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EC : ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATIONS

Module 2 : Electronic Devices

INDEX
Sr. Pg.
No. Contents Topics No.
1. Semiconductor Basics and Diodes
Introduction 1
Energy Band Theory 4
Semiconductor Materials 7
Carrier Concentration and Mathematical Derivation 11
MassAction Laws 16
Drift and Diffusion Currents 17
Carrier Generation and Recombination 20
Hall Effect 21
PN Junction as a Diode 23
Notes VI Characteristics of Diode 26
Junction Temperature Effect 27
Breakdown Voltage 27
Resistance Levels 28
Capacitance in PN Junction 30
Diode Switching Times 32
Breakdown Diodes or Zener Diodes 32
List of Formulae 34
Important Terms 35
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 36
Assignment  1 Questions 37
Test Paper  1 Questions 40
Sr. Pg.
No. Contents Topics No.
2. Bipolar Junction Transistor
Introduction 43

Transistor Structure 43

Region of Operation 44

Transistor Currents 44

Transistor Configuration 48
Non-Linear Transistor Leakage Currents and
Notes 55
Breakdown Voltage
Transistor as a Switch 58

Transistor Switching Characteristics 58

List of Formulae 59

Important Symbols and Terms 60

LMR(Last Minute Revision) 60

Assignment  2 Questions 61

Test Paper  2 Questions 65

3. Field Effect Transistor

Introduction 69
Classification 69
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
70
(MOSFET)
Enhancement MOSFET(E - MOSFET) 70
Depletion MOSFET (DMOSFET) 72
Notes
Difference Between JFET and MOSFET 74
The ideal MOSCapacitor 74
List of Formulae 76
Important Notations 76
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 77
Assignment  3 Questions 78
Test Paper  3 Questions 81
Sr. Pg.
No. Contents Topics No.

4. Miscellaneous Devices
Light Emitting Diodes (LED) 84
Notes
LMR(Last Minute Revision) 86

Practice Problems Questions 87

ID Problems Questions 97

SOLUTIONS
Answer Key 102
Assignments
Model Solutions 103

Answer Key 114

Test Papers
Model Solutions 115

Answer Key 126

Practice Problems
Model Solutions 127

Answer Key 138

ID Problems
Model Solutions 139
 Topic 1 : Semiconductor Basic and Diodes
INTRODUCTION
An electronic device controls the movement of electrons. The study of electronic devices
requires a basic understanding of the relationship between electrons and other
components of an atom. This leads to a knowledge of differences between conductors,
insulators and semi conductors.
x Atomic Theory
In order to under stand energy band structure, we first study basic atomic theory and
electronic configuration. In the year 1911, Rutherford established that an atom
consists of positively charged nucleus and a number of negatively charged electrons
which revolve round the nucleus in various orbits. The nucleus may be considered to
be built up of a number of neutral particles (neutrons) and a number of positively
charged particles, called protons. In each atom the number of revolving electrons is
equal to z, the number of protons in the nucleus. Hence atom is electrically neutral.
Hydrogen Atom
A hydrogen atom consists of a single proton at the
nucleus and an electron moving around the nucleus.
The force of attraction between the positive nucleus
and the negative electron follows the Coulomb’s law. r Coulomb Centrifugal force
The resultant path followed by the electron, in force
accordance with the classical mechanics, is then mv 2
+q q 2 q
either a circle or an ellipse. For the sake of Nucleus r
2
simplicity, let us assume that this electron revolves 4SHor
as a point-like article in a circular orbit of radius r
with nucleus at the centre. If the electron is
stationary, it would fall into the nucleus. Hence it is Circular orbit of an electron in
necessary that this electron must revolve around the a hydrogen atom
nucleus and have acceleration towards the nucleus.
Such that centrifugal force = Coulomb force
mv 2 q2
…(1)
r 4SHr 2
where v is the velocity of the revolving electron and H0 is the absolute dielectric constant
(8.854 u 1012 Farad/meter).
Thus Revolving Electron Possesses :
1
x Kinectic energy = mv 2
2
q2
x Potential energy U Joules
4SH0r
x The total energy of the electron is then given by,
1 2 q2
W mv  …(2)
2 4SHr
Combining equations (1) and (2), we get
q2
W  …(3)
8SH0r

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The minus sign indicates that the electron is bound to the nucleus and it requires amount
§ q2 ·
of energy equal to W ¨ or ¸ to remove the electron from the nucleus.
© 8SH0r ¹
x The Bohr Atom
The above discussion falls completely within the domain of classical physics. However,
this classical atomic model is unstable since the energy of the electron decreases
continually as a result of emission of electromagnetic radiation, with the end result that
the electron would spiral into the nucleus. In order to avoid this pitfall and to retain the
stability of the orbit, Bohr postulated the following three fundamental laws :
1. All energy levels as given by classical mechanics are not possible; the electron
can possess only certain discrete energies. When an electron occupies a state
corresponding to one of these discrete energies, the electron does not emit
radiation and is said to be in stationary of non-radiating state.
2. Transition of an electron from one stationary state corresponding to energy W2 to
another stationary state with energy W1 results in emission of radiation. The
frequency of this radiant energy is given by,
W2  W1
f …(4)
h
where f is the frequency in cycles/second or hertz, h is the Planck’s constant in joule-
second and equal 6.62 u 1034 joule-second, and W1 and W2 are expressed in joules.
3. A stationary or non-radiating state must meet the condition that the angular
momentum of the electron in this state is quantised and must equal an integral
multiple of h/2S
nh
Thus mvr …(5)
2S
there n is an integer.
Combining equations (1) and (5), we get the values of radii of stationary states.
H0h2 2
Thus, radius rn n …(6)
S.mq2
0.529 u 1010 n2 metre
Combining equation (3) and (6), and on substituting the values of m, q, H0 and h
13.6
we get, En  2 electron volts …(7)
n
From equation (7) we conclude that in its lowest state (n = 1), called the ground
state or the normal state, the electron is bound to the proton by energy of 13.6
eV. Thus it requires 13.6 eV to ionize the hydrogen atom.
Knowing the energy levels E1, E2 etc. of stationary states as given by equation
(7), we may be making use of equation (4) to find the exact frequencies in the
hydrogen spectrum.
The value of energy of the stationary states is customarily expressed in electron
volts E, rather than in joules W. Also more commonly, the emitted radiation is
specified by its wavelength O in angstroms rather than by its frequency f in hertz.
Making use of these units, equation (4) may be rewritten as below,
12,400
O where E2 and E1 are the energy levels in electron volts.
(E2  E1 )

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Atomic Energy Level Diagram

Following figure shows, the so-called, energy level diagram for hydrogen. When the
energy is large enough, the electron may move completely out of the field of the nucleus
and thus get detached from the nucleus. The minimum energy required for this process is
called the ionization energy and this represents the highest state in the energy level
diagram. Thus for hydrogen, ionization energy equals 13.6 eV.
Energy (eV)
E Ionization level n (E + 13.6) eV
0 f 13.6
0.56 5 13.04
12818Aq
0.87 4 12.73
18751Aq
1.53 3 12.07
6563 Aq
4861 Aq
Infra Red
3.41 2 10.19
visible
1216 Aq
1026 Aq

13.60 1
Ground state or
Ultra Violet Normal state
Energy level diagram of hydrogen
Electronic Structure of Elements
Electronic configuration can be uniquely specified using four quantum number as
(i) the principle quantum number n = 1, 2, 3, …
(ii) the angular momentum quantum number A = 0, 1, 2, …, (n  1)
(iii) the magnetic quantum number ml = 0, r1, r2, …, r A .
(iv) the spin quantum number ms = r 1/2.
The principle quantum number n plays the same role as the quantum number n in the
atomic theory of Bohr, i.e. it gives the energy level. The angular momentum quantum
number A determines the angular momentum of the electron while the magnetic quantum
number mA determines the component of the angular momentum along the prescribed
direction which may be the direction of an external magnetic field.
x Pauli Exclusion Principle
This law was enunciated by pauli in the year 1925. Pauli exclusion principle states
that no two electrons in an electronic system can have the same set of four quantum
numbers n, A , mA and ms, i.e. no two electrons can occupy the same quantum state.
The periodic table of the chemical elements may be explained by pauli exclusion
principle. Depending on this, electronic configuration of every atom has different

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shells and subshells and the number of electrons in each shells are given in the
following table.
x Electron Shells and Sub-Shells
Shell K L M N
n 1 2 3 4
Sub-shell A s s p s p d s p d f
0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3
mA 0 0 0, r1 0 0, r1 0, r1, 0 0, r1 0, r1, 0, r1,
r2 r2 r2, r3
Number of 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14
States 2 8 18 32

ENERGY BAND THEORY

It has been found that most of the metals and semiconductors have crystalline structure.
In the case of a gas, the atoms are for apart so as to have negligible influence on each
other. Hence the electronic energy levels for single free atoms apply in the case of gas
also. However, in the case of a crystal, the atoms are closely packed. Thus the energy
band levels for single atoms do not apply because the potential is now a periodic function
in space, its value at any point in space resulting from the contribution by every atom.
Because of these the energy levels of the outer orbit electrons are altered sufficiently,
which result in coupling between the outer shell electrons, the energy states spread up
into a band as shown in following figure.
Isolated
2N electrons Atoms
6N states 2Np-electrons
6N states
2N
Energy gap
2N states
Energy E

2N electrons
2N states

Lower Energy
Levels Unaffected
By Crystal Formation

Interatomic Spacing d o
Splitting of energy levels of isolated atoms to form energy band
when interatomic spacing is reduced
To study the formation of energy band qualitatively, let us consider a crystal consisting of
N atoms say germanium.
x For large interatomic spacing such as d1 in above figure, the interaction between the
atoms is negligibly small, so that the energy levels remain the same as those of an
isolated atom.
x For germanium, the outermost two sub-shells contain two s-electrons and two
p-electrons. For large inter atomic spacing such as d1, there are 2N electrons
completely filling the 2N possible s-states at the same energy level. In contrast, the
p-atomic sub-shell has 6 possible states. Hence out of 6N possible p-states, only 2N
states are occupied by 2N electrons, all at the same energy level.

