcals)

Nitrification is a means of increasing, cycling of nutrients into usable form of nitrates by

the plants, hence increases soil fertility and productivity of primary producers.
In ecosystem there is denitrifying bacteria and nitrogen fixating bacteria which are
important in nutrient cycling.

Denitrifying bacteria: these reduce nitrates and nitrites into the atmospheric nitrogen, in
order to obtain oxygen for respiratory activities in an environment without enough
oxygen.e.g water logged soils.
In other words, they reduce the level of nitrates from the soil by pseudomonas
denitrificans and thiobacillus denitrificans.

Nitrogen fixing bacteria: these reduce nitrogen using hydrogen and energy in form of
ATP under catalysis of nitrogenase enzyme to form ammonia which is used to form
amino acids and then proteins and can be oxidized to nitrites and then nitrates

N2 + 3H2 ATP NH3

Nitrogenase
The chemosynthetic bacteria utilize the energy from the chemical oxidation of inorganic
chemicals to synthesize organic compounds, some of which are subsequently oxidized in
respiration to yield energy for metabolism.

39
 6CO2 + 12H2S C6 H12O6 + 6H2O + 12S

Substrate Main Chemosynthetic bacteria Habitat

product
Ammonium Nitrite (NO2- Nitrosomonas and Soil
(NH4+) ) Nitrococcus
Nitrite (NO2-) Nitrate Nitrobacter Soil
((NO3-)
Sulphur (H2S) Sulphate Thiobacillus Decaying organic matter
(SO42-)
Ferrous (Fe2+) Ferric (Fe3+) Ferrobacillus / Iron Streams flowing over
bacteria iron rocks
Hydrogen (H2) Water (H2O) Hydrogenomonas Soil

WAYS BY WHICH NITROGEN IS FIXED IN THE SOIL:

1. Mutualistic bacteria in root nodules i.e.rhizobium bacteria
2. Free living nitrogen fixing bacteria in the soil.e.g.azotobacter and clostridium
3. Action of lightning
4. Industrial fixation i.e harber process

Differences between photosynthetic bacteria and eukaryotic plants

Eukaryotic plant photosynthetic bacteria

1) They use chloroplasts They lack chloroplasts
2) Oxygen is produced as a by-product No oxygen production except in blue green
bacteria
3) Water is the source of hydrogen for Other compounds other than Water serve as
CO2 reduction the source of hydrogen for CO2 reduction
except in blue green bacteria
4) Their photosynthetic membranes They are not stacked together
are stacked together to form grana
5) They involve use of photo system II photo system II NOT involve except in
blue green bacteria
6) They are more efficient photo They are less efficient photo synthetically
synthetically
7) They use chlorophyll pigment for They use bacteriochlorophyll for light
light absorption absorption except in blue green bacteria
which uses chlorophyll.
8) Their photosynthetic membranes Their membranes exist as extensions of
are located within the chloroplasts plasma membrane called chromatophores
except blue green bacteria where they are
distributed throughout the cytoplasm.

40
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION
There is a close relationship between the activities of respiration and photosynthesis in
living things. These two activities counteract each other in many ways, and a balance of
the processes are necessary to maintain the favourable O2/CO2 ratio in the atmosphere.
In the presence of light, plants respire aerobically to release carbon dioxide while
consuming oxygen, and at the same time photosynthesise to release oxygen while
consuming carbon dioxide, although photosynthesis far exceeds respiration.
In darkness, plants respire aerobically to release carbon dioxide but photosynthesis is
inhibited by absence of light.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Five small discs cut from spinach leaves were floated on a small volume of buffered
hydrogen carbonate solution in a flask attached to a respirometer. The discs were first
exposed to bright light, then to dim light and finally left in the dark. Oxygen release was
recorded as positive values and oxygen uptake as negative values as given in the table
below.
(a) Present the data in a suitable graphical form
Oxygen uptake or
Light intensity Time interval in minutes
release in mm3 (b) (i) Calculate the mean rate of oxygen release
in bright light
0–3 +57 (ii) Explain the significance of the results obtained
3–6 +64 from this experiment.
Bright light
6–9 +58
(c) Explain the use of the following in the
9 – 12 +60 experiment above:
12 – 15 +16 (i) Five small leaf discs, not one.
Dim light
15 – 18 +3 (ii) Hydrogen carbonate solution
(iii) Buffered hydrogen carbonate solution
18 – 21 - 16
21 – 24 - 12
Dark
24 – 27 - 15
27 – 30 - 14

2. In an experiment, samples of algae were collected at 1-minute intervals over a period

of 5 minutes. The quantities of glycerate-3-phosphate (GP) and ribulose bisphosphate
(RuBP) were measured. At the beginning of the experiment, the concentration of
carbondioxide supplied was high. After 2 minutes, the concentration of carbondioxide
was reduced. The graph in the figure below shows the results of this experiment.