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x Next let us decrease the interatomic spacing d in the imaginary crystal. Then each
atom will exert an electric force on its neighbours. As a result of this coupling
between atoms, the wave functions of the atoms overlap.
x The net effect of the coupling is that 2N s-states spread out to occupy a range of
energy bands. Now since N is very large, of the order of 1023/cm3, the total energy
spread between the maximum and minimum energy levels may become large,
several electron volts for small inter-atomic spacing. These numerous discrete but
very closely spaced energy levels constitute the so-called energy band.
x This energy band is shown schematically as the lower shaded region in above figure.
Obviously all the 2N states in this band are completely filled by 2N electrons.
x Similarly at a low value of interatomic spacing, at plevel, 6N, states spread to form a
band as shown by the upper shaded region in above figure. However, in this band, out of
6N states, only 2N states are occupied by 2N electrons, leaving 4N states unoccupied.
x Between the two bands shown in above figure, there exists an energy gap constituting
the forbidden band. No electrons can occupy states in this forbidden band.

Energy band diagram for a crystal

As this interatomic spacing d is progressively decreased, the forbidden band becomes

zero for spacing such as d2 in above figure. For still lower values of d, the two energy
bands overlap as shown in above figure.
x In this condition, the 6N states in the upper band merge with the 2N states of the
lower band.
x The total number of states in this combined band equals 8N, out of which only half,
i.e. 4N states are occupied by available 4N electrons.
x For this interatomic spacing d2, each atom has contributed 4 electrons to this new
combined band. Then 4 electrons now no longer belong to either the s-subshell or
the p-subshell; rather they below to the combined new band.
x The element has thus contributed 4 electrons / atom to the crystal in the highest
occupied band, called the valence band and is, therefore, tetravalent.
x For the crystal lattice spacing d3, above figure shows that the valence band is
completely filled with 4N electrons and this band is separated from the above unfilled

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or empty band by a forbidden band which contains no allowed states. This upper
band contains no electrons but has 4N states. This upper band is thus empty and is
referred to as the conduction band.
Energy Band Structure of Insulators, Semiconductors and Metals
x Insulators : Following figure (a) gives the energy band structure of a typical insulator.

Conduction

Conduction
band Free

band
For bidden Electrons
energy EG | 1eV
E6 = 6eV

Valence
gap

band
Holes
Valence
band

(a) Insulator (b) Semiconductor (c) Metal

Energy band structure of an insulator, a semiconductor and a metal
For diamond, the forbidden energy gap EG is rather large, about 6 electron volts as
shown in above figure (a). For this high value of EG it is normally not possible to
transfer an electron from valence band to the conduction band. Electrical conduction
is thus impossible. Hence diamond constitutes an insulator.
x Semiconductors
A semiconductor has a small forbidden energy gap of about 1 eV. The two most
important semiconductors used in semiconductor devices are germanium and silicon
having EG of 0.785 and 1.21 eV respectively at 0q Kelvin. Additional energies equal to
these values of EG even cannot ordinarily be obtained from applied fields. Hence
these materials in pure or intrinsic form behave as insulators at low temperatures.
However, the conductivity increases with the increase of temperature, since EG
decreases as shown by the following formulae.
For Germanium, EG (T) 0.785  2.23 u 10 4 T …(8)
For silicon, EG (T) 1.21  3.60 u 10 4 T …(9)
As per equations (8) and (9), the value of EG at room temperature of 300qK becomes
0.72 eV and 1.1 eV for germanium and silicon respectively.
Since only a few such electrons have shifted to the conduction band, the conductivity
of the material is small and the material is referred to as a semiconductor. The above
discussion refers to a pure or intrinsic semi-conductor. A pure semiconductor has
poor conductivity and is not of much use in formation of semi-conductor devices. The
conductivity of a semi-conductor may be greatly increased by adding a very small
amount of impurity to the otherwise pure semi-conductor.
The process is known as doping and consists in adding impurity atoms of either
trivalent or pentavalent material to pure silicon or germanium. As a result, allowable
energy states appear in the forbidden energy gap. These impurity levels also
contribute to the conduction. Such semi-conductor materials with adequate doping
are referred to as impurity semi-conductors or extrinsic semi-conductors.

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x Metals
A metal contains a partly filled band structure. On application of an electric field, the
electrons may acquire additional energy and move into higher energy states. Thus
mobility of electrons is possible. Since mobile electrons constitute an electric current,
this material forms a good conductor. The partly filled regions form the conduction
band. Above figure (c) shows the band structure of a metal with overlapping valence
and conduction bands.

Gap energies
0°K 300°K
Silicon 1.21 eV 1.l eV
Germanium 0.785 eV 0.72 eV

SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Most electronic devices are fabricated by using semiconductor materials along with
conductors and insulators. To gain a better understanding of the behavior of the
electronic devices in circuits, we must first understand a few of the characteristics of the
semiconductor material.
(A) Intrinsic Semiconductors
An intrinsic semiconductor is a single-crystal semiconductor material with no other
types of atoms within the crystal.
Following figure (a) shows five non-interacting silicon atoms, with the four valence
electrons of each atom shown as dashed lines originating from the atom. As silicon
atoms come into close proximity to each other, the valence electrons interact to form
a crystal. The valence electrons are now shared between atoms, forming what are
called covalent bonds.
Following figure (b) is a two-dimensional representation of the lattice formed by the
five silicon atoms shown in figure (a)

(a) (b)

Silicon atoms in a crystal matrix :

(a) five noninteracting silicon atoms, each with four valence electrons
(b) a twodimensional representation showing the covalent bonding.

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x A two-dimensional representation of a
silicon single crystal is shown in figure 1,
for T = 0°K, where T = temperature.
x Each line between atoms represents a
valence e1ectron and at T = 0°K, each
electron is in its lowest possible energy
state, so each covalent bonding position
is filled.
x If a small electric field is applied to this
material, the electrons will not move,
because they will still be bound to their Two-dimensional representation
individual atoms. of the silicon crystal at T = 0 qK
Fig. 1
x Therefore, at T = 0qK, silicon is an
insulator; that is, no charge flows
through it.

If the temperature increases, the valence

electrons will gain thermal energy. Any such
electron may gain enough thermal energy to
break the covalent bond and move away
from its original position (Figure 2). The
electron will then be free to move within the
crystal.

Since the net charge of the material is The breaking of a covalent

neutral, if a negatively charged electron bond for T > 0qK
breaks its covalent bond and moves away Fig. 2
from its original position, a positively
charged “empty state” is created at that
position (Figure 2). As the temperature
increases, more covalent bonds are broken
and more free electrons and positive empty
states are created.

The net flow of these free electrons in a

semiconductor causes a current. In addition,
a valence electron that has a certain thermal
energy and is adjacent to an empty state may
move into that position; as shown in figure 3 A two-dimensional
making it appear as if a positive charge is representation of the silicon
moving through the semiconductor. This crystal showing the movement
positively charged “particle” is called a hole. of the positively charged hole
In semiconductors, then, two types of Fig. 3
charged particles contribute to the current:
the negatively charged free electron, and the
positively charged hole.

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Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

The concentrations (#/cm)3 of electrons and holes are important parameters in the
characteristics of a semiconductor material, because they directly influence the
magnitude of the current. In an intrinsic semiconductor, the densities of electrons and
holes are equal, since the thermally generated electrons and holes are the only
source of such particles. Therefore, we use the notation ni as the intrinsic carrier
concentration for the concentration of the free electron, as well as that of the holes.
The equation for ni is as follows :
§ Eg ·
3/ 2 ¨¨ 2kT ¸¸
© ¹
ni BT e
where B is a constant related to the specific semiconductor material, Eg is the band
gap energy (eV), T is the temperature (°K), and k is Boltzmann’s constant (86 u 106
eV/°K)
Example:
Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon at T = 300 °K.
Solution :
For silicon at T = 300°K, we can write
§ E g ·
¨¨ ¸¸
© 2kT ¹
ni = BT 3/2
e … [B = 5.23 u 1015, Eg = 1.1 eV]
§ 1.1 ·
¨¨ 6 ¸¸
15 3/2 © 2(86u10 )(300) ¹
= 5.23 u 10 300 e
3
or ni = 1.5 u 10 cm . 10

Note : Though this concentration may appear large, but is relatively small compared
to concentration of Si atoms which is 5 u 1022 cm3
(B) Extrinsic Semiconductors
Because the electron and hole concentrations in an intrinsic semiconductor are
relatively small, only very small current are possible. However, these concentration
can be greatly increased by adding controlled amounts of certain impurities. A
desirable impurity is one that enters the crystal lattice and replaces (i.e., substitutes
for) one of the semiconductor atoms, even though the impurity atom does not have
the same valence electron structure.
(i) nType Semiconductor :
The most common group V elements used
for this purpose are phosphorus and
arsenic. For example, when a phosphorus
atom substitutes for a silicon atom, as
shown in figure, four of its valence electrons
are used to satisfy the covalent bond
requirements. The fifth valence electron is
more loosely bound to the phosphorus atom.
At room temperature, this electron has
enough thermal energy to break the bond,
thus being free to move through the crystal Two-dimensional representation
and contribute to the electron current in the of a silicon lattice doped with a
semiconductor. phosphorus atom

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The phosphorus atom is called a donor impurity, since it denotes an electron that
is free to move. Although the remaining phosphorus atom has a net positive
charge, the atom is immobile in the crystal and cannot contribute to the current.
Therefore, when a donor impurity is added to a semiconductor, free electrons are
created without generating holes. This process is called doping, and it allows us
to control the concentration of free electrons in a semiconductor. A
semiconductor that contains donor impurity atoms is called an n-type
semiconductor (for the negatively charged electrons)
Thus addition of donor
Conduction band
impurities to a semiconductor
results in introduction of Excess electrons .01eV
allowable energy levels slightly EC
below the conduction band as ED
shown in following figure. In Ge

Energy, E
(Si), this new donor level is EG Donor energy
about 0.01 eV (0.05 eV) below level
the conduction level. Hence at EV
room temperature, almost all the
excess electrons donated by the
donor atoms get raised into the
conduction band. Valence band

Energy band diagram of n-type semiconductor

(ii) pType Semiconductor :

The most common group III element used
for silicon doping is boron. When a boron
atom replaces a silicon atom, its three
valence electrons are used to satisfy the
covalent bond requirements for three of the
four nearest silicon atoms (shown in the
adjoining figure). This leaves one bond
position open. At room temperature,
adjacent silicon valence electrons have
sufficient thermal energy to move into this Two-dimensional representation
position, thereby creating a hole. The boron of a silicon lattice doped with a
atom then has a net negative charge, but boron atom
cannot move, and a hole is created that can
contribute to a hole current.
Because the boron atom has accepted a valence electron, the boron is therefore
called an acceptor impurity. Acceptor atoms lead to the creation of holes without
electrons being generated. This process, also called doping; can be used to
control the concentration of holes in a semiconductor.
A semiconductor that contains acceptor impurity atoms is called a p-type
semiconductor (for the positively charged holes created).

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With the addition of ptype impurity,

there get created allowable discrete Conduction Band
energy levels just above the valence
band as shown in figure. An extremely
small amount of energy (0.01 eV) is EC

Energy, E
required to move an electron from the Acceptor
valence band to the acceptor level. EG .01eV
Energy level

Hence all the acceptor atoms ionize EA

resulting in occupation of all acceptor EV
levels by electrons and creation of holes
Excess holes
in the valence band. These holes then
Valence Band
constitute the largest number of carriers
in the semi-conductor material. Energy band diagram of p-type
semi-conductor
The materials containing impurity atoms are called extrinsic semiconductor or
doped semiconductors. The doping process which allows us to control the
concentration of free electrons and holes, determines the conductivity and
currents in the material.

CARRIER CONCENTRATION AND MATHEMATICAL DERIVATION

Energy Distribution
The number of free electrons per cubic metre whose energies lie in the energy interval
dE is given by,
dnE UE dE …(10)
where UE represents the density of electrons in this interval.
Function UE represents the distribution in energy and is expressed as the number of
electrons per eV per cubic metre of metal.
This function UE may be expressed as,
UE f(E) N(E) …(11)
where N(E) is the density of states in the conduction band and is expressed as number of
states per eV per cubic metre, and f(E) is the probability that a quantum state with energy
E is occupied by an electron.
N(E) is given by,
N(E) JE1/ 2 …(12)

where J is a constant defined as below,

4S
J { 3 (2m)1/ 2 (1.60 u 10 19 )3/ 2 6.82 u 1027 …(13)
h
where dimensions of J are (m3) (eV)3/2, m is the mass of an electron in kilogram and h is
Planck’s constant in Joule-sec.

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Fermi-Dirac Function
The expression for f(E) is called the Fermi-Dirac probability function and given the
fraction of all possible states at energy E(eV) occupied under conditions of thermal
equilibrium. From quantum statistics, the following expression for f(E) is obtained,
1
f(E) …(14)
1  H(E EF )/kT
where T is the temperature in deg. K, k is the Boltzmann constant, eV/deg. K and EF is
the Fermi level or characteristic energy for the crystal in eV.

x Carrier Concentrations in an Intrinsic Semiconductor

We are required to know the concentration of free electrons n and the concentration
of holes p in a semiconductor in order that we may calculate the conductivity.
(i) Number of Electrons in the conduction Band
Combining equation (10) and (11), we get the following expression for the
number of conduction electrons per cubic metre having energies between E and
(E + dE),
dn N(E) f(E)dE

where E is in electron volts.

Equation (12) giving the expression for the density of states N(E) is based on the
assumption that the bottom of the conduction band is at zero potential. This has
to be modified for a semiconductor. In a semiconductor, the lowest energy in the
conduction band in EC. Accordingly equation (12) is modified as below for a
semiconductor,
N(E) J(E  EC )1/ 2 for E > EC …(15)

The Fermi function f(E) is given by equation (14) reproduced below,

1
f(E) …(16)
1  H(E EF )/kT
The figure below gives the energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor
with the Fermi-Dirac probability function f(E) for 0qK and 300qK superimposed on
it. Evidently at 0qK, the probability of finding an electron in the conduction band is
zero i.e. f(E) = 0, while the probability of finding a hole in the valence band is zero
i.e. 1  f(E) = 0. At room temperature (300qK), on the other hand, a few electrons
get excited to higher energies so that a few states near the bottom of the
conduction band get filled as shown by the curve for 300qK in following figure (a).
Further at room temperature, in the upper region of the valence band, the
probability of occupancy of states gets decreased slightly below unity since some
of the electron have escaped from the covalent bond and have shifted to the
conduction band. Following figure (b) shows the curve giving the density of states

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N(E) in conduction band as given by equation (15). The density of electrons

equals the product N(E) f(E) and is shown in following figure (c).

E
Density of
E
Conduction

E
Band Electrons in
EC EC Conduction band
EC
T = 0qK
T = 300qK
EF EF
EF
EG Density of
EV EV Holes in valence
EV Band
Valence Band
0
0 0.5 1.0 N (E) U (E)
f (E)
(a) (b) (c)
(a) Fermi Dirac Probability function f(E) at 0qK and 300qK superimposed on the
energy band diagram for intrinsic semiconductor.
(b) Density of states N(E) in conduction and valence bands.
(c) Density of carriers U(E) = N(E) f(E) for electrons and N(E) [1(f(E)] for holes at
room temperature (300qK)
Density of states and density of carriers in intrinsic semiconductor
The concentration of electrons in the conduction band is nothing but the area
under this curve of above figure (c) and is given by,
f
n ³ N(E)f(E)dE
EC
…(17)

For E t EC, i.e., in the conduction band, E  EF  kT. Hence equation (16) yields,

f(E) H (E EF )/kT …(18)

Combining equations (17), (18) and (15), we get
f

³ J(E  EC ) H (E EF )/kT dE

1/ 2
n …(19)
E C

On substituting the value of J and integrating, we get

n NC H (EC EF )/kT …(20)

3/ 2 3/2
§ 2SmnkT · § 2Smn kT ·
where NC 2¨ 2 ¸ (1.60 u 1019 )3/ 2 2¨ 2 ¸ …(21)
© h ¹ © h ¹
where k is in electron volts per degree kelvin while k is in joules per degree
kelvin. Further mn replaces m and represents the effective mass of the electron.

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(ii) Number of Hole in the Valence Band

On similar lines, we can find number of holes in valence bands and is given as
p Nv H (EF EV )/kT …(22)
3/ 2
§ 2SmpkT ·
where NV 2¨ ¸ (1.60 u 10 19 )3/ 2
© h2 ¹
3/2
§ 2Smp kT ·
2¨ ¸ …(23)
© h2 ¹
Equations (23) giving NV is the same as equation (21) giving NC except that mn
has been replaced by mp, the effective mass of a hole.
x Fermi Level in an Intrinsic Semiconductor
Equations (20) and (22) giving respectively the density of electrons in conduction
band and the density of holes in valence band apply equally to intrinsic as well as
extrinsic semiconductors. To distinguish between the two categories of
semiconductors, we add subscript i to n and p. Thus ni and pi pertain to intrinsic
semiconductor. Now since the semiconductor crystal is electrically neutral,
ni pi
Hence equations (20) and (22) yield,
NC H (EC EF )/kT NV H (EF EV )/kT
On taking logarithms of both sides, we get
N EC  EV  2EF
ln C
NV kT
EC  E V kT NC
Hence EF  ln …(24)
2 2 NV
If the effective mass of electron equals the effective mass of hole i.e., if mn = mp, then
NC = NV and hence equation (24) gives,
EC  E V
EF …(25)
2
Equation (25) shows that the Fermi level EF lies in the centre of forbidden energy
gap, as depicted in above figure (see the page 11).