41
 Describe the effects of the decrease in
carbondioxide after 2 minutes on:
(i) Glycerate 3-phosphate (GP)
(ii) Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)
(b) Suggest explanation for these
changes to the levels of glycerate 3-
phosphate (GP) and RuBP

3. Experiments on cultures of a unicellular protist to investigate the effect of light and

carbon dioxide on certain metabolites. In the first experiment, the levels of PGA, RuBP
and sucrose in the protest were determined at different time intervals in the presence of
light. At the 35th minute, light was switched off, suddenly putting the protists in darkness;
the results are shown in the table below
Time (minutes) 0 20 35 40 50 60 70
Amount RuBP 35 35 35 30 15 10 10
of PGA 45 45 45 50 65 70 70
metabolite Sucrose 10 54 72 66 52 35 20
(a) Represent the data provided graphically
(b) Using the graph obtained in (a) above, explain the variation in the levels of the
metabolites with time
4. The rate of photosynthesis of Digitaria bipartite, a C4 plant and Astropa belladonna, a
C3 plant was investigated under different intracellular carbon dioxide concentrations. The
results are shown in the table below
Carbon dioxide Rate of photosynthesis (mol of CO2 assimilated per m2 of leaf area per
concentration (ml per second)
dm3) Digitaria bipartite Digitaria bipartite
0 0.0 0.0
25 12.5 0.0
50 35.0 5.0
75 37.5 14.0
100 37.5 25.0
150 37.5 40.0
200 37.5 47.5

(a) Present the data in the table above graphically

(b) Compare the rates of photosynthesis of two plants at the carbon dioxide
concentrations shown in (a) above
(c) Explain your answer in (b) above

42
(d) Explain, in biochemical terms, the distribution of C3, C4 and CAM plants at their
environments
5. The table below shows how the rate of photosynthesis of C4 and C3 plants vary with
the temperature at different light intensities. The rate is in arbitrary unit.
Temperature/0C 0 5 10 20 30 35 40
C4 plants at high light intensity 0 5 12 25 28 32 38
C3 plants at high light intensity 0 10 12 15 18 20 10
C3 plants at low light intensity
0 2 5 8 10 10 6
(Arbitrary units)
(a)Represent the above results graphically on the same axes.
(b) Explain how differently temperature affects photosynthesis in C3 plants and C4 plants.
(c) Explain the pattern of the graph obtained for C3 plants under low light intensity.
(d) Explain the effect of light intensity on the following.
(i) Leaf colour (ii) Leaf size (iii) Internode length
(e) State three other factors that may limit the rate of photosynthesis.
6. The table below shows effect of temperature on rate of photosynthesis in two grasses,
Agropyron and Bouteloua
Rate of photosynthesis in arbitrary units
Leaf temperature (0C)
Agropyron Bouteloua
10 23 10
15 26 15
20 30 19
25 31 24
30 30 30
35 27 35
40 20 39
45 10 38
(a) Plot the data on a graph paper (b) Compare the rate of photosynthesis in
the two plants.
(c) Account for the variation of the rate of photosynthesis in the two plants.
(d)(i) Describe the photosynthetic mechanism which is likely to occur in the cytoplasm of
the mesophyll of Bouteloua
(ii) Explain the physiological significance of the mechanism described in (e) (i) above.
6. (a) Explain the effect of light intensity and temperature on the rate of photosynthesis.
(b) Explain photophosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis.
(c) Explain the reactions involving the use of light energy that occur in the thylakoids of
the chloroplast.
7. (a) Outline the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis.
(b) (i) Explain: (i) why the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis can only
continue for a short time in darkness.
(ii) how the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis rely on light-dependent
reactions.
8. (a) Outline the formation of carbohydrate molecules in photosynthesis starting from
the absorption of light energy
(b) Compare the structure of a chloroplast and a mitochondrion in relation to function.
9. (a) Explain how a photosystem increases the light harvesting ability of a chloroplast?

43
(b) Explain the relationship between the action spectrum and the absorption spectrum of
photosynthetic pigments in green plants.
(c) Explain the concept of limiting factors in photosynthesis, with reference to light
intensity, temperature and concentration of carbon dioxide.

44