Fermi Level as a Function of Temperature

(i) n-Type Semiconductor
In an n-type semi-conductor, density of donor atoms ND exceeds the density of
acceptor atoms NA.
? n | ND
Then from equation (20), we get
ND NC H (EC EF )/kT
NC
Hence EF EC  kT ln …(26)
ND

Equation (26) shows that the Fermi level EF lies below EC by a value depending
on the temperature T and density ND of donor atoms.

GATE/EC/ED/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.14
 Semiconductor Basic and Diodes

(ii) p-Type Semiconductor

In p-type semi-conductor, the following assumptions are made in the derivation of
expression for Fermi level :
x The density of acceptor atoms far exceeds the density of donor atoms
i.e. NA  ND .
x Every acceptor atom has accepted one electron from the valence band.
x The density of electrons in the conduction band is much smaller then the
density of holes in the valence band.
? p | NA
Then from equation (22), we get
NA NV H (EF EV )/kT
NV
or EF EV  kT ln …(27)
NA
Equation (27) shows that the Fermi level EF lies above the top of the valence
band by an amount depending upon the temperature T and concentration of
acceptor atoms NA. Following figure shows the shifted positions of Fermi level in
n-type and p-type semi-conductors

(a) n-type (b) p-type

Shifted positions of Fermi level in n-type and p-type semi-conductors

Example
In an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi level lies 0.3 eV below the conduction band at
300qK. If the temperature is increased to 330qK, find the new position of Fermi level.
Solution :
N
EF EC  kT ln C
ND
NC
Hence (EC  EF ) kT ln
ND
NC
Hence 0.3eV 300 k ˜ ln
ND

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

NC
330k ln
E  EF1 ND
For T 330qK, C
0.3 N
300k ln C
ND
330 u 0.3
Hence (EC  EF1 ) 0.33eV
300
Thus, Fermi level lies 0.33 eV below the conduction band.

MASSACTION LAWS
x If a pure semiconductor is doped with pentavalent impurities, the number of electron
increases but number of holes decreases, as the recombination of electronhole pair
increases
x If a pure semiconductor is doped with trivalent impurities, the number of holes
increases but number of electron decreases.
x The law states that : Under thermal equilibrium the product of free electron
concentration and hole concentration is constant and is independent of amount of
doping. i.e. nopo ni2

Mass Action Law

A fundamental relationship between the electron and hole concentrations in a
semiconductor in thermal equilibrium is given by
nopo ni2 …(28)
where no is the thermal equilibrium concentration of free electrons, po is the thermal
equilibrium concentration of holes, and ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration. At room
temperature (T = 300 °K), each donor atom donates a free electron to the semiconductor.
If the donor concentration Nd is much larger than the intrinsic concentration, we can
approximate,
no # Nd
Then, from Equation (28), the hole concentration is
ni2
po
Nd
Similarly, at room temperature, each acceptor atom accepts a valence electron, creating
a hole. If the acceptor concentration Na is much larger than the intrinsic concentration, we
can approximate
po # Na
Then, from Equation (28), the electron concentration is
ni2
no
Na

Example :
Calculate the thermal equilibrium electron and hole concentrations. Consider silicon at
T = 300 °K doped with phosphorus at a concentration of Nd = 1016 cm3 use ni = l.5 u 1010
cm3.

GATE/EC/ED/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.16
 Semiconductor Basic and Diodes

Solution :
Since Nd >> ni, the electron concentration is
no # Nd 1016 cm3
and the hole concentration is
2
ni2 1.5 u 1010
po 2.25 u 104 cm3
Nd 1016
Note : In an extrinsic semiconductor, the electron and hole concentrations normally differ
by many orders of magnitude.
Thus in an n-type semiconductor, electron are called the majority carrier because they far
outnumber the holes, which are termed the minority carrier. In contrast, in a p-type
semiconductor, the holes are the majority carrier and the electrons are the minority carrier.

DRIFT AND DIFFUSION CURRENTS

The two basic processes which cause electrons and holes to move in semiconductor are:
(a) drift, which is the movement caused by electric fields; and (b) diffusion, which is the
flow caused by variations in the concentration, that is, concentration gradient. Such
gradients can be caused by a non-homogeneous doping distribution.
(i) Drift Currents
To understand drift, assume an electric field is applied to a semiconductor.
For ntype semiconductor
Consider an ntype semiconductor with a large number of free electrons (following
figure (a)). An electric field E applied in one direction produces a force on the
electrons in the opposite direction, because of the electron’s negative charge. The
electrons acquire a net drift velocity vdn (in cm/s) which can be written as
v dn PnE
where Pn is a constant called the electron mobility and the value of Pn is typically
1350 cm2/Vs.
n-type p-type

E E
vdn e h+ vdp

Jn Jp

(a) an n-type semiconductor (b) an p-type semiconductor

Applied electric field, carrier drift velocity, and drift current density

The electron drift produces drift current density Jn(A/cm2) is given by

Jn  env dn  en PnE  enPnE
where n is the electron concentration (#/cm3) and e is the magnitude of the electronic
charge. The conventional drift current is in the opposite direction from the flow of
negative charge, which means that the drift current in an n-type semiconductor is in
the same direction as the applied electric field.

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For ptype Semiconductor

Next consider a ptype semiconductor with a large number of holes shown in above
figure (a) . An electric field E applied in one direction produces a force on the holes in
the same direction because of the positive charge on the holes. The holes acquire a
drift velocity vdp (in cm/s) which can be written as
v dp PpE
where Pp is a constant called the hole mobility and the value of Pp is typically
480 cm2/Vs.
The hole drift produces a drift current density Jp (A/cm2) given by
Jp  epv dp  ep( PpE)  epPpE
where p is the hole concentration (#/cm3) and e is again the magnitude of the
electronic charge. The conventional drift current is in the same direction as the flow of
positive charge, which means that the drift current in a p-type material is also in the
same direction as the applied electric field.
Since a semiconductor contains both electrons and holes, the total drift current
density is the sum of the electron and hole components. The total drift current density
is then written as
J = enPnE  epPpE VE …(29)
where, V = enPn  epPp …(30)
1
and where V is the conductivity of the semiconductor in (:cm) . The conductivity is
related to the concentration of electrons and holes.
From equation (30), we see that the conductivity can be changed from strongly
n-type, n>> p, by donor impurity doping to strongly p-type, p >> n, by acceptor
impurity doping. Being able to control the conductivity of a semiconductor by
selective doping is what allows us to fabricate the variety of electronic devices that
are available.
(ii) Diffusion Current p(0)
In a semi-conductor, it is possible to have a non-
uniform concentration of particles as shown in
figure. Here the concentration p of holes varies with
Concentration of Holes

dp
distance x causing a concentration gradient in
dx
the density of carriers.
Now let us consider surface at distance x.
Obviously the density of holes on one side of the
surface is larger than the density on the other side.
The holes move about randomly because of their p(x)
thermal energy. The random motion implies that the
holes move back forth across the arbitrary surface. x=0 x
Then in a given time interval, more holes cross the Distance
surface from the side of greater density to the side
Concentration gradient dp/dx
of lower density than in the opposite direction.
resulting diffusion current
Accordingly net flow of holes takes place across the
surface constituting a current in the positive
x direction.

GATE/EC/ED/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.18
 Semiconductor Basic and Diodes

This net flow of charge does not result from mutual repulsion among similar charges but
is simply a statistical phenomenon. The diffusion hole current density JD , (amperes/sq.
dp
metre) is proportional to the concentration gradient and is given by,
dx
dp
JD qDp …(31)
dx
where DP (sq. metres/sec) is called the diffusion constant for holes, and q is the
magnitude of the charge of hole or electron. It may be noted that the diffusion of
carriers results irrespective of the charges carried by the carriers.
dp
In above figure, since hole concentration p decreases with increasing x, is
dx
negative and a minus sign is, therefore, put in equation (31) to make JD positive in
positive x direction.
Similarly the diffusion current density Jn is given by,
dn
Jn qDn
dx
where Dn is the diffusion constant for electrons expressed in metre2/ second.
Note : The phenomenon of diffusion does not ordinarily take place in metals

x Total Current in a Semi-conductor

Within a semi-conductor, both potential gradient (causing drift) and concentration
(causing diffusion) may exist simultaneously. In such a case, the total hole current is
the sum of the drift current as caused by potential gradient and the diffusion current
as caused by hole concentration gradient. Thus total hole current density is
dp
Jp q Pp pH  q Dp
dx
Similarly total electron current density is,
dn
Jn qPnnH  qDn
dx

(iii) The Mobility

The mobility P of a charge carrier varies as Tm over a temperature range of 100 to
400qK. For silicon, m = 2.5 (2.7) for electron (hole). For germanium, m = 1.66(2.33)
for electrons (holes). The mobility P is also a function of electric field intensity and it
remains constant only if E < 103 V/m in n-type silicon. For 103 < E < 104 V/cm, Pn in
1

n-type silicon varies approximately as E 2 . For higher fields Pn varies inversely as E
and the carrier speed approaches a constant value of about 107 cm/second.

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Einstein Relationship
Both diffusion constant D and mobility P are statistical thermodynamic phenomena.
Hence they are not independent of each other. In fact they are related by the Einstein
equation below,
ª VT = thermal voltage (26mV @300°K)º
DD Dn kT
VT … «« T = Temperature in °kelvin »
»
Pp Pn q
«¬ q = electronic charge »¼

Example:
A sample of Germanium is doped to the extent of 1014 donor atoms/cm3 and 5 u 1013
acceptor atoms/cm3. If the resistivity of intrinsic germanium is 50 :cm. If the applied
electric field is 2V/cm. Find the total conduction current density. Assume
Pp 1
and ni 2.5 u 1013 / cm3 .
Pn 2
Solution:
V qni Pn  Pp
1
1.6 u 1019 u 2.5 u 1013 3Pp
50
1
Pp 19
50 u 1.6 u 10 u 2.5 u 1013 u 3
Pp = 1667 cm2/Vs
? Pn = 3334 cm2/Vs
p  n = NA  ND 5 u 1013  1014 5 u 1013
2
pn = ni2 2.5 u 1013
6.25 u 1026
p 5 u 1013
p
? p2  5 u 1013 p  6.25 u 1026 0
On finding the roots, we get
p = 1.0356 u 1013
? n = 6.0356 u 1013
? n = 6.0356 u 1013
? J = q nP n  pPp E
J = 70 mA/cm2

CARRIER GENERATION AND RECOMBINATION

In intrinsic semiconductor, the number of free electrons equals the number of holes since
a hole can be created only by removing an electron from a covalent bond. These free
electrons and holes move randomly within the crystal lattice. When one such free
electron meets a hole, they recombine to re-establish the covalent bond. Both the hole
and the free electron then vanish.

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 Semiconductor Basic and Diodes

Such a recombination, of course, results in release of energy in the form of heat. The
energy so released equals that required for breaking the covalent bond. The rate of
recombination is proportional to the product of the concentrations or densities of free
electrons and holes. Thus the process of breaking of covalent bonds and recombination
of electrons and holes take place simultaneously. Any individual carrier of charge, either
electron or hole, then has a limited lifetime typically varying from 1 P-sec to
1 milli-sec.
At a particular temperature, the densities of electrons and holes remain fixed and equal.
Evidently the rate of production of electrons and holes must equal the rate of their
recombination. If now the temperature is raised, the rate of production of electrons and
holes increases. The densities of electrons and holes then go on increasing until the
resulting increased rate of recombination equals the increased rate of production. Thus
as the temperature increases, the densities of electrons and holes increase.

HALL EFFECT
When any specimen carrying a current I is placed in a transverse magnetic field B, then
an electric field E is induced in the specimen in the direction perpendicular to both I and
B. This phenomenon is called the Hall Effect. This Hall effect may be used for :
(i) determining whether a semiconductor is ptype or ntype
(ii) finding the carrier concentration and
(iii) calculating the mobility P, having measured the conductivity V.

Current carrying semiconductor bar subjected to transverse magnetic field

Above figure shows a semiconductor bar carrying a current I in the positive x-direction.
Let a magnetic field B be applied in the positive z-direction. Then as per Hall effect, a
force gets exerted on the charge carriers (whether electrons holes) in the negative y-
direction. irrespective of nature of the charge carriers whether holes or electrons, these
charge carriers get pressed downwards toward face 1 of the specimen shown in above
figure.
In an n-type specimen, electrons accumulate on side 1 which surface then gets
negatively charged relative to side 2. A potential difference, therefore, develops between
surface 1 and 2 and is called the Hall voltage. This Hall voltage VH in an n-type
semiconductor is positive at terminal 2. On the other hand, in a p-type specimen, the Hall
voltage VH is positive at terminal 1.

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Experimental Determination of Mobility

In the specimen of above figure, equilibrium condition requires that the electric field
intensity E due to the Hall effect exert a force on the carrier equal in magnitude to that
exerted by the magnetic field.
Thus,
qE Bqv …(32)
where q is the magnitude of the charge of electron or hole, and v is the drift velocity,
V
but, E= H …(33)
D
where d is the distance between the two surfaces 1 and 2.
But current density J is given by,
I
J Qv v …(34)
wd
where Qv is the charge density and w is the width of the specimen along the magnetic
field.

Combining equations (32), (33) and (34), we get

BJd BI
VH Ed Bvd …(35)
Qv Qv w
Now quantities VH, B, I and w for a specimen may be measured and hence from equation
(35), Qv can be determined. Knowing Qv, the charge density (Qv/q) may be computed.
The Hall coefficient RH is defined as
1
RH {
Qv
Hence equation (35) yields,
VH w
RH
BI
In any extrinsic semiconductor, the conductivity is due primarily to charge of only one
sign. In that case, conductivity V is given by,
V = QvP
If both V and RH are measured, the mobility may be determined from the following
relation :
P VRH

Application of Hall Effect

(i) Magnetic field meter
The Hall voltage VH for a given current, is proportional to B. Hence measurement of
VH measures the magnetic field B.
(ii) Hall effect multiplier
This instrument gives an output proportional to the product of two signals. Thus if
current I is made proportional to one input and if B proportional to the second input,
then as per equation (35), Hall voltage VH is proportional to the product of the two
inputs.

GATE/EC/ED/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.22
 Semiconductor Basic and Diodes

Example:
Consider a semiconductor with dimensions (0.9 u 0.4 u 0.3) cm and the area of the
surface is 0.36 cm2. If the specimen is applied a magnetic field of 6 u 105 Wb/m2 and the
drift velocity of the carriers is 107 m/s, then calculate the hall voltage
Solution:
We know, Hall voltage is given by
VH = Bvd
= 6 u 105 u 107 u 0.3 u 102
VH = 1.8 V

PN JUNCTION AS A DIODE

The real power of semiconductor electronics occurs when p- and n-regions are directly
adjacent to each other, forming a pn junction.
Doping
concentration
Na
Nd

p n ni2 ni2
npo pno
Na Nd
x=0
x=0

(a) (b)
The pn junction : (a) simplified geometry of a pn junction and
(b) doping profile of an ideal uniformly doped pn junction

(i) The Equilibrium pn Junction (No External Battery Voltage)

Above figure (a) is a simplified block diagram of a pn junction. Above figure (b) shows
the respective p-type and n-type doping concentrations assuming thermal
equilibrium.
The interface at x = 0 is called the
metallurgical junction. A large density pregion nregion
gradient in both the hole and electron
concentrations occurs across this Na Hole
junction, because of this there is a diffusion Nd
diffusion of holes from the p-region into
the nregion, and a diffusion of Electron
electrons from the n-region into the diffusion
p-region (refer adjoining figure). The
flow of holes from the pregion x=0
uncovers negatively charged acceptor
ions, and the flow of electrons from the Initial diffusion of electrons and holes at
n-region uncovers positively charged the metallurgical junction, establishing
donor ions. thermal equilibrium

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

This action creates a charge separation (following figure (a)), which sets up an
electric field oriented in the direction from the positive charge to the negative charge.
If no voltage is applied to the pn junction, the diffusion of holes and electrons must
eventually cease. The direction of the induced, electric field will cause the resulting
force to repel the diffusion of holes from the p-region and the diffusion of electrons
from the n-region. Thermal, equilibrium occurs when the force produced by the
electric field and the “force” produced by the density gradient exactly balance.

P E field n (a)

x=0

Potential

v bi (b)

The pn junction in thermal equilibrium (a) the space-charge region and

electric field and (b) the potential through the junction
The positively charged region and the negatively charged region comprise the space-
charge region, or depletion region, of the pn junction, in which there are essentially
no mobile electron or holes. Because of the electric field in the space-charge region,
there is potential difference across that region (refer above figure (b)). This potential
difference is called the built-in potential barrier, or builtin vo1tage, and is given by
kT § NaNd · §N N ·
Vbi ln ¨ 2 ¸ VT ln ¨ a 2 d ¸ …(36)
q © ni ¹ © ni ¹
where VT { kT/q, k = Boltzmann’s constant, T = absolute temperature, q = the
magnitude of the electronic charge, and Na and Nd are the net acceptor and donor
concentrations in the p- and n-regions, respectively. At room temperature Vbi is
usually in the range of 0.6 to 0.7 V for silicon.
(ii) Reverse-Biased pn Junction
Assume a positive voltage is applied to the EA
n-region of a pn junction, as shown in P n
adjoining figure. The applied voltage VR E field
induces an applied electric field, EA in the
semiconductor. The direction of this W
applied field is the same as that of the E-
field in the space-charge region. The
magnitude of the electric field in the +
space-charge region increases above the VR
thermal equilibrium value. This increased A pn junction with an applied
electric field holds back the holes in the p- revesrebias voltage, showing
region and the electrons in the n-region, the direction of the electric
so there is essentially no current across field induced by VR and of the
the pn junction. By definition, this applied spacecharge electric field
voltage polarity is called reverse bias.

GATE/EC/ED/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.24
 Semiconductor Basic and Diodes

If the doping concentrations are not changed, the increases in the charges can only
occur if the width W of the space-charge region increases. Therefore, with an
increasing reverse-bias voltage VR, space-charge width W also increases.
Because of the additional positive and negative charges in the spacecharge region,
a capacitance is associated with the pn junction when a reversebias voltage is
applied. This junction capacitances, or depletion layer capacitance, can be written in
the form
1/ 2
§ V ·
Cj C jo ¨ 1  R ¸
© Vbi ¹

where Cjo is the junction capacitance at zero applied voltage.

(iii) ForwardBiased pn Junction :

If a positive voltage vD is applied to the pregion, the potential barrier decreases
(refer following figure). This applied voltage exists across the pn junction region. The
applied electric field, EA, induced by the applied voltage is in the opposite direction
from that of the thermal equilibrium spacecharge Efield. The net result is that the
electric field in the spacecharge region is lower than the equilibrium value. This
upsets the delicate balance between diffusion and the E-field force. Majority carrier
electrons from the nregion diffuse into the p-region, and majority carrier holes from
the pregion diffuse into the n-region. The process continues as long as the voltage
vD is applied, thus creating a current in the pn junction. This applied voltage polarity
(i.e., bias) is known as forward bias.

E field
P n
EA

iD

+ 
VD
A pn junction with an applied forwardbias voltage, showing the direction of the
electric field EA induced by vD and of the net spacecharge electric field E.
Note : The forwardbias voltage vD must always be less than the built-in potential
barrier Vbi.
The current voltage relationship of pn-junction diode is given by
ª §¨¨ vD ·¸¸ º
iD IS «¬e© T ¹  1»¼
nV
…(37)
The parameter IS is the reverse-bias saturation current. For silicon pn junctions,
typical values of IS are in the range of 1015 to 1013 A. The parameter VT is the
thermal voltage which is equal to 0.026V at room temperature. The parameter n is
usually called the emission coefficient or ideality factor, and its value is in the range
l d n d 2.

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

The emission coefficient n takes into account any recombination of electrons and
holes in the space-charge region. At very low current levels, recombination may be a
significant factor and the value of n may be close to 2. At higher current levels,
recombination is less a factor, and the value of n will be 1. Unless otherwise stated,
we will assume the emission coefficient is n = 1.

VI CHARACTERISTICS OF DIODE
Following figure is a plot of the derived currentvoltage characteristics of a pn junction.
For a forward-bias voltage, the current is an exponential function of voltage.
iD (mA)
5

3 Forward-bias
region
2
Reverse-bias
region 1

1.0 0 1.0 vD(V)

iD = IS
Ideal IV characteristics of a pn junction diode for IS = 1014A
The semiconductor device that displays these IV characteristics is called a pn junction
diode. Following figure shows the diode circuit symbol and the conventional current
direction and voltage polarity. The diode can be thought of and used as a voltage
controlled switch that is “off” for a reverse-bias voltage and “on” for a forwardbias
voltage.
p n (a) (b)
iD iD + vD 
+ vD 

The basic pn junction diode: (a) simplified geometry and

(b) circuit symbol, and conventional current direction and voltage polarity

Example :
For the silicon diode at 290qK, with current of 0.5mA at voltage 340 mV, determine the
reverse saturation current.
Solution:
at 290qK
kT 1.38 u 10 23 u 290
VT 24.9mV
q 1.6 u 1019
and assuming K = 1

GATE/EC/ED/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.26
 Semiconductor Basic and Diodes

ª V º
? ID IS «e D  1»
¬ KVT ¼
IS ª 24.9 º
340
? 0.5 u 103 …[as VD  VT we neglect 1]
¬e ¼
? 0.5 u 103 IS >e13.605 @

? IS 0.617 PA

JUNCTION TEMPERATURE EFFECT

Since both IS and VT are functions of temperature, the diode characteristic also vary with
temperature. VT has a negative temperature coefficient and it reduces approximately 1.8
mV/qC for silicon junction and 2.02 mV/qC for germanium.
Reverse saturation current IS also doubles in magnitude for every 10 q C rise in
temperature. Value of IS for silicon are much lower than that of germanium for same
levels. As an example of the importance of this effect, in germanium, the relative value of
ni is large, resulting in a large reverse-saturation current in germanium-based diodes.
Increases in this reverse current with increases in the temperature make the germanium
diode highly impractical for most circuit applications.
As the temperature increases the forward characteristics actually become ideal but
beyond the normal operating range it can have harmful effects on the diodes maximum
power and current levels. In reverse bias region the increasing value of IS with
temperature account for lower levels of threshold voltage.

BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE
The magnitude of the electric field in the space-charge region increases as the reverse-
bias voltage increases, and the maximum electric field occurs at the metallurgical-
junction. However, neither the electric field in the space-charge region nor the applied
reverse-bias voltage can increase indefinitely because at some point breakdown will
occur and a large reverse bias current will be generated.
Zener Breakdown
When a reverse-bias voltage is applied to a pn junction, the electric field in the space-
charge region increases. The electric field may become large enough that covalent bonds
are broken and electron-hole pairs are created. Electrons are swept to the n-region and
holes to the p-region by the electric field generating a reverse-bias current. This
breakdown mechanism is called the Zener effect.
Avalanche Breakdown
Another breakdown mechanism is called avalanche breakdown, which occurs when
minority carriers crossing the space-charge region gain sufficient kinetic energy to be
able to break covalent bonds during a collision process. The generated electron-hole
pairs can themselves be involved in a collision process generating additional electron-
hole pairs, thus, the avalanche process. The reverse-bias current for each breakdown
mechanism will be limited by the external circuit.

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

A pn junction is usually rated in terms of its peak inverse voltage or PIV. The PIV of a
diode must never be exceeded in circuit operation if reverse breakdown is to be avoided.
Zener diodes are fabricated with a specifically designed breakdown voltage and are
designed to operate in the breakdown region. These diodes are discussed later in this
chapter.

Silicon Vs Germanium
Silicon has higher PIV and current rating, wider temperature ranges than germanium
diodes.
Silicon Germanium
x PIV ratings 1000 V 400 V
x Temperature 200 qC (400 qF) 100 qC
x Threshold Voltage 0.7 V 0.3 V

x Breakdown voltage increases with temperature but result in undesirable

increase in reverse saturation current.
x Drawback of silicon is its higher forward bias voltage required to reach the
region of upward swing.
x If greater PIV rating is required, a number of diodes of same characteristics
should be connected in series.

RESISTANCE LEVELS
The resistance of the diode changes as the operating point of a diode moves from one
region to another
x DC or static resistance:
Application of dc voltage to a semiconductor diode circuit will result in operating point
that will not change with time.
VD
rf
ID

Determining the dc resistance of a diode at a particular operating point

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 Semiconductor Basic and Diodes

Example:
Determine the dc resistance levels for the diode
Solution:
(a) For forward biased ID(mA)
ID = 20 mA, VD = 0.8V
VD 0.8V 20
? rf 40:
ID 20mA

(b) For reverse biased 10V

ID = 1PA, VD = 10V 0.8 VD
1PA
VD 10V
? rf 10M:
ID 1P

Thus from above example, we can model the diode as

x Piecewise Linear Model

For VD t VJ, we assume a straight-line approximation whose slope is 1/rf, where VJ is
the turn-on, or cut-in, voltage of the diode, and rf is the forward diode resistance. The
equivalent circuit for this linear approximation is a constant-voltage source in series
with a resistor (following figure (a)). For VD < VJ, we assume a straight-line
approximation parallel to the VD axis at the zero current level. In this case, the
equivalent circuit is an open circuit (following figure (b)).
rf
+ +
ID ID
+
VD VJ VD

 

(a) (b)

The diode equivalent circuit (a) in the “on” condition when VD t VJ,
(b) in the “off” condition when VD < VJ

Example:
In the circuit shown the diode has a threshold voltage of 0.5V and a forward resistance of
1:. Find the operating point of the diode.

2k

6V

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

Solution :
Replacing diode by its model, we get

6  2 u 103 ID  1u ID  0.5 0
? ID 2001 6  0.5
2k + ID
6  0.5 1:
? ID 2.75mA
2001 6V VD
VD RFID  VF  0.5V

1u 2.75 u 103  0.5

VD 0.5028V

x AC or Dynamic resistance
Application of Sinusoidal input will move the
instantaneous operating point up and down on the
characteristic curve. With no applied varying
signal, the point of operation would be Qpoint
i.e. quiescent point
'Vd
rd
'Id
Determining the ac resistance
' : signifies a finite change in the quantity at a Qpoint
x Average AC Resistance
If the input signal is sufficiently large to produce a broad swing, then the resistance
associated with the device for this region is called the average ac resistance.
ID(mA)

'Id

VD
'Vd

CAPACITANCE IN PN JUNCTION

The biasing and unbiasing operation results in charge accumulation across the depletion
region. This charge accumulation results in the capacitance action. The depletion area
acts as the dielectric media between parallel plates of the capacitor.
There are two main types of capacitance in pn junction diodes.
(A) Depletion (Transition) capacitance CT
(B) Diffusion capacitance CD

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 Semiconductor Basic and Diodes

(A) Depletion Capacitance CT

It is due to space charge in the depletion layer. The depletion width is a function of a
bias voltage i.e. as reverse voltage increases, the depletion width also increases
It is given by
A
CT = (F)
W
A : Cross sectional area. (m2)
W : Thickness (m)
 : Permittivity (F/m)
Alternatively : Refer section on reversed biased PN junction.

Example:
In case of the diode, the depletion layer is 1.2 u 106 cm, the area of cross section is
2 mm2 and the relative permittivity of the medium is 13, then what will be the diffusion
capacitance
Solution:
A 13 u 8.854 u 10 14 u 2 u 10 2
We know CT = 191.83 u 1010
d 1.2 u 106

CT 19.2 u 109 = 19.2 nF

(B) Diffusion capacitance, CD

It is due to accumulation of free charges on either side of the junction under forward
bias condition. Transition capacitance has no meaning if the junction potential
vanishes. The majority carriers starts moving to other region i.e. holes towards
ntype and electrons towards ptype. This results in accumulation of charges on
either side resulting in diffusion capacitance CD.
There is a time lag between change of bias. This time is necessary to charge or
discharge diffusion capacitance.
WI
It is given by CD
KVT
Example:
In case of germanium diode for the current of 26mA, W = 20 Psec., then what will be
diffusion capacitance.
Solution :
We know
WI
CD
KVT
Here W = 20 Psec, I = 26 mA, K=1
VT = 0.3V
20 u 10 6 u 26 u 10 3
? CD = 1.74 u 106
1u 0.3
CD = 1.74 PF
Note : Generally CD >> CT, as shown from above example.

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

DIODE SWITCHING TIMES

x If a forward voltage is applied to the diode id
and if this voltage is reversed to establish Iforward
reverse bias condition then ideally the
diode should change instantaneously
from conducting to non conducting state.
However due to large number of minority
carriers in each material, the diode simply
reverses and remains in that state till the t
minority carriers return to majority carrier
state in opposite material. This period is
the storage time ts. Ireverse
x After the storage phase has passed, the
ts tt
current reduces to the level associated
with nonconduction state. This period is trr
the transition time tt.
x Reverse recovery time is the sum of the two intervals
trr = ts + tt

BREAKDOWN DIODES OR ZENER DIODES

There are two mechanisms that causes breakdown in a reverse biased pn junction. With
a very narrow depletion region, the electric field strength (V/width) produced by a reverse
voltage can be very high. The high intensity electric field causes electrons to break away
from their atoms, thus converting the depletion region from an insulating material into a
conductor. This is ionization by electric field also called zener breakdown. Where the
depletion region is too wide for zener breakdown, the electrons reverse saturation current
can be given sufficient energy to cause other electrons to break free when they strike
atoms within the depletion region. The electrons released in this way collide with other
atoms to produce more free electrons in an avalanche effect. Avalanche breakdown is
normally produced by reverse voltage above 5V.

Circuit Symbol of Zener Diode

In breakdown region, large changes in diode current produce small changes in diode
voltage. Upper limit on diode current is determined by the power dissipation rating.
Dynamic Resistance Z Z ,

'VZ
ZZ =
'IZ

Anode Cathode

IZ

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 Semiconductor Basic and Diodes

Equivalent Circuit
Note that these equivalent circuits are applied only when the Zener diode is maintained in
reverse breakdown. If the device becomes forward biased, then the equivalent circuit for
a forward biased diode must be used. (normal PN junction diode)
dc equivalent ac equivalent

VZ VZ ZZ

Zener is commonly used in applications involving fixed voltage or reference voltage

requirements.
x By the application of thermal energy, new carriers are produced. These new carriers
collide with the other bonded atoms and results into disrupting bonds. More
electronhole pairs are generated. Thus cumulative process is called as Avalanche
multiplication.
Thus large reverse current flows and diode enters into avalanche breakdown.
I
Vz R
IZK V +
IZ
+
V RL Vz

IZ 

(a) (b)

Fig (a) The volt ampere characteristic of an avalanche, or Zener diode,

(b) A circuit in which such a diode is used to regulate the voltage
across RL against change in the variation in load current and
supply voltage.

x Strong electric field also disrupts the bond under these circumstances the breakdown
is referred to as Zener breakdown

Avalanche voltage increases with increased temperature.

In case of broad depletion layer, we rely on intrinsic carriers to collide with valence
electrons to create avalanche. As temperature increases the vibration of electron
increases and collision probability increases. The intrinsic holes and electrons thus have
less opportunity to gain sufficient energy before collision to activate avalanche. Hence
Avalanche voltage increases with increase in temperature.

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Example :
Consider a simple constant-voltage reference circuit and design the value of resistance
required to limit the current in this circuit. Consider the circuit shown in following figure.
Assume that the Zener diode breakdown voltage is VZ = 5.6 V and the Zener resistance
is rz = 0. The current in the diode is to be limited to 3 mA.
Solution :
As before, we can determine the current from the voltage difference across R divided by
the resistance. R
That is,
+ I +
V  VZ
I = PS VPS = 10 V VZ = 5.6 V
R  
The resistance is then
VPS  VZ 10  5.6
R= 1.47k:
I 3 Simple circuit containing a
Zener diode

LIST OF FORMULAE
x Hall effect : VH = Bvd
x Current density J = nPn  pPp eE
= VE
where,
n = Magnitude of free electron concentration (cm3)
V = Conductivity ( / Cm )
p = Magnitude of hole concentration. (cm3)
x Intrinsic concentration ni = n=p for pure semiconductor OR intrinsic semiconductor.
§ EG ·
¨ ¸
3/2 © 2kT ¹
ni BT e
x Mass action law : nopo ni2
x Fermi level :
EC  E V
(a) EF o For intrinsic semiconductor
V
NC
(b) EF = EC  KT In o For n type material
ND

EC = Conduction band
EF = Fermi level
EV = Valence band
N
(c) EF = EV + KT In V o For p type material
NA

GATE/EC/ED/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.34
 Semiconductor Basic and Diodes

3/ 2
§ 2SmnKT · 3/ 2
x NC = 2¨ 2 ¸ 1.6x1019
© h ¹
3/2
§ 2SmpKT · 3/ 2
1.6x1019
x Nv = 2 ¨ h2 ¸ …[K = Boltzman constant in ev/qK ]
© ¹

mn, mp o effective mass of electron , holes respectively

A
x CT =
w
WI
x CD
K VT
§N N ·
x Vbi VT ln ¨ A 2 D ¸
© ni ¹
Dp Dn kT
x Einstein relation : VT …[K = Boltzman constant in joule/qK]
Pp Pn q

IMPORTANT TERMS
x Conductor : Any material that will support a large flow of charge after
application of a potential difference of limited magnitude.

x Insulator : Any material that offers a very low level of conductivity.

x Semiconductor : Conductivity between the extremes of an insulator and a

conductor.

x Covalent bond : Bonding of atoms strengthened by the sharing of electrons.

x Intrinsic : Semiconductors that have been carefully refined to reduce

impurities i.e. as pure as Material can be made available

x Extrinsic : Semiconductor material that has been subjected to doping

process Material

x Donor atoms : Diffused impurities with five valence electrons.

x Acceptor atoms : Diffused impurities with three valence electrons.

x PIV : The maximum reverse bias potential that can be applied before
entering the Zener region is called peak inverse voltage (PIV) or
peak reverse voltage (PRV).

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LMR (LAST MINUTE REVISION)

x Germanium and silicon have gap energies Eg of 0.785 and 1.21 eV at 0 q k and 0.07
and 1.l eV at room temperature 300q k
x Electron energy level is referred in terms of electron volt ( leV 1.6x1019 J )
x Biasing Symbol
No
VD = 0V

+q q 
ID=0 mA
Reverse VD

 +

IS
Forward
VD

+ 

ID

x Fermi energy level changes as doping concentration changes.

x Mass action law np = ni2
Product of free electron and hole concentration is constant under thermal equilibrium.
x In ntype semiconductor electrons are majority carriers. In ptype semiconductor
holes are majority carriers.

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GATE/EC/ED/SLP/Ch.1_Notes/Pg.36
 Assignment  1

ASSIGNMENT  1
Duration : 45 mins Maximum Marks : 30

Q1 to Q6 carry one mark each

1. If the current of a Si diode with VT = 26mV is increased four times then the
increase in forward voltage drop is _______
(A) 36.04 mV (B) 36.04 mV
(C) 72.087 mV (D) 72.087 mV
2. Transition capacitance of a varactor diode is CT. The width of depletion layer is
4u106 cm and cross sectional area is 1mm2 with relative permittivity of medium
as 12 then transition capacitance is given by _____
(A) 2.62 u1010 F (B) 2.656 nF
(C) 2.26 nF (D) none of these
3. If biasing of diode is changed instantaneously from forward to reverse the current
does not flow immediately but takes some time to change. This time is called
as________
(A) delay time (B) storage time
(C) reverse recovery time (D) (A) and (C) both
4. A n type silicon sample of 5 mm long has rectangular cross section 50 u 100 Pm.
The donor concentration at 300qK is 5 u 1014 cm3 and corresponds to 1 impurity
atom for 108 silicon atoms. A steady current of 1 PA exists in the bar. Determine
the electron and hole concentration. [Ni = 1.45 u 1010, Pn = 1.5 u 103]
(A) 5u1014 cm3, 4.2 u 10+5 cm3 (B) 5u1014 cm3, 2.9 u 10+5 cm3
+5 3 14 3
(C) 2.9u10 cm , 5 u 10 cm (D) None of these
5. The depletion capacitance Cp of an abrupt PN junction with constant doping on
either side varies with reverse bias, VR as
(A) CJ v VR (B) CJ v VR1
(C) CJ v VR1/ 2 (D) CJ v VR1/ 3

6. The time for which hole or electron exists before recombination is called as
_____
(A) minimum lifetime (B) mean lifetime
(C) shell lifetime (D) maximum lifetime

Q7 to Q18 carry two marks each

7. Measurement of Hall coefficient enables the determination of

(A) recovery time of stored carrier
(B) type of conductivity and concentration of charge carriers
(C) temperature coefficient and thermal conductivity
(D) fermi level and forbidden energy gap

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8. The mean free path of conduction electrons in copper is about 4 u 108 m. For a
copper block find the electric field which can give 1eV energy to a conduction
electron.
(A) E 2.62 u 107 V/m (B) E 2.5 u 107 V/m
(C) E 2.64 u 107 V/m (D) E 2.58 u 107 V/m

9. A Ge diode is operated at a junction temperature of 27qC. For a forward current

of 10 mA, VD is found to be 0.3 V. If VD = 0.4 V, find the forward current.
(A) 477.3 mA (B) 4.77 mA
(C) 47.7 mA (D) None of these

10. Which of the following equation holds valid for the relation between the density of
holeelectron pairs (ni) and temperature (T) and energy gap EG0?
(A) ni A0 T3eEG0 /kT (B) ni2 A0 T3eEG0 /kT
(C) ni2 A0 T2eEG0 /kT (D) None of these

11. An intrinsic silicon bar is 3 mm long and has a rectangular cross section 50 u 100
Pm. At 300 K, determine the electric field intensity in the bar for current of 1PA.
5
U = 2.3 u 10 :.cm
5
(A) 4.6 u 10 V/cm (B) 4.6 u 105 V/m
4
(C) 4.6 u 10 V/cm (D) None of these
12. In a pn junction diode, if the average time considering both electron flow in
conduction band and valence band is doubled, but the forward diode current is
made half of its original value then change in storage capacitance will ________
(A) remain same (B) Doubles
(C) reduce by half (D) reduce to one fourth
13. As the doping concentration varies the Fermi level_________
(A) increases (B) decreases
(C) remains same (D) changes

14. In a semiconductor, if the applied electric field is increased, then

Statement 1: mobility of charge carriers increases
Statement 2: drift velocity increases
Choose the correct option
(A) 1True, 2True (B) 1True, 2False
(C) 1False, 2True (D) 1False, 2False
15. Two statements are given below
Statement 1 : Depletion layer capacitance is due to accumulation of free charges
on either side of junction under forward bias condition.
Statement 2 : Diffusion capacitance is due to the accumulation of space charge
in depletion layer.
Choose the correct option
(A) 1True, 2True (B) 1False, 2True
(C) 1False, 2False (D) 1True, 2False

GATE/EC/ED/SLP/Ch.1_Assign/Pg.38
 Assignment  1

16. If the probability of electron being thermally promoted to conduction band is very
less of the order of 3.4u1010 ,then the difference between conduction band level
and Fermi level at room temp (25 q C) will be,
(A) 6.8 u 1020 J (B) 0.536 eV
(C) 8.6 u 1020 J (D) none of these
V
17. In Hall probe device, the voltage is changed from 4V to , then the magnetic
4
field intensity will change from 2B to __________.
(A) B/2 (B) B/4
(C) B/8 (D) B/16

18. Electron mobility and life time in a semiconductor at room temperature are
respectively 0.36 m2/Vsec and 340 Psec. The diffusion length is _______
(A) 3.13 mm (B) 1.78 mm
(C) 3.55 mm (D) 7.18 mm

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

TEST PAPER  1
Duration : 30 mins Maximum Marks : 25

Q1 to Q5 carry one mark each

1. If a sample of germanium and a sample of silicon have the same impurity density
and are kept at room temperature
(A) both will have equal value of resistivity
(B) both will have equal negative resistivity
(C) resistivity of germanium will be higher than that of silicon
(D) resistivity of silicon will be higher than that of germanium

2. The Hall constant in pSi bar is given by 5 u 103 cm3/ coulomb. The hole
concentration in the bar is given by :
(A) 1.00 u 1015 / cm3 (B) 1.25 u 1015 / cm3
(C) 1.50 u 1015 / cm3 (D) 1.6 u 1015 / cm3

3. A heavily doped semiconductor exhibits a _________ such a device is called

sensistors.
(A) Negative temperature coefficient of resistance
(B) Positive temperature coefficient of resistance till a particular value of
temperature and then it shows negative temperature coefficient of
resistance.
(C) Positive temperature coefficient of resistance
(D) None of the above

4. For a zener diode, change in temperature is 50 q C and temperature coefficient

is 0.072. If the zener potential is 8V then for corresponding change is
temperature, what will be the change reflected in zener potential?
(A) 7.98 (B) 0.1 V
(C) 0.8V (D) 0.288 V

5. Suppose an intrinsic semiconductor has 1 billion free electrons at room

temperature. If the temperature changes to 75qC, how many holes are there?
(A) fewer than 1 billion (B) 1 billion
(C) more than 1 billion (D) impossible to say

Q6 to Q13 carry two marks each

6. The specific gravity of tungsten is 13.8 and its atomic weight is 184.0. Assume
that there are two free electrons per atom. Then the Fermi level or characteristic
energy for the crystal in eV will be
(A) 8.95 eV (B)  8.95 eV
(C) 7.326 eV (D) 7.326 eV

GATE/EC/ED/SLP/Ch.1_Test/Pg.40
 Test  1

7. The waveshape of Vo in figure will be

10 k:
Vo
4.1 V
10 sin 314t
4.1 V

(A) V0 5.9

5.9
(B)
4.1
0
4.1
(C)
4.1
0

(D) 4.1

5.9
0

0 2 4 6 8 1012 14 16 18 20 t

8. The 6V Zener diode shown in Figure has zero Zener resistance and a knee
current of 5mA. The minimum value of R, so that the voltage across it does not
fall below 6V is 50:
(A) 1.2 k:
(B) 80 :
(C) 50 : 6V R
(D) 0 10V

9. The intrinsic carrier concentration for a Si specimen at 270 K is _____

Given: B = 5.23 u 1015
(A) 94.46 u108 cm3 (B) 9.446 u 109 cm3
6 3
(C) 9.446 u 10 cm (D) None of these

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Vidyalankar : GATE – EC

10. Determine the electron (minority carrier) and hole (majority carrier) concentration
in ptype Si with an acceptor ion concentration of 1 u 1016 cm3 when operating
at 270qK.
Given: ni = 9.446 u 108 cm3
(A) 8.92 cm3, 1016 cm3 (B) 89.2 cm3, 1016 cm3
3 16 3
(C) 892.0 cm , 10 cm (D) None of these

11. For a silicon diode, if energy gap is maintained constant then to double the
intrinsic carrier concentration, the temperature has to change by factor _____
from room temperature.
(A) 1.75 (B) 1.875
(C) 1.587 (D) 2

12. Note the following statements : If the donor atom concentration ND added to a
ptype semiconductor that exceeds the acceptor ion concentration then
Statement 1: ptype semiconductor will change to ntype semiconductor.
Statement 2: No change in semiconductor results.
Statement 3: ntype semiconductor will change to ptype semiconductor.
Choose the correct option:
(A) 1  True, 2  True, 3  False (B) 1  True, 2  False, 3  False
(C) 1  False, 2  True, 3  True (D) 1  False, 2  False, 3  True.

13. In case of metal A, the average speed of electrons under motion is given by
V
m/s. The electric field which caused the motion is E V/m. Now if the electric
2
field is doubled and applied to metal B with same mobility as the metal A, the
average drift speed will change to ______.(Consider mobility of electrons will
change negligibly)
(A) V/2 (B) V
(C) 2V (D) none of these

Q14(a) & (b) carry two marks each

Linked Answer Question

An ntype silicon bar has a majority carrier concentration of 5 u 1020 /m3 and the carrier
mobility is 0.13 m2/Vs at 300 K.
14(a). If the charge of an electron is 1.6 u 1019 coulomb, then the resistivity of the bar is
(A) 0.96 :m (B) 0.096 :m
(C) 96 :cm (D) 9.6 :m

14(b). If the bar is 0.1 cm long and 100 Pm2 in crosssection its resistance will be
(A) 106 ohm (B) 104 ohm
(C) 3
10 ohm (D) 104 ohm

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